Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Recognition of Prior
Learning: The student/candidate may be granted
recognition of prior learning if the evidence
presented is authentic and valid which covers the
content as laid out in this package.
Kissel, Thomas, Motors, Control and Circuits for Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Systems, Reston Publication Co. Inc. 1992.
Langley B.C., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Reston Publishing Co. Inc., 1986.
AS / NZS 3666.1, 2 and 3 - Air Handling and Water Systems in Buildings Microbial
Control.
SAA HB40.1 and 2:2001, Australian Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Code of
Practice.
SAA / NZ HB32 - Control of Microbial Growth in Air Handling and Water Systems
of Buildings.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Videos:
Air Conditioning; TAFE SA Cat No 84.06 (8 mins)
Assessment:
Grade Code: 72
DISTINCTION >=83
CREDIT >=70
PASS >=50
Assessment Events:
2. Ventilation 30%
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Content Summary:
Assignment: Residential Air Conditioning. 6
Occupational Health Requirements, the Codes, the Standard,
the Act and Regulations. 7
Residential Air Conditioning Systems
Types of Residential Air Conditioning Systems 10
Typical Wiring Diagram 11
Room Air Conditioner (RAC) 12
Split Systems 13
Ducted Systems 13
Package Systems 14
Cassette Systems 14
Evaporative Systems 15
Air Distribution ARAC 15
Heat Load Calculations 19
Sizing of the System 19
Cooling Load Estimator 20
Calculating the Residential Air Conditioning System Capacity 21
Air Flow Rates 22
Supply Air Register & Duct Sizes 23
Duct Sizes 24
Ventilation
Sick Building Syndrome 34
Legionella Bacteria Office Buildings 34
Mode of Transmission 34
Prevention and Control of Legionellosis in Office Buildings 35
The Process of Air Conditioning 36
Ventilation 36
Natural Ventilation 36
Mechanical Ventilation 36
Test Equipment 38
Terms Associated with Air Distribution 42
Practical Exercise: Air Balancing 43
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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The Underlying Principles of Air Distribution 44
Noise 44
Draughts 45
Air Stratification 45
Ducting 49
Dampers 53
Fans & Fan Laws 59
Filtration 64
Air Conditioning Systems
Air Conditioning Fundamentals 70
Psychrometrics 70
Package (Unitary) Units 86
Heat Load Estimating 109
Evaporative Coolers 116
Central Plant Systems 124
Heating Systems 154
Humidification Systems 164
Thermal Storage Systems 170
Specialised Systems 176
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Residential Air Conditioning Assignment
2. Determine the required cooling capacity for the residence specifying the
indoor and outdoor conditions.
3. Select a suitable split ducted air conditioning system that will have
sufficient capacity for the application.
4. On the house plan show the position of both the fan coil unit and the
condensing unit.
5. Design the supply and return air ducting for the system and show layout
with all sizes on the plan. Include all sizing of supply diffusers and return
air grille.
6. Select suitable pipe sizes for the suction, liquid and condensate lines,
showing all calculations and layout on the plan
7. Prepare an electrical wiring diagram for the system indicating all field
wiring that is required for both power supply and controls.
8. Prepare a materials list for all equipment and materials that is required to
complete the installation.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Occupational Health Requirements, the Codes, the
Standard, the Act and Regulations.
Occupational Health Requirements, the Codes, the Standard, the Act and Regulations
are used to provide a standard set of guidelines which you must follow. The following
codes are only a sample of the many codes that outline the standards that must be
observed.
SAA / NZ HB32 Control of microbial growth in air handling and water systems
of buildings.
Provides guidance for microbial control of both air handling and water systems of
buildings. The handbook is intended to provide users with additional information to
support the specific requirements of AS / NZS 3666 Parts 1 and 2.
The EPA also issues maximum acceptable sound levels that all equipment should
comply with. This noise level must be displayed on the outdoor unit.
Local Councils
Local Council requirements currently differ from Council to Council with some
requiring that a Building Application (BA) be submitted before the installation takes
place. Some require BA only for new dwellings that have air conditioning indicated
on the drawings of for ducted system over a certain capacity. Some councils; do not
have any involvement unless a complaint is logged.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Generally, council requirements are that any noise produced from air conditioning
systems must not be greater than 5dBa at the property boundary above the level of
background noise that is produced from cars, trains, aeroplanes etc.
Summary
The number of Acts of Parliament, Regulations, Standards and local council rulings in
this area reflect the necessity for stringent and diligent work by people maintaining
buildings which the general public have access to.
You need to consult the above references and your local authority to ensure you are
complying with all requirements and are not personally liable should a problem arise.
Legionella, apart from the sensational periodic outbreaks, still kills several people in
Australia every year. The incidence of people suffering from Sick Building
Syndrome is harder to gain reliable statistics on but the problem is very real and must
be kept in mind when working on air handling units and ducting systems.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Residential Air Conditioning Systems
The majority of residential air conditioning systems with the exception of the
evaporative come in reverse cycle. The installation of most residential air
conditioning systems require a separate dedicated electrical circuit of 15 amperes
and installed by a licence electrician with all work complying with AS 3000 &
3008 Wiring Rules.
Note: any system that rates below 5kW can be plugged into a 10 ampere GPO.
In low ambient conditions (7C and below) a de ice thermostat which is fitted to
the outdoor unit cycles the indoor and outdoor fans off and switches the system
back to its cooling mode until the ice is removed.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Room Air Conditioner (RAC)
These units vary in capacities between 2 to 6 kW. To help reduce noise most window
units are fitted with rotary compressors and fan motors that operate smooth and quiet.
Motorised air swings are fitted to direct conditioned air throughout the conditioned
space. A damper is provided to enable fresh air to be introduced into the room if
required. Refrigerant is achieved by a capillary tube,
Split Systems
Split systems consist of two individual factory assembled units separated from each
other, but interconnected by the refrigerant piping. The condensing unit is pre-charged
with sufficient refrigerant to allow up to 20 metres of pipe work between the two
units. Technical advances in compressor design, has led to higher refrigeration
capacities between 2 to 10 kW.
The condensing unit is mounted externally and contains the condenser coil, condenser
fan or fans, compressor, reversing valve and associated piping and unit controls.
Refrigerant control may be achieved by a capillary tube, thermostatic expansion valve
or accurator.
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Wall Mounted Split System Cassette
The indoor fan coil unit usually consists of an air filter, evaporator coil, evaporator
fan and electrical controls for system operation. Multiple evaporator split systems are
now available which have up four fan coil units operating from a single condensing
unit.
The main advantage of split systems is the ease with which they can be installed and a
low noise level in the conditioned space due to the condensing unit being remotely
located.
Ducted Systems
This system is almost identical to the split system. The major difference is that the fan
coil unit is mounted in the ceiling or under floor space and connected to a system of
duct work to distribute the conditioned air to different areas of the building.
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Typical Residential Outdoor Condensing Unit
Package System
Package units can be installed in residential or commercial buildings and consist of a
condensing unit, evaporator cooling coil and supply air fan etc all installed together in
the one unit. Package units are fully factory wired and only require electrical supply
connection.
These units are designed installed either internally or externally, however they are
usually mounted outside to reduce the introduction of noise to the conditioned space.
The conditioned air from the package unit is distributed and returned the via supply
and return air ducts.
Cassette System
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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The cassette system is similar to the wall hung split system but instead of indoor unit
being mounted on the wall it is fitted flush into the ceiling.
Indoor Unit
Outdoor Unit
Return Air
Evaporative Systems
Evaporative cooling uses the effect of Latent Heat to cool the air as it passes
through a water- soaked porous material. These materials can be pads of cotton -
covered straw and heat is absorbed from the air and changes some water to vapour.
The evaporative cooler draws its water supply via a pump from a basin which is
supplied with mains water by way of a float level valve.
Cross section of Porous pad that is laden with water during operation
The amount of moisture already in the air will determine the amount of cooling of the
air. For example in dry inland areas temperatures can be reduce by 15C therefore the
system is less effective nearer the eastern coast because the incoming air will contain
and absorb more moisture making it less efficient.
Air should never be recirculated through an evaporative cooler because relative
humidity will increase as the air is cooled and moisture added. Fresh air should only
be brought through the cooler and be exhausted through the open windows etc of the
conditioned space to be effective.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Domestic type Evaporative Cooling System
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Air Distribution ARAC
Fans:
There are four main types of fans used in air conditioning systems and these are as
follows:
.
These are quiet and compact with a low tip speed and are used on low to
medium pressure air conditioning/ ventilation applications. They require an
oversized motor as power varies with the duct resistance. Efficiency: 50-60%.
These on large systems with high duct resistance and are suitable for variable
volume systems because of low power characteristics. However high tip speed
results in high noise level.
Efficiency: 70-75%
Propeller used for condenser fan motors and ventilation fan motors.
Applications: Wide variety uses in various installations.
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These are cheap and simple to install. They can move a lot of air as long as
there is no resistance. Installation of a cowl ring increases efficiency.
Efficiency: less than 40%.
Axial flow.
Suitable for installations with a run of ducting they are very compact with
straight through flow. They are suitable for variable-pitch operation when used
in installations with variable loads. They are suitable for low pressure
installations and are more efficient than propeller types. Relatively high tip
noise.
Efficiency: 60-65%
Ducting: ARAC
The duct work is designed to transport air as economically and quiet as possible.
Ducts can be rigid or flexible and come in a range of various shapes, sizes and
manufacturing for a range of diverse applications.
Filters: ARAC
Air conditioning systems filter the air for a number of reasons eg to reduce the amount
of dust, smoke and other fumes from entering the conditioned space and to help the
evaporator coil from becoming blocked.
Absolute filter:
These are specialised filters mainly used in laboratories and hospital operating
theatres. They are constructed of special materials to ensure filtration to 99.9%
efficiency. They cannot be serviced or cleaned and must be replaced as necessary.
Electrostatic filters:
These filters use high voltage wires in the air stream to ionise an particles passing
between them. This positively charges the particles which now pass between a bank
of collector plates which are alternatively positive and negatively charged. The
particles are repelled from the positive plates and attracted to the negative plates
where they will collect.
They are popular for commercial use as well as hospitals and other clean areas.
Viscous filters:
These are a dry filter medium which is covered with adhesive oil. This will improve
the filtration considerably regardless of quality of the filter media.
Dry filters:
These filters come in various grades, qualities and forms. They range from a washable
pad as used in residential air conditioners that will collect dust and fluff to
commercial dry filters that are thrown away when the filter has absorb its maxim
quantity of dirt.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Water sprays:
This type of filter is reasonably efficient but increases the space humidity therefore
limiting its use. However it is successful in evaporative coolers.
Registers:
The positioning of the outlets of the room being conditioned is determined by a
number of factors including:
The number of outlets preferred.
Shape and size of the room.
Location of the ducting.
Stratification of air is the term used to describe formation of separate layers of warm
and cold air due to poor circulation in a conditioned space.
Package
AC SA Register SA Diffuser
System
Noise:
Noise is usually associated with high air velocity, poorly designed supply and return
outlets and uninsulated duct work.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Vibration:
Vibration is associated by poorly installed duct work and fittings.
Where necessary flexible duct joints, spring or rubber mounted hangers to help
eliminate or reduce vibration should be used.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Heat Load Calculations
Sizing of the System:
It is necessary to carry out a heat load calculation to determine the capacity for an air
conditioning system. The following should be taken into account to determine the
total heat load process:
This form has been designed for commercial applications. For residential installations
only the Solar Heat Section (items 1 7) are used.
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Residential Air Conditioning
Cooling Load Estimator
JOB NAME:
LOCATION:
TELEPHONE: FAX:
ESTIMATOR:
SYSTEM RECOMMENDATIONS:
MAKE: MODEL:
CAPACITY: (Watts)
ELECTRICAL SUPPLY
(Consumer Mains): Single Phase: Three Phase:
SINGLE PHASE
REQUIREMENT: 10 Amp GPO: 15 Amp GPO:
Area
No. Item Cooling Factors Watts
m2
External Glass - Solar Heat 10 am 4 pm
(Use all windows at one
selected time). Shades Shades
NIL In Out NIL In Out
South 57 38 16 60 38 16
South East 170 110 41 57 38 16
1. 375 246 95 50 32 13
East
North East 549 356 139 50 32 13
North 353 230 88 113 72 28
North West 50 35 13 435 284 110
West 50 35 13 621 404 154
South West 50 35 13 508 331 126
Horiz. 492 318 123 524 341 129
2. Design db temp. diff (Kelvin) 6K 8K 10K (12K) 14K
All Windows Single glass 38.0 51.0 64.0 (77.0) 90.0
3.
