Chemical Process Principles

( : )
Text :
Richard M.Felder and Ronald W.Rousseau,
"Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, 3rd Ed.,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2005.

References :
1) D.M.Himmelblau,
"Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical Engineering"
7th Ed., Prentice-Hall, Pub. Co., Inc., 2004.
2) R. H. Perry and D. W. Green, "Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, 8th
Ed.", McGraw Hill, Pub. Co., Inc., 2007.

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Grade :
Midterm examination : 30
Final examination : 30
Reports : 20
Attitude : 20[ -2/hr, -20(10~12 hrs), Over 13 hrs= F]
-----------------------------------------------------
Total : 100

Course Content :
1) Unit and Dimension
2) Process Variables
- mass[m], volume[V], flow rate[Q], temperature[T], pressure[P]
3) Material Balance
4) Energy Balance

Course Content :

Ch2. Introduction to Engineering Calculations

Ch3. Processes and Process Variables
Ch4. Fundamentals of Material Balances
Ch5. Single-Phase Systems

Ch7. Energy and Energy Balances

Ch8. Balances on Nonreactive Processes
Ch9. Balances on Reactive Processes

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Ch2. Introduction to Engineering Calculations

2.1 UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

1) Physical Quantity : # + Unit
2) Dimensions : Measurable or calculable properties
3) Units : Specific values of each dimensions
Ex) A length dimension can be expressed by the units of m,cm, ft,...
4) Conversion of units : By using conversion factor
Ex) 1cm/10mm, 1hr/60min, 12in/ft,....

2.3 SYSTEMS OF UNITS

1) Unit Systems
- Absolute Unit System : SI, CGS, MKS
- Gravitational Unit System : FPS(AEU)
2) SI Unit System
- Base Unit :
Time ; second[s]
Length ; meter[m]
Mass : kilogram[kg]
Temperature : Kelvin[K], =0K, K = , 0=273.15 K
- Derived Unit :
2
Force : Newton[N], 1N=1kgm/s
Pressure : Pascal[Pa], 1Pa=1N/m2
Energy(=Work) : Joule[J], 1J=1Nm
Power : Watt[W], 1W=1J/s
- Prefix :
giga[G]=109, mega[M]=106, kilo[k]=103
centi[c]=10-2, milli[m]=10-3, micro[]=10-6, nano[n]=10-9
ppm(part per million)=10-6, ppb=10-9, ppt=10-12

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3) FPS Unit System(AEU : American Engineering Unit)
- Base Unit :
Time ; second[s]
Length ; feet[ft], 1ft=12in, 1in/cm=2.54
weight : pound force[lbf], weight of 1lbm, 1lbf/oz=16
Temperature : Fahrenheit[], 0=32, 100=212

2.4 FORCE AND WEIGHT

1) Force[F]
2 2
F = ma(m dv/dt = m d L/dt )
SI : 1N 1kgm/s2
FPS : 1lbf 32.174lbmft/s2
F = ma = mg = lbm32.174ft/s2 lbf

2) Weight[W]
"A force exerted on the object by gravitational acceleration[g]."

3) Gravitational conversion factor[gc]

gc = =

g gc g/gc
SI 9.8 m/s2 1 9.8 N/kg
FPS 32.2 lbmft/s2 32.2 lbmft/(lbf s2) 1 lbf/lbm

[Report #1] Text pp31-32, Problems 2.1, 2.2 and 2.8

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 Ch3. Processes and Process Variables

Process : "Operations that cause a physical/chemical change in substances"

3.1 MASS AND VOLUME

1) Density(), mass/volume [kg/m3, lbm/ft3],

2) Specific gravity(), SG [-]

3 3
SG /ref, ref = H2O @ 4, 1atm = 1000 kg/m = 62.4 lbm/ft
cf) p628 Table B1

3.2 FLOW RATE

mass flow rate [kg/h], mass flux[kg/(hm2)]
volumetric flow rate [m3/h], volumetric flux [m3/(hm2)]=[m/h]

3.3 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

1) Moles and Molecular Weight
12
Atomic weight : Basis Mass of C as 12
Molecular weight : Sum of the atomic weight of that molecule.
gram-mole(g-mole) : The amount that species whose mass in grams is
equal to its molecular weight.
EX) CO[28] 1g-mol = 28 g, 1kg-mol = 28 kg, 1lb-mol = 28 lb

