Center of Aviation Module 15 Gas Turbines

EASA Part 66
Module 15: Gas Turbine Engine
Compiled by Engr. Hamza Asharf

Approved by Engr. Muhammad Ehsan Ullah
Institute of Space Technology
Module 15Gas Turbines
CoA Category B 1.1 & B 2 Code CoA- 1103
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FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY
Institute of Space Technology. All rights reserved Rev : 00

Proprietary document. Copies are controlled. Confirm revision status through the IST-Internet/Intranet. Date: 16-05-2014
Notes Change Record
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CENTRE OF AVIATION
Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Training Notes
This document is issued to you on the understanding that this is intended for your
self-study. This document is up to date but if amendments are made, subject to new
advancements in the field, then you will be provided with the amended document.
It is to be noted that this document does not in any way constitute an authorized
document for use in aircraft maintenance.
All rights reserved
No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any

form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the Center of
Aviation, Institute of Space Technology.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Fundamentals 6
1.1 Introduction 6
1.2 Principles of Jet Propulsion 6
1.2.1 SIR ISAAC Newton 6
1.2.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY 8
1.2.3 KINETIC ENERGY 8
1.2.4 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION 9
1.2.5 BRAYTON CYCLE 9
1.3 PHYSICS TERMINOLOGY 11
1.4 ACCELERATION 12
1.5 CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS 13
1.5.1 TURBOJET ENGINE 13
1.5.2 SINGLE-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW TURBO-JET 13
1.5.3 TWIN-SPOOL TURBO-JET 14
1.5.4 BY-PASS ENGINE 14
1.5.5 TURBO-FAN ENGINE 14
1.5.6 TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE 15
2. ENGINE PERFORMANCE (level B1 only) 17
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE 18
2.3 ENGINE THRUST ON THE TEST BENCH 20
2.3.1 Comparison Between Thrust and Horse-Power 21
2.4 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT 22
2.4.1 Effect of Forward Speed 23
2.4.2 Effect of Afterburning on Engine Thrust 26
2.4.3 Effect of Altitude 27
2.4.4 Effect of Temperature 27
2.5 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY 30
2.6 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP 31
2.7 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION 32
2.7.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION 32
2.7.2 FLAT RATING 32
2.7.3 PERFORMANCE RATINGS 32
3. AIR INTAKES 33
3.1 COMPRESSOR AIR INLET DUCTS 33
3.2 PITOT TYPE INTAKES 34
3.3 DIVIDED INTAKE DUCTS 34
3.4 CURVED INTAKE DUCTS 35
3.5 SUPERSONIC PITOT TYPE INTAKE 36
3.6 SUPERSONIC AIR INTAKE WITH RAMPS 37
3.7 TURBO-PROPELLER AIR INTAKES 38
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3.8 BELLMOUTH AIR INTAKE 38

3.9 AIR INTAKE ICE PROTECTION 39
3.10 THE HOT AIR SYSTEM 40
3.11 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM 41
3.12 CYCLIC TIMING 42
3.13 MIXED SYSTEMS 42
4. COMPRESSORS 44
4.1 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS 44
4.2 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS 46
4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 47
4.3.1 ADVANTAGES 47
4.3.2 DISADVANTAGES 47
4.4 COMBINED COMPRESSORS 47
4.5 OPERATING PRINCIPLES 48
4.5.1 CENTRIFUGAL 48
4.5.2 AXIAL 48
4.6 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES 49
4.6.1 CENTRIFUGAL 49
4.6.2 AXIAL 49
4.6.3 FAN BALANCING 50
4.6.4 STALL AND SURGE 52
4.7 BLEED BANDS/VALVES 53
4.7.1 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES (VIGVS) 54
4.8 OVERFUELLING SURGE 54
4.9 TWIN SPOOL AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS 54
5. COMBUSTION SECTION 56
5.1 COMBUSTION CHAMBER AIRFLOW 56
5.2 MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS 57
5.3 TUBO - ANNULAR/CAN ANNULAR 59
5.4 ANNULAR 60
5.5 STRAIGHT-THROUGH FLOW 60
5.6 REVERSE FLOW 60
6. TURBINE SECTION 62
6.1 TURBINE BLADES 62
6.1.1 BLADE ATTACHMENTS 65
6.2 GUIDE VANES 66
6.2.1 STRESS AND CREEP 67
6.2.2 BLADE COOLING 69
7. EXHAUST 70
7.1 EXHAUST CONE ASSEMBLY 70
8. BEARINGS AND SEALS (Level B1 only) 78
8.1 BEARINGS 78
8.1.1 Introduction 78
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8.1.2 Ball Bearings 78

8.1.3 Roller Bearings 78
8.1.4 Types of Bearings 79
9. LUBRICANTS AND FUELS 87
9.1 PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS 87
9.2 OILS 89
10. LUBRICATION SYSTEMS 91
10.1 TYPES OF SYSTEMS 91
10.1.1 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM 91
10.1.2 FULL FLOW OIL SYSTEM 92
10.1.3 TOTAL LOSS (Expendable) SYSTEM 93
10.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS 95
10.3 OIL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE PRACTICES 98
11. FUEL SYSTEMS 101
11.1 MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROLS 101
11.2 FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS 102
11.3 FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM 104
11.4 COMBINED ACCELLERATION AND SPEED CONRTOL (CASC) 105
11.5 FUEL FLOW REGULATOR 106
11.6 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONRTOL 106
11.7 SYSTEM LAYOUTS 107
11.8 ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL PUMP (EDP) 109
11.9 FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES 109
11.10 OVER-SPEED PROTECTION 111
12. AIR SYSTEMS 113
12.1 COOLING AIR 113
12.2 TURBINE COOLING 114
12.3 BEARING CHAMBER COOLING 115
12.4 ACCESSORY COOLING 115
12.5 SEALING AIR 116
12.6 LABRYNTH SEALS 117
12.7 RING SEALS 117
12.8 HYDRAULIC SEALS 118
12.9 CARBON SEALS 118
12.10 BRUSH SEALS 119
13. STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS 122
13.1 INTRODUCTION 122
13.1.1 ELECTRIC STARTING 122
13.1.2 AIR STARTING 123
13.1.3 IMPINGEMENT AIR STARTERS 124
13.2 HIGH ENERGY IGNITION SYSTEMS 125
13.3 MAINTENANCE SAFETY 128
14. ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS 129
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14.1 TURBINE GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 131

14.2 ENGINE THRUST INDICATION 132
14.3 TORQUE INDICATION 133
14.4 OIL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE 133
14.5 OIL TEMPERATURE 133
14.6 OIL PRESSURE 134
14.7 FUEL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE 134
14.8 FUEL FLOW 135
14.9 ENGINE SPEED 135
14.10 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION 136
15. POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (level B1 only) 138
15.1 INTAKE INJECTION 139
15.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER INJECTION 139
16. TURBO-PROPELLER ENGINES 140
16.1 REDUCTION GEARBOXES 142
16.2 INTEGRATED CONTROLS 143
16.3 OVERSPEED PROTECTION 145
17. TURBO-SHAFT ENGINES 148
17.1 APPLICATIONS 148
17.2 DE-RATING 150
17.3 ARRANGEMENTS 150
17.4 DRIVE SYSTEMS 151
17.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS 154
18. AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (APUs) 157
18.1 DESCRIPTION 157
18.2 CONSTUCTION 158
18.3 INSTALLATION 158
18.4 BASIC OPERATING CYCLE 159
18.5 BLEED AIR CONTROL 160
18.6 MAINTENANCE 162
18.7 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS 163
19. POWERPLANT INSTALLATION 165
19.1 ENGINE MOUNTINGS 166
19.2 ENGINE MOUNTINGS 2 173
19.3 CONNECTION OF SERVICES 176
19.4 QUICK DISCONNECT SHELF 176
19.5 ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS 178
19.6 LIFTING POINTS 178
19.7 DRAINS 179
20. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS 181
20.1 DETECTION SYSTEMS 181
20.2 THERMAL SWITCH 181
20.2.1 THERMOCOUPLES 182
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20.2.2 CONTINUOUS LOOP (Resistance/Capacitance) 182

20.2.3 CONTINUOUS LOOP (Gas ) 183
20.2.4 CONTROLS AND INDICATIONS 183
21. ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATION 185
21.1 PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND ENGINE RUN-UP 185
21.2 INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT 185
21.3 TREND MONITORING/ANALYSIS 186
21.4 MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTORS 187
21.5 OIL FILTERS 187
21.6 S.O.A.P 187
21.7 VIBRATION 188
21.8 VISUAL/OPTICAL INSPECTIONS 189
21.9 INSPECTION CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA 191
21.10 COMPRESSOR WASHING/CLEANING 193
21.11 FLUID CLEANING 193
21.12 ABRASIVE GRIT PROCESS 194
21.13 FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (F.O.D.) 194
22. ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION (Level B1 only) 196
22.1 INTRODUCTION 196
22.2 STORAGE PROCEDURES 196
22.2.1 PREPARING FOR STORAGE AND DISPATCH 196
22.2.2 PRESERVATION AND DEPRESERVATION 197
22.2.3 PERIODS OF STORAGE (Installed engines) can be divided into two catagories:197
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1. Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
The conquest of air by powered flight was ever the aim of man, and a great step
forward was made by the Wright Brothers at Kittyhawk, America by their historic
flight in 1903. Since this early date, aircraft have developed steadily and, in 1939,
aircraft speeds of 464 mph were achieved by production aircraft. Aircraft could
climb 56 000 feet and fly distances up to 7 000 miles nonstop. At this time,
international records in speed, altitude and endurance had all been set by Great
Britain.
In attempts to improve aircraft performance, engines were increased in both size

and power output, with various configurations being tried (e.g. various in-line and
radial engines with from 7 to 36 cylinders per engine). Superchargers with coolers,
water-methanol injection systems and many aids to performance were introduced.
However, piston engines and propeller combinations suffered a loss in performance
were introduced. However, piston engines and propeller combinations suffered a
loss in performance at high forward speeds and high altitudes; clearly a new type of
aircraft propulsion unit was needed if aircraft performance was to advance even
more; thus the jet engine (gas turbine) was born.
It is generally acknowledged that, in Great Britain, Sir Frank Whittle of the Royal Air
Force designed and developed the first British gas turbine engine that was suitable
for aircraft propulsion. Sir Frank was born in 1907 and he entered the Royal Air
Force as an apprentice. As an apprentice he gained a cadetship to Cranwell College
and, whilst there, he become interested in the prospect of jet propulsion for aircraft.
He produced design drawings for a gas turbine engine and his first engine ran on
static tests in 1937. In 1941 the Whittle gas turbine engine powered the Gloster
E28/39 aircraft and many of the present-day Rolls-Royce Aero engines are
developments of Sir Frank's design. Aero gas turbine engines have been the
foundation, which has made modern high performance aircraft possible.
1.2 Principles of Jet Propulsion

1.2.1 SIR ISAAC Newton
Jet propulsion is a practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's third law of
motion which states "For every force acting on a body, there is an equal and
opposite reaction".
A fireman's hose is an example where reaction is felt. When a powerful jet of

water is ejected from a hose, the hose tends to react and move away from
the water jet and, so great is the reaction, that sometimes two men are
needed to hold the hose and direct the water jet.
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Hero's Engine (Fig 1)

The earliest known example of jet reaction occurred during the use of a toy
called 'Hero's engine'. In 120 BC this toy showed how the momentum of
steam issuing from a number of jet outlets could impart an opposite reaction
to the jets themselves, and in doing so cause the engine to revolve. When
this principle is applied to aircraft propulsion, the 'body' upon which the
force acts is the atmosphere. Air is introduced into the intake duct of the gas
turbine engine and then a force is applied to cause the air to accelerate
within the engine.
The force which accelerates the air reacts in the opposite direction on the
engine and moves the engine away from the accelerating column of air in the
same manner as the fireman's hose moved away from the water jet.
Heros Engine Figure 1.1
JET REACTION
Jet reaction is an internal phenomenon and it is not, as sometimes assumed,
the result of the jet efflux impinging upon the atmosphere. The jet engine is
designed to accelerate a stream of air to an exceptionally high velocity and to
obtain useful thrust from the reaction. There are many ways of increasing
the velocity of the air but, in all cases, the resultant reaction is the propulsive
thrust exerted on the engine. The thrust obtained is proportional to the
mass of air passing through the engine and to the velocity increase of the
mass of air flow, i.e. momentum = mass velocity. Thus, the same
amount of propulsive thrust can be obtained by either:
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Accelerating a large mass through a small increase in velocity.