Double glass 19.0 25.5 32.0 38.0 44.5
Outside Walls Cavity brick 10.5 14.0 17.5 (21.0) 24.5
Hollow brick 17.0 24.5 26.0 28.0 30.5
4.
Brick veneer 13.0 17.0 20.0 26.0 30.0
Weatherboard 20.0 27.5 31.5 38.0 40.0
5. Partitions Internal walls 10.0 12.0 17.0 (20.5) 24.5
6A. Ceiling Unconditioned above 8.5 12.0 14.5 17.0 18.5
Ceiling Pitched roof above
6B (sunlit) No insulation 50.0 53.0 56.0 59.5 62.5
roof 50mm insulation 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 15.5
Floors
Over unconditioned room 6.5 9.0 12.0 14.5 17.0
7. Over enclosed crawl space 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5
Over ventilated crawl space 8.5 12.0 15.5 19.0 22.0
Slab on ground 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Total
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Calculating the Residential Air Conditioning System Capacity
Construction:
Brick veneer
Roof insulated
Internal curtains on all windows
Lounge Room:
5m x 6.5m x 120 watts / m2 = 3900 watts 3.9 kW
Bedroom No: 2
3.7m x 3m x 120 watts / m2 = 1342 watts 1.332 kW
Bedroom No: 3
3.3m x 3m x 120 watts / m2 = 1888 watts 1.188 kW
Sitting Room
3.6m x 4 x 120 watts / m2 = 1728 watts 1.728 kW
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Using a Panasonic Brochure: the smallest available unit with a total cooling capacity
of 8.3 kW and an indoor air volume of 475 L/s.
Air Flow Rates:
Formula = Total Air Volume L/s = L/s per kW
Total Kilowatts Required
Zone 1
475 L/s = 70.89552239 L/s per kW
6.7 kW
Zone 2
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Supply Air Register & Duct Sizes
Therefore: Y= X
(Register velocity) 2.5
Zone 1
Family room
(2 Registers)
138.25 = 0.13825
1000
99.25 = 0.9925
1000
Zone 2
Master bedroom
(1 Register)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Bedroom 2
(1 Register)
Bedroom 3
(1 Register)
Sitting room
(1 Register)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Duct Sizes
Recommended Duct Velocities for Residential Applications 2.5 to 4 m/s
Zone 1
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Family room supply air duct to 300mm x 250 x 250mm branch take off (BTO).
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Kitchen (1 Register at 99.25 L/s).
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Supply Air Duct family room / kitchen (276.5 L/s + 99.25 L/s) = 375 .75 L/s.
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Dining Room (1 Register at 99.25 L/s).
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Diameter = CSA x 4
`3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Zone 2
Bedroom 3 (1 register 82.4 L/s).
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Supply air duct to bedrooms 2 & 3 BTO (92.4 L/s + 82.4 L/s) = 174.8 L/s.
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Main Air Duct to sitting room and bed room BTO
(119.9 L/s + 92.4 L/s + 82.4 L/s) = 294.7 L/s.
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Supply duct to master bedroom, sitting room bedroom 2 & bedroom3.
(180.34 L/s + 119.9 L/s + 92.4 L/s + 82.4L/s) = 475 L/s.
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
Return Air
2 return ducts
Diameter = CSA x 4
3.142 (PYE)
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Review Questions:
Q.1 What qualifications do you need to install residential air conditioning systems?
Q.2 What requirements do local councils require before you install a residential air
conditioning system?
Q.3 What are the advantages of a split system when compared with a room air
conditioner?
Q.4 Give two advantages a ducted system has compared to a split system:
Q.6 List the four main types of fans used in air conditioning systems and give an
application for each one:
Q.7 Name three types of air conditioning filters and their applications:
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Q.8 State three factors that determine the position of outlets in a conditioned space:
Q.10 What could be done to reduce vibration and noise from air conditioning duct
work?
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Ventilation
As well as improper maintenance, the design of the HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and
Air Conditioning) system can be a major contributing factor to Sick Building
Syndrome. Another factor that must be considered as a negative impact on indoor air
quality is contaminants / pollutants.
The ecology of Legionella in a water system is not fully understood, however, studies
do indicate that water temperatures between 20 and 45OC favour Legionella growth.
Bacteria do not multiply below 20OC and cannot survive in temperatures above 65OC.
These organisms may remain dormant and proliferate when temperatures are suitable.
The presence of sediment, scale, sludge and organic matter can serve as a source of
nutrients for these bacteria. Legionella bacteria also colonise on certain types of water
fittings, pipe work and materials used in the construction of water systems.
Mode of Transmission.
The mere presence of Legionella bacteria in the water systems does not cause the
disease itself.
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Legionellosis factors:
Environmental reservoirs: Lakes, streams, rivers, etc are the natural reservoirs
for Legionella bacteria.
Amplification factors: Showers, whirlpools, tap water faucets, water storage
tanks, cooling towers, humidifiers, evaporative condensers and respiratory
therapy equipment are common sources for amplification of Legionella
bacteria because of the temperature ranges that they operate within.
Mechanism of dissemination: The prevailing mode of transmission is through
the breathing of airborne water droplets or particles (aerosol) containing viable
Legionella that then passes deeply into the lung and deposited in the alveoli.
In office buildings, the risk of Legionellosis can be minimised by measures that do not
allow the proliferation of Legionella in the water systems, and reducing exposure to
water droplets and aerosols.
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The Process of Air Conditioning
Comfort levels for occupants of buildings can be achieved by a variety of processes,
from the opening of windows to full air conditioning by mechanical means.
Discomfort results from extremes of temperature (for which the only solution is
heating or cooling) and from stuffy conditions (which result from poor air
movement, high humidity and concentrations of odour or smoke). Ventilation can
usually provide the remedy for stuffy conditions.
Ventilation
The word ventilation means to remove polluted air from inside a space and replace it
with air from outside the space. This replenishes the oxygen supply, dilutes odours
and removes smoke.
Natural Ventilation
The simplest way to provide ventilation is to open windows and / or doors. The
amount of ventilation depends upon:
Size and type of windows / doors
Location of the windows / doors
Velocity and direction of the wind
Opening obstruction
Temperature difference between inside and outside conditions.
Mechanical Ventilation
This method requires a mechanical device, normally a fan and motor for positive
ventilation.
The most economical way to maintain health and comfort conditions of a space is by
replacing the air. This is done by bringing in outside air to ventilate the space. Fresh
air can be mechanically introduced into an area in two ways:
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HVAC & Refrigeration, Ultimo 2005 Air Conditioning & Ventilation
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Supply air systems / forced ventilation. Fresh air is pumped into the area being
ventilated resulting in positive pressure, causing the stale air to be pushed out
or ventilated through door grills, windows etc.
Exhaust air systems / induced ventilation. Air is sucked out of the ventilated
area resulting in negative pressure, causing fresh air from around the area to be
drawn in through door grills, windows etc.
Filters: (a) To prevent dirt particles entering the ventilated space from
the outside air.
(b) To prevent grease build-up in the ducting of exhaust
systems.
Grills, Registers, Diffusers: Used to control the air flow to the ventilated
areas and to prevent entry of objects into the ductwork.
(Registers are usually in the wall, diffusers are usually in the
ceiling).
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Test Equipment
Anemometer
The anemometer is a device used to measure the velocity of air travelling through a
duct or grille. Readings are measured in metres per second (m/s).
E.g. Calculate the air flow rate in L/s, leaving a duct 300mm x 250mm, having a
velocity of 2.1 m/s.
Air Flow = Velocity x Area
= 2.1 m/s x 0.3 m x 0.25 m
= 0.1575 m3/s
= 0.1575 m3/s x 1000
= 1.575 L/s
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Hot Wire Anemometer, which provides a
direct electronic readout by measuring the
cooling action of moving air on a hot strand
of wire.
There are two methods practised when using anemometers. They are:
Anemometers used for this method generally have an inbuilt timer, if not it
will be necessary to utilise a stop watch.
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Reading A1 Reading A2 Reading A3
Velocity (m/s) = --------------- + ---------------- + ---------------- etc
Time Time Time
Manometer
The manometer is a device used to measure relatively low pressures or more
commonly, pressure devices.
Manometers are made in two (2) different styles. Both are used to measure the
pressure difference across an object, e.g. filter, coil, and fan:
The U-Tube Manometer. In order to read the amount of pressure applied, read
the value corresponding to the fluid level on one side of the tube and double it.
Inclined Manometer. In order to read the amount of pressure applied, read the
value according to the fluid level in the tube.
The Pitot-Tube
The Pitot-Tube is a device that is usually used together with an inclined manometer to
measure the static pressure, total pressure and velocity pressure within a ducted
system.
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Reading patterns for Pitot-Tubes
Taking Readings
Drill a series of holes (refer above diagram) and take several readings in each hole.
Find the average velocity pressure of the readings.
Static pressure is the pressure which acts equally in all directions against the walls of
a tube, pipe or duct. It can best be measured by placing a probe against a small hole in
the wall of the duct. It is pressure necessary to overcome the friction of the moving
air, and is measured using the manometer.
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Velocity pressure is the actual pressure due to speed or velocity of the air. It is
measured by using a tube facing directly into the airflow, but because the static
pressure also enters the tube, another tub is placed at a small in the wall of the duct to
measure static pressure. Thus the two tubes static pressure balances each other out,
leaving only the velocity pressure being measured.
Total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and the velocity pressure. It is
measured by the tube facing directly into the airflow.
Turning Vanes Sheet metal blades or vanes placed in the ductwork at the point
of a bend. They are shaped like the bend to help the air travel smoothly
around it.
Throw The horizontal distance that the air will travel once it leaves the supply
duct.
Drop The vertical distance that the horizontally projected air will fall.
Terminal Velocity This is the average air stream velocity at the end of the throw. It
is taken at a height of 2 metres from the floor and should be
approximately 0.25 m/s.
Spread The distance that the air stream increases in width once it leaves the
outlet. The angel of spread is usually 30O from the direction of throw.
Spread can be achieved in both the vertical and horizontal planes.
Primary Air The conditioned air being delivered to the space along the supply duct.
Secondary Air The air already occupying the space with which the primary air
mixes.
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Practical Exercise: Air Balancing
Task
To balance the supply air volume being delivered by an air-distribution system using
the proportional air balance method.
Equipment
Suitable air handling system with a minimum of three outlets.
Air measurement instruments such as:
o Anemometer
o Air measuring hood
Tape measure.
Screwdriver or Allen keys suitable to adjust air dampers.
Procedure
1. Operate the air supply system and allow conditions to stabilise.
2. Fully open all air volume control dampers, branch dampers and louvers on
outlets. Check that coils, filters, etc are clear and that the fan is operating
to the required duty.
3. Using the correct air measuring instrument, measure the air velocity from
each outlet.
4. Calculate the volume flow rates (L/s) from all outlets. Add the values
together to obtain total supply air volume (L/s).
5. Calculate the proportional quantities for each outlet.
6. Starting from the outlet furthest from the fan, balance the system.
Note: record all readings and calculations in the Table of Results. Number the
outlets with number 1 being the furthest from the fan.
Table of Results
Outlet Outlet Outlet Size Outlet Actual Design Proportional
2
Number Velocity mm x mm Area m Volume Volume Factor
m/s m3/s m3/s
1
2
3
4
5
6
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The Underlying Principles of Air Distribution
The principles are to achieve control over the air movement within a space so that:
Noise levels are kept to a safe minimum.
Draughts at the occupied level are avoided.
Air stratification is avoided.
There are no stagnant pockets of air.
Noise
Discomfort due to monotonous low frequency sound waves or piercing high
frequency sound waves can be at the very least, an annoying distraction, at worst,
result in deafness.
As the velocity of air is increased, so the noise that is generated becomes more
audible.
Note that a degree of background noise has become desirable in many office buildings
where separation between offices is provided by partitions. The noise provides a
degree of privacy for the occupants in each of the booths.
The sound of wind in the atmosphere is generally audible once the air velocity
reaches 6 m/s (20 kph).
Many registers (diffusers) tend to generate a whistling noise once the air velocity
reaches 2.5 m/s.
The following table provides the recommended maximum outlet velocity to expect in
various building types.
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Draughts
Air movement is required to ensure uniform distribution of the supply air throughout
the zone being conditioned but if the velocity of the secondary air (air within the
room) is toon high the occupants will feel a draught.
