:lectrical and Mechanical Design Criteria

:or EHV and UHV

herhead Transmission Lines

Pubfished June 1980

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Energy

Assistant Secretary for
Resource Applications
Office of Electric Energy Systems
Under Contra,ct No. EC-77-C-01-2133

UfsfRlBUTlDPl OF THIS DLPCUIUYT IS UNLIMITED

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 DOElRAI2133-01
Dist. Category UC 97a

EBectricraU and MechanicaR Design Criteria

for EHV and UHV
Overhead Transmission Lines

Published June 1980

Prepared by:
Chas. T Main Inc.
Under Contract No. EC-77-C-01-2133

Prepared for:

U.S. Department of Energy

Assistantsecretaryfor .
f3esou?ce Applications
Office of Electric Energy Systems
Washiiigton, D.C. 20461
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 : SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1.1 Summary
' 1.2 Conclusions

CHAPTER 2: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 3: ELECTRICAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CRITERIA

3.1 System Voltages and Other Basic Criteria

3.2 Conductors
3.3 Air Clearances and Insulator Lengths
3.4 Shield Angle
3.5 Lightning Performance

CHAPTER 4: ELECTRICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

4.1 Conductor Bundle, Phase Spacing, Minimum Height

4.2 Air Clearances and Insulator Length
4.3 Selection of Shield Angle and Overhead Ground Wire Size
4.4 Lightning Back Flashover Outages

CHAPTER 5: MECHANICAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CRITERIA

5.1 Structure Design

5.2 Sags, Tensions and Span Lengths

CHAPTER 6: MECHANICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

6.1 Structural Loading

6.2 Mechanical Selection of Conductor Sizes
6.3 Vibration Protection
6.4 New Conductor Design
6.5 Structure Heights

APPENDIX A1 : Insulator String Lengths for Light Contamination

APPENDIX A2: , Corona Performance of Single Conductor Ground Wires for UHV
Transmission Lines

APPENDIX A3: Assumed Loading for Typical Structure Designs

REFERENCES

. . .~
DISCLAIMER

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1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to express their appreciation to all of the people who have contributed
time and effort toward the completion of this report. The authors are indebted to all of
the members of the Project Team and the Review Board for their valuable suggestions
,
and comments, including especially the following:'

R. W. Flugum (Program Manager) - Department of .Energy

E. S. Zobel (Project Manager) - Chas. T. Main, Inc.
J. G. Anderson General Electric Co.
A. F. ~ b h l f s General Electric Co.
R. W. Harmon. A. B. Chance Co.
J. R. Harvey ALCOA
J. D. Covin American Bridge Division
V. Caleca Chas. T. Main, Inc.
G. Yildirim Chas. T. Main, Inc.
A. R. Hileman Westinghouse Electric
F. B. Dewey Bonneville Power Administration
W. G. Thomas Tennessee Valley Authority
L. C. Guthrie Gulf States Utilities Co.
R. L. Retallack American Electric Power Co.
D. E. Ganow Minnesota Power & Light Co.
 CHAPTER 1

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1.1 SUMMARY

This guide generally represents the results of the initial portion of a program
sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy which has the overall objective of
developing new or improved transmission line support systems. This portion of the work
was devoted to the selection of electrical and mechanical design criteria and design
parameters fyr ac systems from 345 t o 1 I 0 0 kV and dc systems from + 600 t o + 1200 kV.

In order t o establish the electrical and mechanical parameters it is necessary first

to select or develop basic electrical and mechanical criteria. The values are chosen for
items which need t o be fixed at the outset. Line elevation is 0 t o 500 meters; line length
is 200 structures;, ruling span is 400 meters; atmospheric conditions are assumed t o be
standard with no contamination (clean-wet). System voltages are tabulated below:

Nominal Working Maximum

The working voltage is defined as the typical average voltage levels on lines as
compared to the maximum voltage which may occur at the generation end. Working
voltages are used in conjunction with radio and TV interference (RI and TVI), audible
noise (AN) and electric field levels. Maximum voltages are used in conjunction with
insulation requirements.

In order to select conductor and bundle sizes and minimum height of the line, it
is necessary t o establish limits for RI, AN and electric fields. The values selected are
: based on a review of pertinent literature [I-91 .and are listed in Table 1, lines 1-3.

The transmission corridor (TC) widths and phase spacings are based largely on
present practice and extrapolation for the higher voltages. They are listed in Iines 4 and 5.
 TABLE I.

BASE CASE ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL DESIGN CRITERIA AND WRAHETERS

MdXIMUM AC VOLTAGE MAXIMUM DC VOLTAGE

REMARKS
362 kV 550 kV 900 k V 1200 kV 2 600 kV 2 800 kV 2 1200kV
I Audible Noise dB(A) 55 55 55 55 . 45 45 45 At E d p Of (T.C. I

2 RI 8 T V I dB 55 55 55 55 58 58 58 Abeve l u v / m ,At Edge Of (T.C.)

DC field I s Assumed A Corona Free Field. For AC

3 Electric Field (Max.) kV/n 12 12 I2 12 15 15 15 SystemThe Field At Edge Of (T.C.) Is 2 kV/m.
Transmission Corridor i
45.7 : 67.0 88.4 122.C 67.0 88:4 122.0
Width ( T . C . 1

5 Phose Spacing m, 7.6 10.0 14.0 18.5 10.0 15.0 30.0 Bundle To Bundle Center.

6 Switching Surge PU
1.7- 2.0
, 1.6- 18
(1.70)
. 1.5-1.65
(1.55)
. -
1.5- 1.65
(1.55) (1.65) (1.65) (1.65)
Ronge
0Sele:ted For Base Case.

7 Conductor Diameter cm 2.75 3.28 3.82 5.46 3.5 I 4.57 5.08

Conductor Bundle 46 3x53 4 x 71 6x102 4 x64 4x64 8 x 102 Assum, A l l Conductors Equally Spaced On A Circle.
Number x Diameter Cm

Mid-Spon Clearance 8.5 9.7 1 3.0 195 11.2 15.2 23.8 CeMw Of h n d l e To Earth, Flat Configuration.
To Ground
"v" StringAir Gaps To
1.6 ! 2.4 3.7 7.4 3.3 5.4 14.2
U w 1.1 Multiplier For Air Gap Above Phose
The Side-And Below Conductors.
Insulation Length
I' 1.8 1 2.63 3 -7 6.6 3.4 5.1 12.0 a w e d 4)n Switching Surge ( Clean-Wet 1
"v" String
12 Minimum 0-0 Air Gap
Spacing At Tower
, 2.3 i 3.4 4.9 9.2 - - - F i w d 3 y R l s To Leg Spacing For The DC Systems.

l3
Interphase
lnsulolion Length
. 2'3 3.4 4.9 '
!
9.2 - Not Recommended - -,
k e d On Switching Surge ( Cleon-Wet 1

5 . Argle Is Measured To Outer Phase

14 Shield Angle (Max.) 1'
2 1 2- 13O 15* 11 16O 18 O
( W r Inner R a s e Use 8 0 ) .
Minimum Shield Wire i Spacing Is From Phase Bu.ndle Center To Shield
15
Spacing At Tower " 6.5 1 7.0 8.0 1 5.0 8.0 12.0 19.0
Wue.Assume Use Of 7% A l u m e l d Or Equivalent.

16 Sag 8 Tensions Used Limit M : 70 % Of Ultimote Breaklng 'Strenp)h ~t 3.8cmOf Radial Ice. final Sags U 14-I8m At 50 C . Ruling Span Of 4 0 0 rn.

17 Bundle Height m 20.0 23.0 28.0 ' 33.0 25.0 27.0 38.0 Center Of Bundle To E a r t h , Flat Configumtion.
At Tower
18 Power Transfer 450 1130 2430 . 59X 2380 3820 13800 DC Pcwer Transfer Is Based On Thermal capacity
MW E Conducl~rs.
S I L =IpuFor AC
 The switching surge p.u. levels are based on the use of resistor pre-insertion
breakers o r some other method t o limit the surges and are listed in line 6. .

Using these criteria, this guide shows the detailed development of electrical and
mechanical parameters, and provides a range of values from which a selection may be
made for a specific design situation. Base case values listed in Table 1 were chosen for
develop&ent .of structurr: concepts.

Conductor and bundle sizes t o meet the RI, TVI and audible noise criteria are
listed in lines 7 and 8. Midspan clearances t o ground to-meet the maximum electric field
f
or the National Electrical Safety Code are shown in line 9. The code governs up t o
500 kV; the electric field governs at 765 kV and above.

Phase-to-ground, phase-to-phase air clearance, and insulator lengths t o meet

switching surge requirements under clean, wet conditions are listed in lines 10 through
13. Insulator lengths required t o withstand ac and dc operating voltage under light
contamination conditions are listed o n page 5 0 and Appendix A 1. The initially selected
values for phase spacing, line 5, are not minilnum but reflect the phase-to-structure air
gap requirements with some allowance for part of the structure t o pass between phases.
The minimum phase-to-phase air clearances and insulator lengths, given in lines 12 and
'

13, are considerably less, suggesting that a circuit can'be considerably compacted.

The lighting performance of conventional horizontal configurations using the

insulation requirements for switching surges is discussed in Section 4.4.

Shield angle requirements are listed in line 14. Minimum spacings from shield wire
t o conductor, given in line 15, are determined assuming the shield wire is loaded with ice
and ice has dropped from the phase conductor.

The sag of the conductors, line 16, is determined under loads resulting from 3.8
cm of radial ice and tensions of 70% of ultimate breaking strength. These sags are added
t o the midspan clearance to ground t o give the bundle height at the structure, line 17.

The power transfer values shown for the ac systems. are based on surge impedance
loading as 1 p.u. For selection of the conductors, ampacity values of 2 p.u. are used
based on an assutned outage of one of two lines. While today many lower voltage lines
operate in excess of this loading, it is felt that this SIL loading is realistic particularly at
the higher voltage levels. Line loadings are shown on line 18. For dc systems, it is based
on 5 0 ' ~ conductor temperature.
1.2 CONCLUSIONS

1.2.1 Audible noise and electric fields significantly impact the design of ac .

transmission lines for 765 systems and above.

1.2.2 For the 5 600,,1+ 800 and 2 1200 kV dc transmission systems, the height
of the conductors above ground is not a major factor affecting conductor surface
gradient, but the corona-free electric field at ground level is a direct function of
conductor height. The required minimum height of' dc transmission line conductors
increases with increased pole spacing for a given level of electriqfield. For very large pole
spacings, a bipollr line performs as two monopolar lines.

1.2.3 Audible noise, radio noise and electric field levels determine the values of
electrical parameters such as subconductor diameter, number of subconductors, bundle
diameter and midspan clearance t o ground.

1.2.4 The mechanical and economic requirements, ultimate loading and

sag-tension criteria provide the basis for selecting the "base case" conductor size, the
bundle and bundle height t o ground from within the range of electrical parameters.

1.2.5 Air clearances and insulator lengths are selected for switching surges under
clean-wet conditions. Under light contamination, sixty hertz voltage determines the
requ~red insulator lengths. After concepts are developed, lightning perfbrmance must be
evaluated.

1.2.6 Phase-to-phase air clearances can be reduced. by a factor of two t o three

(1.5 t o 2.0 for dc) from those used in conventional designs. However, subconductor size
must be increased t o satisfy audible noise, radio noise and electric field criteria.

1.2.7 Analyses of electrical and mechanical characteristics of state of the art

conductor designs t o be used in the UHV range show that they contain an excessive
amount of aluminum.

1.2.8 For the conductor.to shield wire spacing given in Table 1, the audible and
radio noise produced by shield wires at UHV levels is acceptable for diameters of 1.2 cm
or larger. Corona loss is substantial for wires less than 1.2 cm diameter.
f

1.2.9 Structure designs, location of lines and right-of-way or corridor widths

must be examined for maximum noise levels and electric field limits: Profiles of \

cross-sectional attenuation curves are included in this guide $for these design
considerations.
 1.2.10 The establishment of the "base case" electrical parameters for Table 1
revealed several areas where additional information would be desirable, including:

- Electrical carameters for dc at, + 800 kV and + 1200 kV.

- Phase-to-phase switching surge strength test and/or service data on

phases are physically connected by insulating members.
*
- Phase-to-ground switching surge strength for insulating members and
air gaps in series.

- Test data relating t o contamination strength for dc system insulators.

- In~provedconductor designs for limiting AN generation.

 CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

This Guide presents the initial portion of work in progress for the Department of
Energy research project entitled "Optimization of Overhead Transmission Line Support
Systems for High Voltage Overhead Transmission." Basically, the guide concerns the
selection of criteria for meeting ultimate design objectives. The rationale developed, both
technical and philosophical, should be of benefit t o the transmission line design engineer.
It does not present any specific designs but provides criteria and parametkrs upon which
designs can be made.

The ''Blue ~ o o k " piiblished by EEI [ l o ] and the "Red Book" published by
EPRI [ I 11 provided the engineer with much of the engineering data required for
transmission line design. However, this guide includes a fundamental and searching
re-examination of the art and science of transmission line design and brings together the
mechanical ahd the electrical design parameters. It shows the interrela.tion of these
parameters which can be useful in solving environmental, reliability and economic needs.

Anticipating future power transmission needs for EHV and' UHV lines, and the
increasing emphasis on operational and environmental requirements, this guide deals with
the development o f electrical. and mechanical criteria for the maximum system voltages
for 362, 550, 800 and 1200 kV ac, and .bipolar f 600, f 800 and + 1200 kV dc.

These electrical design criteria include air and insulator clearances based on
achievable switching surge levels, which are not the same for all voltage levels, as well as
provisions for shield wire protection against lightning.

Corresponding mechanical parameters are established based on realistic loading

criteria expected during line construction and service life. At the same time, minimum
phase-to-phase air gap clearances and interphase insulation requirements are established.
Since there is little precise data available relating to the magnitudes of phase-to-phase
surge stresses and t o the strength of interphase air .insulation, the values chosen are
considered conservative.

Base case bundle design parameters are selected using conventional phase-to-phase
spacings, and conventional conductor arrays to satisfy corona and electric field criteria
for assumed transmission corridor widths.
 Similar design parameters have been developed for the compaction o f circuits
which would have audible noise and electric field performance equal t o o r better than
existing lines. .I

Development of actual structure concepts and proof testing, both physical and
electrical, would be the subject of continued research.. , . .
 CHAPTER 3

, ELECTRICAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CRITERIA

3.1 SYSTEM VOLTAGES AND OTHER BASIC CRITERIA

The nominal system voltages used in this guide are listed in Table 3.1.1. Also
listed is the working voltage, which is defined as the typical average voltage level on lines,
and the maximum voltage. Working voltages are used in conjunction with radio and
television interference, audible noise and electric field levels. Maximum voltages are used
in conjunction with insulation requirements.

TABLE 3.1.1

SYSTEM VOLTAGES - kV

Nominal Working Maximum

Other basic criteria used in this guide are:

Line Elevation - 0 up to 500 meters '

Number of Structures - 200

Typical Span - 400 meters .'.

Atmospheric Conditions - Standard (no corrections)

Clean-Wet (no contamination)
3.2 CONDUCTORS

3.2.1 Introduction

Factors relating to the operation of transmission line conductors, the

current which they ~ n u s tcarry and the voltage at which they are energized, can greatly
influence the economics of transmission line design. Included, obviously, is the cost of
losses (both I*R and corona), arid a s system voltages increase, environmental issues,
which can beconie more of a significant factor. Phenomena such as the electric field near
ground level and corona ~ ~ r o d u c e daudible noise (AN), radio interference (RI) and
television interference (TVI) must be considered. The extent to which all these frlclors
affect the selection of conductors and other parameters such as phase spacing depends on
what limits are imposed. No national standard limits presently exist and, in niost
instances, the utility concerned .must adopt its own level of good design practice. Tlle
significance of' the various factors related t o tlie electrical performance of conductors are
briefly mentioned here and, where appropriate, design limits are selected. In most
instances, two values are presented for each parameter, bracketing what is considered t o
be a reasonable range of design. A value within this range is used for base case studies.