Or:
Accelerating a small mass through a large increase in velocity
Jet Reaction Figure 1.2
1.2.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY

Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the
relative positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an
object to a certain height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of
the gravitational force. This energy, waiting to be released is called potential
energy. The amount of this energy a system possesses is equal to the work
done on the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height.
Electrically charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because
of their position within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical
potential energy that is released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy,
(see below), when detonated.
1.2.3 KINETIC ENERGY

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the
motion of that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the
mass and speed of the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy = mv2
(Where m is the mass of the object and v is its speed in feet or metres per
second)
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All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but
the total energy must remain the same.
1.2.4 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

The full details of Newtons Laws of Motion were covered in Module 2
(Physics), but as a reminder, they are listed below:
FIRST LAW
This law states that a body at rest tends to stay at rest and a body in motion
tends to remain in uniform motion, (straight line), unless acted upon by some
outside force.
SECOND LAW
This law states that the acceleration produced in a mass by the addition of a
given force is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to
the mass.
It can be demonstrated by the formula: FORCE = MASS X ACCELERATION
THIRD LAW
This law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.
1.2.5 BRAYTON CYCLE

A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a
working fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing
through the engine has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or
kinetic energy), of the air is increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure
energy is first of all increased, followed by the addition of heat energy,
before final conversion back to kinetic energy in the form of a high velocity
jet efflux.
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-
stroke piston engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in
both cases, although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the
combustion in a piston engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas
turbine engine it occurs at a constant pressure.
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The cycle, upon which the engine functions, in its simplest form, is the
Brayton cycle, which is represented by the pressure/volume diagram, shown
below.
The Brayton Cycle Figure 1.3
The points A,B,C and D on the previous graph show the action of the
pressure and volume of the charge during the cycle.
A B: Compression from atmospheric at A to maximum at B.
B C: Combustion with heat being added.
C D: Expansion through the turbine and jet pipe.
During the C D part of the cycle, some of the energy in the

expanding gasses is turned into mechanical power by the turbine; the
remainder on its discharge to atmosphere, provides the propulsive force.
Later in the notes, turbo-propeller engines will be covered which reverse the
above statement. With these engines, the turbine(s) remove the majority of
the power from the exhaust, to drive the propeller, leaving little residual
thrust.
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1.3 PHYSICS TERMINOLOGY

The relationship between force, work, power, energy, velocity and acceleration
were covered during Module 2 (Physics). The next section will be a revision of those
physics notes.
FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. The units of force are the
Newton, (Metric) and the Pound, (Imperial). The Newton is the force required to
accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) at 1 metre per second, per second, (m/s2).
WORK
Work is the application of force to a body and the displacement of that body in the
direction of the force. It can be demonstrated by the simple formula shown below:
Work (W) = Force (F) x Distance (D)
The Metric system unit is the Joule, (One Joule being a force of 1N acting through
1m). One Joule therefore being 1Nm. (Newton-Metre), the Imperial measurement
being the foot-pound (ft-lb.).
POWER
The rate of doing work. It is the work done per unit time and could be shown as the
formula:
Power = Work done

Time to do the work
Work can be expressed in a number of units such as foot-pounds per second,
Horsepower and Watts. The foot pounds per second are self explanatory, but the
Horsepower is defined as 550 ft-lb. per second or 33,000ft-lb/min. The Watt is equal
to 1/746 hp, therefore, 746Watts equals 1hp.
ENERGY
The term energy is defined as the capacity for doing work. As mentioned earlier,
there are two forms of energy, potential and kinetic. Whilst there are many different
types of energy, they are ALL either potential or kinetic.
VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when describing
how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar quantity, whilst
the term velocityrefers to both speed and direction of an object. The full definition
of velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over time, and the
direction of the change.
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The simple diagram below shows how the aircraft, which flies the irregular path
from A to B in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph in
an East-Northeast direction.
Velocity/Speed DiagramFigure 1.4
1.4 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newtons Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred to
a linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation is
increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
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1.5 CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

1.5.1 TURBOJET ENGINE
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has
three major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine.
A shaft connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating
unit. These engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton
Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single
centrifugal(Double Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of
engine can still be found in certain special installations but generally, they
have been superseded by engines with axial compressors and multiple stage
turbines. The advantages and disadvantages of the two types of compressor
will be discussed in depth later in this module
Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine EngineFigure 1.5

1.5.2 SINGLE-SPOOL AXIAL FLOW TURBO-JET
The illustration below shows the inner workings of a single-spool axial flow
turbo-jet, the next engine in the development of gas turbines. It will be
noticed that it has, in this example, 17 compressor stages and 3 turbine
stages.
Single Spool Axial Flow TurbojetFigure 1.6
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1.5.3 TWIN-SPOOL TURBO-JET

A low-pressure section consisting of a compressor and a turbine assembly
and a high-pressure section, also consisting of a compressor and turbine. This
type of construction allows the two sections to run at different and more
efficient rotational speeds.
1.5.4 BY-PASS ENGINE

Some engines of this twin spool construction can also be found with a by-
pass duct, which passes some of the air from the rear of the first compressor
around the combustion and turbine sections of the engine. The by-passed air
joins the exhaust from the turbine section, which helps to improve the
propulsive efficiency of the engine, to produce better specific fuel
consumption and to make it a little quieter.
A large number of this type of engine are still in service, although high by-
pass engines which are covered later, have generally superseded them. An
engine of the twin-spool, low by-pass type is shown below which, with re-
heat (afterburner) can be found installed on Concorde.
Twin Spool By-Pass TurbojetFigure 1.7
1.5.5 TURBO-FAN ENGINE

A turbo-fan engine is an advanced development of both the conventional
propeller and the by-pass principle previously mentioned. The turbofan
accelerates a smaller mass of air than a propeller but it does accelerate a
much larger mass of air than earlier pure turbojet or low by-pass engine
designs. The turbo-fan engine, illustrated overleaf, has a large fan in front of
the intermediate compressor, and is in effect, a low-pressure compressor.
Basically, the engine is of a triple-spool construction, which means that there
are three compressors and three turbines, the Low pressure (LP),
Intermediate pressure (IP) and High pressure (HP) units, mounted on their
respective spools.
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As with the twin-spool set-up, the three main rotating parts of this engine all
rotate at their optimum speeds, giving an even greater thrust and efficiency
than the two spool designs. The high mass of air that passes only through the
fan gives the engine a very high by-pass ratio.
Triple Spool Turbo-FanFigure 1.8
Turbo-fan engines in a range of sizes, are installed in aircraft varying from

small business-jets to the largest transport aircraft including the Boeing 777
and the Airbus A340.
1.5.6 TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE

Turbo-shaft engines are different from the previous types of engine
mentioned. These all produce power through a driveshaft, which is used to
drive gearboxes when they are installed on helicopters. (Turbo-propeller
engines will be covered later). Many engines of this type are modifications of
turbo-propeller and turbo-fan engine designs.
The primary purpose of this design of engine is to produce shaft horsepower.

This is often obtained by the addition of an extra, power turbine, or free
power turbine, which extracts power from the exhaust gasses and, is
connected via a reduction gearbox, to an output shaft.
On some designs of turbo-shaft engines,(Direct Coupled) the output shaft

does not have a separate power turbine, but is simply connected to the
engines own turbine(s). This means that the output shaft will be rotating
whenever the engine is rotating.
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Whilst both type of turbo-shaft engines have been used most successfully to
power helicopters, the free-turbine design is the more widely used. This is
due to the fact that the engine can be started whist the rotors are held
stationary by a rotor brake mechanism. This allows ground runs and other
work to be carried out with the engines running, but with the rotors, which
can be dangerous to personnel on the ground, stationary.
The illustration below shows a twin-spool turbo-shaft engine with a two-

stage free power turbine, which, in this design, drives a shaft through the
engine, leaving the drive connection on the front of the engine.
Twin-Spool Turbo-Shaft (With Free-Power Turbine)Figure 1.9
The final design that will be considered is the turbo-propeller engine, often
called the turbo-prop. This design is very similar to the turbo-shaft engine,
except the output shaft is usually driven through a reduction gearbox and
connected to a propeller, as shown below.
Twin-Spool Axial Flow Turbo-PropellerFigure 1.10
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2. ENGINE PERFORMANCE (level B1 only)

2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES
The thrust forces or gas loads can be calculated for the engine, or for any flow
section of the engine, provided that the areas, pressures, velocities and mass flow
are known for both the inlet and outlet of the particular flow section.
The distribution of thrust forces shown in the figure can be calculated by considering
each component in turn and applying some simple calculations. The thrust
produced by the engine is mainly the product of the mass of air passing through the
engine and the velocity increase imparted to it (i.e. Newtons Second Law of
Motion), however the pressure difference between the inlet to and the outlet from
the particular flow section will have an effect on the overall thrust of the engine and
must be included in the calculation.
To calculate the resultant thrust for a particular flow section it is necessary to
calculate the total thrust at both inlet and outlet, the resultant thrust being the
difference between the two values obtained.
Calculation of the thrust is achieved using the following formula:
Wv
Thrust = ( A P) + J
g
Where A = Area of flow section in sq. in.
P = Pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
VJ = Velocity of flow in feet per sec.
g = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
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2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE

When applying the above method to calculate the individual thrust loads on the
various components it is assumed that the engine is static. The effect of aircraft
forward speed on the engine thrust will be dealt with later. In the following
calculations g is taken to be 32 for convenience.
2.2.1 Compressor Casing

To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the
conditions at the inlet to the compressor and the conditions at the outlet
from the compressor. Since the pressure and the velocity at the inlet to the
compressor are zero, it is only necessary to consider the force at the outlet
from the compressor. Therefore, given that the compressor
OUTLET Area (A) = 182 sq. in.
Pressure (P) = 94 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
Velocity (vj) = 406 ft. per sec.
Mass flow (W) = 153 lb. per sec.
The thrust
Wv
= ( A P) + v 0
g
153 406
= (182 94) + 0
32
= 19,049lb. of thrust in a forward direction.
COMPRESSOR
18

International Standard Atmosphere

19

2.3 ENGINE THRUST ON THE TEST BENCH

The thrust of the turbo-jet engine on the test bench differs somewhat from that
during flight. Modern test facilities are available to simulate atmospheric conditions
at high altitudes thus providing a means of assessing some of the performance
capability of a turbo-jet engine in flight without the engine ever leaving the ground.
This is important as the changes in ambient temperature and pressure encountered
at high altitudes considerably influence the thrust of the engine.
Considering the formula for thrust under choked nozzle conditions:
Wv J
Thrust = ( P P0 )A +
g
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection and increases in jet velocity by
using after-burning.
As previously mentioned, changed in ambient pressure and temperature
considerably influence the thrust of the engine. This is because of the way they
affect the air density and hence the mass of air entering the engine for a given
engine rotational speed. To enable the performance of similar engines to be
compared when operating under different climatic conditions, or at different
altitudes, correction factors must be applied to the calculations to return the
observed values to those, which would be found under I.S.A. conditions. For
example, the thrust correction for a turbo-jet engine is:
30
Thrust (lb.) (corrected) = thrust (lb.) (observed) x
PO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg) (observed)

30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.

conditions, but due to the rating being in s.h.p. and not in pounds of thrust the
factors are different. For example, the correction for s.h.p. is:
30 273 + 15
S.h.p. (corrected) = s.h.p. (observed)
PO 273 + TO
20

Where P0 = atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)

T0 = atmospheric temperature in deg. C (observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
273 + 15 = I.S.A. standard sea level temperature in deg. K
273 + T0 = Atmospheric temperature in deg. K
In practice there is always a certain amount of jet thrust in the total output of the
turbo-propeller engine and this must be added to the s.h.p. The correction for jet
thrust is the same as that specified earlier.
To distinguish between these two aspects of the power output, it is usual to refer to
them as s.h.p. and thrust horsepower (t.h.p.). The total equivalent horsepower is
denoted by t.e.h.p. (sometimes e.h.p.) and is the s.h.p. plus the s.h.p. equivalent to
the net jet thrust. For estimation purposes it is taken that, under sea level static
conditions, one s.h.p. is equivalent to approximately 2.6 lb. of jet thrust. Therefore:
jet thrust lb.
t.e.h.p. = s.h.p. +
2.6
The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance, the
higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of
total output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be
required if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the
shaft. In general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5
h.p. to 5 h.p.
2.3.1 Comparison Between Thrust and Horse-Power

Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller
engine in s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without
a power conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine
receives its thrust mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by
converting the horse-power developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust
developed by the turbo-jet engine to t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to
force or force to work. For this purpose, it is necessary to take into account
the speed of the aircraft.
FV
The t.h.p. is expressed as
550 ft. per sec
Where F = lb. of thrust
21