The combination of these factors will determine whether or not the majority of people
occupying the room at the moment will experience a draught.
The table below shows the accepted head height velocity of the secondary air for both
the heating and the cooling cycles.
The difference between the primary air temperature and the secondary air temperature
should never exceed 12K.
Example: For the neck region, a velocity of 0.3 m/s at a temperature of 0.5K below
the room temperature will be acceptable to 80% of the occupants. If the velocity in the
same room is dropped to 0.2 m/s then 90% of the occupants will be happier.
Generalisation: The maximum air velocity within a zone is generally assumed as 0.21
m/s while a minimum velocity of 0.12 m/s is necessary to ensure distribution of
temperature throughout the zone.
Air Stratification
When air settles into layers it is said to be stratified. This is a very common problem
in heating applications where the hot air rises (forming a layer of hot air near the
ceiling), and the cold air falls (forming a layer of cold air near the floor).
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Air Stratification
This problem can be overcome by forcing the air to circulate within the zone but, as
you will see in the following diagrams, the placement of the supply and return air
registers within the zone will determine whether or not you will obtain optimum air.
The following diagrams illustrate the various places that the registers have been
placed in relation to each other, together with the problems of each setup.
Example 1
Here you can see that during summer months the cool primary air falls to the occupied
level (where it is needed), and the warm air rises to the ceiling where it is removed
and returned to the cooling coil. This is ideal.
However, during the winter months the warm supply air will travel straight across the
ceiling and pass out through the return air duct. The cold air will remain in the
occupied zone leaving the occupants quite uncomfortable. The air has become
stratified.
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Example 2
In this situation you can see that during the summer months, the cool supply air will
travel straight across the floor and pass out through the return air duct (possibly
resulting in a draught around the lower parts of the body), while the hot air will be
trapped in the ceiling area. The air will be stratified once again.
However, during the winter months, the warm supply air will rise up through the zone
(passing through the occupied zone), while the cold air will fall to the floor from
where it is removed and returned to the heating coil. This setup is ideal for the heating
cycle.
Example 3
This setup is the most common. The circulation pattern during the cooling cycle will
be similar to those in Example 1 diagrams, (except that a small portion of primary air
may be drawn into the return air duct if they are too close to each other).
Once again the circulation pattern during winter is totally inadequate but many
systems today are setup so that the primary air velocity is increased during the heating
cycle in an effort to drive the warm air down into the occupied zone.
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Example 4
Stratification will occur during the cooling cycle but after a period of time will
eventually settle at a fairly high level within the zone. This is generally acceptable
because the separation layer is often above the occupied level.
A cold spot will occur in the far side of the zone during the heating cycle, so your
feeling of comfort will totally depend on where you happen to be seated within the
room.
Example 5
Hot spots will occur in the top corners of the zone during the cooling cycle but a good
portion of the occupants will feel comfortable because there is good circulation
through the centre of the room. The main problem is that the warm air is not being
returned to the cooling coil.
Stratification will occur during the heating cycle but after a period of time will
eventually settle at a low level within the zone. It will be acceptable to those
occupants that are standing or moving around but not very acceptable to those who
are sitting for long periods because they will feel a cold draught around the legs.
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Ducting
Ducting is generally formed by folding sheet metal into the desired shape however;
many large buildings make use of wall and roof cavities to transfer the air between
floors.
Both Return and Supply Air ducts may be insulated but the Supply is more commonly
insulated to:
Provide sound control (noise attenuation)
Prevent condensation (when dewpoint temperatures are high)
The duct may be any shape but is generally round, square or rectangular.
The best shape is round. It has the lowest material usage and the lowest friction loss
(low resistance therefore low pressure drop).
Duct Layout
Trunk Ducted System
Uses minimum sheet metal but is complicated to manufacture and install.
Provides best control of air flow.
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Extended Plenum System
Uses a greater amount of sheet metal but branch ducts may be fitted after the
extended plenum has been installed (making installation much easier).
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Overcoming Pressure Drop in Ductwork
Any ducted system is a compromise between the pressure drop created when trying to
move air and the cross sectional area of the duct through which the air has to travel.
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This is a poorly constructed supply air reducer. The eddy currents created will result
in excessive pressure drop.
The eddy currents developed in this return air reducer are not as bad but still
result in unwanted pressure drop.
This is the desirable way to construct a reducer in the supply air duct. Eddy
currents will not form and therefore the pressure drop along the duct run will
be minimal.
The guide vanes will force the air to follow the shape of the duct and thereby
prevent eddy currents from forming at the point of expansion.
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Dampers
A damper is used to restrict or divert the air as it passes through the duct work (i.e. it
controls the amount of air flowing throughout its length).
It is only used when an open or closed situation is required, e.g. fire dampers.
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Splitter Damper
This type is generally used to balance each of the branch ducts.
Once set, it does not normally need to be moved again. The travel of the damper
should be restricted in order to prevent damage due to air pressure against the blade.
Butterfly Damper
This damper is used in round duct to control the air volume along a branch.
The handle must be locked in position once adjustments have been made.
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Fire Dampers
If the ductwork passes through a fire rated wall then a fire damper must be installed
inside the ductwork at that point. It is held in the open position by a fusible link.
If the fire penetrates the ductwork then the link will melt and the damper will close
preventing the fire from travelling into the next zone.
An access panel should be located in the ductwork near the fire damper so that regular
inspections may be made on the link and repaired if necessary.
The specification and installation requirements for fire dampers are covered in AS
1682 (Parts 1 & 2).
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Grilles, Registers, and Diffusers
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Review Questions
1. What is the velocity of air? _________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
OA _____________________________________________________
RA _____________________________________________________
SA ______________________________________________________
EA ______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8. Which is the better duct for supplying air round, square or rectangular?
Explain your answer.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
9. Find the Volume Flow Rate of air passing through the coil.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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10. What are the two methods to measure air flow over a coil? Explain both
methods; you may draw diagrams to assist your explanation.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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Fans and Fan Laws
Fans are used in the air conditioning industry to:
Supply air over a cooling / heating coil;
Supply fresh air from outside;
Remove unwanted air from toilets, kitchens, etc;
Pressurise a stairwell during the event of fire;
Return air to the air conditioning units in large applications;
Assist the evaporation rate in cooling towers.
Centrifugal Fans
Centrifugal fans are capable of delivering large volumes of air against a considerable
resistance.
For these reasons, centrifugal fans are commonly used in the systems to overcome
filter resistance and duct resistance.
Forward Curve
The most commonly used centrifugal fan type. It will move a large volume of air at a
relatively slow speed. The impeller usually contains 32 to 64 narrow blades.
Power consumption will increase as the volume flow rate of the fan increases (i.e.
speed increases) making it possible to overload the fan motor if the speed is increased
too high.
The disadvantage of the fan is that if the duct runs go too long, the static pressure
becomes erratic and therefore smooth air supplies are affected.
Backward Curve
This fan type must be run at a relatively high speed in order to achieve the desired
volume flow rate and is therefore heavier in construction (usually made from steel).
The impeller will generally contain 12 to 24 deep blades.
Its biggest advantage is that it will develop a very high static pressure and is therefore
suitable for use in high rise office buildings where duct runs are long. Air Foil
construction dramatically improves the fans efficiency.
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Axial Fans
There are three primary types of axial fan:
Propeller fans provide a high volume of air but at a relatively low static
pressure. They are therefore not suitable for use in moving air through
ductwork. They are widely used for exhausting and ventilating purposes. A
cowling placed around the fan will improve its performance quite
considerably.
Tube axial fans are mounted in a round section of duct (or tube). They are
capable of developing higher static pressure than the propeller fan due to the
airfoil blades and the small clearance between the blade tip and the tube
housing.
Vane axial fans are similar to the tube axial fan except that the guide vanes
have been fitted to reduce the rotary motion imparted to the air by the spinning
action of the blade. This allows the fan to operate at higher static pressures and
improved efficiency.
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Fan Laws
The following factors play a major role in the Fan Laws:
Speed
Volume Flow Rate
Static Pressure
Power Consumption
V1 n1
Speed & Volume Flow Rate =
V2 n2
2
Ps1 n1
Speed & Static Pressure =
Ps2 n2
3
Q1 n1
Speed & Power Consumption =
Q2 n2
Example 1
A motor rotating at 1000 rpm n1 is delivering air at 300 L/s V1 with a static pressure
of 150 Pascals Ps1 whilst consuming power of 1.5 kW Q1
What would be the new volume flow rate V2 the new static pressure Ps 2 and the new
power consumption Q2 if the motor speed is increased
to 1200 rpm n2 ?
=360 L/s
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2
Ps1 n1
Static Pressure: =
Ps 2 n2
Ps1 150
Ps 2 = 2
= 2
n1 1000
n2 1200
150
=
0.6944443
=216 Pa
3
Q1 n
Power Consumption: = 1
Q2 n 2
Q1 1500
Q2 = 3
= 3
n1 1000
n2 1200
1500
=
0.5787035
=2592 Watts
=2.59 kW
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Example 2
A fan running at 650 rpm n1 supplies air at 4200 L/s V1 with a static pressure of 250
Pascals Ps1 whilst the motor is consuming 2.1 kW Q1
V1 n1
Volume Flow Rate: =
V2 n2
=3101 L/s
2
Ps1 n1
Static Pressure: =
Ps 2 n2
Ps1 250
Ps 2 = 2
= 2
n1 650
n2 480
250
=
1.8337671
=136 Pa
3
Q1 n
Power Consumption: = 1
Q2 n 2
Q1 2100
Q2 = 3
= 3
n1 650
n2 480
2100
=
2.4832261
=846 Watts
=0.85 kW
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Filtration
Sick Building Syndrome
According to Honeywell, who spent years analysing some 30 typical buildings, the
greatest cause of Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) is improperly maintained and
managed HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning) Systems.
If more than 20% of the occupants complain of fatigue, headaches, irritation of the
eyes or throat, and the symptoms last more than two weeks and disappear when the
occupants leave the building, SBS is suspected.
Often, particular pollutants are identifiable, but increasing ventilation does not get rid
of the problem. Examiners found multiple problems in 11 buildings of the 30 analysed
with chemical contaminants responsible for 75% of the complaints; 15% by normal
thermal problems; microbiological agents and humidity that was too high or too low
accounted for the remaining 10% of concern.
A combination of disorders were found including design and operation problems that
embrace maintenance, load and control changes. Investigators determined that dirty
air intakes, dirty filters, fouled heating and cooling coils were the main culprits.
Air Cleaning
Air entering an air conditioned space must be filtered to:
Keep the fan, coils and registers clean and therefore ensure high operation
efficiency.
Prevent dirt particles from entering the air conditioned spaces. This applies
especially to Precision Assembly Rooms and Operating Theatres.
Reduce allergic attacks to Hay-fever and Asthma sufferers.
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Particle Sizes
All particles are of different size. Typical examples are:
Human hair 100 microns
Smallest particles visible to the naked eye 20 microns
Human blood corpuscle 10 microns
Tobacco smoke particulate 0.25 micron
Filter Rating
The specification label of filter media will generally provide one or more of the
following values:
Pressure drop across the filter
Velocity and rated pressure
Filter capacity - % rating
Washing method
Filter Types
1. Dry Arrestance Filters remove particles from the air by trapping them between
fibres of the filter mat. Materials may include:
Cloth
Felt
Glass fibre
Paper
Synthetic
These types are usually for dust particles. To improve their efficiency,
manufacturers have included adhesive compound on the entry side of filters,
they are disposable when dirty.
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Bag filters used in club / pub applications, more surface area of the media is
exposed to the air flow, thus improving the efficiency. They are good for
acoustic control.
Corrugated filters are panel filters produced in a corrugation style. This
improves efficiency because of the greater surface area.
They are made from a glass paper media that is packed in a very dense concertina
fashion. When looked through, you will see no light at all.
4. Electrostatic Precipitators
The air is passed through a wire grid arrangement that is connected to a DC power
supply of between 13,000 to 20,000 Vdc. The grid is known as the ioniser because
it causes the dust particles to become electrostatically charged.
Once the particles have become charged they pass through a set of collector plates
(cells) that are placed parallel to the air stream and connected to a DC power
supply of approximately 6,000 Vdc.
The charged particles are attracted to the plates that have been covered with an
adhesive. The plates must be washed and the adhesive re-applied during
maintenance.
