ANDREA CASALS

Environmental (In)justice and

Mestizo Writing

Despierta Cautn, espera Valdivia,/del despojo regresa-

mos . . . .

(Wake up Cautn, await Valdivia,/we return from

dispossession)

Mistral, Reparto de Tierra

In May 2015, Pope Francis made public the encyclical letter, Laudato
S, openly criticizing our self-fulfilling complacent system as a cause
for the global environmental crisis. Our contemporary society, he ar-
gues, is obsessed with increasing consumerism so that our economies
expand, forgetting that the production of goods is a means and not an
end. Though sometimes overlooked, this statement is not new. The
novelty in the Popes argumentbesides the fact that it is the Pope say-
ing this!is his insight that care for our common home cannot be re-
duced to the materiality of ecology, because it should be handled as an
integral environmental, economic, social, and cultural ecology based
on the principles of common good. Redundant as it may seem, this
Latin American Pope understands the environmental crisis from a ho-
listic ecological perspective, which is well aware of how poor commu-
nities endure the heaviest load of environmental impact. His proposal
is attuned with the contributions made by Latin American thinkers,

ISLE: Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment 23.1 (Winter 2016), pp. 162174
Advance Access publication April 7, 2016 doi:10.1093/isle/isw019
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 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 163

such as Leonardo Boff, Ezequiel Ezcurra, and Eduardo Galeano, whose

perspectives are informed by ecological and postcolonial thought.
In 1992, Brazilian theologian Leonardo Boff spoke in front of the
United Nations on International Earth Day, proposing that we change
the way in which we relate to Mother Earth, that we change our con-
sumerist society, in order to live according to an ethics of care and re-
sponsibility, an ethics of compassion for all who suffer, including
nature. Boffs proposal resonates in the recent green letter by Pope
Francis.
In Las venas abiertas de America Latina (1971), Uruguayan writer
Eduardo Galeano ironically asserts that the production of poverty in
Latin America is counterpart with environmental destruction. The
bleeding open veins of Latin America are an injury which was pro-
duced when that major globalization process began: a history of devas-
tation, exploitation, and displacement. Along these lines, Ezequiel
Ezcurra suggests that poverty and environmental degradation are
both expressions of a system that has appropriated nature, fostering a
profound social crisis. Ezcurra also points out that the introduction of
industrial farming is threatening indigenous ways of living and farm-
ing, contributing to the loss of biodiversity and cultural heritage (2011).
In an effort to establish guidelines for environmental law, Chilean
scholar Dominique Herve argues that environmental injustice is
manifestamong various criteriain neglecting certain communities
and failing to view ecosystems as a whole (10). Herve points at an evi-
dent connection between poverty and ethnicityindigenous minori-
ties being the poorest of the poorand how these vulnerable groups
must withstand the heaviest environmental burden due to forced dis-
placement and dispossession, depletion, degradation, and pollution.
Among Spanish-speaking academics, much of the ecocritical theory
which we have read is shaped by the contributions developed by
British and North American scholars. What is more, when presenting
the concept of environmental justice in Ecocrticas (2010), Carmen Flys
suggests that there is little evidence of research along these lines be-
yond the English-speaking academia. Yet, following Paredes and
McLean, in the next chapter of the same book, Ecocrtica e hispanismo,
professor Jose Manuel Marrero describes ecological writing in Latin
America as an activist writing that denounces ecological (in)justice, for-
wards indigenous cultures, appropriates folk tradition, includes reli-
able and objective data, and proposes a rewriting of the official history.
In view of that, I would like to emphasize the connection between envi-
ronmental injustice, poverty and mestizo awareness as a unique charac-
teristic of what I will call mestizo ecopoetics. I will try to identify
these essential elements of mestizo ecopoetics in a small sample of
164 I S L E