V = aircraft speed (ft. per sec)
Since one horsepower is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is
equivalent to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that
one lb. of thrust equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote
the speed in knots (nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515
m.p.h. or one pound of thrust is equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed
5,000 600
of 600 m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be = 8,000
375
However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine

with a propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600
m.p.h., then the t.h.p. would be:
100
8,000 = 14,545
55
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
2.4 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT

Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:
Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine and
the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:
Wv J
( P P0 )A +
g
The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
WV
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as where:
g
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V = Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag.
From the definitions and formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net
thrust of the engine, simplifying, can be expressed as:
22

WV J
Momentum Thrust =
WV wv J g
Momentum Drag = Gross Thrust = ( P Po ) A +
g g Pr essure Thrust = ( P PO ) A

All pressures are total pressures except P, which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)
VJ = Jet velocity at propelling nozzle (ft. per sec)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. Per sq. in)
PO = Atmospheric pressure (lb. Per sq. in)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)
G = Gravitational constant 32.2
The balance of forces and expression for thrust and momentum drag
2.4.1 Effect of Forward Speed

Since reference will be made to ram ratio and Mach number, these terms
are defined as follows:
Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry
to the static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as
the ratio of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0
therefore represents a speed equal to the local speed of sound.
23

From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains
constant, independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases
the thrust would decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ram
ratio effect from the aircraft forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine
so that the mass airflow and also the jet velocity increase with aircraft speed.
The effect of this tends to offset the extra intake momentum drag due to the
forward speed so that the resultant loss of net thrust is partially recovered as
the aircraft speed increases. A typical curve illustrating this point is shown in
the figure.
24

25

Obviously, the ram ratio effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure
rise at entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag,
is of considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high
speeds. Above speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock
waves at the air intake, this rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless
a suitably designed air intake is provided; an efficient air intake is necessary
to obtain maximum benefit from the ram ratio effect.
As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air
temperature rises rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This
temperature rise affects the compressor delivery air temperature
proportionally and, in consequence, to maintain the required thrust, the
engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry temperatures. Since the
maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is determined by the
temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of turbine
materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the
ram ratio effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an
increase in fuel consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with
forward speed, the end result is an increase in specific fuel consumption
(s.f.c.), as shown by the curves for a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ram ratio effect causes very
high stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is
automatically reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.
2.4.2 Effect of Afterburning on Engine Thrust

At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine
is negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net
thrust. If after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order
of 30 percent is possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with
the by-pass engine. This augmentation of basic thrust is of greater
advantage for certain specific operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the
ram effect, better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through
the engine.
26

2.4.3 Effect of Altitude

With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are
reduced. This affects the engine in two inter-related ways:-
The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into
the engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall.
The fuel control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced
mass airflow, so maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass
of air entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This
causes the mass airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to
some extent for the loss of thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At
altitudes above 36,089 feet and up to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature
remains constant, and the thrust or s.h.p. is affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust, s.h.p. and fuel
consumption are illustrated.
2.4.4 Effect of Temperature

On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering
the compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p.
is higher. The denser air does, however, increase the power required to
drive the compressor or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel
to maintain the same engine speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if
no increase in fuel is available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air
entering the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a
given r.p.m. Because less power will be required to drive the compressor,
the fuel control system reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine
rotational speed or turbine entry temperature, as appropriate; however,
because of the decrease in air density, the thrust will be lower. At a
temperature of 45C, depending on the type of engine, a thrust loss of up to
20 percent may be experienced. This means that some sort of thrust
augmentation, such as water injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel
supply is held practically constant at low air temperature conditions,
whereupon the engine speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow
as a result of the increase in air density, the thrust remains the same. For
example, the combined acceleration and speed control fuel system schedules
fuel flow to maintain a constant engine r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air
temperature decreases until, at a predetermined compressor delivery
27

pressure, the fuel flow is automatically controlled to maintain a constant

compressor delivery pressure and, therefore, thrust, illustrates this for a
twin-spool engine where the controlled engine r.p.m. is high-pressure
compressor speed and the compressor delivery pressure is expressed as P3.
It will also be apparent from this graph that the low pressure compressor
speed is always less than its limiting maximum and that the difference in the
two speeds is reduced by a decrease in ambient air temperature. To prevent
the LP compressor overspeeding, fuel flow is also controlled by an LP
governor which, in this case, takes a passive role.
28

29

2.5 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

Performance of the jet engine is not only concerned with the thrust produced, but
also with the efficient conversion of the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy,
as represented by the jet velocity, and the best use of this velocity to propel the
aircraft forward, i.e. the efficiency of the propulsive system.
The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is termed thermal or
internal efficiency and, like all heat engines, is controlled by the cycle pressure ratio
and combustion temperature. Unfortunately this temperature is limited by the
thermal and mechanical stresses that can be tolerated by the turbine. The
development of new materials and techniques to minimise these limitations is
continually being pursued.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed the
propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected by the amount of kinetic energy
wasted by the propelling mechanism. Waste energy dissipated in the jet wake,
which represents a loss, can be expressed as
W(vJ - V)2 where (vJ - V)

2g
is the waste velocity. It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range
the pure jet stream wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and
30

consequently is less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as
aircraft speed increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a
high velocity from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is
reduced and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.
2.6 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP

Primary engine design considerations, particularly for commercial transport duty,
are those of low specific fuel consumption and weight. Considerable improvement
has been achieved by use of the by-pass principle and by advanced mechanical and
aerodynamic features and the use of improved materials. With the trend towards
higher by-pass ratios, in the range of 15:1, the triple-spool and contra-rotating rear
fan engines allow the pressure and by-pass ratios to be achieved with short rotors,
using fewer compressor stages, resulting in a lighter and more compact engine.
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the overall
efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high
pressures which in practice also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure
turbo-jet engine this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and
consequently lower the propulsive efficiency. However, by using the by-pass
principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by
by-passing a proportion of the LP compressor or fan delivery air to lower the mean
jet temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-pass
and overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is obtained.
The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they deal with the total airflow,
whereas the turbines of by-pass engines deal only with part of the flow; thus the
H.P. compressor, combustion chambers and turbines, can be scaled down. The
increased power per lb. of air at the turbines, to take advantage of their full
capacity, is obtained by the increase in pressure ratio and turbine entry
temperature. It is clear that the by-pass engine is lighter, because not only has the
diameter of the high pressure rotating assemblies been reduced, but also the engine
is shorter for a given power output. With a low by-pass ratio engine, the weight
reduction compared with a pure jet engine is in the order of 20 per cent for the
same air mass flow.
With a high by-pass ratio engine of the triple-spool configuration, a further
significant improvement in specific weight is obtained. This is derived mainly from
advanced mechanical and aerodynamic design, which in addition to permitting a
significant reduction in the total number of parts, enables rotating assemblies to be
more effectively matched and to work closer to optimum conditions, thus
minimising the number of compressor and turbine stages for a given duty. The use
of higher strength lightweight materials is also a contributory factor.
31

For a given mass flow, less thrust is produced by the by-pass engine due to the lower
exit velocity. Thus, to obtain the same thrust, the by-pass engine must be scaled to
pass a larger total mass airflow than the pure turbo-jet engine. The weight of the
engine, however, is still less because of the reduced size of the H.P. section of the
engine. Therefore, in addition to the reduced specific fuel consumption, an
improvement in the power-to-weight ratio is obtained.
2.7 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is
how efficiently the power is produced. The amount of fuel consumed to produce a
given horsepower lbs. thrust is known as specific fuel consumption or SFC. A
typical aircraft fuel system measures the volume of fuel consumed. This is displayed
in pounds per hour or PPH. To calculate fuel flow, specific fuel consumption found
on the customer data sheet, is multiplied by the horsepower lbs. thrust produced.
2.7.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION

SFC = SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION defined as LBS (fuel) per HP/lbs. thrust
per hour
2.7.2 FLAT RATING

Flat rating is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine
that has a capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then
limit the power output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits
derived from flat rating. One is the engine will have the ability to make take-
off power at lower turbine temperatures over a wide range of outside air
temperatures and pressure altitudes. Performance at altitude will be greatly
enhanced. These two benefits result in the third benefit, longer engine life.
2.7.3 PERFORMANCE RATINGS

In the chart, performance ratings are compared on 1 through 12 engines.
Notice the modifiers on the 1, -5, -6, -8 and 10 engines. These
temperatures represent the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will
make take-off power below their turbine temperature limits to the ambient
temperatures indicated. Engines that are not flat rated, such as the 3 or
11, would be unable to make take-off power below their turbine
temperature limits when operating in conditions above 59F outside air
temperatures.
32

PERFORMANCE RATINGS (example from a turbo-prop).
3. AIR INTAKES
3.1 COMPRESSOR AIR INLET DUCTS
The main requirement of an intake is that, under all operating conditions, delivery of
the air to the engines is achieved with the minimum loss of energy occurring through
the inlet duct. To enable the compressor to operate satisfactorily, the air must
reach the compressor at a uniform speed/pressure(maximum 0.5 mach) distributed
evenly across the whole inlet area.
Although there are no exact figures, it is normally taken that the speed range
between Mach 0.8 and Mach 1.2 is termed the transonic range whilst that between
Mach 1.2 and Mach 2.5 is the supersonic range
The ideal air intake for a turbo-jet engine fitted to an aircraft flying at sub-sonic or
low supersonic speeds, is a short, pitot-type circular intake. This type of intake
makes the fullest use of ram-effect on the air due to the forward speed, and suffers
the minimum loss of ram pressure with changes of aircraft altitude. It will deliver air
to the compressor inlet face at approximately Mach 0.5.
The pitot-type intake can be used for engines that are mounted in pods either
attached to wing pylons or fuselage stub wings. Some installations require that the
intakes deviate from the ideal circular form to meet structural and aerodynamic
requirements.
At sonic speeds, the efficiency of this type of intake begins to fall, because of the
formation of a shock wave at the intake lip. This is when the characteristics of the
33

airflow changes and the formation and control of shock waves has to be considered.
Supersonic intake design will be covered later in this chapter.
Each inlet configuration has been designed to achieve the same result, the delivery
of the maximum mass of air to the front compressor face. This is sometimes known
as ram recovery or total pressure recovery.
3.2 PITOT TYPE INTAKES

Intakes in their simplest form, the circular pitot intake, allow the air to enter the
engine in a straight line and sub-sonic. It can be seen in the illustration overleaf that
the intake duct is a diverging duct, and hence, it both slows the airflow into the
engine, (allowing flight to high sub-sonic speeds without choking the engine), and
forces the slowing air to increase in pressure, again increasing the overall efficiency.
Pitot Type IntakeFigure 3.1
3.3 DIVIDED INTAKE DUCTS

Some single engine aircraft have a pitot type of intake, but due to the long intake
duct and the loss of space in the front of the aircraft, many more have a divided type
of intake on each side of the fuselage. The disadvantage of this type of intake is that
during any yawing manoeuvre, a loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of the
intake, causing an uneven distribution of airflow into the compressor. The Vantage
business jet shown below has divided intakes, located at high mid-fuselage, which
could suffer from this effect.
34

Divided Air IntakeFigure 3.2
3.4 CURVED INTAKE DUCTS

There are a few aircraft, notably three-engine types, which have the centre (number
2) engine, fitted with a complex, S shaped curved intake duct. This duct has quite
high losses compared with a simple pitot type of intake. The designer accepts these
losses against the advantage of having the engine within the fuselage shape with
little extra drag. In one notable case, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 / MD-11 series,
the complete engine assembly is located about a quarter of the way up the vertical
stabiliser
The three-engine layout mentioned is also used in a selection of smaller business-jet

aircraft, as well as the wide-body aircraft. The intake duct for the centre engine of
this type of aircraft is in a form of a large S shape and this has two penalties. Firstly
the air has inertia, meaning it has to be forced to follow the curves of the duct,
resulting in losses not suffered by the number 1 and 3 engines. Secondly, the air
35

cannot be made to interface accurately with the front face of the compressor,
resulting in uneven airflow. The illustration of a Dassault Falcon business jet below
shows the complex, centre (No.2) engine intake system, compared with the Nos. 1 &
3 engines.
Falcon Jet Centre Intake LayoutFigure 3.3
3.5 SUPERSONIC PITOT TYPE INTAKE

At higher supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air intake is unsuitable due to the
severity of the shockwave that forms and progressively reduces the intake efficiency
as speed increases. A more suitable intake for these higher speeds is known as the
external/internal compression intake. This type of intake produces a series of mild
shock waves without excessively reducing the intake efficiency.
Supersonic Pitot Type Air IntakeFigure 3.4
36