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Review Questions
1. Explain what is meant by Sick Building Syndrome. ____________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________
2. List four (4) actions that can be taken to overcome the causes of Sick
Building Syndrome.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. What is the most likely cause of dirty smudging around ceiling diffusers?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8. What is the term given for the introduction of fresh air in an enclosed space?
_______________________________________________________________
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9. List the following properties of standard air.
_______________________________________________________________
OA ___________________________________________________________
RA ___________________________________________________________
MA ___________________________________________________________
SA ____________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
13. List three factors that affect human comfort in a conditioned space.
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________
14. Name two methods used to move the air in an enclosed space.
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
15. What is the name of the refrigeration component that reverses the flow of
refrigerant in a reverse cycle system?
_______________________________________________________________
17. Why do you feel cold when the temperature is below comfort conditions?
_______________________________________________________________
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18. Match each piece of equipment with its correct use by placing the number of
the Use next to the equipment name. (It is possible for a piece of equipment
to have more than one use).
Equipment Use
19. List four factors that affect the quantity of heat lost by perspiration.
a) _____________________________________________________________
b) _____________________________________________________________
c) _____________________________________________________________
d) _____________________________________________________________
20. Why do you feel hot when there is no air movement around you on a hot day?
_______________________________________________________________
a) the air movement (by drawing arrow heads on the indicator lines)
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Air Conditioning Systems
Air Conditioning is defined as the process of treating air to control simultaneously its
temperature, humidity, cleanliness, distribution and noise to meet the requirements of
the conditioned space.
Psychrometrics
Introduction
Psychrometrics is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour and
is the basis for all Air Conditioning process calculations.
Terminology
Dry Bulb Temperature (OC DB)
The temperature of air measured by an ordinary thermometer
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Revision of psychrometric chart
There are various conditions of air that may be studied using the assistance of a
psychrometric chart.
See ARAC for further details of how the conditions listed above can be found on a
psychrometric chart.
Psychrometric process
The psychrometric chart can also be used to study various processes in Air
Conditioning.
See ARAC for further details of where the processes are located on a psychrometric
chart.
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The air conditioning process
The air conditioning process can be shown on a psychrometric chart. The process
shown below is a cooling process.
Psychrometric calculations
Air Conditioning calculations may be assisted by a psychrometric chart. Some
common calculations drawn from a psychrometric chart include the following:
When this process is put into practice the cooling capacity would be influenced by the
condition of the air entering the coil. This air is made up of return air (B) from the
conditioned space and air from outside (C) and is known as Mixed Air (D).
t MA.DB =
(V RA t RA. DB ) + (VOA t OA.DB )
(VRA + VOA )
Where:
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Apparatus dew point temperature
Apparatus Dew Point (ADP) refers to the effective surface temperature of the
conditioning coil.
Put simply, the ADP is the lowest achievable temperature of the air leaving the
cooling coil if the coil apparatus was 100% efficient and no air bypassed the coil.
(WB = DB = Saturation Temperature)
The ADP is found by extending the coil process line, from the nixed air (D) to the air
leaving the coil (A), through to the saturation temperature line. The intersection is the
ADP.
In practice, the air leaving the cooling coil is never as cold as the ADP due to the
Bypass Factor.
Bypass Factor
The bypass factor is the portion of the air that is considered to pass through the
conditioning coil completely unaltered.
t LDB t ADP
BF =
t EDB t ADP
Where:
BF = Bypass Factor
t LDB = Dry bulb temperature of the air leaving the coil (oC)
t EDB = Dry bulb temperature of the air entering the coil (oC)
t ADP = Apparatus due point temperature (oC)
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Total Heat
Total heat of the coil is the amount of heat (both sensible and latent) that is added or
removed during the process. The total heat of a process can be found:
From the psychrometric chart
By calculation. If the latent and sensible heat of the process is known.
TH = hMA - hSA
Where:
TH = Total heat (kJ/kg)
hMA = Enthalpy of the mixed air (kJ/kg)
hSA = Enthalpy of the supply air (kJ/kg)
By calculation:
TH = SH + LH
Where:
TH = Total heat (kJ/kg)
SH = Sensible heat (kJ/kg)
LH = Latent heat (kJ/kg)
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Sensible Heat
Sensible heat is when there is a change in temperature but there is no change in
moisture. Sensible heat of the coil can be found using the following methods:
From the psychrometric chart
By calculation if the latent and sensible heat of the process is known
By calculation using the sensible heat ratio
SH = hE - hSA
Where:
SH = Sensible heat
hE = Enthalpy of the process if there was no moisture content change (kJ/kg)
hSA = Enthalpy of the supply air (kJ/kg)
By calculation:
SH = TH LH
Where:
SH = Sensible Heat (kJ/kg)
TH = Total heat (kJ/kg)
LH = Latent heat (kJ/kg)
SH = TH X SHR
Where:
SH = Sensible heat (kJ/kg)
TH = Total heat (kJ/kg)
SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio (see below on how to attain)
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Sensible heat ratio
Sensible heat ratio is the ratio of sensible heat to the total heat load on the room or
coil. The remaining proportion is latent heat.
Latent heat
Latent heat takes into account the change in moisture content that takes place through
a process. The latent heat of the coil can be found:
From the psychrometric chart
By calculation if the latent heat and sensible heat of the process is known
LH = hMA - hF
Where:
LH = Latent heat (kJ/kg)
hMA = Enthalpy of the mixed air (kJ/kg)
hF = Enthalpy of the process if there was no change in dry bulb temperature
By calculation
LH = TH SH
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Where:
LH = Latent heat (kJ/kg)
TH = Total heat (kJ/kg)
SH = Sensible heat (kJ/kg)
V = A
Where:
V = Volume flow rate (m3/s or L/s)
A = Duct area (m2)
= Velocity (m/s)
Calculate the mass flow rate of the air through the coil
V
m=
v
Where:
V = Volume flow rate (L/s)
m = Mass flow rate (kg/s)
v = Specific volume (m3/kg or L/kg)
Note: The specific volume is measured from the same condition on the psychrometric
chart as the point where the velocity was determined. That is the supply air duct,
return air duct, etc
Q = m x h
Where:
Q = Coil capacity (kJ/.s or kW)
m = Mass flow rate (kg/s)
h = Difference in enthalpy (kJ/kg)
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Moisture removal rate
This is used to theoretically determine the condensate capacity.
A simple calculation can approximate the amount of water deposited on the coil
during full load conditions within a specified environment.
mw = m SA X (wEA wLA )
Where:
mW = Moisture removal rate (g/s)
m SA = Mass flow rate of the supply air (kg/s)
wEA = Moisture content of the air entering the coil (g/kg)
wLA = Moisture content of the air leaving the coil (g/kg)
g 60 X 60 kg
= =
s 1000 hr
1kg 1L
=
hr hr
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Practical exercise: Plotting a psychometric chart
Task
To plot the conditions on the chart record various values
Procedure
Plot the following conditions +30OC DB / 24OC WB on the psychrometric chart.
From the plotted points, draw and record the related conditions listed below.
Conditions Results
Moisture
Relative Humidity
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Calculation exercise: Psychrometric calculations
Task
Procedure
d. Amount of Total Heat absorbed by the cooling coil. Total heat may be
found from the psychrometric chart.
e. The Sensible Heat Ratio of the (a) cooling coil (b) room.
This may be found from the psychrometric chart
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f. Amount of Sensible Heat absorbed by the cooling coil.
Formula =
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Review questions
4. List five factors that need to be addressed if the calculated bypass factor is
higher than the rated design of the cooling coil
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6. A cooling coil has an ADP of 10OC and the mixed air condition onto the
cooling coil is 23OC DBG, 60% RH. What will happen to the moisture
content of the air? Explain your answer.
7. An electric reheat coil is located in the supply air duct. Will this device
remove moisture from the air stream? Explain your answer.
8. List the two major factors that determine the capacity of a cooling coil.
9. What is meant by the term Sensible Heat Ratio, (SHR) and what is the
purpose of identifying the Room Sensible Heat Ratio?
10. List the seven air conditioning processes that may be identified on the
psychrometric chart.
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Package (Unitary) Units
Applications
Package units are installed into various commercial applications, including small
office buildings, computer rooms or a single floor of a multi-storey building.
Types
Package units are self contained systems that are either air-cooled or water-cooled.
In air-cooled package units, the condenser is remotely located outside to ensure good
heat transfer.
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General information
Advantages
Cheap installation cost in comparison to a central plant, ease of service and all
components are centrally located together in one housing.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of using a package unit in multi-storey buildings are the energy
consumption costs, noise control, service accessibility (i.e. fan bearing changes) and
equipment failure.
Air distribution
The package unit may be installed within the conditioned space with a free blow
system, or it may be installed internally or externally with ductwork for air
distribution.
Air filtration
The units are usually fitted with panel type filters and electrostatic filters may also be
fitted for ducted systems.
Refrigerant
The refrigerant found in the majority of package units is R22, although some early
Carrier systems (50K series) employed R500 to overcome inefficient performance
from those units imported from America designed for 60Hz electrical supply. Other
refrigerants will be and are used as R22 is phased out.
Fans
The fans are commonly forward curved blade, centrifugal fans with a static pressure
of 200 to 600 Pascals.
Cooling capacity
Package units may vary in capacity from 1 kW to 1000 kW.
Heating methods
The Package Unit Air Conditioning system may provide heating as well as cooling.
Heating can be achieved by means of electric heating elements or for package units
incorporating air cooled condensers by means of reverse cycle operation.
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Operating conditions
Maintenance procedures
General information
The extent of any preventative maintenance program varies according to location and
actual operating conditions. After a suitable trial period, local conditions may
determine some modification to the program, i.e. clean air filters weekly instead of
monthly.
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Monthly inspection generally includes the following
1. Clean air filters, inspect media for damage and ensure that filters are clear of
debris.
NOTE: Filter media should be replaced annually as efficiency reduces following
repeated washing, or replaced to filter manufacturers specifications where non
washable medias are used.
2. Check refrigerant charge. The sight glass in the liquid line indicates the correct
balance. Care should be taken when viewing the glass from the initial start up,
as it requires approximately 10 15 minutes for the system to fully circulate
the refrigerant. During this time a bubbling sight glass can occur.
3. Inspect all drive belts for tightness and wear. Do not over tighten, as excessive
bearing wear will occur.
4. Check blower wheels for tightness on shafts, dust build up, etc.
5. Check condensate tray and drain for cleanliness. If necessary flush tray out
thoroughly.
6. Check all cabinet components and ensure all panels are adjusted correctly to
close onto the door seals.
3. Where heating elements are fitted into the ductwork and connected via heater
safeties into the electrical control circuit, check the manual reset safety
thermostat for correct operation by removing the evaporator motor fan fuses,
and allowing still air heating to activate the safety control.
To reduce the time taken to cut out the heating elements, re-position the bulb
closer to the element surface.
4. Using a tong type ammeter, check all motor amperages and compare against
nameplate ratings. Record voltages between phases and neutral.
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6. Check pressure of high and low pressure cut out settings as follows:
High Pressure
Water cooled unit cut out:
Average water temperature through condenser 32OC
Condenser temperature difference + 8K
Safety margin + 5K
Cut out temperature 45OC
O
45 C = 1630 kPa (R22) cut out setting manual reset
Low Pressure
Cut out any pressure above 0 kPa i.e. 150 kPa
Suggested cut in (auto reset) 350 kPa
7. Check cabinet base and panels for paint damage and rust. Apply corrective
treatment as necessary.
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Oil pressure control
The oil pressure control senses the difference between the oil pump discharge
pressure and the pressure within the compressor crankcase. The difference is net oil
pressure or effective oil pressure. Low oil pressure is usually the result of:
- Oil shortage
- Faulty or worn oil pump
- Faulty crankcase heater allowing refrigerant to condense in the compressor
sump.
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Practical Exercise 1: Reading an electrical circuit diagram of a
package unit.
Task
Procedure
From the electrical schematic diagram below of a Package Unit Air Conditioning
System, answer the questions which follow.
De-ice cycle
Each outdoor coil has its own de-ice unit. A remote sensor is positioned to initiate a
de-ice cycle at a coil temperature of -5OC. The de-ice cycle will be terminated when
the temperature rises to 10OC. A timer safety limits the de-ice period to 10 minutes.
The de-ice control has a lockout that limits de-icing to once every 33 minutes.