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 g-mol mol Avogadro's number( 6.02*1023 molecules)
EX) What is the number of molecules in 1 lb-mol?
23
1 lb-mol = 454 g-mol = 454 * 6.02 * 10 molecules

2) Fraction and %
Fraction = % / 100

3.4 PRESSURE
Pressure = Force/Area

1) Fluid Pressure and Hydrostatic Head

If P0 = 0 P = gh P h
2) Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Pressure, and Gauge Pressure

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 Pabs = Patmos. + Pgauge (3.4-4)
Psia = 14.7 + psig

3) Fluid Pressure Measurement

Bourdon Gauge
Manometers

P1 + 1gd1 = P2 + 2gd2 + fgh (3.4-5)

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3.5 TEMPERATURE
1) Measurement
Thermometer : Volume expansion of a liquid
Resistance thermometer : Electric resistance of a conductor
Thermocouple : Voltage at the junction of dissimilar metal
Bimetal : Difference in the thermal expansion of two metals
Pyrometer : Spectra of radiation

2) Scale
Basis : Melting point(Tm) and boiling point(Tb) of water @1atm.
Absolute Temperature : -273.15( -273), -459.67( -460)
Celcius scale : Tb = 100, Tm = 0 : centigrade scale
Fahrenheit scale : Tb = 212, Tm = 32

3) Scale Conversion
Conversion for T :
T[K] = T[] + 273 (3.5-1)
T[R] = T[] + 460 (3.5-2)
T[R] = 1.8T[K] (3.5-3)
T[] = 1.8T[] + 32 (3.5-4)
Conversion for T :

,
,
,
(3.5-5)

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3.6 SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
1) SGHg = 13.6 Hg[g/cm3]? ,[lbm/ft3]?
SGHg = Hg/H2O = Hg/(1g/cm3) = 13.6
Hg = 13.6 * 1g/cm3 = 13.6g/cm3

SGHg = Hg/H2O = Hg/(62.4lbm/ft3) = 13.6

Hg = 13.6 * 62.4lbm/ft3 = 848.6lbm/ft3

13.6g/cm3 lbm (30.48 cm)3

= 848.6lbm/ft3
or : 454g ft3

2) What is the average MW of air if N2=76.7% and O2 is 23.3% by weight?

(yN2 = 0.79 and yO2 = 0.21 by moles)

[mol/g-air] =
+

=0.0347mol(N2+O2)/g-air

= 28.8 g-air/mol-air

or :
= yN2MwN2 + yO2MwO2 = 0.79*(28g-N2/mol-N2) + 0.21*(32g-O2/mol-O2)
= 28.8g-air/mol-air

[Report #2] Problems 3.2, 3.3 and 3.8

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 Ch4. Fundamentals of Material Balances

4.1 PROCESS CLASSIFICATION

Batch process, Continuous process, and Semibatch process
Steady state, Unsteady state, and Transient state

4.2 BALANCES
1) The General Balance Equation

Input + Generation = Output + Consumption + Accumulation (4.2-1)

ACC = 0 at steady state
Gen = Con = 0 for total mass

2) Balances on Continuous Steady-State Processes

Input + Generation = Output + Consumption (4.2-2)

3) Integral Balances on Batch Processes

Accumulation = Final Output - Initial Input : by definition
= Generation - Consumption : from Equation(4.2-1)

Initial Input + Generation = Final Output + Consumption (4.2-3)

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4.3 MATERIAL BALANCE CALCULATIONS
1) Flowcharts
Symbolic presentation of chemical process ;
Quantity, Condition, Sequence

Block diagram
PFD(Process Flow Diagram)
P&ID(Piping and Instrumentation Diagram

2) Block diagram
Write down the value and unit of known stream variables.
Assign symbols to unknown stream variables.
Determine the required # of equations to get unknowns.