Chilean composers who clearly and repeatedly forwarded an ethno-

eco-justice component in their poetry: Gabriela Mistral (18891957),
Violeta Parra (191767), and Adriana Paredes Pinda (from now on
Pinda1) (b. 1970).
If we think of anthologies as a form of cultural conservation, some
mestizo heritage is protected in The Oxford Book of Latin American Poetry
(2009). According to Adriana Valdes, its editors privilege poems in
which they recognize a certain ritual or shamanic dimension. . . . Their
purpose is to distinguish Latin American poetic expression taking into
account its complex ethnic and cultural strata (n/n).2 In the introduc-
tion of the anthology, following Chilean critic Jorge Guzman, Cecilia
Vicu~ na supports the idea that all Latin Americans are cultural mesti-
zos3(xix). Vicu~ na then specifies that mestizo poetics have a performa-
tive quality precisely because of the oral indigenous strata on which
they have been composed. Vicu~ na presents mestizo poetics as the dis-
course that emerges from the encounter between the colonized and the
colonizer (xxvxxvi). Keeping this harsh confrontation in mind is rele-
vant when analyzing contemporary written Mapuche poetry, but also
in Mistrals and Parras work, because an original oral strata and
trauma underlie their compositions.
From an ecocritical standpoint, I will add that awareness of the mes-
tizo strata on which local poets compose, together with the painful con-
sciousness of environmental (in)justice, are distinctive characteristics of
Latin American ecopoetry. However, though Mistrals, Parras, and
Pindas compositions can be identified with broader descriptions of eco-
literature or ecopoetry and even ecofeminist writing, I will only focus on
how these three mestizo poets boldly claim environmental justice. I will
read some poems by Mistral, Parra, and Pinda, foregrounding their mes-
tizo awareness or expression and their commitment to environmental
justice, which emphasizes the connection with poverty.
In the first half of the twentieth century, Mistral writes the drafts for
Poema de Chile (1967). Throughout this long poem, Mistral, or at least
the poetic persona, speaks: a mamas4 ghostly figure that travels across
the country with a northern native boy and a huemul (a Chilean deer),
explicitly stating that she has come back to save him (Yo baje a sal-
var/a mi ni~ no atacame~ no) (243). However, it is not clear who she
has come to save. I understand that she has composed this extensive
poetic catalogue to save our national imagination, which has tended
to systematically neglect the richness of our native flora and fauna, di-
verse territories, and indigenous heritage.
If Mistrals journey in Poema de Chile is a figurative one, by mid-
century, Parra literally travels through the country in a conservation
crusade, collecting folk songs and country traditions threatened by the
 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 165

countrys modernization process and migration to the city. Parra will

rescue them from oblivious silence. Her recollections later blend into
her own creative production, upcycling folk tunes as they merge into
her own compositions. If Mistral foregrounds our native heritage,
Parra focuses on countryside workers who are dispossessed. Her com-
position foretells later developments in the humanities: she desacral-
izes the passive role of women, embodies popular culture, and offers a
voice to country minorities (Vicu~ na xxiv). Though she does not explic-
itly mention indigenous peoples of Chile, she elaborates on what re-
mains; she composes with surviving layers of mestizo heritage,
particularly in the way she records the speech of campesinos (peasants),
which according to Vicu~ na, is tinted by the tonal quality of Indo-
American speech (xii).
In the late twentieth century, with the explosion of cultural studies
and the recovery of democracy in Chile (1990), we timidly began to re-
call the proper name of our indigenous peoples. Simultaneously, some
sensitivity about the ecological crisis and climate change emerged. This
convergence roughly rendered distinction and recognition to ethnic
minorities, women, popular culture, and environmental concerns. It
was synchronic with the visibility gained by poetry written by
Mapuche authors, but it was only in 2003 that a collection of twenty
contemporary Mapuche poets was published.5
In a shamanic journey in the poetry collection Ui (2005), Pinda seeks
6
her ancestors approval to become a machi as she struggles to write
down their oral language. Though the written expression is seen as a
violation of the oral tradition, Pindas poetry is an act of conservation
aimed at revitalizing her peoples language. It is an effort to resist the
threat of erasure that began with the arrival of Europeans in America.
Pindas restoration, as well as Parras, is not a mere act of transference
and reproduction, but an attempt to actually recover the language,
which a previous generation intentionally disposed of in order to pro-
tect their children from bullying at school. In the twentieth century,
speaking Mapudungun (or Mapuzugun) appeared threatening and
virtually useless in the domains of huincas (white Chileans) (Mora in
Falablella, Ramay, and Huinao, eds). Pindas renewal relies on merging
her ancestors language with modern communication meansthat is,
writing. Yet, Pinda is torn between the calling of her Mapuche blood
and her surrendering to huinca language. In her poetry, Pinda acknowl-
edges her betrayal; though she is somehow atoned by the resistance
her act of cultural translation implies (Rojas).
In Decimas . . ., Parras vernacular language is consistently linked to her
direct understanding of the land and her learning from informal experi-
ences in the countryside, as she recites: para la escuela inconstante,/constante
166 I S L E