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Abbr. Description Abbr. Description Abbr. Description
CCH Crankcase Heater HT Heating Thermostat OFR Outdoor Fan Relay
Outdoor Thermal
CM Compressor Motor IFC Indoor Fan Contactor OTOL Overload
Compressor
CMC Contactor
IFM Indoor Fan Motor
Compressor Start to Indoor Fan Thermal
RVC Reverse Cycle Valve
CST Start Timer 10 mins
IFOL Overload
Low Pressure
CT Cooling Thermostat LP Control TD Time Delay
High Pressure Internal Motor
HP Control
OFM Outdoor Fan Motor TM Thermostat
1. The indoor fan motor trips out on thermal overload, will the compressors be
able to run, YES or NO? Explain your answer.
4. How many condenser fan motors will operate if condenser fan motor No. 2
trips out on internal motor thermostat?
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5. The systems cooling thermostat is calling for full cooling. How long will it
take before compressor No. 4 would start after compressor No. 1 is energised?
6. Compressor CM1 fails to start when called for full cooling because of a burnt
out contactor coil. From the diagram determine how many compressors would
be able to operate during this fault condition.
7. Do the four crankcase heaters cycle off during compressor operation? Explain
your answer.
8. It states that compressor No.1 has a LRA rating of 2 x 78. What does the LRA
stand for and what does LRA rating mean?
10. What will happen to the system during the heating cycle if the neutral wire
connected to the De-ice control on stage 1 heating mode breaks?
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11. In the space provided, reproduce the schematic wiring diagram into an
Electrical Ladder control circuit diagram. Also identify the electrical
components.
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Practical Exercise 1: System operating characteristics
Task
Equipment
Package unit
Service manifold gauges
Thermometers
Trade tools
Safety
Procedure
1. Inspect unit.
2. Open all necessary valves and run unit.
3. Fit manifold gauges.
4. Allow system to equalise after 15 minutes of operation.
5. In the space provided below record the following information:
O O
Cooling coil air ON C DB C WB
O O
Cooling coil air OFF C DB C WB
Condenser Temperature Difference K
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Pressure difference across the return air filters Pascals
O
Ambient conditions C DB % RH
Current draw on compressor motor Amperes
Unit Model No.
Unit Make Brand Name
Cooling load (nameplate) Watts
Heating load (nameplate) Watts
Conclusions
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Practical Exercise 2: Maintenance procedures for package units
Task
Procedure
Complete the maintenance schedule for a water cooled package unit with semi
hermetic compressors and electric heating elements.
3 6
ITEMS MONTHLY ANNUALLY
MONTHLY MONTHLY
Compressor
1 Shaft sea
2 Safety controls
3 Operating Pressures
4 Oil Level
Conditioners
5 Filters
6 Bearings / Grease
7 Fan belts
8 Condensate drain
9 Evaporator coil
Refrigeration System
10 Leak test
11 Refrigerant charge
12 Operating conditions
Cooling Tower / Condenser
13 Clean sprays
14 Grease bearings
15 Drain, clean basin
16 Clean water strainer
Electrical Supply and
Control Circuit
17 Tighten connections
18 Calibrate / set controls
19 Check overloads
20 Check amperage
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Practical Exercise 3: Troubleshooting for package units
Task
Procedure
1. For the chart of a commercial air conditioning system, list in each of the
boxes, faults that you would expect to find for each of the symptoms listed.
Tripping out on HP
Runs but not control
cooling efficiently Intermittent short
cycling
COMPRESSOR
System cycling on LP
control, ice formation on
Condenser fan running, coil, very low suction
compressor contactor de- superheat, high room
energised, coil shows High back pressure, low temperatures, filters
continuity and resistance head pressure, gas charge clean. No air movement
normal OK, superheat normal. through room.
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Problem 1
On inspection of a large DX package unit you find the package unit pumped down
and cut out on Low Pressure Control, but the unit is not short of refrigerant
Problem 2
On a service call you find a lecture theatre with a package A/C system that has an air
cooled condenser on the roof with all four condenser fans running. A low ambient
temperature exists and there is insufficient cooling in the conditioned space.
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Problem 3
On a hot and humid day, you are called to a package unit with a water cooled
condenser. The operating head pressure is 1700 kPa on R22 and the supply condenser
water entering the condenser is 36OC.
Problem 4
The suction pressure on a package unit is too low, ice has built up on the coil and the
plant performance has reduced.
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Practical Exercise 4: Fault finding
On a package unit that has been tricked up with faults by your teacher, analyse the
system and record the symptoms, possible faults and the method of rectifying these
faults.
(Remember to work safely at all times).
Fault 1
Symptoms
Possible faults
Remedies
Fault 2
Symptoms
Possible faults
Remedies
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Fault 3
Symptoms
Possible faults
Remedies
Fault 4
Symptoms
Possible faults
Remedies
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Fault 5
Symptoms
Possible faults
Remedies
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Review questions
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6. List four applications where an air conditioning package unit is likely to
be found.
7. Give three reasons why a package unit would be chosen rather than any
other type of air conditioner.
8. Name two types of fans commonly used with package units and where in
the unit you would find them.
9. What type of filtration medium is used to clean the air through a package
unit?
10. Many package units are fitted with lockout relays. What is their purpose?
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11. List three advantages and three disadvantages of package units in
commercial office applications.
Advantages
Disadvantages
12. Solid state crankcase heater relays are commonly fitted to package units.
What is their function?
13. List the two most common types of heating systems used in Package
Units.
14. From the diagram Typical package air conditioning unit with service
panels removed in ARAC, Volume 2, Chapter 20, design a maintenance
check sheet and report form to be used by the employees od a fictitious
firm when carrying out the maintenance to a package unit air conditioning
system.
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Notes
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A.R.E.M.A heat load estimating sheet
A.R.E.M.A is the acronym for Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Equipment
Manufacturers Association.
This Heat Load Estimating Sheet is a basic estimating procedure and is recommended
only for use on domestic and small to medium commercial heat load applications.
There are more in depth heat load estimation sheets that are used on more complex
heat load designs. Many design engineers consult such methods as the Carrier AIRAH
Heat Load Design Sheet format found in their System Design Manual.
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Air Conditioning Survey Form
No. Item Area m2 Cooling Factors Watts Client
Address
External Glass - Solar Heat 10 am 4 pm
(Use all windows at one
selected time). Shades Shades
Outside Walls Cavity brick 10.5 14.0 17.5 (21.0) 24.5 21.0
Hollow brick 17.0 24.5 26.0 28.0 30.5 28.0
4.
Brick veneer 13.0 17.0 20.0 26.0 30.0 26.0
Weatherboard
20.0 27.5 31.5 38.0 40.0 38.0
5. Partitions Internal walls 10.0 12.0 17.0 (20.5) 24.5 20.5
6A. Ceiling Unconditioned above 8.5 12.0 14.5 17.0 18.5 17.0
Ceiling Pitched roof above 51.5
50.0 53.0 56.0 59.5 62.5
6B No insulation
50mm insulation 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 15.5 6.0
Ceiling Flat roof above 69.0 73.0 77.0 80.0 84.0 23.0
6C No insulation
50mm insulation 17.0 18.0 19.0 19.5 20.5 9.0
Floors
Over unconditioned room 6.5 9.0 12.0 14.5 17.0
7. Over enclosed crawl space 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 14.5
Over ventilated crawl space 8.5 12.0 15.5 19.0 22.0
Slab on ground 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Infiltration (S.H.)
8. 9.6 12.0 14.4 16.8 19.2 14.4
Refer Table 1 l/s
Not
9. Lights Watts Incand. x 1.0 Fluor x 1.25
Used
Special heat sources Not
10.
Refer Table 2 (Sens. Heat) Used
People (Sens.Heat) Activity Not
11.
Quantity Sitting 72.0 Light 80.5 Heavy 89.5 Used
12. Room S.H. sub total (Items 1 to 11) R.S.H.
13. Duct Gain Add 10% if duct external to conditioned space
14. Room total sens. Heat (Items 12 + 13 Cooling R.T.H
Outside Air Factors for design Temp. Diff.
[Use highest quantity only] 14.4
8K 10K 12K 14K 16K
15. A. Room volume m3 x 0.5 Sub
= ..l/s total
B. People x Rate Table 3 9.6 12.0 14.4 16.8 19.2
Factor
= ..l/s
Table 5
16. Total Sensible Heat (Items 14 + 15) Cooling Heating
17. LATENT GAINS COOLING
Design Conditions
18. Infiltration from 8 .l/s X Factor from Table 4 ...
Summer OC
Special heat sources Ambient db wb
19.
Refer Table 1 (Latent Heat) Room db wb
People (Latent.Heat) Activity Diff. db wb
20.
Quantity Sitting 45.5 Light 80.5 Heavy 160
21. Room total latent heat (Items 18 to 20) Cooling Winter OC
22. Outside Air from 15.l/s X Factor from Table 4 Ambient db wb
Room db wb
23. Total Latent Heat (Items 21 + 22) Cooling Diff. db wb
24. Grand Total Heat (16 + 23) Cooling
Room Area m2
25. S.H.R. Room 14/(14 + 21) = .Equipment 16/24 =
Room Volume m3
TOTAL
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Practical Exercise 1: A.R.E.M.A heat load estimation
Task
To practice the skills of using an AREMA heat load estimation sheet to determine the
heat load in a conditioned space.
Specifications
Procedure
Referring to specifications above and the diagram on the next page, complete with the
AREMA sheet provided, determine:
Grand total heat load for cooling
Sensible heat ratio for the room
Total heating load for winter
Outside Walls Cavity brick 10.5 14.0 17.5 (21.0) 24.5 21.0
Hollow brick 17.0 24.5 26.0 28.0 30.5 28.0
4.
Brick veneer 13.0 17.0 20.0 26.0 30.0 26.0
Weatherboard
20.0 27.5 31.5 38.0 40.0 38.0
5. Partitions Internal walls 10.0 12.0 17.0 (20.5) 24.5 20.5
6A. Ceiling Unconditioned above 8.5 12.0 14.5 17.0 18.5 17.0
Ceiling Pitched roof above 51.5
50.0 53.0 56.0 59.5 62.5
6B No insulation
50mm insulation 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 15.5 6.0
Ceiling Flat roof above 69.0 73.0 77.0 80.0 84.0 23.0
6C No insulation
50mm insulation 17.0 18.0 19.0 19.5 20.5 9.0
Floors
Over unconditioned room 6.5 9.0 12.0 14.5 17.0
7. Over enclosed crawl space 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 14.5
Over ventilated crawl space 8.5 12.0 15.5 19.0 22.0
Slab on ground 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Infiltration (S.H.)
8. 9.6 12.0 14.4 16.8 19.2 14.4
Refer Table 1 l/s
Not
9. Lights Watts Incand. x 1.0 Fluor x 1.25
Used
Special heat sources Not
10.
Refer Table 2 (Sens. Heat) Used
People (Sens.Heat) Activity Not
11.
Quantity Sitting 72.0 Light 80.5 Heavy 89.5 Used
12. Room S.H. sub total (Items 1 to 11) R.S.H.
13. Duct Gain Add 10% if duct external to conditioned space
14. Room total sens. Heat (Items 12 + 13 Cooling R.T.H
Outside Air Factors for design Temp. Diff.
[Use highest quantity only] 14.4
8K 10K 12K 14K 16K
15. A. Room volume m3 x 0.5 Sub
= ..l/s total
B. People x Rate Table 3 9.6 12.0 14.4 16.8 19.2
Factor
= ..l/s
Table 5
16. Total Sensible Heat (Items 14 + 15) Cooling Heating
17. LATENT GAINS COOLING
Design Conditions
18. Infiltration from 8 .l/s X Factor from Table 4 ...
Summer OC
Special heat sources Ambient db wb
19.
Refer Table 1 (Latent Heat) Room db wb
People (Latent.Heat) Activity Diff. db wb
20.
Quantity Sitting 45.5 Light 80.5 Heavy 160
21. Room total latent heat (Items 18 to 20) Cooling Winter OC
22. Outside Air from 15.l/s X Factor from Table 4 Ambient db wb
Room db wb
23. Total Latent Heat (Items 21 + 22) Cooling Diff. db wb
24. Grand Total Heat (16 + 23) Cooling Room Area m2
25. S.H.R. Room 14/(14 + 21) = .Equipment 16/24 =
Room Volume m3
TOTAL
Evaporative coolers are very effective in cooling dry locations, e.g. inland country
areas away from lakes, dams, etc.
In coastal areas the air has higher moisture content; therefore the efficiency of an
evaporative cooler is dramatically reduced.