3,2.2 Audiblo Noise

Of the variobs corona effects, audible noise is seen t o be the most lilniting
in the selection of conductors at the UHV level. 1201 Several states have enacted o r are
in the process o f developing noise control legislation. These generally fall into he
category of "land use" standards. That is, limits are put on man-made noise according t o
the classification of the land use, such as residential, commercial and industrial. The most
stringent limitation is occurring during nighttime hours in "residential" areas, where
"residential" is generally defined as anywhere people live. The strictest limitations may
not be confined entirely to residential areas. For example, Illinois puts wilderness areas
and wild life refuges, leisure and ornamental parks in the same land use class as
residential areas. Examples of limitatio~isare sunimarized below: #

Limit
--
of Sound Emitted to "Residential" Areas
----

State Day Time Nighttime

.

New Jersey (enacted) 6 5 dB(A) '50 dB(A)

Illinois (enacted) - 6 0 dB(A)* - 5 1 dB(A)*
New York (proposed) 6 5 dB(A) 45 dB(A)

* Limits are expressed ,in terms of allowable levels in each octave band of
frequencies; dB(A) levels presented here are computed from the octave band
levels.
-9-
 There is much discussion as t o the applicability of these noise standards t o
transniission lines, since the standards have been based presumably on studies of reactions
t o more familiar types of noise sources. The generic hearings in the State of New
Yoi-k [ 1] on the application of three utilities to build 765 kV transniission lines may
establish a precedent in regard t o corona produced noise. The dominating effect is that of
interference t o sleep. Expert witnesses agree that noise levels of 35 dB(A) o r less are
desirable inside a bedroom. There is disagreement, however, as to what this means in
terms of noise level permitted outside the bedroom window, the differences being
attributable t o the assumed attenuation of sound through the structure of the house. This
is estimated at between 10 and 19 dB, resulting in outdoor levels considered acceptable
between 45 and 54 dB(A).

With the present tecl~nology of conductor design, the 120 Hz audible

.
noise associated with corona on ac lines is not considered as a design problem provided
that the overall dB(A) level of the noise is kept within acceptable limits. The New York
State public hearings referred to above touched only very lightly 011 the phenomenon of
the 120 Hz noise and liniits were not discussed. State regulations may also refer t o
discrete tones. For example, in Illinois and New York states the allowable levels are
given in terms of the level of the octave band containing the emitted frequency. For
"residential" areas at nighttime, the applicable octave band limits are 44 dB in New York
and 52 dB in Illinois.

For the case of dc lines, the audible noise during rain is generally less than
in fair weather, and fair weather exists for perhaps 70 t o 90% of the time, depending on
the area of the country considered. Thus, fair weather noise, rather than foul weather
noise, is the limiting factor for dc lines. Results of some investigations indicated that
40 dB(A) is a level above which noise from dc lines may be considered objectionable. [2]
For this guide, a range froni 4 0 dB(A) t o 45 dB(A) under average fair weather conditions
is used.

3.2.3 Radio and Television Interference

For most lines above 500 kV, audible noise is the limiting corona effect.
For lower voltage lines, where little audible noise is produced, radio interference (R.1)
considerations may be limiting.

No regulations applicable to transmission lines exist in the United States.

The FCC considers transmission lines as "incidental. radiation devices." In essence, this
means that should a ~ltilityreceive. a complaint concerning RI from n cirstomcr thcn it is
that utility's responsibility to remedy the situation and satisfy the customer. However,
certain guidelines as to what levels might result in such complaints are available.
 A Canadian standard referring specifically t o transmission lines [3] permits
maximum RI levels in fair weather of 6 0 dB above 1 pV/m 15 m from the outermost
phase for lines above 600 kV, 57 dB for lines 400-600 kV, and 53 dB for lines 300-400
kV. If one considers attenuation from 15 m out t o the edge of the typical transmission '

corridor (TC), these allowable levels fall in the 5G55 dB range.

Another proposal for. RI limits [ 4 ] calls for 90% all-weather levels of

67-69 dB above 1 pV/m at a distance of 20 m from the, nearest conductor for residential
areas in the range 245-1050 kV. Translated to the edge o f ' t h e TC, the proposed limits
would range from 67 dB for the 345 kV class to 59 dB for the 1 100 kV class. The
minimum signal being considered .to be protected in this proposal is 75 dB abovt: 1 pV/m. .
I
The FCC suggests that for primary coverage in a residential area, signal levels in the range
66-80 dB are necessary. If the lower limit is'used in place of the proposed 75 dB signal
level, the allowable noise levels will range from 5 8 dB down t o 50 dB at the edge of the
TC. These levels o r less will be maintained 90% of the time.

An IEEE Committee report [ 5 ] indicates that for acceptable AM radio

reception a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of more than 22 dB is required, suggesting
allowable noise levels of 44-58 dB for residential areas..

For this guide, 80% all wcather RI limits of 5 0 to 5 5 dB above 1 pV/m at

the edge of the T C are used for ac lines (noise levels in terms of quasipeak according t o
ANSI Standard C63.11. [ 6 ] This means'that these limits will not be exceeded more than
20% of the time.

For dc lines, studies [2] show that SNR's of 911 o r 1 9 dB are required for
acceptable AM radio reception, indicating that higher noise levels are tolerable from a dc .
line than an ac line. 'l'heret'ore, K1 l ~ m i t sfor dc lines of 53 t o 58 dB above 1 pV/m al the
edge of the TC (80% all weather) are used in this guide.

Methods for calculating television interference (TVI) levels are almost

non-existent, and those existing are not considered t o havc a high degree of reliability.
Also, a line will generally be free of TVI problems if designed for satisfactory RI
performance. Therefore, n o TVI criteria are used in this guide.

3.2.4 Electric Field

No standards o r regulations 'exist for electric fields, but one. approach t o

establishing levels is to limit field levels t o those experienced on existing lines. AC lines in
the 500 kV and 765 kV classes have maximum field strengths in the range 8-12 kV/m,
and fields at the edge of the TC between 1.5 and 4 kV/m. Requirements for UHV lines
. . ,
.
 can conceivably be more conservative due to the larger zone of influence resulting from
increased conductor heights. What will be considered acceptable depends to a very large
degree on the outcome of present biological research. For ac lines, a range from 7.5 to
15 kV/m is used. In accordance with IEEE document [7] these values are those of the
unperturbed field at 1 meter above the ground. At the edge of the TC levels of 1 t o 4
kVl,m are used for ac lines.

The effects of dc fields are quite different from those of ac fields, and
consequently allowable levels o f dc fields cannot be related to allowable levels of ac
fields. The current induced in an object under an ac transmission line'is a result of the
capacitive coupling between the line and the object, and is directly proportioned t o the
power frequency; the current induced in an object under a dc line is dependent only on
the level .of ionization resulting from corona on the line, and is a small fraction of the
current induced b y . i n ac line.

In the presence of corona-produced ionization, the electric field of dc lines

can. increase to several times that of the corona-free field according to measurements
reported in reference [ 8 ] . However, the influence of ionization on field levels is difficult
t o calculate, and for design purposes, it is preferable t o use the more easily calculated
corona-free field. An acceptable upper limit t o the corona-free field is considered t o be
15 kV/m. [2]

3.2.5 Transmission Corridor Width

In this guide certain widths of transmission corridor (TC) are utilized. The
widths of t'hkse corridors may or may ,not be equal to the widths of right-of-way that
should be selected since the latter are determined by local requirements o r by special
technical or economic constraints.

Right-of-way widths are deternlined, on must lines, based on the line

design and local conditions. The prime determining factor is usually t o limit construction
which would interfere with line operation. In recent years, the cutting of trees within the
right-of-way has often been limited t o those which would actually interfere with the line.
It is still often necessary, however, t o arrange with properly owners for the right t o
remove danger trees outside of the right-of-way which could fall across the line.
I

Reference is (made in this guide t o some assumed width of right-of-way

(transmission corridor) for the purpose of establishing levels of environmental consi-
deratiolls such as R1, AN o r clcctric fields. The ligl~l-of-way (lransmission corridor) .
widths or the levels indicated in this guide are not specific recommendatio~isfor utilities
t o use. Establishment of right-of-way (transmission corridor) width and levels for
 environmental considerations must be determined based on local requirements and must
be resolved by each utility.

It may be desirable' for utilities to consider the establishment of a .

transmission corridor width based on physical considerations and t o develop a limitation

on location of dwellings as a secondary constraint similar to removal of danger trees
which are beyond the right-of-way. .This greater width could be identified as the
tsansnlission corridor. The transmission corridor is defined as that distance, measured
from the right-of-way centerline, where AN, RI and TVI falls within acceplable levels.

Transmission corridor widths and phase spacings are based on present

practice and extrapolation for the higher voltages. They are lislecl ill 3.2.6.

3.2.6 Summary

The ranges and base case study levels for audible noise, radio interference
and electric field levels are summarized as follows and as listed in Table 1 , lines 1, 2
and 3.

AC L i e s DC Lines Comments
-
Alldihle Noise 5 0 t o 60 dB(A) LS0 rain * 4 0 to 4 5 dB(A) LS0 fair ** At edge of TC
. , Duvc Cusc , ss c l n ( ~ ) 45 I:IU(A)

Radio Interference 5 0 t o 5 5 dB 5 3 t o 5 8 dB At edge of TC

80% all weather *** 80% all weather
I
***
Base Case 5.5 d B 5 8 dB

Electric Field 7.5 to 1 5 kV/m under line. 1 5 kV/m under line in

Base Case - 12 kV/m, 1 t o corona-free field
4 kV/rr~at edge of TC.
Base Case - 2 kV/m

Transmission Listed in 'l'able 1,

Corridor (TC) lines 4 and 5
Widths ****
And Phase Spacings

* Will not be exceeded more than 50% of the time in rain.

** Will not be exceeded more than 50% of the time in fair weather.
,*** Will not be exceeded more than 20% of the time. '
**** These were selected for base case studies. Attenuation curves for audible noise and electric field vs.
distance from outside phase are given in Chapter 4 so that other TC widths can be evaluated.
3.3 AIR CLEARANCES AND INSULATOR LENGTHS

3.3.1 Introduction

Insulator lengths under clean conditions and air clearances between

transmission line conductors and tower support structures are primarily limited by
switching surge requirements. The design of a transmission line t o withstand switching
surge overvoltages can . b e treated as a statistical process, since the strength of the
insulation and the applied stresses are not deterministic. The statistical approach leads t o
an optimized solution to the overall problem, in which the influence of different.
parameters are demonstrated. Unfortunately, simple statistical techniques have thus far
been developed only, for phase-to-ground insulation. For phase-to-phase gaps, the increase
in the number of important and the general lack of laboratory data on their
influence and variation make it necessary t o resort t o more traditional approaches for the
practical design of such gaps.

Consideration is also given t o the power frequency strength of reduced air

gaps produced by conductors which are displaced by wind .or galloping.

Insulator lengths may also be limited by power frequency voltages in

geographical areas in which contamination is present. Such cases are usually dealt with on
a local basis by increasing the insulator length o r using special insulators. In this guide,
therefore, insulator lengths are determined under clean wet conditions.

3.3.2 Phase-To-Ground Insulation for Switching Surges

The flashover probability'of a single insulation subjected. t o a switching .

surge of peak amplitude V is denoted by P(V). The probability P(V) is cumulative. piving
the probability that the insulation will flash over at a voltage level. The foml of
P(V) may be determined from a large number of laboratory- tests on the same gap. An
approximation for the distribution which yields sufficicnt accuracy for practical purposes
is the Gaussian

where CFO is the critical (50%) flashover voltage and of its standard deviation. Thesc
parameters are obtained'from laboratory tests. .
 For N identical. insulations subjected to the same peak surge of amplitude
V, the fla.$ho,ver probability P(FO) is

The switching surges appearing on a transmission line are assumed t o have

a probability of occurrence . F(V), called the applied stress density. The probability of at
least one flashover on the N insulations subjected t o lhis stress is given by

where factor 112 has been used because negative polarity switching surges, may ' b e
neglected under normal conditions. This is dus t o tl?e fact that thc positive polarity
strength is ordinarily much lower than negative.

Again, a distribution for F(V) must be assumed. In practice, it is known

that this distribution is not Gaussian, but truncated at some level. Nevertheless, making a
Gaussian approximation yields a form of Equation (3.3.3) which is amenable to relatively
simple computation without a great sacrifice in accuracy. [12] Using such an
approximation gives

(V . p ) ?.

where p is the average stress and oo its standard deviation. These parameters must be
determined from network analysis studies o r field tests on actual lines. .

A useful wuy Lo pruceed with a ~ insulation

i rlcnign i~ t o make use of a
parameter k, the strengthlstress ratio or safety factor defined by

k = CF0/V2% (3.3.5)

whore V2% is the 2% surge crest value of the assumed Gaussian distribution, or

Vi% = p + 20,
..
and the estimated maximum surge (Vmax) is Vmaxq = p + 3.50,
 The safety factor, k, may be used t o calculate the CFO required for a
specific gap configuration if V2% is .given. In this statistical approach, k is a function of

- The strength standard deviation, of

- The stress standard deviation, oo
- The probability of flashover, Ptot
- The number of insulations, N

and is determined by using Equation (3.3.4).

Computations have been performed to show the influence of most of

these parameters on the value of k. In order to narrow the choice of parameter
variations, of was fixed at 5% of the CFO. This value of standard deviation applies to a
wide range of air gaps based on tests in many different laboratories.

The results of the computations are shown in Figures 3.3.1-3.3.3 for a

wide range of flashover probabilities. However, the specific choice of flashover probability
must be determined by the desired number of flashovers .and the expected number of

Flashover Robability per Switching Surge.

 I I I 1 I I I 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

k=- CFO
vza

\ ,-N = 500
\3-cfl=N":,,,,
N=l
nflCFO = 0,05
oo/p = 0.08
1
\-*: /
/

\
Fig. 3.3.2 Safcty factor ( I ) as a fi~nrtinnof
flashover probab~lityper surge (Ptot)
&>\ '

for diffemnt numbers (N) of identical

insulations subjected to the same
surge
1 I 1 1 I 1 1

0.001 0.01 0.1

Fhshover Probability per Switching Surge. (Ptot)

I 1 1 1 I I I 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I

--
-
k = CFO
v.55

of/CFO = 0.05
oo/p =0.12
\

. Fig 3,3.3 Safety factor (k) as a funct~onof the

flashover prubabrlity per surge (Ptot)
for different numbers (N) of ~denttcal
~nsulations subjected to the same

Flashover Probability per Switching Surge, (Ptot)

switching operations. It is suggested that the range in Ptot of 0.01 to .001 is of most
pqactical interest. Figure 3.3.4 shows clearly that if'the standard deviation of the applied
stress is fixed, the selection of the desired flashover probability has a much greater
influence on the safety factor, k, than the other remaining parameter, N. Finally, the
effect of the stress distribution is shown in Figure 3.3.5 for the case of 200 insulations.
The effect of standard deviation is minimal for Ptot = .Ol, increasing for both larger and
smaller probabilities. Using a value of ao/p = .08, Figure 3.3.5 shows that when
Ptot = .001, the variation of k from its value at this oo/p is only 2 1.6% for a change in
oo/p from .04 to .12.

I
Fig. 3.3.4 Safety factor (k) as a function of the
number O f insulations(N),for different
values of the stress standard deviation
1.30 - and different flashover probabilities

-- - - - - -.
o0/p = . I 2
- 2 - -
o0/p = .08 , 'tot =
//----- 0.001
- o0la = .04
, 1.25
- _------
-
------- - - --y

---- C _ _ - - - - - -

k
1.20

1.15
-
---_---------. -
-\
- "tot =

,
0.01

oo/p = .04
- ____,_-------\

---- ----
_CC---

... . .. ..
I . I ~
. . ool# = .OR ' plot = 0.1'

1.05

-/--
----- - . - - - -
o,/p = . I 2 I

100 200 300 400 500

Number of Insulations. (N)

The influence of the number of insulations as seen in Figure 3.3.4

amounts to a variation in k of about 3% as N changes from 100 to 500. It should be
noted that the analysis in Equations (3.3.1) to (3.3.5) assumed all towers subjected to
the same surge level. In actual fact, this leads to a somewhat conservative design since thc
surge is attenuated as it travels along the line. This may be taken into account
approximately by using for N only one-half of the physical number of insulations,
resulting in an "equivalent number" of towers. .. .. , .,
 Fig. 3.3.5 Gafoty footor (k) pr: a fi~nctinn of the $ 0 ~

-
standard. deviation for different flsghove~p m
babiities. 'the number of lnsulaliuds is N UH).