[Example 4.3-5] Material Balances on a Distillation Column

Total material balance
Component material balance

[Solution]
wB = ((2000kg/h * 0.45) * 0.08 = 72kg-B/h -------
By Benzene Balance : In = Out
2000 * 0.45 kg-B/h = 0.95D + 72
D = 870kg/h
By total balance
2000 = D + wB + wT = 870 + 72 + wT
wT = 1060kg-T/h

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4.4 BALANCES ON MULTIPLE-UNIT PROCESSES

for steady state, no reaction In = Out

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 Greek Symbols
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
lambda
mu
nu
xi
rho
tau
sigma
pi
phi
psi
omega
iota
kapa
omikron
upsilon
khi

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4.5 RECYCLE AND BYPASS
1) General Chemical Process

Feed Storage
Recycle
Fresh Feed

Preconditioning
Bypass

Chemical Reaction

Reaction Mixture

Product Separation

Crude Product
Purge
Product Purification

Final Product

Product Storage

2) Reasons for Recycle

Unreacted reactants reuse
Recovery of catalyst
Dilution of process stream
Control of process variables
Circulation of a working fluid

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4.6 BALANCES ON REACTIVE SYSTEMS
1) Stoichiometry(), Stoichiometric coefficient(, )
SO2 +(1/2)O2 SO3
2SO2 +(1)O2 2SO3

2) Limiting and Excess Reactants, Fractional Conversion, and Extent of

Reaction
Limiting and Excess Reactants
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
i [-2] [-1] [2]
Moles@t=0 5mol 2mol 0mol
2.5 2

excess limiting
reactant reactant
t= 1mol 0mol 4mol

Fractional Conversion
f (moles reacted)/(moles fed) (4.6-2)
Fractional unreacted = 1-f

Extent of Reaction,
ni = ni0 + i* (4.6-3)

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[Example 4.6-1] Reaction Stoichiometry
Ammoxidation of propylene Acrylonitrile
C3H6 + NH3 + 1.5O2 C3H3N + 3H2O

C3H6
nNH3
nC3H6 0.1
nO2
nNH3 0.12
nC3H3N
nAir 0.78
nH2O
nN2

Limiting reactant?, % excess?, Product composition?

[Solution]
2C3H6 + 2NH3 + 3O2 2C3H3N + 6H2O
i [-2] [-2] [-3] [2] [6]
t=0 10 12 0.78*0.21*100=16.4 0 0

5 6 5.47

C3H6 : Limiting reactant

NH3 % Excess =
* 100 = 20%

O2 % Excess =
* 100 = 9.3%

As f = 0.3
nC3H6 = (nC3H6)0 * (1-f) = 10 * 0.7 = 7[mol]
From Equation(4.6-3),


=
=
= 1.5

nNH3 = n(NH3)0 + NH3 * = 12 - 2*1.5 = 9 [mol]

nO2 = n(O2)0 + O2 * = 16.4 - 3*1.5 = 11.9 [mol]
nH2O = n(H2O)0 + H2O * = 0 + 6*1.5 = 9 [mol]

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 nN2 = n(N2)0 + N2 * = 16.4*(79/21) + 0 = 61.7 [mol]
3) Chemical Equilibrium : for reversible reaction

4) Multiple Reactions, Yields, and Selectivity

Parallel Reaction :

Series Reaction : A B C

Yield =
(4.6-4)

Selectivity =
(4.6-5)

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4.7 BALANCES ON REACTIVE PROCESSES
1) Balances on Molecular and Atomic Species
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
Even if chemical reaction occurs, Atomic balance In = Out

2) Product Separation and Recycle

- Overall Conversion=
(4.7-1)

- Single-Pass Conversion=
(4.7-2)

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4.8 COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Fast oxidation at high temperature(T>1200)
Fuel + O2(air)
Not the product but the heat
Air = 21mole% O2 + 79mole% N2
Stack gas( flue gas)
Wet basis composition Dry basis composition
High calorific value Low calorific value

1) Combustion Chemistry
C CO2, CO
H H2O
S SO2 SO3....(SOX)
N NO, N2O, NO2, ....(NOX)

2) Theoretical and Excess Air

% Excess =
* 100 % (4.8-1)

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3) Material Balances on Combustion Reactors
[Example 4.8-3] Combustion of Ethane
C2H6, 50% Excess Air, f = 0.9, 25% CO-75% CO2
Flue gas composition?, H2O/(Dry fue gas)?