3.6 SUPERSONIC AIR INTAKE WITH RAMPS

As aircraft speeds increase still further the intake compression ratio also increases.
At high Mach numbers, say over M=1.5, it is necessary to have an air intake that has
a variable throat area and spill valves fitted to accommodate and control the
changing mass of air.
The airflow velocities encountered in the higher speed range of the aircraft are
much higher than the engine can efficiently use. The air velocity must therefore, be
decreased between the intake and the engine air inlet. The angle of a variable throat
area intake automatically varies with aircraft speed. It positions the shock wave to
decrease the air velocity at the engine inlet and maintains maximum pressure
recovery within the inlet duct.
The basic principle of these intakes is that the first part of the intake, being a
converging duct, slows the supersonic air to Mach 1. Beyond this point the duct
diverges, slowing the sub-sonic air to about Mach 0.5 by the time it reaches the face
of the compressor. The cross section of a supersonic intake shows the layout,
especially the moveable ramps.
Supersonic Intake with RampsFigure 3.5
Continued development enables the same effect to be achieved by careful design of

the intake and ducting. This, coupled with auxiliary air doors to permit extra air to be
taken in under certain engine operating conditions, allows the airflow to be
controlled without the use of variable geometry intakes.
37

3.7 TURBO-PROPELLER AIR INTAKES

The intake ducts used on turbo-propeller engine installations can have several
different configurations. The main reason for this is that some turbo-propeller
designs have their output shafts running through the centre of the intake. Others,
however, have a reduction gearbox installed on the front of the engine, which leaves
the output shaft offset to one side and space for a clear, pitot type of intake.
Examples of both of these types are illustrated below.
Turbo-Propeller Air IntakesFigure 3.6
3.8 BELLMOUTH AIR INTAKE

Finally, one form of intake that may be seen on slow moving aircraft, especially
helicopters, is the bellmouth type of intake. These intakes are converging in shape
and are fitted on to aircraft that fly below ram- recovery speed. This type of inlet
produces a large amount of drag, but this disadvantage is overcome by their high
degree of aerodynamic efficiency. The illustration below shows a typical bellmouth
intake fitted to a Rolls Royce Gnome 1200.
Bellmouth Air IntakeFigure 3.7
38

This type of intake is also fitted to the front of gas turbine engines under test.
Because this type of intake has very little duct losses, the performance figures taken
under test usually assume zero duct losses.
3.9 AIR INTAKE ICE PROTECTION

Icing of the engine and the leading edge of the intake duct can occur during flight
through super-cooled clouds or during ground operations in freezing fog. Protection
against ice formation may be required since icing of these regions can considerably
restrict the airflow through the engine, causing a loss in performance and possible
malfunction of the engine itself. Additionally, damage may be caused by ice breaking
away and being ingested into the engine or striking the acoustic material that lines
the intake duct.
To prevent ice forming upon the vital parts of the engine and its nacelle, a system
must be developed that will apply heat to the intake lip and essential parts of the
compressor front face. The system must be reliable, easy to maintain, present no
excessive weight penalty and cause no serious loss in engine performance when in
operation. The parts of the engine installation that may require protection are:
Intake Lip
Centre nose cone
Sensor probes
Guide vanes
Intake struts
Not all of the previously mentioned parts of allinstallations will require specific
protection. For example, the nose cone of the ALF 502 engine has hot oil circulating
inside it, whereas the nose cone of the Rolls-Royce Tay has a special coating that
resists the build-up of ice and has no heating.
As a general rule, turbo-jet engines, which have a ready source of hot, bleed air, use
the hot air systems, whist the turbo-propeller engines normally use electrical power,
(although bleed air may be used for some specific tasks).
Although there are exceptions, in general:
The hot air systems are generally used to prevent ice forming and are known as anti-
icing systems.
The electrical power systems are used to break up ice that has formed on the
surfaces and are known as de-icing systems.
39

3.10 THE HOT AIR SYSTEM

The hot air systems provide surface heating of the engine and powerplant, (and the
airframe), where ice is likely to form. Rotor blades rarely require protection due to
the high centrifugal forces present.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the high-pressure
compressor stages. It is ducted through pressure regulator and shut-off valves
to the parts of the engine requiring protection. Once used, the spent air can be
ducted into the intake duct or, on some designs, overboard. The illustration shows a
typical hot-air anti-icing system protecting the intake lip, nose cone and intake guide
vanes.
Hot Air SystemFigure 3.8
40

3.11 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

The electrical system of ice protection is generally used on turbo-propeller engine
installations. One reason for this system being used is the additional protection
required on the propellers. As a general statement, protection on turbo-propeller
installations is applied to the intake cowling, the propeller blades and spinner. It may
also be required to protect the intake of the oil cooler.
Electrical heating pads are bonded to the outer skin of the cowlings. They consist of
strip conductors sandwiched between either layers of neoprene or glass cloth
impregnated with epoxy resin. Due to the eroding effects of rain and hail, protection
is required on the leading edges and consists of special polyurethane-based paint.
When in operation, some parts of the pads are heated continuously and some are
heated cyclically. The continuously heated parts keep the actual leading edge free of
ice whilst the cyclic heating breaks the formed ice off, using the assistance of the
airflow. The illustration below shows where the elements might be located on an
intake.
Electrical Heating ElementsFigure 3.9
41

3.12 CYCLIC TIMING

Whilst the electrical loads are provided by the aircraft electrical generating systems,
to prevent excessive loads being placed upon the generators, (or the generators
needing to be too large and heavy), the loading is cycled between the engine intake
and the propeller blades & spinner. A typical cycle example is shown below.
ELECTRICAL HEATING CYCLEFigure 3.10
The cyclic timing of the intermittently heated elements is arranged, firstly, to ensure
that the engine can accept the amount of ice that collects during the heat-off
period. Secondly, it ensures that the heat-on period is long enough to give
adequate ice shedding. This ensures a clean, ice free, surface, without run back
forming behind the protected surfaces.
Some systems cater for the fact that ice build-up can be at different rates depending
on circumstances. To cater for this, there are sometimes fast and slow cycles,
selectable from the cockpit, and used depending on the outside air temperature
(OAT) and any precipitation in the air.
3.13 MIXED SYSTEMS

On some aircraft, because of limitations at the design stage, the engine/powerplant
assembly is either anti-iced or de-iced by a mixture of hot air, oil and electrical
services. The example below is shown as using all three systems, although this
design introduces complexity that could cause difficulty in service over time. Some
engines may be found using any of the above three systems, to prevent ice
accretion.
42

Mixed Ice Removal SystemFigure 3.11
43

4. COMPRESSORS
The compressor section of the turbo-jet engine has many functions. Its primary purpose is
to supply air in sufficient quantity to satisfy the requirements of the combustion process.
Specifically to fulfil its purpose, the compressor must increase the pressure of the mass of
air received from the air inlet duct and then to discharge it to the burners in the combustion
chambers, in the mass and pressures required.
Compressors may be identified by the direction of the airflow through them. The two basic
types have a centrifugal flow or an axial flow. Some engines may use both types on one
compressor assembly.
4.1 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

These compressors receive the air at their centre and accelerate it outwards by
centrifugal force. The air is then expelled into a divergent duct, called a diffuser,
where velocity is exchanged for energy.
A complete centrifugal compressor assembly consists of an impeller rotor, a diffuser

and a manifold. The impeller can be single or double sided and can be installed in
either one or two-stage assemblies. Whilst this type of compressor can generate a
high mass-flow from a small diameter engine, it cannot take advantage of ram effect
due to the tortuous route that the airflow has to follow through the compressor.
Whilst compression ratios in the vicinity of 5:1 were the norm on earlier designs, it is
now possible to produce centrifugal compressors with compression ratios of 15:1,
which are quite competitive with axial compressors. It is very rare to find more than
two stages of compression, due to the huge losses caused by the continued re-
direction of the airflow through the stages, the added weight of the impellers and
the power required from the turbine to drive the compression stages.
The illustrations below show a single stage, dual-sided compressor and a two-stage,
single sided centrifugal compressor.
44

Single Stage Dual Sided Compressor Two Single Sided Compressors

Figure 4.1
45

4.2 AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

The axial flow compressor has two main components, a rotor and stator. The rotor
has blades attached to a spindle or drum, which impels the air rearwards in the
same manner as a propeller. The stator blades act as diffusers at each stage,
partially converting high velocity to pressure.
A set of rotor and stator blades constitutes a pressure stage, each stage being
capable
of producing a pressure rise of about 1.25:1. The number of these stages is dictated
by
the amount of air and the pressure rise that is required. A normal maximum number
of stages to be found is between 16 and 18.From the front to the rear of an axial
compressor, the space between the rotor shaft and the stator casing becomes
smaller. This is necessary to maintain a near constant axial velocity of the air as the
density increases with compression. This is shown in the illustration below.
Axial compressorFigure 4.2
46

4.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

4.3.1 ADVANTAGES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR AXIAL COMPRESSOR

High pressure rise per stage High ram effect efficiency
Good efficiency over wide speed range High peak pressures
Simplicity of manufacture, low cost Small frontal area
Low weight
Low power for starting
Damage tolerant
4.3.2 DISADVANTAGES
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR AXIAL COMPRESSOR

Large frontal area Complex manufacture
Limited to two stages Relative high weight
High starting power
Low pressure rise/stage
4.4 COMBINED COMPRESSORS

There are a number of gas turbines that use both types of compressor by having an
axial compressor, followed immediately by a centrifugal compressor. The
aerodynamic advantages of this arrangement are too complex to discuss at this
stage but, suffice to say that this layout can generally be found on turbo-shaft
engines, which power helicopters. The example, illustrated below, is of the Lycoming
T-55 engine that powers the Chinook helicopter. It can be seen that it has seven axial
stages followed by a single centrifugal stage.
Combined Axial/Centrifugal CompressorsFigure 4.3
47

4.5 OPERATING PRINCIPLES

4.5.1 CENTRIFUGAL
The impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and the air is
continuously induced into the centre of the impeller. Centrifugal action
causes it to flow outwards along the vanes to the tip, which causes it to
accelerate and the pressure to rise.
Once it leaves the impeller it passes through the diffuser section, which is
divergent, causing the pressure to rise again. This demonstrates how this
arrangement has half the compression occurring in the impeller and half in
the diffuser.
This type of compressor works best at high rotational speeds. It is normal for
a centrifugal compressor to have impeller tip speeds of around 1,600 ft per
second, (well over Mach1). This is one of the reasons why centrifugal
compressors generate a high level of noise when operating.
4.5.2 AXIAL
The rotor is rotated at high speed by the turbine, continuously drawing air
into the front of the compressor. After each rotor stage, which has caused
the pressure to rise, the air passes through a stator stage, which diffuses,
(decelerates), the air and causes the pressure to rise yet again. This process
continues throughout the number of stages of the compressor, each stage
comprising a rotor and a stator, each stage achieving a compression ratio of
approximately 1.25:1
The stators have a second duty, which is to straighten out the swirl which is
the result of axial compression. As the air leaves each rotor stage with
increased velocity, it also has a rotary motion that, if not corrected, will
reduce the efficiency of each progressive stage. The stator turns the air in the
reverse direction, resulting in the airflow flowing axially through each stage.
When axial compressors are required to produce a high level of compression,

it becomes very difficult to control the air throughout all of the stages. This is
due to the variables that any aircraft can meet. These include the speed of
the compressor, due to throttle demand from the flight deck; the speed of
the aircraft, especially in the climb or descent and the density of the air or
altitude at which the aircraft is operating.
48

4.6 CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

4.6.1 CENTRIFUGAL
The centrifugal compressors are usually mounted on ball or roller bearings
and are driven by the turbine stage(s). The connecting shaft may be
manufactured in two parts, to allow engine disassembly, whilst having a self-
aligning coupling to join the parts together.
The discs are forged with the vanes straight for ease of manufacture.
Normally a separate set of rotating guide vanes, which cannot be easily
forged, are attached to the front of the impeller. These draw the air into the
impeller unit.
Diffuser assemblies are often part of the compressor case, with integrally
cast vanes to act as both diverging ducts and to direct the airflow into the
elbows and the combustion chambers.
4.6.2 AXIAL
The Axial compressor consists of firstly, the rotating rotor, made up from the
main shaft supported by ball and roller bearings and either separate discs or
a drum assembly, to which are affixed the blades of differing sizes. Secondly,
the casing assembly, in a number of pieces (to allow splitting, for access to
the rotors), contains all of the stator vanes attached to the inside face of the
case. The case also provides part of the strength of the complete engine and,
on some designs, has attachments or mounting points built into the case
design.
The vanes are affixed to the rotor discs and stator case(s) by a variety of
methods, all giving positive retention against centrifugal force, (rotors) and
rotation, (stators).
The rotor blades are of aerofoil section and are twisted, much the same as a
propeller, to give an even thrust along their length. This is shown by the
different stagger angles between the root and tip of the blades. The roots of
the blades are formed into a shape that matches the recesses in the rotor
disc and they only have to be retained on the disc by plates that restrict fore
and aft movement. This can be seen in the illustration overleaf.
49