To calculate the critical flashover' voltages it is also necessary to establish

the p.u. switching surge values for each sysleni. Thc following ranges are chr?sen as those
that are probably economically achievable and a value within each range is used for base
.
case calculations and is listed in Table 1, line 6 .

TABLE 3.3.1
SWITCHING SURGE V A E m

Maximum 'M~x. '

"2%
System Statishcal Esthated
Voltage Surp Max. Surgc hie Case .

Otv) (cc + 2%) ( p + 3.5ud) (P.u-1

 The critical flashover voltages for the line phase-to-ground insulation are
shown in able 3 . 3 . 2 as a function of system voltage level for ac and in Table 3.3.3 for ,
..
dc. In Table 3.3.3, a 1.65 p.u. switching surge overvoltage is assumed for.dc systems. On
modem dc systems, overvoltages of large amplitude are more likely t o result from single -

pole t o ground faults than from actual switching operatiois. Such t o ground faults
induce overvoltages on the other pole which are similar to switching surges on ac lines
and hence are included here. [13] In the event of the sudden loss of one pole, it is
desirable to maintain the other one without flashover. Consequently, the acceptable risk
of failure is chosen with some knowledge of the expected frequency of occurrence of
these faults.

. .TABLE 3.3.2
Critical (50%) flashover voltage for each of N identical phase-to-ground
insulations as a function of ac system voltage level. Standard deviation
of applied stress = 8%.Standard deviation of strength = 5%.

Maximum AC N, Equivalent Total Flashover - Base Case

System Number of Probability Switching Surge CFO
Voltage (kV) Insulations Per Surge
-
K (p.m.) O<v)
-

NOTE: The.range of parameters in boxes are preferred values which should be used for a first attempt
at individual tower design.
 TABLE 3.3.3

Critical (50%) flashover voltage for each of N identical pole-to-ground

insulations as a function of dc.system voltage level. Switching surge =
1:65 p.u., with standard deviation 8%.Standard deviation of strength
= 5%. '
. .
Maximum DC N, Equivalent Total Flashover
System Number of Probability CFO
Voltage (kV) Insulations Per Surge Ii Ocv)
-. --P -- - -

NOTE: The range of parameters in boxes are suggested as preferred values.

-..
3.3.3 Phase-to-Phase Insulation for switching Surges

Phase-tephase- switching surge design for ac lines is complicated by the

fact that rhc surges UII [lie tki-e,c.phnsr.2 nre not, only statistically distributed in amplitude,
but the time of occurrence of peaks on any one,phase may vary rclative to those on the
other phases. Furthermore, the dielectric strength is a function not only of the magnitude
of phase-to-phase voltage, but also of the amplitude and polarity of the strcss on one
phase relative ,to the lulal pl~asc-.to-phmevoltage. [ I 1 1 Fnr these reasons, certain
simplifying assumptions are made in order to .obtain some practical estimates of
phase-to-phase clearances.

One study of phase-to-phase switching overvoltages shows that at the

moment of maximum phase-to-phase overvoltage, the voltages 0x1 the two phases are
essentially equal and of opposite polarity. [ l l ] This assumption is used in this guide. A
second aspect of the same report showed that the equivalent Gaussian which matched
that phase-to-phase stress distribution had a standard deviation of about 2.5% of the
mean. Although this dispersion is quite low, this value is used because of the lack of
other information. Finally, it is assumed that the maximum phase-to-phase switching
surge is 1.7 times the phase-to-ground surge amplitude. Again, the magnitude of this
parameter may be questioned. However, the maximum theoretically possible phase-phase
surge is 2.0 times the phase-to-ground surge, and 1.7 appears t o be a reasonable estimate.
1

Two types of phase-to-phase air gaps are considered for overhead line
design. The first involves the gap between adjacent phase conductors at midspan when
the otherwise large clearance may be reduced by wind swing. It is assumed that this will
occur in only one span at a time, and consequently the analysis is made according t o
reference [ 11] with N = 1, again for the two probabilities of flashover of .O1 and .001
per surge. The second tybe of gap involves unique tower designs in which insulators are
located between adjacent phase conductors in each tower. For this case, the analysis was
done according t o reference [ 1 11 with an effective number of towers N = 200 for
flashover probabilities of .O1 and .OO 1 per surge.

3.3.4 switching Surge Critical Flashover, Vol tages (CFO)

Phase-to-ground and phase-to-phase CFO base case voltages used in this

gui.de are listed in Tables 3.3.4 to 3.3.6.

TABLE 3.3..4

AC CRITICAL FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR

PHASE-TO-GROUND. INSULATIONS
.

Maximum
CFO (kV)
System Voltage Switching Surge
(kV)
 TABLE 3.3.5

DC CRITICAL FLASHOVER VOLTAGES FOR

POLE-TO-GROUND INSU LATlONS

--
CFO (kV)
System Voltage Switching Surge

TABLE 3.3.6

AC p h a ~ ~ p l l a scritical
e flashover voltagcs for single (N = 1)
gaps (applied Lo t~lidspanclearances) and multiple (N - 200)
gaps (applied to clearances at towers). Maxiniuli~phase-phasc
switching surge assumed = 1.7 x phase-ground surge. Standard
deviation of stress (phase-phase) = 2.5'%. Standard deviation
of strength = 5%.
,(,.I

-- CFO (kV)
Maximum
Systern Voltage N = I Gap N = 200 Gaps
(kV) . -- P = 0.01 P = 0.001 P-= 0.01 P = 0.001
-- -

No pole-pole switching surge design criteria are given for dc. This is a
consequence of the fact that during pole-'to-ground faults, the pole-pole voltage is
essentially the same as that of the unfaulted pole-to-ground.
3.4 SHIELD ANGLE

Considerable theoretical attention has been given to .shield angles required to

protect transn1issi.011 line conductors t'rom lightning. However, confirlnation of the
theoretical approaches by liilld experience is lacking for the most part. Reference [ 1 1 1
discusses this matter in some detail and then outlines a method to calculate shield angles
as follows:
I

1) The surge impedance of the conductors is calculatetl.

2) The critical flashover voltage of the line is estimated for negative

lightning surges.

3) The lightning current that is required to develop this critical flashover voltage '
when a phase 'conductor is struck is calculated. This is called the critical "threshold
current. "

4 ) The critical "threshold current" is used in conjunction with Figure 12.3.10 of

reference [ l I ] to determine strike distance S. This is the estimated length of the final
step of the stepped leader.

5 ) A point P is located at distance S from the shield wire and PS above ground. :
The factor /3 is a catch-all to compensate roughly for different flashover strengths from
point P to conductors and shield wire, and from P t o ground, for the fact thatnsome
strokes' do not descend vertically and can have excessive branching, for the fact that the
ground plane may not be horizontal, and as a sort of safety factor.
1

6) Having located P, geometrical calculations are 'made t o position the phase

conductor at a distance S away from P and then the shield angle can be determined.
I

This method is not rigorous but it does provide a practical approach to the
problem.

3.5 LIGHTNING PERFORMANCE

Lightning perfornlance of EHV-UHV lines has historically been measured in terms

of triyout rates per 100 miles of line per year. Reference [ l 11 presents methodo1o.a for
determining tripout rates as a function of isokeraunic level, line 8.1d' tower geonietrv,
footing resistance, stroke current amplitude and rise time distributions, etc. Tripout rate
curves for back flash~verso f 3 4 5 kV, 500 kV and 765 kV lines are presented in Figures
12.6.2 (E through F) of reference [ 1 I I .
 CHAPTER. 4

ELECTRICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

4.1 CONDUCTOR BUNDLE, PHASE SPACING, MINIMUM HEIGHT

4.1.1 Introduction

Research into UHV transmission revealed the dramatic importance of two

relatively new problems: (1) audible noise produced by the conductors when they are in
corona in wet weather, and (2) possible undesirable effects caused by electric fields from
the transmission lines on objects and people.

The purpose of this section is 'to show how these two phenomena affect
the design of UHV lines, and also to review EHV lines to see if any aspect of their design
is influenced by audible noise and eleckc field considerations. From this information
bundle and line configurations and minimum heights are selected to meet the criteria
listed in 3.2.6.

In addition, in the latter part of this section, attenuation. factors for

audible noise and electric field are given in terms of distance from outer phase.

4.1.2 AC Systems

Three important design parameters for UHV transmission are:

- Audible noise at edge of transmission corridor (TC).

- Electric field at ground, maximum value within TC.

- Electric field at edge of TC.

Using the procedures outlined in reference [ I I ] * and a computer program

prepared for this specific purpose, the noise and field were calculated.

* The method of AN calculation in the book has been modified t o take into accowlt the
effect of k = Gma, + Gavg, as shown by recent tests at Project UHV.
 1100 kV Systems

The base case parameters used are the following:

Working Voltage = 1150kV

Transmission Corridor = 122m
Phase Spacing (P) = 18.5 m
Average Height Ahnve Grni~nd
-
- .
24 m
1 of the Lowcst Phase (HAV)

(This is used for calculation or noise arid of field at edge of TC.)

1

Minimum Height (for average

temperature and load conditions, -
- 19.8 m
.at midspan, from ground to
center of bundle) (HMIN)

The base case parameters were varied one at a time to determir~etheir

effects on the audible noise.

Audible noise at 61 m from center line to edge of TC for different line

configurations and number of subconductors is shown in Figure 4.1.1. For the same
-
phnsc spnoing a flat configuration is 2 dB q1.1ietp.rthan a normal equilateral delta.

In Figure 4.1.2, it is shown that optimum bundle diameters are:

'l\j r 6 i d = 5.3 A - 102 clll

N 8 (d34.1c.~~~) A - 109cm
N = 12'Id=2.3cm) A = 104cm
-..

where d is subconductor diameter and A is the bundle diameter.

Figures 4.1.3 and 4.1.4 show the effect of phase spacing and height above
ground on audible noise.

The effect, of equivalenl bur~dledialttelef (i.e. diameter of singlc conductor

creating the same field) on maximum field at ground is shown in Figure 4.1.5 for
different line configurations. The effect is pronounced, pointing out the advantage of
using small bundles. Similar information for field at edge of TC is shown in Figure A. 1.6.
The effect is about the same as that shown in Figure 4.1.5.
 Figures 4.1.7 and 4.1.8 show t.hat the effect of height above ground on
maximum field is very pronounced. The inverted delta configuration results in the lowest
electric fields at ground and flat arrangement in the'highest. However, if the height of the
highest phase is considered (Figure 4.1.8), flat is the lowest. Combining Figure 4.1.7 with
Figure 4.1.5, it is found that an increase in equivalent bundle diameter from 75 cm to
100 cm is equivalent to a decrease in tower height of about 1.2 m.

Figure 4.1.9 shows that the influence of average height on electric field at
the edge of a TC of 122 m is negligible. Also, again the delta configuration produces a
field at the edge of the TC which is one-half of that of a flat configuration for the same
average height.
. .
The influence of phase spacing on maximum field at ground is shown in,
Figure 4.1.10. Compacting the line by 3 m is equivalent to increasing line height by 0.6
m. The effect of phase spacing on field at edge of TC (61 m from line center) is
pronounced as shown in Figure 4.1.1 1. A 3 m phase spacing reduction reduces the field
by -- 15%. \

Figures 4.1.12 and 4.1.13 show the TC required for various configurations
and levels of audible noise and electric field. Figure 4.1.12 illustrates that a small
variation in subconductor diameter causes large variation in TC. Conversely, a small
change in TC does not substantially affect the selection of subconductor diameter. Figure
4.1.13 shows that equivalent bundle diameter has little effect on TC. The greatest effect
here is caused by the various line configurations. Therefore, audible noise and electric
field requirements can be considered separately. Line configuration (flat-delta, phase
spacing, extent of TC, necessity of shielding) should be determined by electric field
requirements at edge of TC. ' ~ i n eminimum height above ground should be dimensioned
according to maximum field levels allowable at ground under the line, and bundle
configuration should be set by audible noise considerations.

Choice of Bundles.

From Figures 4.1.1. and 4.1.2, the following bundles result for
AN = 55 dB(A) and TC = 122 m.

N = 6 Flat d -- 5.2 cm A = 102cm

Normal Delta d -- 5.6 cm A = 102cm
N = 8
Nom'al
Flat
Delta
d
d
-- 4.0 cm
4.2 cm
A
A
=
=
109cm
109cm
N = 12 Flat d -1.8 cm A = 104cm
Normal Delta d -- 2.0 cm I
A = 104cm
 Choice of Line Configuration

A field less than 2 kV/m at the edge of a 122 m TC can be obtained with
a flat configuration, phase spacing = 18.5 m from bundle center-to-bundle center (see
Figure 4.1.13). (The equivalent, bundle diameter for the conductor configurations shown
-
above is 94 cm).

For a field of 2 kV/m at thc edge of a 91.5 m TC or a Geld of 1 kV/m at.

the ,edge of a 122 m TC, a flat line configuration is not possible uriless electrostatic
fences are erected at edge of TC. The delta (equilateral) configuration would meet the
requirement.

Minimum Height and TC Width

If a maximum field of < 12 kV/m and a field of S 2 kV/m at edge of TC

are required, the minimum height for a flat configuration is 19 m and for a delta
configuration 17.5 m. TC widths are 122' m and 9 1.5 m respectively. The field at the
edge of a 122 m TC is 1 kV/m for a delta configuration.
-
The above distances are for average line load m d lo 111~u c ; l ~ l eof
~ the
bundle. The minimum clearance, calculated from the bottonl of the bundlc and with
- -
maximum sag conditions, will be 1.5 3 m lower.

765 and 500 kV Systems

The same fype of calculations performed for 1100 kV transmission lines

were performed for 765 kV and 500 kV lines. The base case parameters used are the
following:

Working Voltage 780 kV 525 kV

Transmission Comdur 88 111 67 m

Phase Spacing . 14 m 10 m
Average Height Above Ground
18.5 m 14 m
of the Lowest Phase,
Height of Midspan 14.3 m 9.9 m

The following considerations for 765 kV lines, are derived from the
analysis of the results shown in Figures 4.1.14 through 4.1.20.) \
 Choice of Bundles
/

N = 3 Flat d - 5.7 cm A = 76 cm
Delta d - 6.1 cm A = '76 cm
N = 4 Fl3t d --
4.0 cm A = 71cm
Delta d - 4.3 cm A = 71cm
N = 5 Flat d -3.2cm A = 66 cm
Delta d - 3.3 cm A = 66 cm

N = 6 Flat d - 2.2 cm A = 64 cm
' Delta d - 2.5 cm A = 64 cm

The choice of the line configuration depends to some extent on the

acceptable value of electric field at the edge of TC. Both flat and delta configurations
generate fields lower than 2 kV/m outside the 88 m TC. However, should the acceptable
limit be lowered to 1 kV/m only the delta configuration meets this requirement.

The height at midspan, with the condition that the field be not more than
12 kV/m and for a phase spacing of 14 m, is: ,

Flat Configuration H = 12.7m

Normal Delta Configuration H = 11.6m

The following considerations for 500 kV lines are derived from the
analysis of the results shown in Figures 4.1.2 1 through 4.1.28.

The bundle for audible noise of 55 dB(A) can be chosen among the
following:

N = 1 d - 8.6 cm - Not Practical

N = 2 Flat - 4.6 cm A 46 cm
d
Delta d - 5.0 cm A
=
= 46 cm
N = 3 Flat d -- 2.3 cm A 53 cm
Delta d -
2.4 cm A
=
= 53cm
N = . 4 No practical limitation due 'to AN
 The choice of the line configurations does not depend on electric field
considerations. All configurations meet or come close to meeting 1 kV/m at the edge of
the TC and do not exceed 12 kV/m in any point within the TC.