Components
The components that make up an evaporative cooler include:
Water pump.
Water distributors.
Panel fill (Aspen).
Centrifugal fan with cowling (volute).
Simple water regulating method.
Water make-up valve.
1, 2, or 3 speed fan motor.
Water holding basin.
Basic operation
A water pump located in the sump of the cooler pushes water up into the distribution
trays. The trays disperse the water evenly over the fill that is held in the panels of the
cooler walls.
As the surface water evaporates, the temperature of the air (sensible heat) flowing
through the material in the panels drop.
The lowest possible temperature that the water can drop to is that of the wet bulb
temperature of the ambient air entering the cooler.
The loss of sensible heat is equal to the gain in latent heat. (ADIABATIC, heat energy
is neither lost nor gained during the process).
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Advantages
Lower capital cost than refrigerated air conditioning systems.
Lower energy consumption.
Large fresh air ventilation rate excellent in areas of higher exhaust air
requirements, e.g. kitchens.
Disadvantages
Conditions inside are largely dependant on those outside.
Suitable for hot and dry climatic areas.
Provision must be made for the exhaust of large air quantities.
Larger ducts are required to handle the higher air quantities.
Precautions
Evaporative coolers are a cheap alternative to refrigerated air conditioning (about 25%
of the running cost and much cheaper to install), but a number of limitations apply to
their use.
They add a great deal of moisture to the air, therefore problems with mould
can occur.
The room must be well ventilated in order to exhaust the room air.
The unit must never be undersized for the load.
Room air must not be circulated.
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Units are best suited to dry inland areas where high Wet Bulb Depressions are
experienced. Performance is poor in coastal areas.
The drier the air the greater the ability the air has of absorbing this moisture. The
wetter the air, the less effective it is of absorbing the moisture and this results in
higher supply air temperature.
Therefore, if an evaporative cooler was used in inland regions with low Relative
Humidity it would be more efficient than an evaporative cooler used in coastal areas
or near large water ways with high air Relative Humidity levels.
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Review Questions
1. Explain the basic operation of an evaporative cooler.
3. The evaporative cooler operates mainly by cooling the water flowing over the
pads.
5. The amount of water circulated over the pads is of little concern to the effective
operation of an evaporative cooler.
6. What causes the Wet Bulb temperature to be lower than the Dry Bulb
temperature?
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7. Define the term WET BUL DEPRESSION.
8. Unlike conventional Air Conditioning systems, all windows and doors of the
conditioned space should remain open. Why?
10. Explain why an evaporative cooler is less effective in coastal regions compared to
inland regions.
11. Many registered Bowling Clubs, Leagues Clubs and RSL Clubs in coastal regions
employ the use of evaporative coolers. Other than some direct cooling, what is
their other main purpose for using these evaporative cooler applications?
12. Why can the evaporative cooler only cool the air passing over the pads to a
maximum of approximately 80% of the difference between dry bulb and wet bulb
temperatures?
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13. In accordance to the Australian Standard 3666.1:1995 where can an evaporative
cooler be located?
14. In accordance to the Australian Standard 3666 and the NSW Code of Practice for
the Control of Legionnaires Disease, what must be done to an evaporative cooler
if it is not in use during the winter months?
15. Why should a water filter be fitted to the underside of the water pump of an
evaporative cooler?
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Notes
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Central Plant Systems
As the name implies, central plant systems refer to Air Conditioning equipment being
situated in a centrally located, sound controlled plant room.
They may also be referred to as built up systems, as not all central plants have the
same components as the package unit.
Instead they are all individual applications to meet medium to large commercial
applications. Such factors as cost, design parameters, cooling and heating load
requirements, and humidity control, and customer preference determine what
equipment is found in an Air Conditioning plant room.
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Basic types
There are 2 basic types of central plant systems. They are:
The coil has a multi-pass configuration to keep the pressure drop in the coil as low as
possible and to keep the coil surface temperature as even as possible.
The coils Face Velocity is generally maintained at around 2.5 m/s. If this is exceeded,
then moisture may be blown off the coil and into the ductwork or conditioned space.
The air off (or Supply Air) temperature varies between 10OC and 14OC.
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The water flow rate is generally maintained at around 1 m/s resulting in a water
temperature rise of around 6K to 8K through the coil.
Whether it is the Direct Expansion or Chilled water system they both require ducting
to deliver the air into the air conditioned space.
Its use is limited to situations where variations occur almost uniformly throughout the
zone served or where the load is stable.
A single zone system would be applied to small department stores, individual shops in
an arcade, computer rooms, warehouses, churches, auditoriums and cafeterias.
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cooling flexibility but cannot control summer humidity independent of temperature
requirements.
Terminal air conditioning units can be fitted with both chilled water and hot water
coils. Where more than one terminal air conditioning unit is fitted, they can be
interconnected with four types of water circuit piping arrangements, they are the:
One pipe system
Two pipe system, either reverse return or the direct return
Three pipe system
Four pipe system
At each branch a take-off is used to direct water from the main line to flow through
the coil as required. The water temperature will vary throughout the pipe.
The coils must be designed to have a low pressure drop in order to keep the pump
head of the system within reasonable limits.
One pipe systems are extensively used for heating in residences and small commercial
buildings. They are not extensively used for cooling.
The direct return is the cheaper of the two systems to install due to it having shorter
pipe runs but has the additional cost of having to balance the system to ensure it
works correctly.
The reverse return though is more costly to install but has the advantage of being self-
balancing.
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Two pipe systems are used for either heating or cooling in residences and small
commercial buildings. Change over from heating to cooling for seasonal variances is
done either automatically or manually.
Not commonly used due to the potential problems of extreme temperature returns
back to the chiller or boiler, high operating costs and maintenance problems.
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Four pipe system
Though more expensive to install due to additional piping costs, this system offers the
better control of all the piping arrangements. This arrangement consists of two supply
pipes (one for hot water and one for chilled water) and two return pipes (again one for
hot water and one for chilled water). In this arrangement there is no mixing of the two
water circuits, cold water will return to the chiller and hot water will return to the
boiler or heat exchanger.
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Multi zone system
The multi zone system is applicable for serving a relatively small number of zones
from a single, central air handling unit. The requirements of the different zones are
met by mixing cold and warm air through dampers at the central air handler in
response to zone thermostats. The mixed conditioned air is distributed through the
building by a system of single zone ducts. Either packaged units complete with all
components or field fabricated apparatus casings may be used. Smaller low heat load
zones sharing the system are affected by lower space temperatures therefore reheat
coils are needed to overcome these problems. Expense in running costs gets charged
to the consumer, storeowner, etc.
New multi zone units are now being used which have individual heating and cooling
coils for each zone supply duct. These systems use less energy than units with
common coils; the supply air is heated or cooled only to that degree required to meet
the zone load.
These ducts run throughout the buildings and branch off into smaller lines supplying
the mixing boxes that proportion the hot and cold air according to the needs of the
area being supplied. In the boxes, the velocity pressure is also reduced, to pressures of
about 100 Pascals, so that normal ceiling distribution outlets can be used.
The beauty of this design is the ability of this system to maintain constant volume of
air to the mixing boxes and the way in which this is uniquely controlled within the
mixing box.
Within the mixing box are two actuating motors, one for hot air damper control and
one for cool air damper control. For full heating, the heating damper would be fully
open and the cooling damper closed. As the heating load reduces, the room thermostat
senses the temperature rise, and calls for some cooling by opening the cold air
damper/valve. The immediate result is an increased air volume. The extra air raises
the box pressure. The increased pressure is sensed by a pressure measuring device,
(Static Pressure Regulator) which controls the hot air damper, and it closes
proportionally to the opening of the cooling valve.
As further cooling is required, the room thermostat opens the cold air damper and the
static pressure regulator closes the hot duct in response to pressure changes. The
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mixing box may supply air to one or up to six outlets, depending on the size of the
zone under control of one thermostat.
Most valves and dampers, when half open will supply more than 50% of the fully
open flow. Therefore the volume supplied by a mixing box will increase when both
dampers are partly open. In all cases, a pressure reducing baffle in the middle of the
box ensures good mixing and reduces the downstream air velocity.
The important facet of the duct design and size is that the bypass damper is to be sized
to offer the same pressure drop across the cooling coil to avoid all the airflow
bypassing the coil.
Economiser cycle
The economiser cycle makes sure of free conditioning by avoiding the use of
mechanical cooling during periods of low ambient (outside) temperatures.
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Variable air volume system
Variable air volume systems have one distinct advantage over the constant volume
design systems. That is the VAVs ability to conserve energy of the operation of the
entire air conditioning plant. The principal of Variable Air Volume (VAV) operation
is, as the name implies, varies the air volume to suit the desired conditions.
VAVs are located within a box and are the last component before the air is
discharged from the outlets, (Terminal VAV Units). A space thermostat which if it
senses the room is down to temperature, signals the VAV to close the air off. In most
cases this can be as low as 20% of maximum air volume. When the thermostat senses
undesirable warm room temperatures, the VAV is opened up to allow full volume
flow rate of air. Because the VAV systems modulate the air volume, the pressure in
the ducts will modulate as well. This modulating static pressure can be used to reduce
or increase the air supplied and the power consumed. This can be through one of the
accepted fan modulating techniques.
These include:
1. Fan bypass or spill air, whereby a static pressure regulator senses an increase
in static pressure and modulates a control bypass damper that recirculates the
air back to the return air duct or to a wasted area, i.e. roof space.
2. Variable speed fan. Using a supply air static controller to vary the speed of
the fan. Becoming the most common of the stated applications.
3. Inlet vane control. This is where the inlet vanes on the fan itself are
positioned by an actuator responding to a signal from the static pressure
sensor.
Although the principal is the same for all VAVs the manufacturing designs differ.
Two commonly used terminal VAV units are:
Expanding bellows design, whereby the expansion of a bellows is used to
restrict the airflow into the conditioned space. Air pressures may be supplied
either from the pneumatic control system, or from the supply duct air which is
always at a higher pressure than the air in the VAV bow (system powered). A
regulator and room thermostat in each case controls Bellows pressure.
Air valve design, whereby two components make up the air valve. The
damper is moved back and forth across the air slots in the cylinder to vary the
airflow. The power to move the damper coming either from the system air
pressure, or pneumatic or electric motor. The ability of a large control unit to
supply a number of satellite terminals can be achieved by the Air valve
design.
Induction units
Induction units are specially designed air water systems that are fitted around the
perimeter of buildings. They are fitted to remove the sensible heat load (primarily
solar heat load) through the windows, removing this load from the main air
conditioning system.
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Maintenance procedures
Like the package unit, Central Plant Air Conditioning Systems require preventative
maintenance programs to ensure the highest performance of operation and prevent
unnecessary faults and avoid excessive expense to the owner of the plant.
The central plant and associated equipment installed within a central plant system has
been designed to give long trouble free service when operated and maintained
correctly.
To gain optimum performance and maximum service life, it is important that a regular
inspection and maintenance program be carried out.
This section is a guide only to establish such a program. In all instances, you should
refer to the appropriate sections of the manufacturers manual. Their
recommendations will take first priority.
Safety
Maintenance personnel must exercise good judgement along with proper safety
practices to avoid damage to equipment and prevent personal injury.
It is assumed that your company has established a safety program based upon a
thorough analysis of industrial hazards.
Proper installation and care of protective guards, shutdown devices and other pressure
protection equipment should also be considered an essential part of any safety
program.
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The schedules for routine preventative maintenance activities are based on the
expected plant usage rates for a twelve (12) month period.
Refrigeration leaks
All joints should be checked with a reliable leak detector. When the plant is new,
these checks should be made frequently. It is recommended that a general inspection
be carried out at least every six (6) months.
Watch for any traces of oil on fittings or under the refrigeration equipment,
compressor, etc. as this may indicate gas leaks. Check with a detector if in doubt. In
particular, check joints such as flanges, valves, flare nuts.
Always keep the valve bonnets and caps securely closed when not operating the
valve. Check around the coil and the return bend and headers.
Electric motors
Check where necessary for motor casing temperature rise.
Blow through motor terminal boxes to remove accumulated dust and if possible,
check motors for current input at full load and for insulation resistance.
Bearing lubrication
For general purposes the following instructions can be followed:
Grades of grease acceptable for the general lubrication of bearings, for fans, pumps,
etc. are:
Castrol EPL 2
Castrol EPL 3
Shell Oil Co. Aust Ltd. Alvania No: 2
Shell Oil Co. Aust Ltd. Alvania No: 3
After washing, the bearing should be examined for signs of wear. If in good condition,
it should be repacked by pressing fresh grease well into the case, race and balls and
rollers and all spaces within the bearing itself should be completely filled. After
repacking the bearing, any surplus grease should be wiped off.