STATOR VANES
Stator vanes are also of aerofoil section and are located in slots around
the compressor casing. There is no chance for the blades to move fore
and aft due to the retention of the grooves, but there is a tendency for
the blades to slide radially around the grooves. This tendency is caused
by the air loads, generated by the blades straightening the airflow after
each rotor stage.
This movement is prevented by retaining set screws, which hold a

number of blades in place, preventing any movement by the others. This
is shown in Figure 4.5, where a retaining ring, held by the screw, holds
the blades in place.
Stator Blade RetentionFigure 4.5
4.6.3 FAN BALANCING

The fan consists of the single front stage of the compressor. Normally, it is
the low- pressure (LP) compressor and is part of a twin or triple-spool engine.
It will usually consist of a small number of blades that can be removed, often
individually, if they become damaged in service. The engine shown below, a
Rolls Royce Tay, has a wide chord fan which can be both repaired, (by blade
replacement) and balanced in situ.
50

Fan blades may be manufactured from Titanium, sometimes as a skin with a

honeycomb core, although some have been manufactured from composite
materials. Titanium is used normally because of the bird strike requirements
that dictate very strong blades on the first stage of the engine.
Rolls Royce Tay FanFigure 4.6
The need for the engine to be precisely balanced because of its high
rotational speed, means that the replacement of individual blades must be
undertaken with care. In most cases, the blades will have been pre-weighed
by the manufacturer and the value engraved upon the blade. The blades will
be divided into weight groups so that, providing the replacement blade is
of the same group as the one removed, there should be no need to
balance the assembly.
In some cases, due to the engine having built-in vibration sensors, it will be
possible to carry out balancing ground-runs. This will allow the engineer,
following the maintenance manual, to add or remove small balance weights,
at specific points around the fan assembly, until the assembly is in perfect
balance.
51

Shown below is the fan assembly of the Tay engine, showing the use of
weights to give a balanced assembly.
Tay Fan AssemblyFigure 4.7
4.6.4 STALL AND SURGE

Each stage of a multi-stage compressor possesses certain airflow
characteristics that are dissimilar from those of its neighbour thus; to design
a workable and efficient compressor, each stage must be matched to the
next stage. This matching is fairly simple when the engine is running on a test
bed, it is much more difficult when speed, altitude, temperature, etc. are
included, such as when the aircraft is operating normally.
In extreme conditions, the airflow through the compressor can become

disturbed and vibration can be set-up. This stalling of the blades can either
be positive or negative, depending whether the fault is at the intake, (front),
or at the high compression, (rear), end of the engine.
If the engine demands a pressure rise from the compressor greater than the
blades can sustain, surge will occur. This is an instantaneous breakdown of
52

flow through the engine and high-pressure air in the combustion system is
expelled forwards through the compressor,T.G.T. would rise and may be
accompanied with a loud bang, resulting in a loss of thrust. To overcome this
problem, engines have a declared safety margin to ensure the area of
instability is avoided. This is shown graphically below.
Surge Margin DiagramFigure 4.8
To control these disturbances, which occur most often on single shaft

engines with high compression ratios, a variety of methods are used on
different engines. This control can take the form of variable inlet guide
vanes for the first stage and variable stator vanes for other stages. As the
compressor slows from its optimum, the blades change their angle of attack
to vary the airflow on to the rotor blades, so that they do not stall and
remain at their optimum angle of attack.
4.7 BLEED BANDS/VALVES

In addition, an interstage bleed may be fitted to the compressor casing, usually
located at the higher compression stages, permitting excessive pressure to be bled
overboard. This avoids the choking which may occur during rapid acceleration. Due
to the loss of performance during normal operations, bleed valves will usually only
be opened during starting and acceleration. The operation of these air bleed
systems can either be actuated by hydraulic, pneumatic or electronic methods
53

4.7.1 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES (VIGVS)
The number of stages that have variable incidence vanes depends on the
design of the engine. Some may only have the first stage inlet guide vanes
moveable, whilst others can have four or more stages that are variable. The
illustration below shows an engine with variable inlet guide vanes and three
variable stator vanes.
Guide Vanes and Stator VanesFigure 4.9
4.8 OVERFUELLING SURGE

All engines have to be over fuelled by a small margin to cause them to accelerate. If
the over fuelling is above the correct figure, due perhaps to a badly adjusted fuel
control unit, then the inertia of the rotating parts of the engine will resist
acceleration.
The excessive fuel will cause choking at the turbine; this will cause a slowing of the
compressor air velocity, resulting in a progressive stall through the engine from the
front. The resulting reversal of the airflow is a surge.
4.9 TWIN SPOOL AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Relief from surging troubles can be obtained from the devices described earlier. A
better solution is the twin-spool axial flow compressor, part of the twin spool engine
type described earlier. The compressor has two sections, each section is completely
independent from the other and driven by its own turbine assembly, each mounted
on its own co-axial shaft. The LP compressor is driven by the aft, LP turbine and the
54

HP compressor is driven by the forward, HP turbine. Each shaft assembly will be

rotating at its optimum speed.
Whether the engine is at high or low altitude or whether it is moving through the air
at high or low speeds, the two spools will be matched to the external atmosphere
parameters and aircraft performance.
At idle, for example, the HP system is doing most of the work whilst the LP spool
runs slower, this makes its angle of attack of the airflow on to the first stage much
better and, due to the faster moving HP spool, there is less chance of choking.
Equally, at higher altitudes, when the LP spool rotates faster, due to the reduced air
density, the greater mass airflow to the HP section restores some of the losses that a
single spool engine would suffer at this altitude.
55

5. COMBUSTION SECTION
The combustion section houses the process by which the energy contained within the
air/fuel mixture is released. The primary function of the combustion section is to burn the
air/fuel mixture adding heat energy to the air. To carry this out efficiently it must:
Provide the means for proper mixing of the air and fuel to assure good combustion.
Burn this mixture efficiently.
Cool the hot combustion products to a temperature that the turbine blades can withstand
under operating conditions.
Deliver the hot gases to the turbine section.
Combustion sections are located between the compressor-diffuser and the turbine section.
They are usually located co-axially with the compressor and the turbine.
All combustion chambers contain the following elements:
An outer casing
A perforated inner liner
A fuel injection system (This topic will be covered later)
Means of ignition (This topic will also be covered later)
A fuel drainage system
5.1 COMBUSTION CHAMBER AIRFLOW

To ensure that the components of the combustion chamber and the turbine
assembly are not overheated, the airpaths are divided into primary and secondary.
Around 20% of the total air is fed to the fuel nozzles for combustion. The remaining,
secondary airflow forms a cooling air blanket around the liner, centres the flame
and, finally, mixes with the primary airflow, so that the total airflow to the turbine is
at an acceptable temperature. The illustration below shows how the total
compressor output is divided into sections for different purposes.
Apportioning the AirflowFigure 5.1
56

An additional purpose of the combustion system, which has become more and more
important recently, is total and complete combustion. The very low air pollution
levels
required before certification can be granted, will not allow the smoke trails that
were typical of older generation aircraft.
There are currently three basic types of combustion chambers, with variations
within these types being in detail only:
The Multiple Combustion Chamber

The Tubo-Annular Combustion Chamber
The Annular Combustion Chamber
5.2 MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBERS

The multiple chamber layout is found on centrifugal compressor engines, such as the
Roll-Royce Dart turbo-propeller engine and also early axial compressor designs. The
chambers are disposed around the engine and the compressor delivery air is
directed, by ducts, into each individual chamber. Whilst the airflow enters the
chamber at high velocity, swirl vanes and baffles slow the combustion air to a speed
at which the flame can safely exist.
If any problem exists with a single chamber, such as overheating and bulging of the
outer case, it can be changed easily with the engine remaining in situ.
Each chamber has an inner flame tube surrounded by an air casing. All of the flame
tubes are interconnected to both equalise the air pressure throughout the
combustion system and to allow the combustion to propagate around all of the
flame tubes during engine starting. Fuel manifolds carry fuel to the burners and a
complex drain system ensures that all the chambers are emptied to a collector tank,
after shut-down or a wet start. All these features can be seen in the illustrations
below.
Combustion chamberFigure 5.2
57

Multiple Combustion ChambersFigure 5.3
58

5.3 TUBO - ANNULAR/CAN ANNULAR

The Tubo-annular (Can-Annular) combustion chamber is a mixture between the
multiple combustion chamber and the annular combustion chamber layout. A
number of flame tubes are installed inside a common air casing. The airflow through
this chamber is similar to the multiple chamber system described earlier.
Pratt & Whitney and Rolls Royce produced many designs based on this principle.
This arrangement combines the ease of overhaul and testing of the multiple system
with the compactness of the annular system. As with the previous designs, there are
normally two igniters, in opposing chambers to initiate ignition at engine start. A
cutaway illustration of a typical Tubo-annular combustion is shown below.
Tubo Annular/Can AnnularFigure 5.4
59

5.4 ANNULAR
Finally there is the Annular Combustion Chamber which consists of a flame tube
(commonly referred to as a combustion liner) circular in construction which is
contained within an inner and outer casing. This design is in common use today in
both small and large engines. They are the most efficient design, both from a
standpoint of thermal efficiencyand weight.
They are also shorter than comparable engines. For the same power output, the
length of an annular chamber is 75% that of a Tubo-annular system of the same
diameter.
The smaller amount of surface area requires less cooling air and is also the most
efficient use of space. However, this type of combustor must be removed as a single
unit for repair or replacement, requiring a complete separation of the engine at
major flanges. (This is a much more complex operation than that required for the
single chamber design).
Another advantage of this type of design is the elimination of combustion

propagation problems from chamber to chamber.
This type of design can be found in two totally different forms. They can be found
with a straight-through flow or with a reverse flow.
5.5 STRAIGHT-THROUGH FLOW

The straight-through flow annular combustor takes in air at the front and discharges
it at the rear. The annular combustor consists of an outer housing with a perforated
inner liner, sometimes called a basket. Both of these parts encircle the engine.
Multiple fuel burners project into the basket, together with Ignitor(s). Both the
primary and secondary airflows behave the same way as they do in the other
combustor designs. Because of their efficient fuel burning, annular combustion
chamber engines are one of the most efficient designs in the world, which also
produce the cleanest, least polluting exhaust possible.
5.6 REVERSE FLOW

The reverse flow combustor serves the same function as the through flow unit, but it
differs by the air, from the compressor, flowing around the chamber and entering
from the rear. This results in the combustion gasses flowing in the opposite direction
to the normal flow through the engine.
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Note: Sir Frank Whittle used this form of combustion chamber on his earliest jet
engine designs.
The reverse flow form of design also allows the turbine wheels to be located inside
the combustor, allowing for a shorter overall length, a lighter engine and pre-heating
of the compressor discharge air. These advantages offset some of the losses
resulting from the reversal of the airflow. Illustrated below are a through flow
combustor and a reverse flow combustor.
Straight Through Flow and Reverse Flow CombustorsFigure 5.5
61

6. TURBINE SECTION
The turbine section has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor, the
accessories and, in the case of turbo-propeller/Tubo-shaft engines, providing shaft power to
the propeller or rotor. It does this by extracting energy from the hot gases released from
the combustion system and expanding them to a lower pressure and temperature.
Very high stresses are involved in this process and, for efficient operation; the turbine blade
tips may have a velocity of over 1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which
the turbine is subjected may have an entry temperature of between 8500C and 1,7000C and
may reach a flow velocity of more than 2,500 feet per second in parts of the turbine.
To provide the driving torque, the turbine may consist of several stages, each employing
one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of rotating blades. The number of
stages depends upon the relationship between the power required from the gas flow, the
rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter of the turbine permitted.
The number of main shafts, and therefore the number of turbine stages, depends upon the
type of engine. High compression ratio engines will often be twin-spool engines with low-
pressure and high-pressure sections, containing their own compressor and turbine stages.
On high by-pass ratio engines it is normal for there to be three shafts with again, their own
compressor and turbine assemblies.
There are numerous design compromises in the turbine section of an engine. These will
involve such variables as mean blade speed, centrifugal stresses, blade thickness/strength
and others. The design turbine inlet temperature will dictate its thermal efficiency, the
higher the temperature, the more efficient it is. By-pass engines will have a better
propulsive efficiency and, thus can have a smaller turbine for a given thrust.
6.1 TURBINE BLADES