The height at midspan lor the condition that the ficld be not more thm
12 kV/m and for a phase spacing of 10 m is:

Flat Configuration H = 7.9 m

Normal Delta Configuration H = 7.3 m

Tl~est: values alt: lower than thc NESC which roquirec 9.4 m. Therefore,
the height is determined by the Code.

345 kV System

There is a great deal of experience at this voltage level which can be used
to establish the parameters. The following are used:

Line Phase Spacing Bundle

Configuration %in P Subconductors Diameter

'Flat 8.3 m 7.6 m 1 x. 4.4 cm 46 cm

2 x 2.8 cm

Attenuation Factors for Audible Noise and Electric Field

AlLe~lualiul~fxcbu~s wllii.11 slmw hnw ni~dihlcnoino varies with di~tance

from the outer phase are given in Figures. 4.1.29 and 4.1.30. Attenuation factors for
electric field are given in Figures 4.1.3 1 and 4.1.32.

Curnyrui~urlwill* Radio Noise. 'and Cndc Rcqiiircmcntn

In the preceding sections it was shown that audible noise influences the
choice of the conductors and electric field influences the width of the TC and the height
at rnidspan. However, usual design practices are based on radio noisc (and other
considerations) for conductor design and the National Electric Safety Code for clearances.
It is interesting to compare the two practices and determine the cases in which one
consideration will prevail over the other.
 Choice of Conductors - Comparison Between Audible Noise and Radio
Noise Requirements

A base case radio noise level of 55 dB above 1 pV/m for 80% all weather
noise is selected in 3.2.6. The curves on page 168 of reference. [ I l l can be used t o
determine'the bundle. However, these curves are for rain and at 15 m from the outside
phase, and are given for maximum rather than for the working voltage.

The wet conductor curves should be used in conjunction with a value of

about 75 dB, which is derived considering a 1 0 dB attenuation between the 15 m point
and the location of the receiver, a 10 dB difference between 80% all weather and 50%
rain (wet conductor curves), and a 3 dB difference between noise at maximum voltage
and noise at working voltage.

The diameters of the conductors required for radio noise and those
required for audible noise are reported in Figure 4.1.33, which shows that audible noise ,

is the determining parameter at 1100'kV and 765 kV, while radio noise is' limiting at
345 kV. Radio noise and audible noise requirements have about the same result for
500 kV.

Height Above Ground - Comparison Between Electric Field and Code

Reauirements

The NESC 6th edition'for roads prescribes a minimum clearance of:

. .

(feet)
12

where V is the line voltage in kV. Minimum clearances .are.shown below together with
the height at the center of the bundle.

Maximum System Minimum Height a t Center

Voltage (kV) clearance (m) of Bundle (m)
 The comparison of these requirements with those resulting from a
'
limi'tition of the field to 12 kV/m (for flat configurations) is shown in Figure 4.1.34.
The figure shows that for 765 kV and above the clearance is determined by electric field.

The heights selected for "base case" studies are listed below and in
Table 1, line 9.

Maximum System Minimum

1200 19.5 For electric field

800 13.0 For,electric fleld
550 . 9.6 For NESC 6th edition
362 8.4 For NESC 6th edition

The 7th edition of the 1977 National Electric Safety Code recommends that
the current induced in the largest vehicle which could be stationed under the transmission
line should be, in the worst case less than 5 mA. There is a linear relation between
induced current in a vehicle and unperturbed electric field at ground; therefore, the 5 mA
criterion can be translated into maximum design value for the electric field for ally given
vehicle. This is shown in the following examples:

Field Required To
Vehicle Induce 5 m/A Reference Source

School Bus 12.2 kV/m Testimony of Don W. Deno

(10.4 m long, 2.44 m wide, at Hearing on Health and
2.8 m high) Safety of 765 kV Tra~illunis-
sion Lincs, Ncw York Public
Combine John Deere 13.2 kV/m Service Commission, 1976.
(9.14 m long, 2.3 m wide,
3.48 m high)

Tractor-Trailer 7.9 kV/m

(15.8 m long, 2.44 m wide,
3.74 m high)

Summary

Bundle and subconductor sizes, minimum heights, and phase spacings for
ac systems are summarized in the following table.
 Lie Phase Bundle
Configuration Hmin' Spacing Subconductors , Diameter

Flat

Normal Delta
(Equilateral)

Flat

**Present
Practice

Normal Delta 3x 6.1 cm

(Equilateral) 4x 4.3 cm
5x 3.3 cm
6x 2.5 crn

Flat 9.6 m 10.0 m

**Present 9.2 to 6.1to

Practice ' 14.0 m 13.7 m
*

Normal Delta 9.6 m 10.0 m

(Equilateral)

Flat 8.5 m 7.6 m *

* These values are selected and listed in Table 1, lines 7 and 8.

** From Chapter 2 of reference [1 1]
 - 5 1 " m . 1 . . * 0 1 . . . . 1 . . . . l J
0 50 100 150 200
BUNDLE DIAMETER cm -
FIG. 4.1.2

2 3 4 5 6
SUBCONDUCTOR DIAMETER - cm
FIG. 4.1.1

PHASE SMCING- m
AVG. HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND- m
FIG. 4.1.3
FIG. 4.1.4
 I
1 I I V = I l 5 0 kV
.' Vz 1150kV MIN. HT.(AT BUMLE CENTER) HMIN =20m P= 18.5 m
- P=l8.5m OF LOWEST PHASE - AVG.HEIGHT OF LOWEST PHASE = 24m
- x---+, I/
I* e---
- .e=== I
- I N
"o,,.-' I
I.
/
0 0-300. I. /
-
/
-09 ' ,06:a . I
- I0 ' /
, 'at-300
I

-
- 'I
I
t -
- 0

1'
BX40a-n x102cml2X2.3cmx 127cm
615.3cm x 102cm
-

I 50I . . .75 . . ~ KXl. . . .125 I . . 150

. . ~ . - . . . ~
EQUIVALENT BUNDLE DIAMETER -cm
FIG. 4.1.5 EQUIVALENT BUNDLE DIA.-cm
FIG. 4.1.6

.
-
-
N.8 d-4.06cm
A- I 0 2 crn
P=18.5m
\ \

MINIMUM HEIGHT ABOVE GAOUND- rn

FIG. 4.1.7
\
\\

\
n B 1 s m 2 1 a m w
EIGHT AT MWAN OF HIMST PHL\S- m
FIG. 4.1.8
2 s n
AVG. HEIGHT ABOVE GRWND- m
FIG. 4.1.9 PHASE SPACING -m
FIG. 4 . 1 . 1 0

PHASE SPACING -m SUBCONDUCTOR DIAMETER - cm

FIG. 4.1.12
FIG. 4.1.11 . .
 EWIVALENT BUNDLE DlA.- c m ,
FIG. 4.1.13

BUNDLE DIAMETER
FIG. 4.1. I5
- cm I I1
I
12
1

13 14 15 16 17 .
PHASE SPACING - m
F I G . 4.1.16
 v = 780kV
-
MIN. HT.(AT BUNDLE CENTER)= 14m
- AVO. HT.. 18.5n1
PHASE SPAC!NG = I 4 m
-

EQUIVALENT BUNDLE DIA.- cm

FIG. 4.1.17
MINIMUM HEIGHT ABOVE GROUND -m
FIG, 4,!,1#!

-+ , FLAT
V * 780 kV
/
MAX. FIELO I N 'I'C

FIELD AT EDGE OF TC
4 4 m FROM CENTER L I N E

EQUIVALENT BUNDLE DIAMETER - cm PHASE SPACING -m

FIG. 4.1.19 FIG. 4.1.20
.38-
65 *

FLAT
-- - - - - - a (NORMAL)

. -. HA,, = I5.2m ( W E S T PHASE)

w- -

* --
4
. - S
- lbl
- B
W
- 2
m
- n
a
N =2
-
audible noise at 33.5 m

WCONDUCTOR DIA. - cm
' FIG. 4.1. 21 SUBCONWCTOR DIAMETER- cm
FIG. 4.1.22 .

I 1
30 40 50 60
CONDUCTOR SPACING - c m .
FIG. 4.1.23
'PHASE SPACING- m
FIG.. 4 . 1 . 2 4
Ol, A i 5 'BUNDLE
; EQUIVALENT ,'A DIAMETER
io i t . , , ; :
- cm
FIG. 4.1.25
RIlNlMUN HEIGHT ABOVE CROW- m
FIG. 4.1.'26

- IkVlm

A/--

/ @ - -

FLAT
A--
/---

0
0

DELTA -

3 1 FIELD AT EDGE OF %
33.5m FROM CENTER LINE.
-2kVfm

AINORYALI

PHASE SPACING-m EQvIvALENT BUNDLE DIAMETER crn -

FIG. 4. I. 27 FIG. 4.1.28
 Fig. 4.1.29 Attenuation of Audible Noise
vs. Distance from Outer Phase
- Flat Configuration a)

Audible Noise at Distance PX = dB(A) at

Edge of 'IT + Adder

15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Distnnce from Outer Phase. PX - m

Fu.4.1.30 Attenuation of Audible Noise

vs. Distance from Outer Phase
- Delta Configuration

Audible Noise at Distance PX = dB(A) at

25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75

Distance from Outer Phase, PX (m)

-41-
 I I I I 1

- ----- - AUDIBLE NOISE RECUIREMENTS

-RADIO NOISE REQUIREMENTS /

400 600 800 1000 1200

I I I I I LlNE VOLTAGE- kV
600 800 1000 1200 FIG. 4.1.34

LlNE VOLTAGE- kV
FIG. 4.1.33

6 - -

BPA suggestions. -

Japane e N'=4

: r' -

I - -
(N =number of subconductors,)

0 1 1 I 1 . 1 1

2400 2600 2800 -+I000 21200

DCVOLTAGE-kv
F I G . 4.1.35
 4.1.3 DC Systems. . ,

Conductor Configuration

..: The conductor . configurations Listed below have been chosen mainly
following suggestions made at the UHV DC Symposium' between the U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.
(1 975) and extrapolating to 1200 kV (see Figure 4.1.35).

' . d (cm)

Heights Above Ground

The conductor surface voltage gradient is not a strong function of the

height of the conductors above ground; consequently, the audible noise and radio
interference performance of a dc line will vary little h r a wide range of the conductor
heights. On the other hand, the electric field at ground level is very ~riudldependent on
the conductor height, and it is this quantity which will. most likely determine practical
minimum clearances to ground. In 3.2.6, Lhe rnaxi~r~u~n electric field at ground for dc
systems is limited to 15 kV/m for corona-free conditions.

, Chapter' 7 of reference [9] provides a formula for determining thc

corona-free electric field at ground for a bipolar dc line:

where
i
'U is the 'pbsitive pole-to-ground voltage

H is the height of the conductors above ground

S is the pole spacing

'
X is the lateral distance from the positive pole (the negative
pole is located at. X = + S)
 K is the "coupling factor" between conductors, given by

and

R is the equivalent radius of the conductor bundles, given by

in which

A is the bundle diameter

n is the number of subconductors.

and

d is the diameter of subconductors

By differentiating equation (4.1.1) and setting the result equal to zero,

' bne can determine the distance X = Xc for which i is
a maximum: .

Calculations made to evaluate this followed an iterative process:

il For a given S, choose H and calculate Xc from equation (4.1.4)

ii) Subslitute X = Xc in equation (4.1.1) to determine Emax = E(Xc)

iii) If Em= < 15 kV/m, reduce H and repeat process

If Em, >.15 kV/m, increase H and repeat process
Results of the calculations are shown in Figure 4.1.36 which gives minimum
ground clearances H, for a range of pole spacings S, for which Emax = 15 kV/m. Bundle
geometries used in the calculations are shown'in Table 4.1.2.
 Pole Spacing, S - m

Fig. 4.1.36 Variation of Minimum Ground Clearance with Pole Spacing (see
Table 4.1.2 for Conductor Geometries)

Table 4 1 . 2 Conductor Geometries Used i n Calculations of Minimum

Ground Clearances
Uia. of Csndilctors Bundle Dix
kV Geometry Conductors cm cm

+ 600 I 4 3.56 55.9

I1 4 4.57 76.2
+ 800 I 4 .4.5 7 55.9
11. 4 5.84 76.2
I11 6 * 3.30 76.2
IV 6 4.32 101.6

+ 1200 I , 8 5.08 101.6

I1 8 6.35 152.4
 Given a limit to the maximum corona-free electric field at ground level,
the minimum height of dc transmission line conductors is a function of the pole spacing.
The minimum height increases with pole spacing, to a limiting value for very large pole
spacing for which the bipolar line appears as two separate monopolar lines. The
minimum heights for practical pole spacings are shown below and are listed in Table 1,
line 9.

System Assumed Pole Minimum

Voltage (kV) Spacing (m) Height (m)

Summary

Bundle and subconductor sizes, minimum heights, and pole spacings for dc
systems are summarized in the following table.

Line Pole Bundle

Configuration %in Spacing Subconductors Diameter

* These values are selected and listed in Table 1, lines 7 and 8.

 . . ..
I

4.2 AIR CEEAd2ANCES AND INSULATOR LENGTHS

4.2.1 Introduction

The optimization of transmission line insulation requires not only the

optimizing of insulation performance for power frequency, switching and lightning
overvoltages, but also the minimizing of the total investment to obtain satisfactory
operating performance. The objective of this section is to balarice the hlsulation strengths
with the voltage stresses in order that costs can be evaluated correctly tor an optimum
economic, as well as operational deslgn. &r clearailces and insulalvr l e ~ ~ g t ltu~ b111eet
switching surge and steady state requirements are calculated using reference [ 11I for ac
systems and reference [ 9 ] for dc systems. Switching surge criteria developed in Section
3.3 are used for this purpose.

4.2.2 Phase (Pole) to Ground Air Clearances

Typical phase-to-ground air gap configurations for tower designs are

conductor/tower leg, conductorlthin wire, and cvnductor/ground with a support column.
The clearances for switching surges listed in Table 4.2.1 are calculated fur the extremes
of the critical flashover voltages (CFO) listed' in Tables 3.3.4 and 3.3.5. Anotl~ertype of
configuration which may be of importance is that composed of conductor/insulatir~g
member. Test conducted during this program showed that conductor/thin w.ke clearances
can' be used for such configurations. Clearances for steady stale ac and dc voltagcs are
also calculated and included here to show that they are smaller than those required for
switching surges and do not control insulation requirements.

The base case air clearances from phase to tower listed in Table 1, line 10,
are determined for a probability of flashover of 0.01 and tower widths of:

- 1.2 m for 362 and 550 kV ac and 600 dc systems

- 3.7 m for 1200 1<V ac and dc systems
- Averagc of 1.2 and 3.7 m values for 800 kV ac and dc systems

4.2.3 Phase-To-Phase Air Clearances

.. .

The clearances listed in Table 4.2.2 for switching surges. are calculated
using CFO values from Table 3.3.6. For midspan calculations, it is assumed that only one
span (N = 1) is involved and for tower calculations N = 200 as explained in subsection
3.3.3. . Clearances for sixty hertz are also calculated. These are the minimum
phase-to-phase clearances to be permitted under phase displacement' or galloping
conditions. Under normal conditions switching surge considerations determine the
minimum phase-to-phase air clearance. These are listed in Table 1, line , l 2 for the
clearance at tower with a probability of flashover of 0.01.
- .. . . ..

No pole-pole switching surge design criteria are given for dc since, as

mentioned previously, the pole-pole voltage is essentially the same as that of the
unfaulted pole to ground.

TABLE 4.2.1
PHASE (P0LE)TOGROUND AIR CLEARANCES

SWITCHING SURGE AC (2) OR 1M:(3)

Conductor
Maximum Conductor Conductor to Base
System Dry to 1.2m to 3.7 m Conductor Base Height CFO Conductor
Voltage CFO - kV Tower Leg Tower Leg to Thin 2 Gap kV . tokg '.
(kv) P= .01 P=.001
- - (m) (m) Wire (m) Length (m) - (m)
Peak

(1) Clearances determined from Figures 1 1.5.1 and 1 1.1 2.3 of reference [ l 11 .
(2) Sixty hertz clearances determined from Figure 10.2.1 of reference [ l l ] using CFO ='1.25 x Max.
System k~/*. . .
(3) .DCclearances determined using 4.8' kV/cm as calculated from Figure 10.4 of reference [9] and
CFO = 1.25 x System kV.