The labyrinth grooves (shaft seals) in the bearing, should be scraped out, cleaned with
petrol and when dry, refilled with fresh grease. The bearing caps should be filled half
to two-thirds full with grease.
When adjusting the tension make sure alignment of pulleys is maintained. In renewing
belts, renew all belts in the one drive, with a matched set to obtain even tension. The
size of the belts is stamped into the top of each belt. Refer to the relevant
commissioning sheet for belt sizes.
Refrigeration chillers
The systems are fully charged with oil at start-up and levels should be checked
regularly. Regularly check operating pressures as indicated on plant and record oil
data.
At least once a year, check operation and set points of all operating and safety
controls. Ask the chiller manufacturer to provide their yearly maintenance and service
programme.
Pump maintenance
Refer at all times to the manufacturers instructions for maintenance procedures for
the pump installed.
For general purposes however, the following should be observed at all times:
Pumps should never be run dry.
Pump couplings must be properly aligned at start-up and be checked regularly.
Glands (packed and mechanical) must be properly lubricated (refer
manufacturers instructions) and checked regularly.
Bearings (pump and drive) to be lubricated as under Bearing Maintenance.
Bearings MUST be treated as per manufacturers instructions. Do not over
grease.
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Pump cavitation must be investigated and stopped immediately.
Pumps should not vibrate.
Water systems should be completely drained and flushed with cleaning agents
whenever water treatment has not been carried out for a prolonged period, or if system
performance indicates that the pipes or heat exchangers need cleaning.
Regularly check operation of all chemical feed devices and repair as necessary and
check condition of all control devices such as thermostats and valves.
When static pressure across the filter exceeds 125 Pa replace the media with new
media. When a filter is being installed, it must be first installed over the inner frame,
then the assembly inserted into the holding frame. Be very careful to ensure a seal is
formed between the media and the mounting frame. Equipment, especially air
conditioning units, should not be run without filters.
Fan Coil Unit Panel Filters fitted with dry media, cleanable type, should be cleaned as
follows:
Remove surface lint and loose dirt with a vacuum cleaner attachment or by
gently rapping over a newspaper.
Flush water through inlet (dirty) side of filter. In severe cases, immersion and
agitation in cold water, mild detergent may be necessary. Rinse thoroughly
and dry.
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Practical Exercise 1: Interlock circuit operation
Task
Procedure
1. Read the central plant circuit diagram that incorporates interlocking, located
after the following questions.
a. What type of air conditioning system is operated by the circuit diagram? List
the main components.
c. The evaporator fan motor trips on O/L, will the compressor run? Why?
d. The flow switch sensed low water flow in the condenser water circuit. List in
sequence, what will happen to the operation of this system.
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e. The cooling tower fan thermostat is out of calibration and the water
temperature in the tower has risen to 38OC. What will happen to this system
while this condition remains under full load cooling?
f. The compressor motor contactor coil has 180 volts supply. What could cause
this problem and how will the system react to this fault situation?
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Practical Exercise 2: Central plant system operating characteristics
Task
To observe and record the normal operating characteristics of a central plant system.
Equipment
Safety
Procedures
1. Start the system and allow the central plant to operate for 15 minutes before
recording readings.
2. Observe the start sequence of plant and note the interlocking procedures below
in step form.
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II. OA
O
I. Dry Bulb Temperature C DB
O
II. Wet Bulb Temperature C WB
III. Volume Flow Rate L/s
III. RA
O
I. Dry Bulb Temperature C DB
O
II. Wet Bulb Temperature C WB
III. Volume Flow Rate L/s
IV. Water Flow rate through cooling coils under full load conditions.
. L/s
V. Saturated Suction
I. Pressure kPa
O
II. Temperature C
IX. Pressure drop across air filtration system in fan coil unit
Pa
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ii. Condenser Heat Rejection Capacity
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Practical Exercise 3: Routine preventative maintenance
Task
To identify what preventative maintenance should be carried out and how often.
Procedure
In the following tables, indicate the time intervals (one, three, si and twelve monthly)
for each maintenance procedure activity.
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The fan coil unit
Filters
Dry media, cleanable type.
Chiller
Always refer to the chiller manufacturers Installation, Operation and
Maintenance Manual, before commencing maintenance on a chiller.
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Plant Maintenance Item Frequency
monthly
monthly
monthly
Weekly
12
3
6
Chillers Check oil level
Check operating pressures and
temperatures
Check water temperature
Check operation
Check refrigerant leakage
Check refrigeration strainers
Manufacturers service
Oil analysis
Check operation and setting of all
controls
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Practical Exercise 4: Fault finding exercise
Task
To practice the skills on the following hypothetical faults that may be encountered in
a central plant air conditioning system.
Procedure
For each problem and symptoms, identify a possible cause and recommended action.
Compressor stops
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Compressor short cycles
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Practical Exercise 5: Fault finding
Task
Equipment
Safety
Procedure
1. The teacher will set up a fault on an air conditioning system that you will fault
find, repair, and report on below.
3. Determine and record below the symptoms, the fault and the remedy.
1 Ambient temperature
2 Air on condenser
3 Air on evaporator
4 Air off evaporator
5 Temperature split across evaporator coil
6 Saturated suction temperature
7 Equivalent saturated suction temperature
8 Saturated condensing temperature
9 Discharge temperature
10 Evaporator temperature difference
11 Condenser temperature difference
12 Suction line pressure drop
13 Evaporator superheat
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14 Suction line superheat
15 Condenser sub-cooling
16 Liquid line sub-cooling
17 Airflow through evaporator
18 Outside air quantity
19 Liquid indicator condition
20 Receiver level
Answers:
Fault Diagnosis
Symptoms
Remedy
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Review Questions
1. Explain the difference between a constant volume, variable temperature central
plant system and a variable volume, constant temperature central plant system.
2. List two major types of compressors and their refrigerants used in large flooded
evaporator chiller sets.
3. What device would be used to determine low water flow in a chilled water
supply? Explain how it functions, mechanically and electrically.
4. List three secondary refrigerants that may be used to cool an air conditioned
space.
5. List two advantages and two disadvantages of the multi zone air conditioning
system over a split zone air conditioning system.
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6. What is the purpose of reheat in the supply duct of a multi zone air conditioning
system?
10. When would the economiser cycle open on the modulating OA damper to 100%?
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11. Why must the operation of fresh air, spill air and mixing dampers be coordinated
in large air handling systems?
12. Explain two advantages of Variable Air Volume systems over a constant volume
air conditioning system in a general office space.
13. List two methods used to maintain the static pressure in the duct once the VAV
begins to reduce the airflow into the room.
14. What type of diffuser is recommended for VAV systems? Explain why.
15. Describe the difference in application between a basic shut-off VAV box and a
VAV box fitted with a reheat coil.
16. Where would an induction unit be located in reference to the air conditioned
space?
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17. Describe the importance of selecting the correct secondary chilled water
temperature for induction systems.
18. An induction unit mixes primary and secondary air. Explain with a diagram where
this mixing takes place.
19. Explain the difference between a central plant and a terminal air conditioning unit.
20. List three advantages of terminal air conditioning units over central fan systems.
21. A centrifugal chilled water set operates on a suction pressure below 0 kPa gauge
pressure. If a refrigerant leak occurred, how would the leak be found?
22. What governs the maximum pressure that the chiller set can be checked for leaks?
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Heating Systems
Heating systems are included in most air conditioning applications. There are various
forms of heating systems used in the HVAC industry.
They range from electric heater elements, steam and hot water to reheat reclamation.
The installation of any one of these systems depends on cost, efficiency,
specifications and system reliability.
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Steam coils
Steam at a pressure of approximately 100 kPa (a saturation temperature of
approximately 120OC), is supplied from a boiler to a finned tube coil mounted in the
air handler.
As the steam passes through the coil it gives up its Latent Heat of Condensation to the
air (approximately 2200 kJ/kg) and leaves the coil as hot water.
A coil only 1 row deep is all that is generally needed due to the high efficiency of this
system (the latent heat transfer is extremely high and the temperature of the steam is
also high).
Air velocity over the coil face is generally maintained at 3.5 m/s with a steam flow
rate of around 0.15 kg/s through the coil.
Electric elements
Usually installed in the zone ducts, with stages of capacity across 1, 2 or all 3 phases
to balance the current draw of the system and provide a degree of capacity control
(with the aid of a Step Controller).
The ductwork in the immediate vicinity of the heater elements must be fire rated
(Millboard is a popular insulator).
A high limit (hi-limit) thermostat with manual reset must be fitted in case of:
Fan motor seizure.
Fan motor burnout.
Fan belt breakage.
Air blockage (filters, etc).
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They are generally not used in systems over 35kW.
Reverse cycle
A four way solenoid valve known as a Reversing Valve is fitted into the refrigerant
circuit. During heating, the energised valve connects the suction line to the condenser
and the discharge line to the evaporator.
This is the most efficient method of generating heat, however it is heavily dependant
upon the temperature of the outside air.
Many reverse cycle systems are designed to operate in ambient temperatures as low as
-8OC but they tend to go through a De-Ice cycle too often and they rely heavily upon
electric element heaters to achieve comfort conditions.
As a general rule, this style of heating is not used when the ambient temperature falls
below 0OC. The coils are no longer referred to as the evaporator and condenser, but
the indoor and outdoor the coils.
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Larger systems should not be fitted with a Capillary Tube metering device. They
should instead use two TX valves (one at the inlet to each coil), and two check valves
(to provide a path around each TX valve when flow is required in the opposite
direction).
An Accurator also can be used as a reversing valve. It is like a check valve and
capillary built into one. It is cheaper than two (2) TX valves and check valves.
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Heat reclaim
Similar in design to the hot water coil except that a boiler is not used to generate the
hot water.
The warm water that is normally sent to the cooling tower from refrigeration
equipment is instead redirected to the hot water coil in the air handler.
The quantity of water being redirected to the hot water coil is generally controlled by
a three way modulating bypass valve (normally located near the tower).
Heat energy required for the heating of the air conditioned space is thereby reclaimed
from the refrigeration plant.
This type of system is generally only found in supermarkets where the refrigeration
plant is large enough to provide the heating requirements of the building.
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Practical Exercise 1: Hot water coil capacity
Task
Procedure
1. A hot water pump is supplying hot water to a heating coil at 5 L/s. The water
is returning to the boiler system at 75OC. The hot water supply temperature is
85OC.
Calculate the heating coil capacity.
2. A heating coil has a rated capacity of 3.5 kW. The water temperature entering
the coil is 75OC and the leaving temperature is 180OC.
Calculate the required mass flow of water to achieve this rated capacity.
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Practical Exercise 2: Fault finding
Task
Procedure
1. When checking a boiler having a rated capacity of 150 kW, it was found that
the water flow was 1.8 L/s with water entering at 59OC and leaving at 78.5OC.
Would you consider this to be operating as it should? Why?
List five possible faults that could cause this complaint and how you would
check them before you can rectify the fault.
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Review Questions
4. List two main reasons for using individual duct heating elements or coils
instead of reverse cycle air conditioning, to heat an office space.
5. Describe the purpose and operation of de-ice controls fitted to reverse cycle air
conditioning systems.
Purpose:
Operation:
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6. List three electrical safety features that can be incorporated into an electric
heater control circuit.
`
10. What are photo-electric cells used for in hot water boilers?
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Humidification Systems
Humidity is life! Man, beast and plant need the right air humidity for their well being.
Many production processes, modern computer techniques, proper storage of all kinds
of goods and the preservation of works of art would be unthinkable without controlled
air humidity. Insufficient humidity is corrected by humidification and steam
humidification is eminently suited to bringing the air humidity to the proper level.
The humidity present in the air consists of water vapours; that is water in gaseous
state. Humidification means raising the content of water vapour in the air and
humidification employing steam is the best and obvious route because it has no
detrimental side effects.
Humidity control
The humidity controller is selected according to the permitted (or economical)
humidity tolerances.
Spray eliminators must be fitted downstream of the spray header to prevent excess
water from entering the ductwork.
Atomising humidifiers are more effective because the water is broken into very small
droplets making it easier for the air to absorb more moisture.
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Open pan method.