para ir al cerro (unsteady to school,/constantly to the hills) (99). The collo-

quial quality of her Decimas . . . makes them performative. The speakeror
rather singeraddresses the readers as if we were her audience in an un-
plugged session: Para cantar de improviso/se requiere buen talento/ . . . /se~
nores
oyentes,/se necesita estrumento/muchsimos elementos/y compa~ nero locuente
(Much skill is required for improvised singing . . . gentlemen listening: in-
struments, many elements and an eloquent partner) (23). We are trans-
ported into the space of a live performance; we become a vivid audience.
Along her Decimas . . ., Violeta will depart from her autobiographic account
to make political commentaries: over and over again, she will address her
audience, apologizing for such digressions. However, these digressions
are precisely what evidently attune her composition with claims for envi-
ronmental justice for the campesinos.
In Poema de Chile, Mistrals ethno-ecological commitment is straight-
forward. Mistral composes a conservation catalogue of Chilean native
plants, animals, places, and peoples. The poems describe native birds
and vegetation such as tencas and tordos, copihues, and boldos,7 Mount
Aconcagua and the Andes, and so on. It seems as if she has come to
protect the native heritage which she recognizes embedded in our mes-
tizo culture, hoping to blend this atlas into our collective memory.
Mistral is particularly aware that the native peoples have been discrim-
inated against in our national imagination. In Aromas the native boy
asks a painful question: he wants to know why is it that he has not seen
angels, straining the Judeo-Christian belief in angels against his native
origin: >Sera que al indio no quiere?/ . . . /o no le gustan los indios?
(Could it be that he doesnt love Indians? . . . or he doesnt like them?)
(23).
Mistral describes la Araucana, the area with the most Mapuche
settlements, as a region that neither Chileans see nor name, la vieja
Araucana/que ni vemos/ni mentamos, which she calls reino de unos
olvidados (kingdom of the forgotten ones) (195), reproaching that
the Araucana and the Mapuche have been totally banished, even ne-
glected from the sight of the angels; that is, denied the blessing of the
merciless conquerors God:

Araucanos Araucanos

. . . ellos eran . . . they were

due~ nos de bosque y monta~na owners of forests and mountains
de lo que los ojos ven of what meets the eye
y lo que el ojo no alcanza, and beyond,
de hierbas, de frutos, de of herbs, fruits, of
Continued
 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 167

aire y luces araucanas, air and Araucano lights,

hasta el llegar de unos due~
nos
de rifles y caballadas.
...
-Hasta su nombre les falta.
Los mientan araucanos
...
Ellos fueron despojados,
pero son la Vieja Patria,
...
until the arrival of the owners
of rifles and horses.
...
-Even their name is missing.
They call them araucanos
...
They were stripped away,
but they are the Old Nation,
... 8

With postcolonial awareness, and anticipating Eduardo Galeanos

assertions, Mistrals poem Araucanos denounces how the Mapuche
were stripped of their domainsforest, mountains, herbs, fruits, and
what meets the eyeby the Spanish conquerors and even of their
name, calling them Araucanos, like the Incastheir previous
invadersdid, condemning them to chronic poverty.
Still not naming the Mapuche directly, Parra will visit the Araucana
and celebrate it. Yet, showing evidence of syncretism, her mothers god-
son is a Mapuche boy, Juan Ca~ no, who exhibits a Christian given name
and a Mapuche family name (66). For Parra, the land of the Mapuche is
la tierra del indio mo (my Indians land) (66), a haven she visits in the
summer where she rejoices in the native flora: maqui, copihues, and
ma~no.9 In this decima, Parra ironically acknowledges that the existence
of the Mapuche is deemed abundant by Chileans only at will. But if
Parra herself seems to conceal the survival of the Mapuche people by
naming them Indians or equating them with farmers and country
workers, campesinos, in her discourse, more than an erasure that reduces
persons to their productive role, Parras commitment to the working
class considers farmers, country men and women as workers just the
same, regardless of race. She will cry against their unjust working and
living conditions, composing in their own vernacular speech:

Mi abuelo por parte e maire My granpa on mas side

era inquilino mayor, was a major tenant,
capataz y cuidador foreman and keeper
poco menos que del aire. almost even of the air.
El rico con su donaire The rich man with his grace
lo tena de obligao, had him forced:
caballerizo montao, mounted on a horse
de vi~natero y rondn, vineyard caretaker and keeper,
Continued
168 I S L E

podador en el jardn garden clipper,

y hortalicero forzao.
nores mos,
Todo esto, se~
por un cuartito de tierra
y una galleta mas perra
que llevaba a sus cros.
Algunos reales, Dios mo!,
pa alimentar quince humanos,
sin mencionar los hermanos
...
fuera de noche o de da
de aqu para alla galopa.
Se le empapaba la ropa
en los inviernos terribles,
y en los veranos temibles
sudaba como as de copa.
Mi abuela a cargo e la casa,
amamantando sus cros,
llevando el agua del ro
pa preparar buena masa,
criando pollos de raza,
sacando miel en enero,
limpiando trigo en febrero
para venderlo en abril,
y en mayo, que perejil
cosecha junto al estero!
forced vegetable grower.
All this he did, my lords,
for a tiny quarter of the land
and meager cookie
he brought to his kids.
A few pennies, my Lord!
to feed fifteen humans,
not to mention his siblings,
...
day or night
he gallops here and there
his clothes get wet
in the cruel winters,
and in terrible summers
hed sweat like an Ace of Cups.
My granma in charge of the house,
breastfeeding her babies,
bringing water from the creek
to prepare good meals
growing chicken
gathering honey in January10
cleaning wheat in February
to sell it in April,
and in May, what parsley
she harvests near the brook!

In the decima above, Violeta is presenting her grandparents who were

workers in the countryside. Her grandfather was a tenant who had an
infinite work load (vineyard caretaker, garden clipper, and vegetable
growernonstop in all seasons), though he earned a scanty living for
[a] few pennies, my Lord! claims Violeta, and a meager cookie.
She even suggests that he worked as a slave, being forced by the gen-
tleman, always exposed to ruthless weather. Likewise, she is acknowl-
edging the hard work performed by her grandma, which is described
in a long enumeration of domestic and farming chores. In a slightly
more harmonious relationship to the farm than that of her grandpa,
she is acquainted with the seasons and knows when to sow the land
and when to harvest. Nonetheless, these stanzas speak about the un-
just working and living conditions inherited by campesinos here and
there.
 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 169

In the following fragment, Violeta explains that this is not a per-

sonal cry, but a social protest; she speaks for the poor and cries out for a
fair world:

En este mundo moderno, In this modern world,

que sabe el pobre de queso,
caldo de papa sin hueso,
menos sabe lo que es terno;
por casa, callampa, infierno
de lata y ladrillos viejos.
>Como le aguanta el pellejo?,
eso s que no lo se,
pero bien se que el burgues
se pit al pobre verdejo.
Yo no protesto por migo,
porque soy muy poca cosa;
reclamo porque a la fosa
van las penas del mendigo.
...
pa ver lo que aqu nos pasa
y el dolor que es el vivir.
...
what cheese does the poor know of [?],
potato stew with no bones,
least does he know of three-piece suits;
instead of a house, a hut, tin hell
of worn out bricks.
How does his skin keep up?
that I do not know,
but I do know that the bourgeois
mocks this poor ol chap.
I do not protest for myself,
because I am not much;
I complain because to the pit
all paupers pities go.
...
to see what is happening to us here,
and how painful it is to live.
...

If in the previous lines Violeta presented her grandparents working

conditions, now we see her portraying the harsh life circumstances of
the working class in general, claiming for justice: she can barely under-
stand how a poor mans skin can hold on, how they can make soup
without even bones or live in a hut like a tin can. The physical environ-
ment is as miserable as the fleshless man and the boneless soup.
In a period when the Mapuche voice was still hushed, Chilean play-
wright Isidora Aguirre wrote Los que van quedando en el camino, referring
to a massacre which occurred in 1938, when Mapuche-Pehuenche11 set-
tlers were harassed by large estate owners and the police. The play is
based on testimonies of the survivors. However, though Aguirre in-
tended to exhibit their perspective, paradoxically, she never names the
protagonists of the tragedy Mapuche or Pehuenche, simply calling
them campesinos. Similarly, in the odes to the Araucaria araucana (1955)
and Oda al trigo de los indios (1955), Pablo Neruda never names the
Mapuche-Pehuenche of the territory he describes. He calls them
indios. Nonetheless, in these poems Neruda shows awareness of the
displacement of the native communities from the valleys and how re-
ducing them to remote lands is a source of poverty, which he describes
170 I S L E

in semantic chains such as worn out, rags, and wrecked sack.