TABLE 4.2.2
PHASE-TO-PHASE AIR CLEARANCES

Maximum SWITCHING SURGE

System Midspan Cleamnw (m) Clemncc at Tower (111)
Voltase (kV) P = .01 P = -001 P = .01 P = .001 Midspan and Tower

(1) Clearances determined from Figure 1 1.9.6 nf reference [I I] plus modificatioi~ usil~g Last data
generated in this program.
(2) Sixty hertz conductor-to-conductor data of Figure 10.2.1; reference [ I l l , is for one conductor
grounded. An ignorance factor of 1.15 was applied for the case of both conductors energized. Thus,
CFO = 1.25 x 1.1 5 x Max. System k ~ / f l .
 4.2.4. Phase-To-Ground Insulator Lengths

The phase-teground insulator lengths listed in Table 4.2.3 are calculated

'for switching surges using CFO values listed in Tables 3.3.4 and 3.3.5, assuming clean wet
condition. In reference [ I I ] a composite gap concept is used to correlate insulator length
with air gap length. In Figure 11.6.1, it is shown that the combined strength of the air
gap L and the insulator length D varies with the ratio of D/L. For D/L ratios of 1.05 and
1.0, the CFO voltage is reduced to 0.995 and 0.99 respectively. The ratio of 1.05 is used
herein and an additional factor of 5% is added for wet conditions resulting in a
multiplying factor of 1.1 to establish insulator lengths for the ac systems. For dc systems
where the poles are generally not in a window this factor is reduced by 6%, as shown in
subsection 11.5 of reference [ 1 1] , to 1.04. The air clearances used are huse listed in
Table 4.2.1 for a leg width W of 1.2 m. This is done on the premise that if W is
increased to 3.7 m, the air clearance must be increased to maintain the same phase-to-leg
strength. The increase in W should tend to lower the insulator string strength while the
increase in L should tend to increase it. It is assumed Lhal tllese effects will oancel one
another. This premise will need to be verified before final designs are made using towers
with wide legs.

TABLE 4.2.3

PHASE (POLE)-TO-GROUND LNSULA'I'OR LENGTHS

1
Switching Surge
Maximum Clean-Wet
System P = .O1 ~ i g h Contamination
t (3)
Voltage (kv) Length (4 Length (4

2.1 Standard
3.2 Standard
4.6 Standard
7.7 Standard
5.4 Anti-Fog
7.9 Anti-Fog
12.0 Anti-Fog

(1) For sixty hertz: Wet CFO = Dry (301.78, see reference [ l l ] , Figure 10.2.5 for precipitation rate
of 2 mmlminute. Dry CFO = 1.25 x Max. System k V a m , Figure 10.2.1.
(2) For steady state dc: From reference [9], Table 8.5, the dc CFO is given for various types of
suspension insulators. The average CFO for typical ball and socket insulators is 3.7 for rain and
3.1 kV/m for fog adjusted to a water resistivity of 10 k c c m . Reference [9] also states that the
dc strength is linear with length. The lengths are calculated using the fog condition value of
3.1 kV/m and CFO = 1.25 x System kV.
(3) From Appendix A l .
 Insulation lengths listed in Table 4.2.3 to meet steady state ac and dc
voltage requirements under clean, wet conditions are also calculated. The methods of
calculation are explained in the footnotes. Lengths required for light contamination are
also listed as a matter of interest. These are derived as described in Appendix A l .

Under clean-wet conditions, lengths required for switching surges

dominate. These are listed in Table 1, line 1 1. Lengths required for light contamination
are larger except for the +- 1200 kV dc systems.
I

4.2.5 Phase-To-Phase Insulators

The phase-to-phase insulator lengths for switching surge and ac voltages are
listed in Table 4.2.4 and are calculated as explained in the footnotes. The switching surge
requirements dominate and are listed in Table 1, line 13.

TABLE 4.2.4

PHASE-TO-PHASE INSULATOR LENGTHS

AC
Maximum Switching Surge
System .Clean-Wet Clean-Wet (2) Light Contamination (3)
Voltage (kv) Length (4 Length (d Length (4

3 62 2.3
550 3.4
800 4.9
1200 9.2
f 600
800 >NO? Recommended.
+ 1200

(1) Test data generated in this program indicate that phase-to-phase insulators have essentially the
same switching suige stl.eng&has phase-to-phase air gaps. Lengths are obtained from Table 4.2.2
using the clearance-at-tower data.
(2) It is assumed that under dry condilions the length required will be the same as the air gap
requirement. For wet conditions the length is increased by 11.78 = 1.28 (see reference [ l l ] ,
Figure 10.2.5) for precipitation rate of 2 mm/minute:
(3) . From Appendix A1 . t.
4.3 SELECTION OF SHIELD ANGLE AND OVERHEAD GROUND WIRE SIZE

The performance of a transmission line during lightning depends on many factors

such as isokeraunic level, height, shield angle provided by overhead shield wires, footing
resistance, air strike distances, and insulator length. With su many interrelatcd variables
involved, lightning is not considered in this' guide other than to provide criteria for
adequate shielding as listed in Table 1, line 14.

4.3.1 ' Shield Angle

The position of ground wires for lightning protection is determined using

the procedure outlined in reference [ i I ] . For 345 kV Ll~es~lieldangle is choscn using
Figure 12.3.4 of that reference which is reproduced here.as Figure 4.3.1 for convenience.
m

40

01
w
a
W w
H
W
i N
4
w
Z
2 10 8HlELDlNG ANGLES AS
W
I
0

- 10 1 I

SHIELD WIRE HEIGHT -m

Fig. 4.3.1 Suggested .Shield Angle as a F U I I ~

tion uf Slrield Wire Hcight for
. ,
345 kV Line Design..

For 500 kV and above, i d for the dc systems the analysis on pages .
374-377 .of reference [ l l ] is used. Table 4.3.1 shows the parameter assumed for these
calculations. The notation used in the table is as follows:

hp = . Height of the lowest phase conductor at the tower

-
h = Average height of the lowest phase (hp - 213 sag)

D = Bundle diameter
. ..<.,
 reff = Effective radius of bundle (Dl2 x 1.5) to account for
corona envelope . -
2xh
zo = Conductor characteristic impedance (60 In x -1 .
'eff
Clear. = Switching ,surge air clearance from Table 4.2.1 for 1.2 m .
tower leg.
kVc = Impulse flashover strength (Figure 12.3.9, reference [ 11I )
2 (kVd)
IC = "Threshold Current" '( 1
zo
S = Strike distance (Figure 12.3.10, reference [ 11] ) ,

..
Where two entries are given in Table 4.3.1, they correspond to minimum
and maximum bundle diameters as suggested in subsections 4.1.2. and 4.1.3.

TABLE 4.3.1

PARAMETERS FOR SHIELD ANGLE CALCULATIONS

(See Reference [ 11 ] for Calculation Techniques)

h
System p
- Sag
- h
- D
- 'eff
- - clear.
- - kVc IC
- s
-
(m) (m) ' (m) ( 4 ( 4 (JZ) (m) -(kV) , @a) ( 4 '

The shield angles are given as a function of shield wire height at the tower
in Figures 4.3.2 through 4.3.7. For those cases in which the choice of phase conductors
makes a significant diffcrcnce in sl~ield angle, two curves are given. In addition, for
765 kV ac data are presented for two values of the coefficient (see reference [ I l l ) .
Finally, it should be noted that the curves in Figures 4.3.2 through 4.3.7 apply also to
the delta phase conductor configurations.
 hg - Meters
Height of Shield ~k(st To-)

hg - Meters
Height of Shidd Wi (at Tower)

hg - Meters ..
Height of Shield Wire (at Tower)
Fi.4.3.4
 The shield angles selected are listed in Table 1, line 14. It is important to
note that these angles apply to the outer phase only. Experience has shown that lightning
rarely strikes the center phase when at least two, shield wires are used. Based on the
"final step S" theory, a conservative value of 80' has been specified as the angle guarding
the center phase (see Section 3.4).

4.3.2 Shield Wire ~ G d i e n t s

The shield wire gradients have been calculated for different shield wire
diameters and for configurations listed in Table 4.3.2. The results are shown in Figure
4.3.8.

TABLE 4.3.2

Height At Tower
Equiv. Diam.
Working Phase Shield Shield Phase
Voltage Conductors Wires Angle Conductors
(kV)

15 0.83 (6 x 54.6 mm, 1 m)

14 0.448 (4 x 38.2 mm, .64 m)
11 0.44 (4 x 35 mm, .64 m)
12 & 16 0.468 (4 x 46 mm, .64 ~ i r )
12 & 18 0.894 ( 8 x 51 mm, I m)

It must be noted that the shield wire gradient was calculated using the
wire height at the tower. This is somewhat conservative since at midspan the shield wire.
gradient will be lower. A check was made for 1150 kV at midspan where the ground wire
gradient was found to bt: abuut 7% lower.

4.3.3 Criteria for the Selection of Shield Wires

The electrical performance of the line should not be adversely affected by

the presence of the shield wires. The following conservative criteria are adopted.
 1) Visual corona in dry condition should be avoided.

2) Modest visual corona in light rain can be tolerated.

3) Audible noise produced should be less than 44 dB(A). This level will
not affect line performance. If the line produces 50 dB(A) and the ground wires produce
44 dB(A), the combined result will be 51 dB(A).

4) The radio noise current in the ground wires from corona should not 0
increase the field produced by the phase wires. In the calculation of shield wire
contribution to radio noise, it must be considered that. the shield wires are grounded at
every tower and the corona current does not propagate along the line. This results in
about 16 dB attenuation relative to the phase wires.

5) Yearly average corona loss of ground wires should not exceed 10% of
the line corona loss.

The questions of visual corona, audible noise, radio noise, and corona loss
were considered in earlier work at Project UHV (see Appendix A2) which concluded that
radio and audible noise of shield wires were of no concern. Therefore, only the corona
loss is calculated for the ac configurations in question using reference [ 141.

4.3.4 Shield Wire Corona Loss ih Light Rain

Shield wires for 765 kV and 1100 kV have about the same gradient.
Therefore, the calculation of the loss is done for both voltages in the following table. The
wires are assumed to be moderately aged and wetted by a light rain.

Shield
Wire Peak Cradient p~ Loss*
Diameter Ec (Ref. [14] ) . Coefficient K Gradient E (Ref. [ 141 ) (K PN)
-- (cm) (kV/m_)_-." (Ref. [14] ) (kV/m) -
Ec (wlm) (W/m)

* Must be multiplied by 2, to obtain the loss of both wires.

 The values of Ec and k are plotted in Figure 4.3.9 and the corona loss of
both shield wires is shown in Figure 4.3.10. Assuming that the foul weather producing
these losses occurs for 20% of the time, the yearly average lass can be obtained by
multiplying the value of Figure 4.3.10 by 0.2.

By. comparison, the yearly average. corona loss produced by the phase
conductors is (from reference [ l 11 - Table 7.4.1, Climate 1, Figures 7.5.3 and 7.5.4)
0.025 x 320 = 8 kW/km for 1100 kV system, and 0.025 x 300 = 7,5 kW/km for 765 kV
system.

Using the criterion that the shield wire loss should be less than 10% of the
&e loss, the shield wire diameter should be (Figure 4.3.10 - correspo~~dirlg tu'e loss of
0.775 + 0.2 = 3.9 kW/km) larger than 1.25 cm. This diameter will also satisfy the noise
requirements. Visual 'corona will be present only during rain and its observation will
require dark nights and field glasses.

4.3.5 Shield Wires for DC Lines

No reliable laboratory information for design purposes is available, thus

values based on, operatiiig pfacrice musl: be used. Tlle 1 500 kV 1i11chi Zaire has a ground
wire with a gradient around '25 kV/cm. Kecent tests on this wire at .Pittsfield HV Lab
, have shown a good radio noise and corona loss performance.

I
The gradient of the shield wires of the 800 kV and 1200 kV ac lines is
. .
about 19 kVrms/cm which corresponds to 26.8 kVpeak/cm. This value was used to.
calculate the shield wire sizes for the dc lines.

Using a gradient of 26.8 kV/cm and Figure 4.3.8, the shield wire sizes are:
I

600 kV d 2 0.6 cm
800 kV d 2 0.6 cm for 12' shield angle, and = 0.5 for 16'
* 1200 kV d > 1.27 cm for 12' shield angle, and = 1.U8 for 18"

The recommended minimum shield wire diameter i s 1.27 cm for 800 kV

ac. 1200 kV ac: and 1200 kV dc. For k 600 kV dc and k 800 kV dc, the wire diameter
'

need only be larger than 0.6 cm and probably should'be determiried on the basis of
mechanical requirements.
Fi.4.3.8 Shield Wire Gradient
 4.3.6 Shield Wire Selection and Spacing

The overhead shield wire 7#5 Alumoweld or equivalent was selected.

Minimum spacing for the shield wire is determined assuming the shield wire is loaded
with ice and ice has dropped from the phase conductors. These values are shown in Table
1, line 15. Investigation at the higher voltages assured. that the minimum distance
between shield wire and phase conductors was adequate.

4.4 LIGHTNING BACK FLASHOVER OUTAGES

In setting .up design criteria for innovative line concepts, lightning performance
cannot be ignored. This is particularly true for voltages up to 500 k ~ of, even 765 kV in
terrain with poor earth conductivity. However, the specific choice of base lightning
performance criteria in generalized line design work creates uncertainties of its own,
because lightning performance is greatly influences by geography, the isokeraunic level,
the earth conductivity, type of terrain and varying reliability requirements. A tripout rate
of 1.0 per 100 miles per year may be perfectly acceptable for one line while for another
even O..l is marginal. In this guide, it was concluded that it was not realistic to hold to a
rigid standard of lightning tripouts because of the strong dependence on local conditions.
Conversely, switching *surges and sixly-hertz pesful-~~~a~ct: call be morc rigorously
delineated since they are primarily electrical and are not so influenced by geography.

Therefore, the strategy adopted in this guide was to flrst selecl crileria f o ~ ,

switching surge and power frequency performance. If the designer then examines one of
the concepts and finds it insufficient from the viewpoint of lightning performance, it is
the designer's option to select the lightning remedial measures to be employed either by
'reducing the footing resistance, increasing the lengths 01insulators and air gaps, or adding
counterpoise or extra shield wires.

Transmission line outages due to back flashovers across insulator strings caused by
lightning flashes to the towers or to the shield wires near the towers, can be estimated
using Figures 12.6.2 (A through F) of reference 1111 . Each figure has curves for various
lengths of insulator strings, is drawn for an isokeraunic level of 100 thunderstorm days
pcr year, and assumes a certain line voltage, tower design and span length. The tower
design used for each set of curves is shown in Figures 12.6.1 (A through F) of
reference [ 11I .

Base case line design parameters are selected from Table. 1 and are applied to the
above mentioned curves for horizontal configurations and conventional structures.. Table
4.4.1 shows air strike distances and conductor heights for 345 kV, 500 kV and 765 kV
base case design parameters. (1 100 kV is not considered because footing resistances of
100 ohms or more are necessary to-lead to back flashover on UHV lines) [ I l l .
 TABLE 4.4.1

(1) (2) (3)

Phase Tower
Equivalent Conductor Tripout Rate Footing Air Strike
Ajr Strike No. Of Height per 100 mi. Resistance Distance
(kv
- (4 Insulators 6) per year (a) (4
345 1.6 12 20 1.4 15 1.85
500 2.4 18 23 1.3 17 2.70
765 3.7 28 28 0.35 32 3.20

NOTES: (1) Tower footing resistance is 20 ohms.

(2) Tripout rate is 1.0 outage/100 mileslyear.
(3) Tower footing resistance is 20 ohms and tripout rate is 1.0 outage/l00 mileslyear.