Turbine blades are aerofoil shaped components designed to extract the maximum
amount of energy from the flow of hot gasses. The blades may be either forged or
cast depending on the alloy from which they are manufactured. Early blades were
made from steel forgings whilst one of the current material in use is cast nickel
based alloy. The blades today are usually precision-cast and finish-ground to the
precise shape.
A modern development is the manufacture of non-metallic blades using a reinforced

ceramic material. The ability of these materials to operate satisfactorily at higher
62

temperatures allows the engine designer to plan for higher turbine inlet
temperatures and hence greater thrust.
Ceramic coatings applied to nozzle guide vanes also allow them to tolerate higher
temperatures, whilst the development of metals which have solidified either with
the crystal structure aligned with the main stresses, directional solidification, or as a
single crystal, all help to resist creep. This will be covered later.
Blades are classified as impulse, reaction or a combination impulse-reaction type.
IMPULSE
In the impulse type, the total pressure drop across each stage occurs in the nozzle
guide vanes. Because of their convergent shape, they will increase the velocity of the
exhaust gasses whilst decreasing their pressure. The gas is then directed on to the
blades, which experience an impulse force caused by the impact of the gas on the
blades.
IMPULSE/REACTION
Normally, turbine engines do not use pure impulse or pure reaction type blades, but
incorporate a design using an impulse-reaction combination. With this combination
blade the workload can be evenly distributed along the length of the blade. Also, the
axial velocity and the pressure drop across the blade, from root to tip are also
considered uniform. A typical impulse-reaction turbine blade is illustrated on the
below, and it can be seen how the root end is of impulse design and the outer
section is of reaction design.
REACTION
Reaction turbines produce their turning force by an aerodynamic action. The turbine
nozzle guide vanes are shaped in such a way that they only aim the gas in the correct
direction, not increase its velocity. The gases pass between the blades of the
turbine, which do form a converging passage, this increases the velocity of the gases.
As the gasses flow over the aerofoil shaped blades. A force reaction in the direction
of the plane of rotation causes the turbine to spin.
63

Turbine Blade SectionsFigure 6.1
64

6.1.1 BLADE ATTACHMENTS

The turbine blades are fitted into the turbine wheel (disc) with a form of
fastening that allows them to be loose when the engine is cold but to be
firmly attached when at their operating temperature. The most common
form of attachment is the fir tree root.
These blades are retained within their housings by a variety of methods, the
most common being either, peening, welding, lock tabs or riveting.
The turbine blades may be either open or shrouded at their outer ends and
either or both types of blade may be used in a single engine. Normally, open-
ended blades are used on the high-speed wheels, whilst the shrouded blades
are found in wheels having slower rotational speeds.
Shrouded blades form a band around the perimeter of the wheel, which
helps to reduce blade vibration. The extra weight of the shrouded tip is offset
by the blades being both thinner and more efficient. The illustrations below
shows a series of shrouded blades, which are attached to the disc using fir
tree roots, (left) and a series of open tip blades, also using fir tree roots.
Shrouded and Open Tip BladesFigure 6.2
65

6.2 GUIDE VANES

The stator element of the turbine is known by a variety of different names, such as
turbine nozzle vanes, nozzle diaphragm, turbine guide vanes and, probably the most
common name, nozzle guide vanes. They are located directly aft of the combustion
chamber(s) and immediately forward of the first stage turbine wheel. If the engine
has more than one turbine stage, there will be a set of stationary nozzle guide vanes
ahead of each stage.
These nozzles have two functions:
Firstly, after the combustion chamber has introduced the heat energy into the mass
airflow and delivered it evenly to the turbine nozzles, it becomes the job of the
nozzles to prepare the mass airflow for driving the turbine rotor.
The vanes of the nozzles are set at such an angle that they form a number of small
nozzles, discharging the gas at extremely high speed. The nozzles convert a varying
portion of theheat and pressure energyinto velocity energy. This energy is converted
into mechanical energy through the rotor blades.
Secondly, the nozzles purpose is to deflect the gasses to a specific angle in the
direction of turbine wheel rotation to ensure that the gasses strike the turbine
blades at the optimum angle.
Construction usually consists of an inner shroud and an outer shroud between which
are attached the guide vanes. The number and size of the vanes vary with different
engine designs, as does the method of attachment and mounting. They all have to
make allowance for the expansion that takes place when the engine is operating,
which can take the form of loose fitting vanes or expansion slots in the continuous
shroud.
The illustration (overleaf) shows two methods of attaching the vanes to the shrouds,
loose fitting, (top), and welded, (lower). The loose vanes will become tight within
their shrouds when they get to their operating temperature. The welded
installations will probably have the inner and/or the outer shroud ring cut into
segments, allowing expansion as it heats up in use.
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Nozzle Vane AssembliesFigure 6.3
6.2.1 STRESS AND CREEP

The blades, when at their normal operating temperature, will be glowing red-
hot and carrying large centrifugal forces due to their high rotational speeds.
A small turbine blade weighing 60gm may exert a load of over 2000kg at
maximum engine speed. It must also withstand the high bending loads
applied by the gasses to produce the many thousands of turbine (shaft)
horsepower necessary to drive the compressor, the accessories and, in some
cases, the propeller/rotor assembly also.
The blades are also subject to fatigue, both mechanical and thermal, plus
corrosion and erosion. Apart from being manufactured from quite exotic
materials, to be proof against the above demands, the blades have to be
made by forming and machining using current manufacturing methods.
Following from the above, it can be seen that for a particular blade material
and an acceptable safe life there must be an associated maximum
67

permissible turbine entry (inlet) temperature. This maximum T.I.T. also limits
the amount of power that the engine can produce. Metallurgists are
constantly searching for better materials as well as better blade cooling, to
raise the engine T.I.T. and, hence the power.
Over a period of operational time, the turbine blades slowly grow in length.
This phenomenon is known as Creep and there is a finite, useful life limit
before failure of the blade occurs.
The creep, which occurs throughout the life of the blades, can be divided into
three phases:
The initial, fast, primary creep occurs when the blade is first in service.
Over a much longer period of time, the secondary creep occurs, although
the amount of this creep will be less, overall, than the primary creep.
Finally, towards the end of the blades life, the tertiary creep shows an
accelerating increase of extension over time, which finishes up at the point
of fracture.
Blades in service are not permitted to reach the tertiary creep zone. Most
blades will be given a finite life, occurring towards the end of the secondary
creep zone. It will however, be seen that overspeeding, frequent
temperature and RPM changes, careless handling of the engine caused by
mishandling of the engine controls, can quickly erode the safety margins
between the retirement life and the point of fracture.
The illustration below left, shows how the blade creeps during service. The
chart is NOT drawn to scale, it simply represents the phases the blade goes
through. The second chart, on the right, shows how the introduction of
better materials has resulted in turbine blades with much better creep
characteristics and hence much longer finite lives.
Creep CharacteristicsFigure 6.4
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To reduce the heating effect on the turbine blades, and hence the creep that
results, many blades have some form of cooling applied to them. This allows
the blades to operate at temperatures above the critical temperatures for
the metal alloy used in the construction of the blade.
6.2.2 BLADE COOLING

There are a number of methods used to cool the turbine blades, some of the
most popular are listed below:
Internal airflow cooling Air flows through the hollow blades and vanes
exhausting into the gas flow.
Surface film cooling Air flows from small exit ports in the leading and/or
trailing edges of the blades or vanes to form a heat barrier on the surfaces.
Combination convection and surface cooling.

It should be pointed out that the term cooling air does NOT infer that the
air is cold or even cool. Air used to cool turbine components, which can be
operating at temperatures of around 10000C, can be cooled by air, tapped
from the higher compression stages at around 3000C+.
The two illustrations below show, on the left, an example of internal blade
cooling, and on the right, an example of internal and surface blade cooling.
Turbine Blade Cooling Figure 6.5
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7. EXHAUST
The exhaust section of a turbo-jet engine is made up of several components, each of which
has its own function. These components also have one common purpose; they must direct
the flow of gasses rearwards in such a manner as to prevent turbulence and at the same
time, impart a high final, (exit) velocity to the gases on turbo-jets, less so on turbo-propeller
engines.
The exhaust section is located directly behind the turbine section, and ends when the gases
are ejected at the rear. The individual parts of the exhaust include the exhaust cone, the
tailpipe and the exhaust/jet nozzle.
7.1 EXHAUST CONE ASSEMBLY

The exhaust cone assembly consists of an outer shell or duct, an inner cone and a
number of radial hollow struts or fins. The outer shell/duct is manufactured from
heat resistant steel and attaches to the turbine case flange.
The duct is slightly divergent, due to the inner cone profile, even if the outer duct
appears to be convergent. This slows the gas flow, slightly decreasing the velocity
and increasing the pressure.
The radial struts serve two purposes, firstly to support the inner cone and, secondly,
to straighten out the airflow which leaves the turbine with some swirl. The
illustration below shows the main components of an exhaust cone assembly.
Exhaust Cone AssemblyFigure 7.1
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TAILPIPE
The tailpipe is used, where necessary, to pipe the exhaust gases out of the airframe.
Its use imposes a penalty on the efficiency of the engine in the form of heat and duct
(friction) losses. These losses result in a measurable loss of final thrust.
In some designs a tailpipe is not required. For example, when the engine is installed
in nacelles or pods, a short tailpipe is all that is required.
JET NOZZLE
The exhaust or jet nozzle imparts to the exhaust gases the all-important final boost
in velocity. The jet nozzle, like the tailpipe, (when fitted), is not part of the basic
powerplant but part of the airframe.
There are two types of jet nozzle design, the convergent design, for sub-sonic gas
velocities and the convergent-divergent design for supersonic gas velocities. The jet
nozzle openings may be either fixed or variable area, the fixed being the simpler of
the two designs.
CONVERGENT
The convergent nozzle accelerates the airflow, reaching Mach 1 and becoming
choked at about the exit of the nozzle. When the gas exits the choked nozzle, it
spreads out and accelerates. Attempting to accelerate the air any faster than Mach 1
would be uneconomic and reduce the engine life, due to the higher temperature.
For faster speeds, a convergent-divergent nozzle is required.
CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT
This design is used mainly on supersonic aircraft, although it may be found on
engines with high-pressure ratios. This type of nozzle is used to recover some of the
otherwise wasted energy, by generating a further increase in gas velocity and,
hence, thrust.
This type of nozzle uses the same principle as supersonic intakes. If the sub-sonic
airflow is accelerated to reach Mach 1 at the narrowest point of the convergence,
the air will then accelerate further, as the duct diverges, to reach a high supersonic
airflow at the exit.
The two types of nozzle are illustrated below, with the convergent at left and the
convergent-divergent on the right. A third form, a variable area nozzle will be
covered in the section on afterburning.
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Jet NozzlesFigure 7.2
By-Pass Exhaust System

The modern fan or by-pass engine has two gas streams venting to the atmosphere,
the high temperature gases being discharged by the turbine and the low
temperature gases discharged from the fan section. These gasses may be exhausted
separately or together.
In a low by-pass engine, the flows of cool air and hot air are combined in a mixer unit
that ensures the mixing of the two streams prior to exiting the engine. This mixing
also helps to reduce the exhaust noise.
An example of a low by- pass exhaust is illustrated overleaf.
High by-pass engines usually exhaust the two streams separately. The hot and cold
nozzles are co-axial. A common nozzle may be used to partially mix the hot and cold
gases prior to their ejection.
High By-Pass ExhaustFigure 7.4
Engine Noise Reduction
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Noise is measured in effective perceived noise decibels, (EPNdB), which takes into
account the pitch as well as the sound pressure, (decibels) and also makes allowance
for the duration of an aircraft flyover. The noise produced by different types of
engines is quite marked, as is the effect of the installation of noise suppressors. This
can be seen on the chart below. ENGINE NOISE SUPRESSION
Engine Noise ReductionFigure 7.5
The most significant sources of noise from an engine are the fan/compressor, the
turbine and the exhaust. The noise exhaust is the effect that can be reduced by the
largest amount. It is mostly generated by the shearing action between the jet
exhaust and the outside air, although the eddies in the air can also cause high
frequency noise for small eddies and low frequency for large ones.
A reduction in noise can be achieved if either the mixing rate of the two airflows can
be accelerated, or the exhaust velocity, relative to the air can be reduced.
Methods of Noise Suppression