Half a century later, the Mapuche emergent voice is heard, though the
injustice depicted is just as cruel.
In Pindas poetry the demand for justice is aligned with the extreme
poverty conditions in which the Mapuche people have been forced to
live. Dramatically echoing Dantes Tower of Hunger, Pinda claims re-
peatedly that food is never enough. The word hunger is reiterated
insistently.
In the following verses, the tenca, a native bird with a beautiful
twittering that usually sits on tree tops as if on guard, eyewitnesses
the dispossessed: As te veo/ahora/que la tenca aposento su podero/en el
hambre de tus hijos (This is how I see you now that the tenca has settled
its power on your childrens hunger) (25). The poem is referring
to an ancestor, Filipa Huenuleo, whose body the speaker recalls as
dry and skeletal: la leche de tu enjuto cuerpo, Filipa (the milk from
your dry and skeletal body) (25). Filipa can barely breastfeed her kin.
Pinda is constantly making references to hunger, consequences of
malnourishment, or unreachable goods. She forwards hungry stones
followed by a blank space, emphasizing a distance between hunger
and the piercing scent of unattainable honey, that can only be perceived
from afar: pero/solo los hambrientos/pe~ nascos olorosas la miel y/calan
(but/only the hungry rocks/[you] sniff the honey/piercing) (33). Notice
that the hungry stones may also be angry stones, like stones flung
furiously. Composing over previous layers of cultural flow, inverting
Christs saying, these could also be the stones given to children who
have claimed for bread by a merciless God (Matthew 7:9). This hard-
hearted God is a metonymy of a Catholic nation that has neglected
and even despised the indigenous peoples, systematically forcing the
Mapuche out from the land that nurtures them. As illustrated in the
poem, it is a physical and a cultural famine that settles in.
Pinda openly denounces that the land to which the Mapuche com-
munities have been reduced cannot feed the urgency of the mouth
nor the urgency of the hands:

6 (III) 6 (III12)

. . . Al otro lado . . . On the other side

de las aguas of the waters
empluma la ma~ nana nuestra sangre morning feathers our
rota. broken blood
La tierra -dicen- no alcanza a colmar The land -they say- is not enough
la urgencia de la mano to fulfill the urgency of the hand [sic]
... ...
Continued
 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 171

desmigaja
el pan sombro para sus hijas
...
la tierra no alcanza a calmar la
urgencia de la boca
crumbles
gloomy bread for her daughters
...
the land is not enough to ease the
urgency of the mouth

The poem is a desperate cry, where the descendants of the Mapuche

can only eat gloomy bread, and the land cannot feed her people.
In poem 17 (III), the reader understands that there was a time
when nature offered its goods to the southern Mapuche, but at present,
to expect her to feed them again is only an illusion.

17 (III) 17 (III)

. . . esperamos el mar que nos . . . we await for the sea to overflow us

desbordara como antes like it used to
con peces with fish
... ...
y las madres and the mother
esperan wait
despiertas awake
un pu~ nado de pi~
nones for a handful of pine seeds
en la boca de un pichikelu in the kids mouth
esperan they wait
por el destino for the hollow destiny
cavernosos de sus sangres. of their blood.

Being a recollecting culture, the sea used to offer fish, but not
anymore, though the mothers still wait to collect the Araucarias seeds,
nones.13 However, because they cannot literally nor figuratively feed
pi~
their families as in the old days, their destiny as a culture is hollow.
The following poem presents two strong images related to hunger.
First, the poem recalls how the puma, or mountain liona mythologi-
cal ancestor of the Mapuchecomes down the Andes when food is
scarce or a volcano is erupting: hundreds of/toothless [and] fatigued/
came down the screaming warm mountain (74). Then the poem
shows how worthless their savings are in the new economic system
that has been imposed, so much that their savings [are] moldy with
hunger, meaning they cannot even buy food.
172 I S L E

26 (III) 26 (III)

... ...
Cientos ojerosos desdentados Hundreds of toothless fatigued because of all the
ya por tanta ansia anxiety
bajaron de la mas aullante came down the screaming
calida monta~
na warm mountain
sus platas their savings
enmohecidas por el hambre moldy with hunger
lambas [you] licked
sus molleras their heads
... ...