The equivalent number of standard 5-314 in. insulator units shown in Table 4.4.1
' are selected on the basis that the insulator string has' a critical flashover of about 90% of
the critical flashover of the air strike distance of a phase conductor to the nearest tower
ground plane. Therefore, the number of equivalent insulator units shown in Table 4.4.1
has been selected on the basis that the insulator string length is 10% longer than the air
strike distances shown.

Using a typical tower footing resistance of 20 ohms and the equivalent number of
insulator' units, tripout rates are obtained from Figure 12.6.2BYE and F for 345 kV,
500 kV and 765 kV, respectively. These tripout rates must now be corrected for different
tower heights, isokerau,nic levels, and span lengths.

a Since conductor heights of the base case parameters are about the same as
those used to make the curves of Figure 12.6.2, reference [ I l l , no
correction for tower height is necessary.

i It is estimated that 60% of the lightning flashes to the line hit a tower or hit
the shield wires in the near vicinity of a tower. Lightning flashes hitting the
shield wires at or near midspan do not cause back flashovers. Corrections for
span lengths are made using equation 12.6.2 for reference [ 11I , assuming
span lengths of 400 meters.

a A typical value of 30 thunder days is selected and the tripout rates obtained
above .were multiplied by 301100.
 The resulting tripout rates are shown in Table. 4.4.1 for a tower footing resistance
of 20 ohms, an isokerauAc level of 30, and span lengths of 400 meters. For comparison,
Table 4.4.1 also lists the required footing resistance to obtain tripout rates of 1.0 outage
per 100 miles/year and the air strike distance to obtain 1.0 outage per 100 mileslyear
with 20 ohm footing resistance.

In line with the strategy proposed at the beginning of this section, a review of
Table 4..1.1, which certainly is not universal and represe.nts only one spe.c.ific
,

configuration, points out that given a certain tripout rate, the footing resistance must be
reduced .as the insulation strength of the line is reduced (because insulators and gaps grow
smaller) but that even for 12 standard insulator units at 345 kV, tripout rates less than
1.0 per 100 miles per yew ire realizable. It also shows that if the footing resistance is
maintained at 20 ohm and the isokeraunic level is 30, the air strike distance determined
for switching surges must be increased approxhately 15% for 345 kV and SO0 kV
systems and decrease approximately 15% for 765 k V systems to produce a tripout rate of
1;O outage per ,100 miles per year.
 CHAPTER 5

MECHANICAL DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CRITERIA

5.1 '. STRUCTURE DESIGN

5.1.1 Introduction

The first step in selection of Mechanical Parameters is .to assume realistic

wind and ice loading which might be expected during the. life of a line. Since
approximately 70% of the United States is subject to ice and wind storms, a heavy
loading area was selected.

The loading criteria chosen for the structure designs are based on the
"Ultimate Loading Concept." That is, the transmission line conductor support system is
designed in terms of a condition Q kithstand at failure threshold without safety factors,
instead of the traditional n o r m i or design load plus various safety factors.

The ultimate loading approach is a new concept where the anticipated

need for overloads is included in the selection of loads and an additional safety factor is
not required.

Due to the dispersion in rupture strength of the many materials used for
transmission line components, it is necessary to determine the strength factors for each of
these materials. For example, when a steel transmission line structure is subjected t o an
ultimate load, the stressed members should be limited to a stress level which is just below
the level fplastic behavior, better known as the yield point of the material. In cases
where the materials specified are reinforced concrete, wood, laminated wood, epoxiglass
or other material, the ultimate strength information must be established and margins
selected for each material in order to determine if the structure can withstand the
selected ultimate loading.

When designing a transmission line system by the "Ultimate Loading

Concept," the first step is to assemble and select the necessary meteorological data
peculiar to the area of the transmission line. This data should include information relative
to ice accumulations, wind velocities, and combinations of wind and ice. The evaluation
of the data requires the statistical determination of the recurrence interval of the various
magnitudes of wind velocities or ice accumulations or combinations of icc and wind. This
selected weather information, or forecast of loads imposed by nature, forms *thebasis for
selection of the primary transmission structure loads. In addition to the loads imposed by
nature, other primary loads must be considered, such as those resulting from construction
and maintenance operations. These loads induced by man must be studied and a safety
,factor applied before comparison with other loads.

In addition to the primary loads, provision. should be made for various

secondary loads. These secondary loads are those which act on the transmission li'ne ,

system aftcr a structure collapse. The structure colla~st:lllay have rea11te.d from primary
loads being exceeded due to weather, accidents, acts of sabotage or vandalism.

5.1.2 Meteorological Data

In determining the structure loads, the following typical meteorological

research data is obtained for a specific area where a line is to be constructed. The data is
furnished for both 25 and 50 year return periods.

Maximum Ice Loads

25-year return period values, 30 mm (1.2 in.) of radial ice with a

dsnsity ur 0.6 Lu 0.8 g1111~111~.
SO-yeu return period valucs; 38 mm (1.5 in.) radial ice with a
density of 0.6 to 0.9 gms/crn3.

Maximum Winds

25-year return period values, 137-145 km/h (85-90 mi/h) with

gusts up to 177 km/h (1 10 mi/h).
50-~e& return period values, 145-153 km/h (90-95 rni/h) with
gusls up Lo 185 k111/11(1 15 III~/~I).

Maximum Ice and Wind Combinations

.
-. .... ..-..-,.., , ,. - - .. ... ... ..

25-year return period values, 20 mm (0.8 in.) radial ice with a

density of 0.6 to 0.8 gms/cm3, with accompanying winds
of 64 to 72 km/h (40 to 45 mi/h).
50-year return period values, 25 mm (1 inch) radial ice with a
density of 0.6 to 0.9 gms/cm3, with accompanying winds
of 72 to 84 km/h (45 to 52 mi/h) and gusts to 105 km/h
(65 mi/h).
 - -._
Extreme Temperatures /

The lowest temperature will occur in the. valleys, where the

extremes will be about - 4 8 ' ~ to -51c (-55OF t o
-60O~). On the exposed ridges the temperatures will be in
the -35Oc to - 4 0 ' ~ (-30F to -40F) range and winds
on the order of 80 km/h (50 mi/h).
The extreme high summer temperatures to be expected vary from
a maximum of 4 2 ' ~ to 4 4 ' ~ ( 1 0 8 ' ~ to 111'~).

, . In addition t o meteorological research data, the following factors m u d be

considered in determining the structure loadings.

5.1.3 Gust Factor

A gust factor is a ratio of instantaneous high velocity winds to steady

winds. Wind gusts occur over a narrow width of perhaps 50 meters. Gust factors are
generally defined by the following formula:

where

= Gust factor
Fg
G = Maximum gust speed (instantaneous)

V = Maximum sustained wind

(One minute)

Gust factors decrease with increasing wind speeds and height above .

ground. The wind gusts cover a large enough area to envelop structures; thereforc, thc
wind pressure on a tower surface should be determined using a gust velocity and not the
~r~aximum sustained wind.

In setting the design parameters, it is assumed that a 5-second gust is the

minimum time it will take for a gust t o envelop a transmission tower. In utilizing the
predicted weather data the maximum sustained wind for a 50-~&ar return period is 153
km/h (93 milh) with gusts up to 185 km/h (115 milh). Using the above formula and
weather data produces a gust factor of 1.21.
 A maximum sustahed wind of 161 km/h (100 milh) is selected for the
heavy wind loading on conductors' and shield wires. A 1.2 gust factor applied to the .
sustained wind velocity is used for the wind on the structure.
1

Height Factor

The "one-seventh-power law" [ 161 is applied to design wind velocities t o

compensate for the conductor and tower heights encountered in high voltage transmission
lines.

This adjustment is determined by the application of the following

formula:

where
\

Z = Height of applied wind velocity

For towers: Z = 1/2 (tower height)
For conductors: Z = height at 213 (conductor sag) .

ViO = Wind velocity at 30 feet from thc ground - which

approximates Lhe I~eiglltof anemomctcrs in use by
the USWB in the first order stations at' airports.

V, = Wind velocity corrected for height Bnd is that velocity

used to detcrmine. wind loading on conductors and
towerc.

However, the height factor for determining wind velocities is assumed to

be unity for simplicity reasons in this guide. Adjustments must be made when actual
, JCuigls art considere!d. .
, .

5.1.4 Span Factor

This is a reduction factor which accounts for the non-uniform wind force
integrated over the total wind span in order to obtain the effective loading on the
structure. ' . .

It is generally accepted that in most instances a heavy sustained wind will

not cover more than a fractional portion of the total wind span. Span factors become
smaller with increase in span length, terrain roughness, and wind speed. Span factors may
vary from 0.6 to 1.0 (reference [ 171). Presently, that fractional portion of the total wind
span is based largely on a few test installations and not on actual recorded data taken
from existing lines. More experimental work on effective wind on conductors is
needed to convince utility engineers that the use of span factors is justified. In setting the
structural parameters for this guide a span factor of unity 1.0 is assumed.

5.1.5 Wind Direction

Designs are usually governed by normal winds or winds blowing at 90' to

the line. However, care must be exercised in making any judgment until longitudinal and
,
oblique winds are evaluated. For longitudinal winds no load is placed en the wires and
only the structure wind loads are considered. For winds that arc oblique to the line the. '

following formulas are utilized:

Normal wind load on wires (psf) = 0.0025 (V Sin 8 ) 2 '

Transverse.wind load on tower (psf) = 1.125* (Fgo Sin.8)

Longitudinal wind load on tower (psf) = 1.125* (Fgo Cos 8 )

where
V = Wind velocity (mph)

Fgo = .0043 (V x Gust actor)^, maximum wind pressure on the

longitudinal face of the structure (psf) with flat surfaces
8 ' = Angle between wire and wind direction
* - Factor used t o represent equivalent of solidity ratio of
0.20, for oblique winds

5.1.6 Drag Coefficients, Face Factors

,
1.

In calculating the ~ i n d ' ~ r e s s u r6n

e a wire (cylindrical surface) and the
wind pressure on the structural members having various shapes, the drag coefficients and
face factors must be determined. The. drag coefficient of an object is a function of
physical size, shape, surface roughness, orientation with the air stream, .openings, etc. The
face factor is the wind on the windward face area plus the effective wind on the lee face
of opcn faccd structures. IIowever, the iiialtsr can be evaluated in a genetal way. The
face factors as well as drag coefficients for the wires and for the structure members is
considered .but the solidity factor is ignored. For the base case design, conventional
 latticed structure, a face factor of 1.5 is selected with a 1.6 drag factor for angle
members. The drag coefficients for the wires are assumed to be 1.0.

5.1.7 Weight Span vs. Wind Span

The terrain has a considerable influence in the selection of weight spans

and wkd spans for a transmission line tower. The maximum weight span used in the
design of. a tower should normally be longer than the selected wind span. For. rolling
terrain the weight span needs to be approximately 20% to 30% longer'than the selected
wind span. For rugged terrain the weight span should be increased to perhaps 40% to
50% greater than wind spans.

To determine structure loads a wind span of 400 m (1,312 ft.) is selected

along \irith a weight span of 500 m (1,640 ft.) which is a 25% increase over wind span.

5.1.8 Tower Types

Major transmission line projects are designed using several types of

structures. The minimum practical number is three, using one tangent suspension type,
one small angle suspension type and a heavy angle strain type which is also used as'a
ternlinal structure. Most long lines can bc madc more economical if three or four
suspension types are used along with two or three strain types. One of these should be a
terminal structure which may be used for large line angles.

The discussion offered here. on mechanical parameters is directed mostly

to the suspension type structures which constitute 80% to 90%'of the structures in a .
, typical line.

5.1.9 Structure Flexibility

In the development of structure loading, impact loads and structure

flexibility are factors whlch should be considcrcd in any conceptiinl design. Normally, the
static longitudinal 1oad.ing selected is sufficiently conservative to provide for impact loads.
Design for flexibility of structures should be considered when the type of structure and
materials used offers some benefit. This flexible design approach is based on the analysis
of several structures and wires considered as a group.
 5.1.10 Insulators and Hardware

Insulators and hardware are vital components of the conductor support

system. It is through these components that the majority of the loads are delivered to the
structure. The insulator and hardware assembly should have sufficient strength to
withstand the selected ultimate loading as well or even better than the structure.

In setting the mechanical parameters for insulator and hardware systems,

the ultimate load in the insulators should not exceed 80% of the M&E insulator strength ,

rating, which is the approximate yield point of the metal pin and the strength is then
compatible with other hardware in the assembly.

5.1.1 1 Foundations

The foundations should have sufficient strength to allow the structure to

achieve its ultimate capacity within some acceptable displacement.

Since ultimate structure loads are used to determine foundation loads, the
ultimate soil values should be used for the design. A safety factor of 1.0 is sometimes
used when adequate soil data is available; however, this is not always the case. Borings
and complete soil information is.not usually provided at every structure location.

In setting the design parameters for foundations a 1.1 safety factor on all
ultimate leg reactions is chosen to allow for variations in soil data..

5.2 SAGS, TENSIONS AND SPAN LENGTHS

Although electrical parameters dictate the conductor diameters, the mechanical

characteristics of conductors must be determined for the given diameters in each voltage
level to obtain o p t h u m sag and tension.

As can be seen in Chapter 3, a range of subconductor sizes, as well as the size of

the phase bundle, is related to the phase spacing initially selected. Selections are made of
various conductors on the low side of the range for economic reasons. The bundle
diameter is chosen in the middle of the range. An economic evaluation is made of sags
and tensions for an assumed ruling span of 400 meters. In most cases, the ultimate load
resulting from 3.8 cm of radial ice, with a 70% of ultimate breaking strength selected as a
limit, determines the final conductor selection. In some of the air expanded'conductor
designs the economic selection is based on controlling the 50C final sag to between 14
and 18 meters.
 Since ground clearances at the UHV level are controlled by electric field strength
criteria which requires much greater clearances and very tall structures, the conductor
sags must be carefully evaluated.

The mechanical conductor loads are selected and used to develop sag and tension
data. The maximum conductor load is based on 7m of its fated breaking strength under
.3.8 cm (1.5 in.) ice at OOC (32'~). Also 33% under - 1 8 ' ~ (0'~) bare unloaded initial,
and 25% a t -1 8 ' ~( 0 ' ~ ) bare unloaded final conditions. The creep check temperature is
assumed to be 1 6 ' ~ (60'~). Figures. 5.2.1 through 5.2.4 show sag-tension variation for
'
the 3 control tension limits with spans of 250 through 550 meters for the ac voltage
systems. 'The ruling span selected for all line voltages is 400 meters.

For these conductors, the 70% of breaking strength limits the tensions for 400
meter spans and longer. Tensions for spans less than 400 meters are, in general,
controlled by the 33% limitation. In summary, it can be said that the conductors are
utilized to their optimum mechanical strength point starting with spans of 400 meters
and above. Similarly, Figures 5.2.1 through 5.2.4 show sag vs. span values plotted for a
250 to 550 meter range at 50C conductor temperature and 3.8 cm (1.5 in.) ice
conditions. All.conductors using the selected ruling span of 400 meters have 12 t o 15 m
final sag vnlus.

For the dc conductors, Figures 5.2.5 through 5.2.7 show sag-tension variationsifor
the 3 control tension limits where sags for the selected ruling span of 400 meters have an
approximate 14.0 meter (45 ft.) final sag value at 5 0 ' ~ ( 1 2 ~ ~ ~ ) .

Often it is found that excessive tower heights will be necessary to provide for the
increased sag under ice loading. Less than normal clearance is considered acceptable for
rare ice s t o k s , and tower heights are based on conductor temperature of SOC, final sag.