[Solution]
C2H6 + 3.5O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
[Basis : 100mol C2H6 ]
Theoretical O2 = 350mol

Theoretical Air =
= 1666.7 mol air

= 0.5

Feed air = 1.5 Theoretical air = 2500 mol air ---------

Feed Reactor Product

C2 100 f = 0.9 n1 mol C2H6
Air 2500 n2 mol O2
O2 = 525 n3 mol N2
N2 = 1975 n4 mol CO
n5 mol CO2
n6 mol H2O

C2H6 + 3.5O2 2CO2 + 3H2O ---------

C2H6 + 2.5O2 2CO + 3H2O ----------
: = 0.75 : 0.25
n1 = 100 * (1-0.9) = 10 -------------
90 * 0.75 : n5 = 90 * 0.75 * 2 = 135 ---
90 * 0.25 : n4 = 90 * 0.25 * 2 = 45 ----
n3 = 1975 -----------------
n2 = 525 - (90*0.75*3.5 + 90*0.25*2.5) = 232.5 --
n6 = 90*0.75*3 + 90*0.25*3 = 90*3 = 270 ---------
Wet flue gas = total = 2667.5[mol]
Dry flue gas = wet flue gas - H2O = 2667.5 - 270 =2397.5[mol]
yC2H6 =10/2397.5 =0.00417
(H2O/Dry Flue Gas) = 270/2397.5 = 0.113

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 Ch5. Single-Phase Systems

5.1 LIQUID AND SOLID DENSITIES

5.2 IDEAL GASES

1) Ideal Gas EOS( Equation of State )
PV = nRT (5.2-1)
P
v = RT (5.2-2)

2) Standard Conditions
O, 1atm 22.4/g-mol
32, 14.7psi 359ft3/lb-mol

3) Ideal Gas Mixture

n = nA + nB + nC + ...

Partial pressure pi and pure component volume vi

P = pA + pB + pC + ...
V = vA + vB + vC + ...

pA = yA P (5.2-7)
vA = yA V (5.2-9)

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5.3 EOS FOR NONIDEAL GASES
1) Critical Temperature and Pressure(TC, PC)
The highest temperature at which a species can coexist in liquid
and vapor is the TC and the corresponding pressure is the PC.

cf) P241 Phase diagrams of H2O and CO2

2) Virial EOS
P/RT
v = 1 + B/ v 2 + D/
v + C/ v 3 + E/
v 4 ... (5.3-1)
If B = C = D = ... = 0 Ideal Gas
Truncating after the 2nd term : P/RT
v = 1 + B/
v (5.3-2)
Calculate the reduced temperature(Tr)
Estimate B using equations(5.3-3) (5.3-5)

The BWR(Benedict-Webb-Rubin) EOS

8 constants ( A0, B0, C0, a, b, c, , and ) for calculate BE

3) Cubic EOS
The van der Waals EOS
P = RT/( v2
v - b) - a/ (5.3-6)
where a = 27R Tc2/64Pc, b = RTc/8Pc
2

The SRK(Soave-Redlich-Kwong) EOS

P = RT/(
v - b) - a/[(
v v + b)] (5.3-7)
3 constants (a, b, and ) from Equations (5.3-8) (5.3-12).

5.4 THE COMPRESSIBILITY FACTOR EOS

P
v = zRT z = P/RT
v (5.4-1)
If z=1 : Ideal gas
Figures 5.4-1 5.4-4
[Report #3] Ex4.5-1, Ex4.7-3, Ex5.2-2, Ex5.3-2, and Ex5.4-2

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 Ch6. Multiphase Systems
............

Ch7. Energy and Energy Balances

7.1 FORMS OF ENERGY : THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Total Energy = Ek + Ep + Ei(or U)
" Energy is transferred between the closed system and its
surroundings as heat or work."

heat, work

[Energy] = [Work] = [Heat] = [cal] = [BTU] =[Nm] J

7.2 KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY

Ek = MV2/2 (7.2-1a)
Ep = mgz (7.2-1b)

[ The Order of Magnitude ]

Basis : 1 kg of water for 1 kcal
T = 1C
z for Ep = 430m
v for Ek = 0 to 93m/s
Hv = 1.8g evaporate(540 cal/g)

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7.3 ENERGY BALANCES ON CLOSED SYSTEMS
Closed system = No mass passing through the system boundary but
energy may passing through as heat or work.