Notice that the pumas are toothless, therefore they cannot eat nor
hunt; dramatically, they must go down the mountain, to the city, where
the famine is even worse. Hunger and poverty related to the displace-
ment of the Mapuche communities is present throughout Pindas po-
etry. However, relocation does not only have economic consequences,
but more profoundly, being the people-of-the-land, displacing the
Mapuche causes alienation. Their culture cannot prosper without the
land, therefore the whole culture is endangered.
Pindas poems, like Mistrals and Parrass, acknowledge a hindered
presence as they perform a conservation act. The three poets compose
on previous oral strata: Mistral in conversation with the native boy,
Parra in her performative compositions and Pinda in a fragmented
written speech that has trouble flowing, indicating a silenced commu-
nity. All three have journeyed across the country, avoiding cities, using
simple language, claiming for recognition of a land and its people and
the injustice executed upon them by displacing, abusing and even re-
fusing to name them. Through their performative writing, Mistral cre-
ates an atlas of Chilean native flora, fauna, and marginalized native
peoples; Parra composes on what remains of a mestizo farming tradi-
tion, openly denouncing the unjust living and working conditions;
while Pinda cries out for an eroded culture that depends on the land
and has been forced into barren spaces. From the poetry of these com-
posers, I have come to understand ecological (in)justice as the
systematic slow violence (Adamson 176) that neglects and dis-
places a cultural group from the land that is central in their survival.
Dispossession causing cultural loss and poverty. In their compositions,
this ethno-eco justice implies making visible the human and the more-
than-human that have been banished from the official discourse.
 Environmental (In)justice and Mestizo Writing 173

N O T E S

1. Though in Chile a persons last name is determined by the fathers fam-

ily name, Pinda uses her mothers family namewhich usually comes
secondbecause it is through this line that she is trying to restore her
Mapuche identity. In Mapuzugu nthe Mapuche peoples languagepinda
means hummingbird.
2. privilegia[n] ciertos textos en los que cree reconocer una dimension rit-
ual, chamanica . . . El proposito declarado es el de marcar una diferencia en la
expresion poetica latinoamericana, tomando en cuenta un sustrato etnico y cultural
sumamente complejo; se menciona el habla criolla, y una poetica del mestizaje
(Valdes).
3. Italics are mine.
4. A mama (without the accent as in mama, mother) is a female caregiver;
a substitute mother or nanny.
5. See: Huenu  n, Jaime, ed. 20 Poetas Mapuche Contemporaneos. Santiago:
Lom, 2003. Print.
6. Among the Mapuche, a machi is usually a female healer who plays an
important role within the community.
7. Tenca, trenca or Chilean Mockingbird (Mimus thenca) is a bird native to
Chile and Argentina. Tordo or Austral black bird (Curaeus curaeus) is an
American native bird. Copihue or Chilean bellflower (Lapageria rosea), Chiles
national flower, is an endemic evergreen climbing flower. Boldo (Peumus bol-
dus) is native to central Chile.
8. My translation of the poems is very literal.
9. Maqui or Chilean wineberry (Aristotelia chilensis) is a native evergreen
tree. Its purpleblack berries are tasty and may be eaten raw, in beverages
and jams. Ma~ no (Podocarpus nubigenus) is endemic and it is the southern-
most podocarp in the world. Its beautiful semi hardwood is resistant to decay.
All three grow in the Valdivian temperate rainforest.
10. Notice that in the Southern Hemisphere, summer is between
December and March, which is the harvest time.
11. The Mapuche may be divided into subgroups depending on their loca-
tion. Mapuche-Pehuenche, or simply Pehuenche, live in the rain forests where
the Araucaria Araucana grows.
12. Pindas book Ui is divided into three parts. In all but one of them
the poems do not have a title; instead they are numbered in Arabic numbers.
For reference, in the transcriptions and translations, I will follow each title
by a parenthesis with a Roman numeral indicating the section of the book
(I, II, or III).
13. The Araucaria, Pehuen, Chilean pine or Monkey Puzzle tree (Araucaria
araucana) is native to southern Chile and Argentina. Its pi~ nones, or seeds, are
edible, similar to large pine nuts; they are harvested by the Mapuche-
Pehuenche (the people of the pehuen).
174 I S L E

W O R K S C I T E D

Adamson, Joni. Cosmovisions: Environmental Justice, Transnational

American Studies, and Indigenous Literature. The Oxford Handbook of
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