Increasing conductor tensions will result in flatter sags and shorter suspension
structure but greater loads on angle and dead-end structures. This will cause decreased
suspension tower weights but increased angle tower weights. Therefore, the optimum
balance must be maintained between conductor sags and tensions.
 I 1 I
<
I 1 1
500 k V 3.3 m (1.293 in.) FWCH CONDUCTOR
345 kV 275 cm (1.081 in.) IlEDWDIC CONDUCTOR

SPAN W METERS SPAN W MElERS

FIG. 5.2.1 FIG. 5.2.2

I 1
I l a ) kV 5.46 m (LI5 in.) AE CONDUCTOR '
765 kV 3.82 cm (1.504 in.) UPWlNC CONDUCTDR

SPAN W METERS SPAN IN METERS

FIG. 5.2.4
nc. 5.2.1
 I I t 800 kV 4.57 m (1.8 in.)AE CONDUCTOR
I I

210 300 350 400 410 1~ 550

SPAN M M m R S SPAN IN M m S

PIC. 1.2.5 PIC. S.2.6

SPAN lN MhlRS
 CHAPTER 6

MECHANICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS

6.1 STRUCTURAL LOADING

The .selection of structure loadings are made on the basis of ultimate load
concept. The following loading conditions are assumed for each tangent stmcture concept
design.

6.1.1 h a r y Loads

Heavy Ice Loading (Case I)

Assume 38 mm (1% inches) of radial ice on all phase conductors and

shield wires, with no wind, at OOC (32OF).

Heavy Transverse Wind Loading (Case 11)

Assume 161 kmlh (100 milh) wind, 122 kg/m2 (25 psf) on the projkcted
area of all phase conductors and shield wires, with no ice, at 16OC (60F). 'The wind on
structure shall include a 1.2 gust factor, but the shape factor will depend on the structure
concept.

Heavy Longitudinal Wind Loading (Case 111)

The structure and the support components shall withstand a longitudinal

wind load of 16.1 kmlh (100 milh) with no ice at 1 6 ' ~ (60F). The wind on stmcture
shall include a 1.2 gust factor, but the shape factor will depend on the stmcture concept.
The conductor support system should also be checked for oblique winds as well as
longitudinal winds.

Heavy Ice and Wind Combination (Case IV)

Assume 25 mm (1 inch) radial ice with a 44 kg/m2 (9 psf) wind on the

projected area of all phase conductors and shield wires including ice at OOC (32OF). The
appropriate wind on structure shall include a 1.2 gust factor. The shape factor will
depend on stmcture concept.
 Torsional Longitudinal Loading (Cases V and VI)

The structure should withstand impact loading due to ice dropping, at any
one conductor or shield wire support. This load will consist of 25 mm (1 inch) radial ice
with a 20 kg/m2 (4 psf) wind, at OC (32OF), on the projected area of all phase
conductors and shield wires including ice, except at the longitudinal load point. The
unbalanced longitudinal load is due t o ice dropping in one span before 'the next, with an
equivalent of 25 mm (1 inch) radial ice in one span and 13 mm (.5 inch) radial ice in the
other. Vertical and transverse loads are reduced at this support point due to the ice
dropping. The appropriate wind on structure should include a 1.2 gust factor. The shape
factor will depend on structure .concept.

Construction and Maintenance Loads (Case VII)

. .
Construction or maintenance loads, at O'C (32O~),32 km/h (20 milh)
wind, no ice, must be a design consideration and the ultimate load should include a 1.5
safety factor. Construction loads will result from the stringing of shield wires and
conductors, and must be considered. Normal stringing operations can impose longitudinal,
transverse and heavy vertical loads on the conductor support system. Lowering a phase to
the ground for maintenance or conductor repair will impose heavy vertical loads at
adjacent towers. Depending on methods used, lowering' a phase or replacement of
damaged insulators can impose critical loads at some local attachment points. The strain
angle and terminal towers should withstand the full longitudinal stringing load tension per
phase on any one' or all shield wires. Conductor support points in combination with rhe
required vertical and transverse loads should be multiplied by a 1.5 safety factor to
obtain the ultimate loads.

6.1.2 Secondary Loads ' .

Balanced Longitudinal Loading (Case VIII)

diffcrencc in philosophy among utility CnginCcm with

There is co~~siderable
regard to the longitudinal loading for transmission line structures. For many years,
suspension towers were designed for one broken phase or one broken shield wire, along
with appropriate wind and ice loads. In more recent years, particularly with EHV lines
using large conductors, the trend has been to reduce these longitudinal loads, and many
designers have eliminated the broken phase as a design criteria. Too drastic a reduction in
longitudinal strength of structures can be catastrophic as evidenced by a number of very
serious cascade type failures on important transmission lines. Furthermore, there are
many causes of longitudinal loads which must be considered other than broken phases.
 One of the requirements specified for design conditions is that the
mechanical loads be developed in such a manner that cascading failures are avoided.
Recent research projects have developed procedures for calculating both the dynamic and
I
static loads caused by broken wires, collapse of structures, or unbalanced ice conditions
(reference [ 181 ). The loading procedure used here 'covers the primary loading which
when exceeded.can precipitate an initial structure failure. Except for wire stringing and
unloading ice, most longitudinal loads are considered secondary loads resulting from the
failure of an adjacent structure.

In determining the longitudinal loadings it is assumed that an adjacent

structure has fallen, due to earth slide, vandalism, or for whatever reason; and the
balanced longitudinal loading on the adjacent structures is selected to contain the damage
and avoid a cascade type of failure. It is assumed that the structures adjacent to the %

collapsed tower may collapse or suffer some damage but that the next tower on either
side will withstand the resulting load. It is further assumed that the adjacent structures t o '
the collapsed tower will absorb energy as they buckle or collapse and thus reduce the
longitudinal loading on the next tower. The balanced longitudinal loading on the
structure is treated as a static load rather than an impact or dynamic load and this
loading condition takes place with an assumed wind of 44 kg/m2 (9 psf) at 1 6 ' ~ (60'~).

The ultimate primary and secondary loads as described above apply to

suspension, strain angle and terminal structures. The vertical load at any one shield wire
or conductor .support shall include the weight of insulators and hardware. Also, the,.
vertical loads resulting from construction or maintenance operations shall include the
weight of, insulators, hardware, linemen, and any equipment that is used to construct or
maintain the conductor support system. When considering longitudinal loads on
suspension structures, a reduction may be allowed due to 'insulator swing; however, some
impact must be included. On strain angle and termini1 structure no reduction' in
longitudinal loads is considered. The terminal structures shoul'd be designed to withstand
the unbalanced longitudinal load at all shield wire or conductor supports, due to the,
difference between full line tension and substation slack span tension, for all primary
load cases. These ultimate. loads are the types of loads that are considered practical for a
heavy loading district and will, in most cases, exceed the NESC load .requirements.

The loads on suspension type towers for each voltage and each load case
are shown in ~ ~ ~ e n d iA3. x . ' This information is intended for use as a guide in
development of conceptual designs. They may change slightly when selected concepts are
being designed for fabrication and testing.
6.2 MECHANICAL SELECTION OF CONDUCTOR SIZES

. From the range of subconductor and bundle sizes developed in Section 4.1,
conductors that can be economically manufactured, still satisfying the electrical
requirements, were analyzed for mechanical integrity. In this analysis, an ultimate vertical
load is assumed due to 38 mm radial ice on each subconductor, and an ultimate wind
pressure of 122 kg/m2. The conductor cost in $/meter/phase and sag-tension
characteristics are compared, and the following conductor sizes were selected.

No. of
Conductors Buildle
Voltage in Bundle Diameter (m) Cnnductnr Type

Air Expanded
ACSR LAPWING
ACSR FINCH
ACSR REDWING
Air Expanded
Air Expanded
ACSR PHEASANT

6.3 VIBRATION PROTECTION

Damper requirements for both ac and dc lines are listed in Table 6.2.1. It can be
seen that, using a 400 meter span range and with the 70%, 33% and 25% tension control
limitations on conductors, only one damper per span .is needed for aeolian vibration
protection,

TABLE 6.2.1
AEOLIAN VIBRATION PROTECTION
.
UI 70%, 33% i ~ l d
(Bdb:t!d 25% Tewiurr L.h~ds)

Conductor Maximum Protectable Span Length

Dkmeter One Damper/Span Two Damper/Span

1 100 kV 6 Bundle AE 54.6 m m 549 m 1067 m

765 kV 4 Bundle LAPWING 38.2 mrn 468 m 936 m
500 kV 3 Bundle FINCH 32.8 m m 436 m 872 m
\
345 kV 2 Bundle REDWING 27.5 mm 468 m 936 m
f 1200 kV 8 Bundle AE 50.8 m m 487 m 1006 m
f 800 kV 4 Bundle AE 45.7 mm 457 m 914 m
f 600 kV 4 Bundle PHEASANT 35.1 mm 468 m 936 m
6.4 NEW CONDUCTOR DESIGNS

The diameter of a conductor to be used- for UHV is determined from corona

generated noise constraints. With conventional conductors including air-expanded
conductors, the other conductor parameters such as weight, metal area, strength and the
like are fixed by the diameter. This usually results in a conductor with too much metal
area for the amount of current and, therefore, in a conductor which is too heavy and too
expensive.

Several special conductors have been developed to overcome this problem. They
have not, for the most part, been usable conductors. The most promising was the
air-expanded conductor but it still contained too much metal. The others either lacked
strength, could not be reeled, had poor thermal characteristics, had low internal damping
/

of aeolian vibration or some combination of these.

A conductor design which, at least on paper, overcomes most of the problems has
recently been developed. The conductor consists of a steel core whose diameter is
selected for proper sag characteristics, with a narrow metallized plastic expansion spider
placed at about one foot intervals along the core and a single layer of shaped aluminum
strands stranded over the spiders. The shaped strands are to prevent collapse of the
conductor between supports.

The heat radiated by a conductor is a function of conductor diameter, conductor

temperature, ambient temperature, wind velocity and conductor surface absorptivity.
These parameters also determine the amount of heat absorbed from the sun. The
diameter is fured by corona induced noise restrictions, the conductor temperature is fixed
by clearance requirements, and the ambient temperature and wind velocity are fixed by
the geographical location which also determines the conductor emissivity. Therefore, the
constraints used in designing a transmission line also determine the amount of heat which
is lost or gained by the conductors. The load current and emergency loading are also a
design parameter. As the heat lost by the conductor is proportional to the I 2R loss of
the conductor, it is relatively easy to determine the required conductor resistance. This,
in turn, gives the conductor area and the thickness of the outside layer of shaped strands.

The following examples help clarify the procedure. The conductor diameter and
number of conductors in the bundle was fixed by the corona induced noise limits. The
design clearance for these lines is based on a maximum conductor temperature of 50C
and several conductors were designed with the aluminum area selected to give a
conductor temperature of 50C with a 3 0 ' ~ anlbient .6 mlsec. wind velocity, no sun,
and a conductor surface emissivity of .5, with the line loaded to twice its surge
impedance load. Three of these conductors - namely, 6.35 cm diameter, 4.57 cm
diameter, and 2.79 cm diameter - are described and the principal differences between
themand conventional conductors are shown in the follow&g table.

Aluminum Area (cm2) Weight (kg/m) Strength (kg)

Conductor
Diameter (cm) New Old New Old New Old
- - . - - - -

It is assumed that these new conductors will have characteristics similar to

standard ACSR and stress-strain and creep curves are constructed using techniques
described in reference [ 191 . These curves are used to calculate sag-tension characteristics
of conductors. The newly designed conductors have a much flatter sag-temperature
characteristic than standard conductors due to their higher ratio of steel area to
aluminum area.

This new conductor concept seems to have many advantages over conventional
conductors. The next step is to determine whether the conductor can actually be
manufactured and handled. The actual stress-strain and creep characteristics of the
conductor could be measuyd as well as the temperature characteristics and the ac
resistance and reactance.

'd'he conductors should be strung' to determine their h a n d h g charactenstics. 'i'he

aeolian vibration characteristics both undamped and damped with standard jumpers could
be recorded. Standard compression accessories in conjunction with aluminum filler sleeves
could provide adequate mechanical and electrical strength for splicing and dead-ending.
Special long suspension clamps can be developed for these conductors.

This is an interesting new concept which produces a conductor in which the

diameter, aluminum area and strength can be varied independently.
. :

The conductors selected for the dc are listed below.

Voltage. Bundle Diameter No. Conductors Conductor

-+ 600 k V 63.5 cm 4 PHEASANT

2 800 k V 63.5 cm 4 4.57 cm AE
+ 800 k V 76.2 cm 6 FINCH
+ 1200 k V 101.1 cm ' 8 5.08 cm AE
-78-
 The maximum ambient temperature for these lines is 4 4 O ~ As
. the summer peak
load usually occurs during the hottest days, t+e maximum conductor temperature is
limited to 50c, with .6 mlsec. wind velocity, no sun, and a conductor surface emissivity
of .5.

If an examination of the weather records for the area traversed by the line show
that during the time of the maximum ambient temperature, there was a bright sun and
wind velocities of less than .6 m/sec., the maximum conductor temperature will be
greater than 50c and possibly as high as 60'~. Under these climatic conditions,
clearance should be based on the actual conductor temperature under load.

Using the assumption of no sun, the current which produces the 6OC temperature
rise is computed for the various conductors. The power loss associated with this current
is also calculated. The maximum power transferred when the line is thermally loaded is
calculated by multiplying the load current by twice the pole voltage. These values along :
with the conductor resistance in ohms/lOOO m at 2 0 ' ~ are shown in the following table.

Maximum Bundle Maximum Power

. Conductor
Resistance
Bundle Current Power Loss Transferred ohms/1000 m
Voltage Conductor Amps Watts/m Megawatts at 2 0 ' ~

* 600 k V PHEASANT 1990 98 2380 .04441

f 800 k V 4.57 cm AE 2390 115 3820 .03615
f 800 k V FINCH
f 1200 k V 5.08 cm AE

The same values are calculated assuming a bright sun and a 60c conductor
temperature. For the *
1200 kV case, the bundle current is 5880 amps compared to
5750 amps with no sun and a conductor temperature of 50C.

If it is assumed that the loading for a dc: line sllould be the same as the one SIL
loading for an ac voltage equal to the dc voltage, then all of the conductors have too
much aluminum. New air-expanded conductors can be designed for these lines to meet
the above loading criterion.
 After a tentative selection of the phase bundle configuration, which includes the
number and diameter of subconductors for each voltage, then a more detailed study is
required to satisfy the requirements of the assumed wind and ice loads. Thc fnst
selection of the conductor bundles is based on electrical considerations. This selection is
then refined by a study of strength considerations and sag and tension, data.
Subconductors are chosen within the electrical limits, for all voltaces, but which have
sufficient strength to limit sags t o approximately 14 to 18 meters for n 4nfl meter span.

\
Span clearances for conductor to earth or objects under the line are determined as
part of thc eltctfical palxrneters. The Ccintrnlllng 'sag, normally hot conductor
temperature with no wind, is added to the minimum clearance to obtain stmcture
heights. Although sags are greater for 3.8 cm of ice as compared to 50C (120~),we
select structure heights based on required clearances and 50c (120F) sags. To provide
minimum clearances for a very remote possibility of a 3.8 cm radial ice condition which,
if it does occur, is only of short duration, is very costly and not practical. At road or
railroad crossings 'or any area of high density traffic or population, the minimum
clearance for 3.8 cm ice should be provided. In all line design work, a range of stmcture
heights is needed for optimum costs. However, an average structure height for each
voltage using a 400 meter span is selected. Shown on Table 1, line 17 are thc heights of
conductors used for designs for all voltages listed in Table 6.5.1. The height is from enrth
to the center of the bundle.

TABLE 6.5.1

400 Mcter Lowest Bundle Height

Voltage 50c Final Sag MidSpan Clearance to Earth at Structure
 APPENDIX A1

INSULATOR STRING LENGTHS FOR

LIGHT CONTAMINATION

A1 .1 PHASE-TO-GROUND

Contamination of insulator surfaces may substantially reduce their power

frequency strength when the insulators become wet in fog, dew, and drizzle. The
guidelines. given here for insulator string lengths are based on very low levels of
contamination severity, corresponding to an equivalent surface salt deposit of
.02/mg/cm2. Localities having more severe contamination levels will require 'special
attention.