+, - sign
Acc = In - Out (7.3-1)

For closed system :

Net transferred to the system = In - Out = Final - Initial (7.3-2)

U + Ek + Ep = Q -W (7.3-4)
U = 0 If no change in T, phase, or xi
Q = 0 If adiabatic
W = Ws + Wf
Ws = 0 If no moving part(shaft)
Wf = 0 If no moving boundary

[Example 7.3-1] Energy Balance on a Closed System

[Solution]

1) Ek = 0, Ep = 0, W = 0 U = Q = 2kcal
2) Ek = 0, Ep = 0, U = 0 Q = w = 100J

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7.4 ENERGY BALANCES ON OPEN SYSTEMS AT STEADY STATE
1) Flow Work and Shaft Work
Wf = Win - Wout
= Pin*Vin - Pout*Vout (7.4-4)

2) Specific Properties and Enthalpy

Extensive Property() : m, V, Ek, Ep, U, ....
Intensive Property() : T, P, , ...

H =
U + p
V (7.4-7)

3) The Steady-State Open-System Energy Balance

In = Out (7.4-8)
Acc = 0 for Steady State
Gen = Con = 0 by 1st law

H + Ek + Ep = Q -Ws (7.4-15)

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7.5 TABLES OF THERMODYNAMIC DATA
1) Reference States and State Properties
As the absolute values of U, H, ... are not known, the reference
state is useful.

2) Steam Tables
Reference State : Triple point (0.01C, 0.00611bar) of water

[Example 7.5-3] Energy Balance on a Steam Turbine

Adiabatic : Q = 0
Ek = Ep = 0
[Solution]

In : 10bar Saturated Temperature = 180C

Tin = 180 + 190 = 370C

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H in(370C, 10bar) = 3159+[(370-350)/(400-350)] * (3264-3159)
3201[KJ/kg]
Out :
H out(1bar, saturated) = 2675.4[KJ/kg]
From Equation(7.4-15) : H = Q + Ws - Ek - Ep = Ws
From Equation(7.4-17) : H = m
H = Ws

2000kg/h (2575.4-3201)kJ/kg 1h kW
= 292kW
3600s kJ/s

7.6 ENERGY BALANCE PROCEDURES

7.7 MECHANICAL ENERGY BALANCES

H + Ek + Ep = Q - Ws (7.4-15) : [kJ] or [kJ/h]

- m
H/m + Ek/m + Ep/m -Q/m = - Ws/m
As H/m = U/m + PV/m
U/m + PV/m + Ek/m + Ep/m - Q/m = - Ws/m
If Incompressible fluid, V/m = constant = 1/ PV/m = P/
Let U/m - Q/m = F/m(friction loss),
P/ + Ek/m + Ep/m + F/m = - Ws/m
2
P/ + u /2 + gz + F/m = - Ws/m (7.7-2) : MEB

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 Ch8. Balances on Nonreactive Processes
(Methods to Calculate H/m =
H , U/m =
U)

8.1 ELEMENTS OF ENERGY BALANCE CALCULATIONS

1) Reference States - A Review

2) Hypothetical Process Paths

-5C, 1atm, H2O(s) 300C, 5atm, H2O(v)

T
P
0C, 1atm, H2O(s)
Hm 300C, 1atm, H2O(v)
0C, 1atm, H2O(l)
T
T
100C, 1atm, H2O(l) Hv 100C, 1atm, H2O(v)

3) Procedures for Energy Balance Calculations

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8.2 CHANGES IN PRESSURE AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE

U = 0 for ideal gas

0 for liquids and solids

8.3 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE

1) Sensible Heat and Heat Capacity
Q Sensible heat(T) or Latent heat()
for closed system Q = U (8.3-1)
for open system Q = H (8.3-2)

(8.3-6)

Ideal gas : exact
Solid or liquid : good approximation
Nonideal gas(Real gas) : Valid only if V is constant

(8.3-10a)

Ideal gas : exact
Nonideal gas(Real gas) : Exact only if P is constant

Solid or liquid (8.3-10b)

2) Heat Capacity Formulars

Liquids and Solids : Cp = Cv (8.3-11)
Ideal Gases : Cp = Cv + R (8.3-12)

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8.4 PHASE CHANGE OPERATIONS

Kinetic energy > Attractive force : Liquid Vapor

Net rate of evaporation = Evaporation rate - Condensation rate

1) Latent Heats
Heat of fusion(heat of melting) : Hm
Heat of vaporization : mv
Heat of sublimation : Hs