Noise suppression of internal sources is looked at in two ways, engine design and
the use of acoustic panels to absorb noise. As both of these are beyond the
requirements of the syllabus, they will not be covered. It is however, important to
be aware of the fact that the honeycomb noise absorbing panels are fragile and
must be treated carefully. (Illustration overleaf).
The exhaust, being a large generator of noise, can be made quieter by mixing of the
high speed and the low speed air over a shorter distance. This is achieved by
increasing the contact area of the atmosphere with the exhaust stream by using a
propelling nozzle, which incorporates a corrugated or lobe type noise suppressor. A
corrugated type of noise suppressor, as fitted to the Rolls-Royce Tay, is illustrated
below.
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The exhaust illustrated shows the corrugations which mix the two streams, hot and
cold, by encouraging the hot stream to expand outwards whilst the cold, (by-pass),
air is drawn inwards. This mixing improves efficiency and reduces the noise emitted
by the engine.
Exhaust SilencerFigure 7.6
As mentioned earlier, the honeycomb acoustic panels are fairly fragile and, as can be
seen from the illustration of a typical installation below, they line most of the by-
pass ducts and care must be taken, during inspections, that they are checked for
Foreign Object Damage(F.O.D.) or other causes.
Acoustic PanelsFigure 7.7
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Thrust Reversal
Modern aircraft brakes are very efficient, especially carbon units but, on wet, icy or
snow covered runways this efficiency may be severely reduced by the loss of
adhesion between the tyres and the runway surface. To ensure continued operation
during inclement weather, an alternative to friction brakes had to be found.
A simple and effective way to achieve this was to reverse the direction of the
exhaust gas stream, thus using engine thrust as a decelerating force. An additional
bonus to this system was that it could be used at all times and can, therefore be
used to shorten landing runs, even when the runways are dry.
On rare occasions, it has been authorised to use thrust reversers in flight but,
normally, they are only active when the aircrafts landing gear is on the ground and
the weight of the aircraft is on it, or the aircraft is Weight On Wheels(W.O.W.)
An example of the effectiveness of reversers is illustrated below where the landing
run can be reduced by more than 20%.
Landing Run DistancesFigure 7.8
The methods of reversing the flow vary with each engine but basically if the engine
is a turbo-jet, the hot stream is reversed by either clamshell or bucket doors. On a
high by-pass engine, because the by-pass, (cold), thrust is a large part of the total,
only the cold stream is reversed, normally by blocker doors. This method is
sometimes called the translating cowl system.
On propeller powered aircraft, the reverse thrust action is obtained by changing the
pitch of the propeller blades, usually by hydro-mechanical means. This system
moves the blades to a negative angle, but only after touchdown and pilot selection,
producing a flow of air forwards, decelerating the aircraft.
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The exhaust flow of jet engines can be directed forwards, (approximately 450) but,
due to the risk of foreign object damage(F.O.D.), many engines are restricted in
reverse, to about 70 or 80% of maximum power. This results in the fact that only a
percentage of the forward engine thrust is available for reversing action.
The illustrations overleaf show three common methods of thrust reverser operation.
All three methods are stowed with little drag but some weight penalty when not
selected and actuated. The clamshell system, a hot stream method, reverses the
airflow ahead of the exhaust nozzle. This method can be seen on Concorde.
The second method, also a hot stream system, has the buckets at the very rear of
the exhaust/jet pipe. It also deflects the stream forwards and can be seen on many
early Boeing small jets such as the 727 and 737 models.
Finally, the translating cowl/cold stream system uses a set of blocker doors to direct
the fan, (cold), airflow through a series of cascade vanes, often uncovered by a
sliding cowling which smoothes the airflow over the vanes during flight.
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Thrust Reverser TypesFigure 7.9
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8. BEARINGS AND SEALS (Level B1 only)

8.1 BEARINGS
8.1.1 Introduction
A bearing is any surface that supports or is supported by another surface.
Bearings are designed to produce a minimum of friction and a maximum of
wear resistance.
Bearings must reduce the friction of moving parts and also take thrust loads
or a combination of thrust and radial loads. Those which are designed
primarily for thrust loads are called thrust bearings. The two different types
of bearings used on gas turbines are ball and roller.
8.1.2 Ball Bearings
A ball bearing consists of an inner race, an outer race and one or more sets of
balls; and bearings which are designed for dismantling, a ball retainer or
cage. The purpose of the retainer or cage is to prevent the balls touching
one another. Ball bearings are used for radial and thrust loads; a ball bearing
specially designed for thrust loads would have very deep grooves in the
races.
8.1.3 Roller Bearings
The bearings are manufactured in various shapes and sizes and can be
adapted to both radial and thrust loads.
The bearing race is a guide or channel along which the rollers travel; the
roller is situated between an inner and outer race, both of which are made of
case hardened steel. When the roller is tapered, it rolls on a cone shaped
race inside an outer race.
Straight roller bearings are used only for radial loads and taper roller
bearings will support both radial and thrust loads. Roller bearings will
withstand greater radial loads than ball bearings because of greater contact
area.
Straight Roller Bearing
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8.1.4 Types of Bearings

Bearings are broadly classified by the type of rolling element used in their
construction. Ball bearings employ steel balls which rotate in grooved
raceways, whilst roller bearings utilise cylindrical, tapered or spherical rollers,
running in suitably shaped raceways. Both types of bearings are designed for
operation under continuous rotary or oscillatory conditions, but, whilst ball
bearings and tapered roller bearings accept both radial and axial loads, other
types of roller bearings accept mainly radial loads.
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Air Sealing
LP, HP and IP air are all used to prevent the hot exhaust gases flowing inward
between the stages of the turbine, by means of a labyrinth seal. It is also
used to seal engine bearing housings to prevent oil leaks (sump areas).
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The figure represents a typical sump area, although in this case only one
bearing is shown. Sump areas contain as many as five bearing assemblies.
Typical Sump Area
As the air pressure is greater than the oil pressure, we can see from the
figure that cooling air is directed into the air cavity of the sump. Oil is also
directed into the oil cavity via the oil jet. For as long as the air pressure is
greater than the oil pressure, the oil will be retained within the oil cavity.
The oil seal is so designed to reduce the amount of air escaping across it.
However, a certain amount of air will get into the oil cavity, which is then
vented overboard via the oil cavity air vent orifice.
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Air to Air or Air to Oil Sealing

The air at these different pressures must be prevented from mixing. This is
achieved by inserting differential pressure seals at appropriate places within
the engine.
These seals are multi-groove types, but commonly known as labyrinth seals.
Labyrinth Seals
Labyrinth seals are constructed of metal non-rotating lands, which are
secured to various parts of the engine case and a series of cylindrical rotating
knife-edge steps that mate with the lands. With this type of seal, there are
no contacting parts. A precise clearance is designed into the seals to control
the pressure, as the compressor air passes over the cascade of knife-edges,
the pressure is reduced.
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The labyrinth seal may be used in conjunction with an abradable coating on

the stationary member as shown in the figure, or with a honeycomb shroud
as shown in the figure.
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Carbon Seals
Another method of air sealing is achieved by using a carbon seal
arrangement. They are used on the rotating assembly of a gas turbine and
protection of engine drive components on an accessory gearbox.
Carbon seals are manufactured of a mixture of carbon and graphite powder,

bonded together with a viscous substance, such as coal tar. The carbon seal
is fixed and held against the rotating seal by springs. Both the rotating seal
and the carbon seals are machine ground and precision lapped to a micro
finish.
Spring Ring Seal

This type of seal would normally be used around a main bearing assembly
within the engine. It may be used in conjunction with a labyrinth or screw
back type of seal. The location of a spring ring seal is shown in the figure.
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Construction and Operation

This type of seal is similar to a large stepped piston ring; it is located on a
rotating shaft. When the shaft is stationary, the seal clamps tightly to the
shaft. As the shaft rotates, the spring ring can expand slightly, under
centrifugal force, when it then forms an effective seal with the adjacent
stationary housing.
Hydraulic Seal
This type of seal
may also be found
protecting the
bearings on the
main rotating
assembly of an
engine. It is fitted
between the
rotating shafts on a twin or triple spool engine. A hydraulic seal would be
used in conjunction with another type of seal, as shown in the figure.

The seal consists of a circular baffle ring mounted on a rotating shaft; the rim
of this ring sits in the centre of a circular depression in an outer rotating
shaft. Oil from the bearing will fill this depression and be held there by
centrifugal force. This oil reservoir will form a liquid seal with the rim of the
rotating baffle ring. Any tendency for the oil to leak across this seal will be
counteracted by air leakage across a back-up seal.
Screw Back Seal

This type of seal will be found close to a bearing. It is mounted on a rotating
shaft and will be backed up by one of the types of seal previously described.
The figure shows the location of a screw back seal.
Screw Back Seal Location
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This seal consists of a raised screw thread on a rotating shaft; the thread
form is facing towards the bearing. Any oil from the bearing, which gets onto
this threaded section, is
then screwed back to the bearing, thus preventing oil loss. Air pressure on
the outer end of this seal will also be screwed towards the bearing and helps
to prevent a loss of oil.
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9. LUBRICANTS AND FUELS
WARNING
Safety Precautions
Handling of synthetic lubricants requires precautions not needed for conventional

lubricating oils. Synthetic lubricants have a high solvent characteristic, which causes them to
penetrate and dissolve paints, enamels and other materials, including crepe soles on
footwear.
Additionally, if synthetic oils touch or remain on the skin, physical injury can result. It is
essential, then that these lubricants are kept away from the skin, either by the use of
barrier creams or by wearing protective garments and safety glasses. Any part of the skin
that is affected by a spillage of synthetic oil, should be treated in accordance with local
instructions and the relevant COSHH leaflet. (Containment of Substances Harmful to
Health)
When handling fuels and oils, all normal precautions regarding flammable substances that
were covered earlier, in Module 7, should be followed. This should include correct
storage, carriage and dispensing, together with Earthing and cleanliness at all times.
9.1 PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS

Kerosene Fuels
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering turbojet, turboprop and
turboshaft engines. There are two main types of turbine fuels in use, JET A
and JET A-1, which are kerosene types and JET B which is a blend of gasoline
and kerosene fractions. In the United Kingdom these fuels are sometimes
referred to as AVTUR, (JET A & JET A-1); and AVTAG, (JET B). JET B is also
known as JP4 in the United States Military.
Finally, there is a high flash point, low freezing point fuel known as JP 5 or
AVCAT. Its use is limited, due to its high flash point making it less liable to
ignition in an accident, but can be used on aircraft carriers and other aircraft
carrying sea craft.
ALL fuels should meet the requirements stated below:

Ease of flow under all operating conditions (Sometimes called
pumpability).
Quick starting of the engine under all conditions.
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Have a high calorific (energy) value.

Must be non-corrosive.
Combustion by-products should not be harmful to internal engine parts.
Minimal chance of fire.
Provide lubrication of the moving parts of the fuel system (pumps etc.).
Pumpability
There are several factors affecting pumpability; fuel viscosity, solids (wax
and gum) and ice particles (due to water in the fuel). The lowest temperature
at which the fuel can be pumped is known as the pour point.
Volatility and Starting

Quick starting of an engine depends on fast ignition and the quality of the
fuel. It must remain volatile, (easily evaporated), at starting temperatures so
that the fuel spray from the burners will readily ignite.
Combustion
Once ignited the fuel must burn completely, giving both the highest energy
value and also producing benign combustion products (Carbon).
Calorific Value
This is the amount of heat released during combustion. Turbine fuels have a
slightly lower calorific value, per unit weight, than piston engine fuels,
(Petrol/Gasoline). However, as turbine fuel is heavier with a higher specific
gravity, it releases more heat per unit volume. Fuel with a high calorific value
is most suitable for aviation turbine use.
Non-Corrosive
To reduce corrosion within the fuel system, the fuel must be a good
lubricant. As basic kerosene has little lubricity, additives are used to improve
its lubrication properties.
Fire Hazards
Fire is always a risk during handling, often due to spillage, the presence of
electrical sparks, contact with hot engine parts, etc. Gasoline ignites more
readily then kerosene, as it has a lower flash point.
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9.2 OILS
Lubricating oils, like other petroleum products, are a mixture of various hydro-
carbons. The viscosity basically depends upon the process used to refine the oil and
blending can further control it.
Viscosity and Viscosity Index are the factors that decide the lubricant for a particular
purpose. The desired viscosity of oil for a particular engine is decided by the
designer considering many factors, including:
Bearing loads and clearances