Th.e length of insulator strings required for 345 and 500 kV systems was
determined using Figure 10.7.3 of reference [ I l l . For 765 and 1100 kV the 'length of
the strings were determined by linear extrapolation of the lower voltage data. It should
be noted that reference [ 1 1] indicates a nonlinearity effect with increasing voltage. Other
investigations have found a more linear dependence, 5, 6, 7. Since one of the objectives is
to optimize insulation distances it was decided t o use a linear relationship.

The required insulator string lengths for very light contamination on 'vertical and
vee-string are shown in Table Al.l for ac system. Also shown for comparison are the
ranges of lengths presently used by utilities as listed in Chapter 2 of reference [ I l l .

The string lengths for dc are also listed in Table Al. 1. ~ h e s ewere calculated using
the experience of the Pacific Intertie (+ 400 kV), reference [15] and reference [91. The
BPA section of the intertie i s located in an essentially clean area, and thus the insulator
lengths used there are not applicable for light contamination. However, on the Los
Angeles Department of Water and Power's section of the line, contamination ranges from
heavy in the vicinity of the Sylmar Terminal t o a presumed light level over most of the
line. For the insulator stiings on that portion of the line, far removed from the terminal,
the design specifies 1097.3 cm of leakage, or 2.74 cm leakage distance per kV. .

Fog type insulators are used, and performance is satisfactory. Consequently, these
*
same parameters are utilized for the + 800 and 1200 kV systems.
. .
*
For the 600 kV line, using a single string of standard insulators with a ratio of
.leakage distance to spacing of 2.1, a total string length of (2.74 cm/kV x 600 kV)
2.1 = 783 cm will be required using the above leakage criteria. For fog-type 'insulat6rs
such as EPRI Type IX of reference [ 9 ] , the string need only be 536 cm in length. The
actual acceptable length of standard units is probably between these values. Reference
[IS] claims a 2w reduction in string length can be affected by using anti-fog compared
with standard units. This implies that a standard insulator stiing should have a length of
536 cm x 1.25 = 670 cm.

TABLE A1 -1

. .
Insulator String Lengths for Very Light Contamination Conditions.
Standards (146 x 254 mm) Insulators.

Present Day Practice

Length (m) Length (m)
Maximum System Number of
Voltage (kV) Strings Vertical Vee Vertical Vee
-

* Some laboratory tests indicate that the length of double strings shall be increased 10% to
account for reduced strength of double strings. For the triple string 12%increase is used.

The other entries in 'l'able Al. 1 for dc are obtained by using fmdings reported in
reference [9]. For example, a linear extrapolation was made for required lengths from f
600 kV t o the higher voltage, since reference [9] claims dc contaminated insulator
strength is a linear function of insulation length. Recommendations for'vee-string lengths
are the same as for vertical.
 Finally, it should be emphasized again that fog-type insulators may substantially
reduce insulator lengths for dc transmission lines. Table A1.2 shows a comparison of
string lengths for standard and anti-fog units at each voltage level in contaminated
conditions. The third column shows the insulator string lengths which may be used if the
lines are located in clean areas. These latter data are obtained by linearly extrapolating
the BPA k 400 kV intertie string lengths (913 cm leakage) to the other voltage levels,
assuming the EPRI Type IX fog insulator (14.9 cm spacing, 45.7 cm leakage).

TABLE A1.2

Comparison of String Insulator Lengths Using Anti-Fog and

Standaid Insulators.

DC Insulator String Lengths in Meters

Light Contamination Clean Areas
System (kV) Standard Units Anti-Fog Insulators Anti-Fog Insulators

'7

A1.2 PHASE-TO-PHASE

Certain tower design concepts for ac systems may involve the use of insulators
between phases, as discussed in Section 3.3.3. For power frequency design, no
. experimental data are available for contaminated interphase insulators. The best estimates
of interphase insulator lengths for power frequency contamination design can bc obtained
by assuming the strengths for phase-ground power frequency contamination design of
Table Al. 1 also apply on the same kV/m hasis to ~hase~phase design. Using this criterion
and a 10% safety factor, the interphase insulator lengths are as shown in Table A1.3.

Since bipolar dc systems can generally be operated monopolar when one pole is
inoperative, it is probably inadvisable to use pole-to-pole insulators because failure of the
insulators could cause the entire system to shut down. Consequently, pole-to-pole lengths
" .are not given for dc systems.
 TABLE A1.3

Interphase Insulator String Lengths for Very Light Contamination.

Standard (146 x 254 mm) Insulators.

Maximum System Vertical Strings Vee Strings

Voltage (kV) Length (m) Length (m)
 CORONA PERFORMANCE OF SINGLE CONDUCTOR GROUND WIRES
FOR UHV TRANSMISSION LINES ' - .

PROPRIETARY INFORMATION 1'

The* information contained herein was obtained by ,the General Electric

Company under contracts with Electric Research Council organizations.
The terms of these contracts. require that all such information be released
only through the UHV Project Steering Committee. Prior to May 1977,
this report became available for circulation without restriction.

Introduction

At the May .21, Steering Committee Meeting, the question was raised whether
ground wires for UHV transmission lines should be bundled, since single wires could have
an unsatisfactory corona performance. This memorandum examines single conductor
ground wires for 1000-1 100 kV transmission from the point of view of visual corona,
audible and radio noise, and corona loss.

Line Geometry and Ground Wire Gradients

The two following 1000-1 100 kV configurations were examined.

a. Flat Configuration

Line conductor avcrage l~eiglll 64 feet (19.5 m)

Ground wire average height 98 feet (29.9 m)
Phase separation 55 feet (16.8 m)
Ground wire separation 80 feet (24.4 m)'

b. Delta configuration

Average height of outer phases 64 feet (19.5 m)

Average height of center phase 98 feet (29.9 m)
Average height of g r ~ u ~ wires
id 126 feet (38.4 m)
Horizontal phase separation 36 feet (1 1.0 m)
Ground wire separation 40 feet (12.2 m)
 Phase conductor' is a bundle of eight conductors 1.3 'in. (3.3 cm) in diameter. The
gradients were computed for single conductor ground wire with diameters ranging from
114 to 1 inch (.64 to 2.54 cm). The two configurations gave approximately the same
ground wire gradients, whihh is shown in Figure A2.1.

Visual Corona

Figure A2.1 re,ports, also Peek's corona gradients. for fine spray and' dry
conditions. It is shown that the ground wire will always be in visible corona d u .rain.
~ ~
In dry conditions,. the ground wire with more than 318 in. (.95 cm) in diameter will not
be in visible corona.

Audible Noise

The contribution of the ground wire to the total noise generation of the line was
computed for rain conditions. &I all cases, it will be cdmpletely negligible.

Radio Noise .

.??IC radio noise currents injected in the ground wires were compared with those
injected in the phase conductors. The increase in the line noise is shown in Figure A2.2.
This is a very conservative approach, since the ground wire currents will not travel along
the lhlc without a strong attenuation.

Corona Loss

The corona losses were compared according to the gradients 'of the gound.wires
and compared with those of the line. A sizeable increase results for all diameters with a 1
dB increase (10%) for the 314 in. (1.9 c h ) ground.wire.

For .transmission lines of 1'100' kV, tolerable visual corona, audible noise, and
ladio noise will bc produced by gyo1111d wires gcn.ter than 112 in. (1.27 cm). However, a
substantial increase in corona loss will occur. More investigation, both theoretical and
experimental, of this effect has to be made in order to confirm these findings.
Crnund IYire h e t o - an
FIG. M . 2 ,
 APPENDIX A3

ASSUMED LOADING FOR TYPICAL STRUCI'URE DESIGNS

345 kV "BASE CASE" STRUCIWRE LOADS

(In Metric Tons)
\ WADS ARE ULTIMATE

LOADING LOADING POINTS WIND ON

CASE TYPE OF LOAD S1 S2 C1 C2 C3 TOWER

VERTICAL 3.2 3.2 9.0 9.0 9.0 0

TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 16 1 kmlhr.

I1 TRANSVERSE 0.7 . 0.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 , 16 1 kmlhr.

I11 TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUI?INAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE.
LONGITUDINAL

VIII VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGI'I'UDINAL
 500 kV "BASE CASE9' STRUCTURE LOADS

(In Metric TO&)

LOADS ARE ULTIMATE

UlADING LOADING POINTS WIND ON

CASE .TYPE OF LOAD s1 S2 C1 C2 C3 TOWER
- -. - - - - -

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL. '

TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONCITLJDIN AL

VERTICAT ,
TRANSVERSE,
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
1,ONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
VII TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 3.6 3.6 3.6

VIII TRANSVERSE 0.3 0.3 1.7 1.7 1.7
LONGITUDINAL 1.8 1.8 5.5 5.5 5.5
 765 kV "BASE CASE'! STRUCTURE LOADS

(In Metric Tons) .

LOADS ARE ULTIMATE

LOADING LOADING POJNTS WIND ON

CASE TYPE OF LOAD TOWER

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE.
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
VII TRANSVERSE
LONGlTUDlNAL

VERTICAL
VIII TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL
 I

1100 kV "BASE CASE" STRUCTURE UIAJX

(In Metric Tons)

WADS ARE ULTIMATE

LOADING. U)ADING POlIW3 WIND ON

CASE TYPE OF UlAU S1 52 C2 TOWER
- .- - - C1
- - C3
-

VERTICAL 3.2 3.3 46.0 4h.l) 46.0 0

I TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 15.6 15.6 15.6 161 kmlhr.

I1 TRANSVERSE 0.7 0.7 16.0 , 16.0 16.0
IONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 15.6 15.6 15.6. 161 kmlhr.

I11 TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL 0.04 0.04 1.0 1.0 1.0

,'
VERTICAL 1.8 1.8 33.0 33.0 33.0 96 kmlhr.
IV TRANSVERSE 1.14 1.14 11.0 11.0 11.0
LONGIT-UDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
VII TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
VIII TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL
 + 600 kV "BASE CASE" STRUCTURE LOADS
(In Metric Tons)

LOADS ARE ULTIMATE

LOADING LOADING POINTS WIND ON

CASE TYPE OF LOAD TOWER

VERTICAL
I TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANS,VERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE .
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL
 + 800 kV. "BASE CASE" STRUCTURE LOAM
(In Metric Tons)

LOADS ARE U L m T E
I

IDADING LOADING POINTS

-
WIND ON
CASE TYPE OF LOAD S1
- -$2 -C1 c2
- TOWER
--
VERTICAL 3 $2 32 25.8 25.8 0
I TRANSVERSE
LONGTUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 7.43 7.43 . 161 kmlhr.

11 TRANSVERSE 0.7 0.7 9.0 9.0
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4 7.43 7.43 161 kmlhr.

I11 TRANSVERSE 0.04 0.04 0.G 0.6
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 1.8 1.8 17.8 17.8 96 krnlh';:

IV TRANSVERSE. 1.14 1.14 6.8 6.8
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 1.34 1.8 17.8 17.8 64 kmlhr.

V TRANSVERSE 0.4 0.5 3.0 3.O
LONGITUDINAL 2.1

VERTICAL 1.8 1.8 14.7 17.8 64 kmlhr .

-VI TRANSVERSE 0.5 0.5 2-6 3.0
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0 0 19.0 19.0 0

VII TRANSVERSE
LDNGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 0.4 0.4. I 7.43 7.43 96 kmlhr .

VIII TRANSVERSE 0.3 0.3 3-2 3.2
LONGITUDINAL
 k 1200 kV "BASE .CASE" STRUCI'URE LOADS

(In Metric Tons)

LOADS ARE ULTIMATE

LOADING LOADING POINTS

WIND ON '

CASE TYPE OF LOAD S1

- -S2 c1:
- C2
- TOWER

VERTICAL 3.2 3.2 58.0 , 58.0'

I TRANSVERSE
. .
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
'I TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
I11 TRANSVERSE ./
* LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
IV TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL
V TRANSVERSE
LONGITUDINAL

VERTICAL 1.8 1.8 34.9 , 41.4 64 kmlhr.

VI TRANSVERSE 0.5 0.5 5.6 6.35
LONGITUDINAL 28.0 .',

VERTICAL 0 0 46.0 46.0 . 0

VII TRANSVERSE '

i,
LONGITUDINAL

, VERTICAL 0.4 0.4. 19.2 19.2 96 km/hr.

VIII TRANSVERSE 0.3 0.3 7.14 7.14
LONGITUDINAL 1.8 1.8 13.3' ' 13.3'
[I] Cases 26529 and 26559 - common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of
765 kV Transmission Lines, before the New York' State Public Service
Commission.

[21 Perry, D. E., Sabath, J., "Conductor Selection for DC Transmission Lines," a
paper presented for the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Symposium on DC Transmission, September
8-1 8, 1975, Leningrad, Russia.

[31 ' CSA Standard C108.3.1- 1975, "Tolerable Limits and Methods of Measurement of
Electromagnetic interference from Alternating Current High Voltage Pcwer
Systems, 0.01 5 MHz-30 MHz."

[4] Sforzini, Mr., Cortina, R., "Proposal for RI Limits of Electric Power Lines." -
Report L6/8 1-12 presented to Task Force on Technical Basis for Selection of
Interference Limits 'from Electric Power Lines and Stations, IEEE Radio Noise
and Corona Subcommittee, January 1976.
\
[51 IEEE Committee Report, "Transmission System Radio Influence," IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-84, No. 8, August 1965,
pp. 714-724.

[6] .ANSI C63.11, "Standzird Procedures for the Measurement of Radio Noise .from
Overhead Power Lines," American National Standards Institute.

[71 IEEE F77 591-1, "Measurement of Electric and Magnetic Fields from Alternating
Current Power Lines," presented at PES Summer Meeting, 1977, Mexico City.

[8] Bracken, T. D., et al, "Ground Level Electric Fields and Ion Currents on the
Celilo-Sylmar + 4 0 0 . k ~Intertie During Fair Weather," F77 617-4, presented at
PES summer Meeting, Mexico City.

[91 EPRI Transmission Line Reference Book HVDC to f 600 kV, 1977.

[I01 EHV Transmission Line Reference Book - Edison Electric Institute, 1968.

[Ill Electric Power Research Institute, Transmission Line Reference Book - 345 kV
and Above, Fred Weidner and Sons Printers, Inc., 1975.
[12] IEEE Committee Report, "Guide for Application of Insulators to Withstand
Switching Surges," IEEE Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-94,
January-Febniary, 1975, pp. 58-67.

[13] Melvold, D. J.,, Annestrand, S. A., Denbrock, F. A., and Shah, K. R., "Basic
Principles of Switching Surge, Fault Surges, anii Lightning Protection of HVDC
Lines," U.S.-U.S.S.R. Symposium on DC Transmission, September 8-18, 1975,
Leningrad, U. S.S.R.

[14] Claulc., Gary, "Redetermination of Corona Losses Under Rain -

Influence of
Reb intensity and Utilbzaliu~iof a Universal Chart," IFEE Trans. Vol. PAS-89,
pp. 1179-1185, JulyIAugust, 1970.

[ 151 Annestrand, S. A., Hill, H. L., and Capon, A. S., "Direct Current: Transmission
Line Air Clearance Requirements and Selection of Line and Station Insulators,"
US.-U. S.S.R. Symposium on DC Transmission, September 8-18, 1975, Leningrad,
U.S.S.R.

[ 161 ASCE Paper No. 3269, "Wind Forces on Structures," Transactions Vol. 126, Part
11, 196 I, p. 1124.

[ 171 Farr, F. W., Ferguson, C. M., McMurtrie, N. J., Steifler, J. R., Whito, H. B., and
Zobel, E. S., "A Guide to Transmission Structure Design Loadings," IERE Paper
64 62 presented a.t PES Winter Meeting, February 1977, New York.

[18] Electric Power Research Institute Report EL-643, "Longitudinal Unbalanced

Loads on Transmission Line Structures," August 1978.

[ 191 lEEE Paper C-72- 130-2, "Creep Equations of Conductors for Sag-Tension
Calc~ilations."

[20] Review of StatelFederal Environmental Regulations Pertaining to the Electrical

Lffccr3 of Overl~aad Transmission Lines: . 1978, Jan. 1979, Dept. of Energy
HCPIEV- 1802.

U.S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980-31 1-119:53

I