Hv Gas Hs

Hm

Liquid Solid

4) Psychrometric Charts(Humidity charts)

Dry-bulb temperature, T
Absolute humidity, ha
Relative humidity, hr
Dew point, T
Humid volume,
VH
Wet-bulb temperature, Twb

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8.5 MIXING AND SOLUTION

gas - gas
liquid - liquid
solid - solid
gas - liquid - solid

----- ----- -------

----- ----- -------

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 Ch9. Balances on Reactive Processes

9.1 HEATS OF REACTION

Hr =
H product -
H reactant
1) Reference States - A Review

9.2 MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION OF HEATS OF REACTION :

HESS'S LAW

"If the stoichiometric equation for reaction 1 can be obtained by algebraic

equations on reactions 2, 3, ..., then
H r of reaction 1 can be obtained by
the same operations on
H r of reactions 2, 3, ..."

9.3 FORMATION REACTIONS AND HEATS OF FORMATION

Formation Reaction : "Reaction in which a compound is formed from its
natural atomic constituents."

9.4 HEATS OF COMBUSTION

C CO2(g)
H H2O(g)
S SO2(g)
N N2(g)

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9.5 ENERGY BALANCES ON REACTIVE PROCESSES
[Example 9.5-1] Energy Balance About an Ammonia Oxidizer
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Standard heat of reaction = -904.6kJ/mol

Ammonia 100mol/s and oxygen 200mol/s at 25, 1atm

NH3(g) is completely reacted
The product gas emerges at 300
Q?

[Solution]

25, 1atm
O2(g) : 75mol/s
NH3(g) 100mol/s
NO(g) : 100mol/s
O2(g) 200mol/s
H2O(g) : 150mol/s

- Enthalpy Table -

NH3
O2

H2O
Total

-904.6kJ/mol

H = * 100mol NH3/s + [niHi]out -[niHi]in
4mol NH3

= -22,615 + 2,915 = - 19,700 kJ/s

- 33 -
- 34 -
 9.6 FUELS AND COMBUSTION
1) Fuels and Their Properties
Solid fuels : coal, coke, wood, solid waste
Liquid fuels : Crude oil and its distillates
gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel, heavy oil
: Fermented alcohols, liquified coal
Gaseous fuels :
LNG(Liquified Natural Gas) : C1 80%
LPG(Liquified Petroleum Gas) : C3 60 - 80%
C4, Acetylene, Hydrogen
HHV(Higher Heating Value) and LHV(Lower Heating Value)
HHV = LHV + nHvH2O@25

[Example 9.6-1] Calculation of a Heating Value

CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Standard heat of Combustion = -802kJ/mol
C2H6(g) + 3.5O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)
Standard heat of Combustion = -1,428kJ/mol

HHV(Higher Heating Value) in kJ/g?

[Solution]
1) Composition on a mass basis
1 mol of fuel = 0.85mol of CH4(g) +0.15mol of C2H6(g) = 18.1 g
1g fuel = 0.751g CH4(g) +0.249g C2H6(g)
2) HHV calculation
(HHV)CH4(g) = (LHV)CH4(g) + (nH2O)*(
H v)H2O
= (802 + 2*44.013)[kJ/mol]/(16[mol/gCH4]) = 55.6 kJ/g

(HHV)C2H6(g) = (LHV)C2H6(g) + nH2O*(

H v)
= (1,428 + 3*44.013)[kJ/mol]/(30[mol/gC2H6]) = 52.0 kJ/g
HHV = (0.751)*(55.6) + (0.249)*(52.0) = 54.7[kJ/g]

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2) Adiabatic Flame Temperature

3) Flammability and Ignition

What is a flame ?
What is an explosion ?

Lower flammability limit(lean flammability limit)

Upper flammability limit(rich flammability limit)
Ex) Methane gas : lfl - ufl > 5% Methane - 15% Methane

Combustion : A rapid, high temperature oxidation reaction.

Ignition : The rapid increase in the rate of an oxidation reaction when

the reaction mixture exceeds the ignition temperature.

Spontaneous Ignition Temperature :

Hydrogen 571, 1atm
Methane 633, 1atm
Ethane 473, 1atm

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