A pan of water is located in the ductwork and heated by an electric element. The
energy input is generally controlled by a humidistat. It may be a two position (either
On or Off) control or a Proportional (modulating) control. Scale tends to form quickly
on the heated surfaces, therefore regular water treatment is necessary.
Control may be achieved by switching the boiler on and off (only on small boilers), or
by the use of a two way modulating valve in the steam line. A humidistat provides the
switching in each case.
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Air humidification by steam:
Is hygienically irreproachable (sterile).
Causes no smells.
Avoids deposits of mineral constituents from the water in air ducts and rooms.
Allows optimal regulation of the air humidity.
Involves almost no change in the air temperature (i.e. it is isothermal).
And is simple to dimension.
Installation
Careful planning and installation are necessary to ensure sterile humidification with
steam. The steam must be absorbed properly by the air to avoid condensation because
damp surfaces are an ideal breeding ground for micro-organisms!
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Humidification distance
The installation location of the steam distributor is predetermined by the design of the
air conditioning system. During operation, the water vapour emerging from the steam
distributor pipe is visible in the form of mist for a certain distance.
The appropriate minimum distance from the steam distributor must be maintained for
the various parts of the system.
Safety provisions
Compulsory safety devices are fitted according to instructions given by the
responsible project engineer.
To avoid possible costly moisture damage, the following safety provisions are
indispensable:
Interlock with ventilation switch-on.
Flow is monitored for air delivery (differential pressure switch etc).
Safety humidistats are fitted in the supply air duct and rooms.
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Review Questions
1. List four methods to humidify air.
2. What controls the Relative Humidity in the conditioned space? Where should
this device be located?
4. List three advantages of direct steam humidifiers over the other types.
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6. List the two major factors that need to be considered as to where to locate the
humidifier.
10. What are the major limitations on reticulated air humidification systems?
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Thermal Storage Systems
The concept of thermal storage as applied to cooling systems is not new. Not long
after mechanical refrigeration for air conditioning became a practical reality in the
1930s, the technology was extended to include thermal storage. Thermal storage was
/ is used to handle infrequent short term cooling loads such as those in churches and
theatres, and process applications such as dairies.
The reason for using thermal storage was to minimise the initial cost of the cooling
system. For example, a church might have a cooling load of 150 kW over a five hours
period, occurring once a week. Rather than install a 150 kW system to operate for 5
hours, thus producing 750 kW-hours of cooling, a 15 kW system could be installed to
operate and store cooling for 50 hours.
The same total cooling capacity (750 kW-hours) was produced and the system cost
was substantially reduced, even when the cost of the storage equipment was included.
This concept was practical as long as the time available to generate cooling storage
was much greater than the time of cooling use. Only under these circumstances would
the reduction in the cost of the refrigeration system more than offset the cost of
storage. Thermal storage continues to be applied to cooling systems with these
characteristics.
Thermal storage is now drawing interest for broader application in comfort and
process cooling systems because of major changes in rate structures in the electric
power industry. Many electric utility companies experience the greatest demand for
electricity during the summer, largely to satisfy the comfort cooling needs of their
customers. Consequently, the amount of power that the utility must generate peaks
during daylight hours when the cooling requirements are the highest.
Many comfort and process cooling loads exist for only a few hours each day and
commonly occur during hours of peak power demand.
Since conventional cooling systems produce cooling when it is needed, they operate
when power costs are the highest. Thermal storage systems however, minimise energy
costs by generating cooling capacity at off peak times and storing it for future use.
Cooling load applications that can benefit from thermal storage are office buildings,
schools and college buildings, religious institutions, laboratories, large retail stores,
libraries, museums and the public use areas of hotels (such as meeting rooms).
Thermal storage can also be used for many industrial processes, such as occur in
dairies, breweries and other types of plants with batch cooling cycles.
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Chilled Water Storage Systems
Chilled water storage systems commonly utilise a packaged refrigeration system
consisting of a compressor, condenser, and an evaporator that chills water. Frequently,
the condenser is water cooled and requires condenser water pumping system and a
cooling tower to reject the condenser heat to the atmosphere. As shown in Figure 1,
the chilled water is pumped into water storage tanks, which are usually constructed of
concrete or steel at the jobsite. When chilled water is required for cooling, it is
pumped out of the tanks to the load and returned to the storage tanks.
So while it would appear that chilled water storage is a natural marriage of cooling
system technology and the thermal storage concept, closer examination shows that
there are substantial cost, operational and space problems that must be solved.
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As seen earlier, the space
required to store adequate
quantity of chilled water can
be enormous. In this regard,
ice storage has a decided
advantage over chilled water
storage, since the basis for
storage is the latent heat of
fusion of water, which is 335
kJ per kg. This means that
each kilogram of water can
provide 335 kJ of cooling
when it is frozen into ice
compared to chilled water
which has a capacity of 4.19
kJ/kg K.
Therefore the cost of the required Ice Storage System is substantially less than the
cost of chilled water storage systems. The return water flows into the ice builder and
is cooled by the melting ice, providing a leaving water temperature of approximately
2OC.
A potential disadvantage of ice storage systems is hat more energy is required to make
ice than is required to chill water because a lower evaporator temperature is require to
produce ice than to produce chilled water at 5OC. The penalty for the lower evaporator
temperature however can be greatly reduced by choosing the most efficient
condensing method, the evaporative condenser. For example, at 26OC design wet bulb
temperature, an evaporative condenser can be selected to operate on an ice storage
system at 35OC condensing temperature where a water cooled chiller would be
selected for 40OC condensing temperature. The lower condensing temperature nearly
offsets the power penalty caused by the lower evaporator temperature on an ice
storage system.
On the basis of initial cost and space advantages, with essentially no penalty in power
consumption, ice storage is usually the best choice in the selection of a thermal
storage system for cooling.
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A full storage system is one which has been selected to generate all of the cooling
capacity for the facility or process during the hours when off-peak electrical rates are
in effect, which is usually during evening and early morning.
The refrigeration system is operated and ice forms on the coil surface of the Ice
Thermal Storage System until a predetermined thickness is obtained. A sensor then
shuts down the refrigeration system.
When cooling for the building or process is required, the chilled water pump
circulates water from the ice chiller to the load. The return water is cooled by the
melting ice, and this process continues until the daily cooling requirement is satisfied.
After the electricity rates return to the off-peak schedule, a timer permits the
refrigeration to re-starts and the ice is then rebuilt during off-peak hours for use in the
next cooling cycle.
By definition then, a full storage system makes maximum use of the thermal storage
concept. Its objective is to achieve minimum operating cost by avoiding high demand
charges and/or higher energy charges. However, since all of the cooling capacity is
stored, the total ice storage system is the most costly to install. Quite frequently, the
operating cost savings will not be sufficient to justify the initial cost.
Large steel tanks filled with liquid are buried into the earth. Thermal energy is gained
from the ground itself and/or solar collectors and/or other heat producing equipment
(i.e. heat pump condensers).
Most thermal exchange occurs within one metre of the tank while the effects from the
thermal process could reach as far as 10 metres from the tank/s. The temperature of
the tank can range from approximately 11OC to 30OC.
The heat stored is reused for heating during cooler periods in place of the more
expensive heating methods described in Heating Systems.
Different variants of this system can be found around the world. Should you wish to
investigate this method of thermal storage further, you should see the Internet for
details.
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Review Questions
1. What is the main purpose for using thermal storage?
3. Briefly explain the operation of either a chilled water or ice thermal storage
system.
4. Why use ice storage, rather than merely cooling water or brine?
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5. List two major advantages of thermal storage systems.
6. List three applications which would benefit from using chilled water or ice
thermal storage.
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Specialised Systems
Specialised Systems are systems specially designed for applications which have
their own unique requirements.
Computer Rooms
NOTE: Due to technological advances, the requirements for computer rooms are
constantly changing; for example: under Air Cleanliness, reel to reel tapes are
mentioned as is, under Relative Humidity, nylon carpet; neither of which are
commonly in use today.
Computer rooms, both large and small, are treated as close control, high sensible heat
load applications (as are electronic telephone exchanges).
All computer oriented equipment operates at very high levels of performance and
must therefore be located within a correct and closely controlled environment. Air
conditioning systems used to provide this environment must be capable of achieving
high control over:
Air cleanliness.
Relative humidity.
Temperature (in this order of importance).
Air cleanliness
The disk drives and reel to reel tapes used for data storage on modern computers are
capable of travelling at extremely high speeds, with extremely close tolerance
between the head and the surface of the disk or tape.
Any minute airborne particles picked up and caught between these two surfaces will
instantly destroy a large section of the data held on the disk and possibly damage the
reading / writing heads of the drive. Particles the size of a single grain of tobacco
smoke are capable of causing this!
Any technician servicing or maintaining this type of air conditioning system must not
only be aware of the conditioning requirements for the environment but also aware
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that he/she is probably carrying harmful dust particles into the environment on their
body, clothes and equipment. The following precautions should always be observed to
minimise this risk:
Do not smoke or consume food or beverages in a computer room.
Always advise the operators before commencing any task that may result in
the production of airborne particles (e.g. lighting an oxy-acetylene torch,
blowing out coils, etc).
Avoid wearing dirty or dusty clothing into the room, (consider keeping a clean
set of clothes in the van).
Some of the larger computer rooms provide additional safeguards against these
problems, such as:
Air locks at the entrance of the room.
Personal vacuum cleaners to remove any loose dust on clothing.
Sticky floor pads to remove dirt from the soles of shoes.
Relative humidity
The strict control of Relative Humidity in a computer room is of vital importance to
the efficient operation of the high speed printers commonly found in modern
premises.
If the RH% is too high then the paper will expand and clog or jam the printer head. If
the RH% is too low then static electricity may develop in the paper resulting in the
failure of the solid state components within the printer.
Another source of static build-up due to low RH% levels is the nylon carpet used in
the room. (Static earth straps are often worn by the operators and also placed in the
carpet to minimise the problem).
Dehumidification is often obtained by altering the airflow rate through the evaporator
coil (usually by changing the supply air fan speed).
Temperature
The main concern is the internal temperature of the computer itself. The computer
system functions through the use of solid state components which tend to suffer
from self heating.
High operating temperatures will cause these devices to literally self destruct so a
relatively cool environment must be provided to ensure efficient, long term operation.
Older computers required fairly close temperature control but the later models are
capable of operating within a fairly broad range of temperatures. Most will not
experience overheating problems until the room temperature exceeds 32OC. The main
reason for close temperature control in these rooms is the effect that temperature
change can have on relative humidity.
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Another consideration is the people that must work within this environment. Most
modern computers will provide adequate performance within the human comfort
environment (i.e. 22OC: 50% - 55%RH).
Because the occupancy levels and fresh air requirements are usually low, a Sensible
Heat Ratio of approximately 0.9 should be sufficient when calculating the heat load
on the plant. This will ensure that the system can handle the minimum moisture loads
placed on it but, at the same time, will not cause false humidification of the room.
Overhead systems
Air is generally discharged across the top of the room directly from a package unit.
These units generally have a throw of approximately 10 metres and care should be
taken to ensure that the supply air is not obstructed in any way.
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This system has many advantages in that great flexibility is provided in the location of
the supply air grilles.
Conditioned air may be passed directly into the computer housing by placing a grille
under the computer, (many large computers are designed to take full advantage of
this). Air conditions are generally maintained at around 18OC and 45%RH for these
systems, (please refer earlier notes at commencement of Computer Rooms).
Hospitals
The ventilation requirements within a hospital are very diverse. For this reason, the
Ventilation Code should be consulted for further information on the actual
requirements of each different room within the hospital.
Operating theatre
The air supplied to this room is recommended to be 100% Outside Air but recent
filtration capabilities allows 50% Outside Air to be used in operating theatres.
The return air removed from this room must be exhausted to the outside of the
building.
The filters used to clean the supply air must have a filtering efficiency of
99.99%. The only filter capable of providing this is the Absolute Filter. Most
ventilation systems will use a number of different types in front of the primary
filter in order to maximise its functional life.
The pressure within the room must be maintained at 25 Pa above the pressure
of the rooms immediately surrounding it.
Temperature and relative humidity levels are maintained at 22OC and 50%.
General wards
The return air must be filtered (and preferably deodorised with active carbon
beads).
The pressure within these rooms should be maintained at 25 Pa above the
atmospheric pressure.
Temperature and relative humidity levels are maintained to meet comfort
conditions.
The air supplied to these rooms may be a mixture of return air and outside air.
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Review Questions
1. What type of air filter is recommended for an operating theatres air
conditioning system?
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