Sliding speeds
Oil pump capacity
Operating temperatures
Engine RPM
The specification of an oil indicates the properties it possesses, thus ensuring that it
is able to safely protect, cool, lubricate, etc. the moving parts of the engine. It is
essential then, that the correct oil is always used to top-up or re-fill an engine and
oils are NEVER mixed together.
For the lubrication of the main shafts of jet engines running in contact bearings, low
viscosity oil is required. Early engine designs operated on straight mineral oils, but
these were unsatisfactory when low temperature starting was involved, either on
the ground or when re-lighting in the air. To overcome this problem, and that of the
high contact pressures at the bearings, low viscosity, extreme pressure, (EP), oils
were developed.
When mineral oils reached the end of their useful life, they were replaced with
synthetic oils. These were initially developed from esters of sebacic acid and, as the
basic oils were unsuitable for carrying the bearing loads in the engines, other, more
complex esters were added to assist the load carrying and to raise the viscosity. This
first generation synthetic oil became AeroShell 750, (service designation OX-38),
and was produced by most petroleum companies under different names.
What is known as second generation oils came about because of the by-pass and
turbo-fan engines, which, due to the insulating effect of the by-pass air, caused the
oil temperatures to rise. This meant that a new oil, which could operate at higher
temperatures and resist oxidation had to be developed. These are known as Type 2
lubricants. Their specification includes anti-oxidants, load carrying additives,
corrosion inhibitors, metal deactivators and foam inhibitors. A typical example might
be AeroShell 500.
There are third generation oils developed for use during supersonic operation, both
with the military and in the Olympus engines on Concorde. These have resistance to
very high oil temperatures, in the range of 2600 to 3150C, and, whilst still being
developed from ester based oils, they have poorer properties both at low
temperatures and for lubricity. An example might be AeroShell 555.
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In summary, oil has a range of characteristics for different applications, it can be

derived from three main sources and can contain a wide range of additives to
change its properties.
Characteristics:
Ability to wet the surface to be lubricated
Viscosity that maintains film lubrication
High viscosity index
Low rate of evaporation at high temperature
Prevents formation of gum and sludge
Must remain stable in use
Sources:
Mineral
Synthetics
Vegetable (rarely used on aircraft)
Additives
Extreme pressure
Anti-corrosion
Viscosity improvers
Pour point depressants
Anti-foaming
Anti-oxidants
Fuel Additives
Additives to the basic fuel specification are pre-mixed by the supplier of the fuel. All
the engineer can do is to be aware that certain fuels, with specific additives, are only
to be used where specified by the engine manufacturer.
For example, anti-icing agents are added to fuels to limit the freezing of entrained
water, without recourse to fuel heating, at low temperatures. Also, the addition of
anti-microbiological agents to the fuel helps to kill the microbes, fungi and bacteria,
which form slime or, occasionally, a matted waste in the fuel tanks and pipework.
Occasionally, an additive has not been added during refinement, meaning the
engineer has to add the applicable agent, in the correct quantity, during refuelling. A
popular brand of a combined anti-icing and anti-microbiological mixture is called
PRIST. It is designed to be added during servicing. However, the engineer must
determine the type and amount, after consultation with the maintenance manual,
the operators manual or the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
Alternatively, many gas turbine engine manufacturers approve an anti-biological
compound called Biobor, as an additive to the aircraft fuel supply.
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10. LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

The gas turbine engine lubrication systems are required to provide lubrication and cooling
for all gears, bearings and splines. They must also be capable of collecting foreign matter,
which, if left in a bearing housing or gearbox, can cause rapid failure. In addition, the oil
must protect the lubricated components that are manufactured from non-corrosion
resistant materials.
With turbo-propeller engines, there are somewhat different requirements to any other
types of gas turbine. This is due to the additional lubrication of the heavily loaded propeller
reduction gears and the need for a high-pressure oil supply to operate the propeller pitch
control mechanism.
Most gas turbines use a self-contained recirculatory lubrication system, in which the oil is
distributed around the engine and returned to the oil tank by pumps. There are a few
engines that use a system known as the total loss or expendable system in which the oil is
dumped overboard after the engine has been lubricated.
10.1 TYPES OF SYSTEMS

There are two basic types of recirculatory system. They are known as the pressure
relief valve system and the full flow system. The major difference being in the
control of the oil flow to the bearings.
Because, in both designs, the oil temperature and oil pressure are critical to the safe
running of the engine, provisions are made to display both parameters in the
cockpit.
10.1.1 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM

In this system, the oil flow to the bearings is controlled simply by limiting the
pressure in the feed line to a given design value. This is achieved by the use
of a spring-loaded valve, which allows the oil to be directly returned from the
pressure pump outlet to either the oil tank or the pressure pump inlet, when
the design pressure is exceeded.
A limitation of this system is that when the engine is at idle, the oil is being
pumped around the engine due to the valve being off its seat. Once the
engine speed increases however, the bearing chamber air pressure increases,
slowing down the flow of oil. To overcome this problem on some engines,
the rising pressure is fed to the back of the oil pressure relief valve, which
effectively increases the oil pressure in the feed line.
The basic components that could make up this type of engine lubrication
system
would be:
The pressure pump, which draws oil from the tank, through a strainer, to
the pressure filter.
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The pressure relief valve, which maintains a constant delivery pressure.

A second pressure relief valve, is sometimes fitted, set well above system
pressure. This opens if the system becomes blocked.
The filter by-pass valve, which opens if the filter becomes blocked.
The scavenge pumps which return the oil to the tank via the oil cooler.
Illustrated below is a typical pressure relief valve type oil system, installed in
a turbo-propeller engine.
Typical Pressure Relief Valve SystemFigure 10.1
10.1.2 FULL FLOW OIL SYSTEM

Although the pressure relief valve system operates satisfactorily for engines
that have a low bearing chamber pressure that does not unduly increase with
engine speed. It becomes an undesirable system for engines that have high
chamber pressures. For example, a chamber pressure of 90 psi. requires a
relief valve set at 130 psi. This calls for large pumps, with the associated
difficulty in matching the oil flow at lower speeds.
The full flow system achieves the desired oil flow rates throughout the
complete engine speed range. To achieve this, the pressure relief valve is
dispensed with and the pump output directly supplies the oil feed jets.
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The example below shows a turbo-fan engine in which the size of the
pressure pump is dictated by the flow at maximum engine speed. Using this
method allows smaller pressure and scavenge pumps, due to there being no
continuous loss of oil spilling back to the tank, that occurs at high engine
speeds, with the other system.
Typical Full Flow Oil SystemFigure 10.2
To prevent high oil pressure from damaging filters or coolers, relief valves are
fitted to by-pass these units. They will normally only open during a cold start
or in the event of a blockage of the internal parts.
A differential switch gives advanced warning of a potential filter blockage by

sensing the difference between inlet and outlet pressures.
10.1.3 TOTAL LOSS (Expendable) SYSTEM

For engines that run for short periods, such as booster and lift engines, the
total loss oil system is sometimes used. This system is simple and incurs a low
weight penalty because it does not require an oil cooler, scavenge pump or
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filters. On some engines oil is delivered in a continuous flow to the bearings

via a plunger-type pump driven by the compressor. Some pumps are driven
by fuel pressure and, when opening the HP cock during starting, it directs a
shot of oil to top and bottom, (front and rear), bearings. The oil is then either
ejected into the exhaust or retained and either drained or dumped
overboard.
The basic oil system illustrated below, is typical of many gas turbine engines,
and contains all of the components mentioned earlier.
Basic Oil SystemFigure 10.3
The previous system is actually from a turbo-propeller engine, hence the

additional oil supply to both the reduction gearbox and the torque meter
system. Other items of note are:
The measurement of the oil temperature immediately after leaving the

tank,
The location of the oil pressure transmitter at the furthest point from the
pressure pump.
The stack pipe, (stand pipe), which reserves some oil for propeller
feathering, even if the lubricating oil is totally lost due to a leak.
The thread type oil filters, which protect the bearings from the finest
pieces of swarf.
A de-aerator tray that removes air bubbles from the returned oil.
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10.2 SYSTEM COMPONENTS

OIL TANKS
The oil tank is usually mounted on the engine but is normally a separate unit,
although it can be an integral part of an external gearbox. It normally contains a
number of items, such as draining and filling facilities, methods of checking the oil
quantity via a dipstick and sight glass, provision to remove air bubbles from the
returned oil and, on some non-commercial aircraft, facilities to allow agile and
inverted flight.
PUMPS
The pumps can be divided into two groups. The pressure pump takes the oil from
the tank and pushes it throughout the engine to the bearings, gears and accessories.
The scavenge pumps collect the oil after it has served its purpose and return it to the
tank, possibly via a cooler and de-aerator tray.
The simple gear type pump is the commonest in use for both of the above purposes.
The oil is drawn into the low-pressure inlet and passed around the outer chamber
and out into the system, as can be seen in the illustration over-leaf.
FILTERS
Solid contaminants pumped through an aircraft engine lubricating system can clog
the oil passages and damage the bearings. Provisions must be made to remove as
much of these as possible.
This is achieved by one of two methods, full-flow filtration and by-pass filtration. All
of the oil circulating through the system passes through a full-flow unit, whilst only
part of the oil is filtered during each circulation in a by-pass system, although all of
the oil is filtered eventually. By-pass filters can be much finer because if they clog,
the oil can continue to flow around the filter, retaining the essential lubrication.
RELIEF VALVES
Almost all pumps used in aircraft engines produce an excess of oil pressure, which
must be controlled. Pressure relief valves, which can be a simple spring loaded plate
or valve, remain closed until the oil pressure rises excessively. The valve will then
open and spill a percentage of the oil back to the tank, lowering the pressure to the
relief valve spring value.
Many relief valves have an adjusting screw, which can be unlocked and turned, to
change the value at which the valve opens.
OIL PRESSURE GAUGE

Pressure is measured at crucial points around the system, depending on the design
of the engine. Normally, the system pressure, if measured at a single point, will be
sensed far from the pump, so that any system leaks are detected as well as any
95

failure of the supply itself. A simple transducer will be connected to the system,
which will send a signal to a gauge unit on the instrument panel.
Often a pressure switch will be located at the same place as the transducer, this will
illuminate a warning light or caption as a back-up to the gauge unit, if the system
pressure falls below a pre-determined figure.
OIL TEMPERATURE GAUGE

The oil temperature is usually measured at the inlet to the pressure pump, (hence its
name, Oil Inlet Temperature, (OIT.). This ensures that if there is a rise in
temperature due to a low oil quantity or a blocked oil cooler it will be detected
rapidly.
The illustrations below show examples of some of the components mentioned
earlier. Each component on each engine will have been designed for its specific
purpose and will therefore, be different from similar components fitted to other
engines.
OIL TANK ASSEMBLY OIL PUMP
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OIL FILTER RELIEF VALVE

Oil System ComponentsFigure 10.4
OIL COOLER
All engines transfer heat to the oil by friction, churning and windage within a bearing
chamber or gearbox. To remove this heat an oil cooler is fitted, normally in the
return line, to transfer the heat from the oil to either the atmosphere and/or the
fuel system.
It is possible to find, on either type of cooler, a temperature sensitive valve that will
be set into the inlet. This valve will by-pass the cooler when the oil is still at ambient
temperature, i.e. at starting, and it will open as the oil temperature rises.
MAGNETIC PLUGS
These items are also known as Chip Detectors and are fitted into the
scavenge,(return),line to collect ferric debris from each bearing chamber. They are
basically permanent magnets inserted in the oil flow and are retained in self-sealing
valve housings.
Upon examination, they can provide a warning of impending failure without having
to remove and inspect filters and without having to carry out other troubleshooting
operations on the system. They are usually removed and inspected during scheduled
maintenance inspections for condition monitoring purposes.
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Oil Cooler (Left) And Magnetic PlugFigure 10.5
10.3 OIL SYSTEM MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

The maintenance of gas turbine engine lubrication systems consists mainly of
adjusting, removing and replacing various components.
OIL CHANGE
The first action should always to ensure that the type of oil in the engine is identified
by reference to the maintenance manual. There are many different makes of
synthetic oil, both type 1 and type 2, and great care must be taken to ensure that
the oil put into the engine is of the correct specification.
Oil is usually supplied in quart containers and care must be taken to ensure that
both the container and the replenishing point of the engine are clean. If bulk
replenishing rigs are used, the correct filtration must be serviceable, usually 10
micron or smaller is normal.
If the engine is being drained and re-filled with different oil, it may be drained from
the oil tank, the accessory gearbox sump, the main oil filter and other low points of
the oil system. The engine will be flushed first, by refilling the engine with flushing
oil and then motoring it over using only the starter motor. Once this has been
accomplished, the flushing oil should be drained and the engine refilled with the
new oil.
Another important consideration when servicing the oil system is to ensure that
servicing is accomplished within a short time after shutdown. This is normally called
for by the engine manufacturers to assist in drain down, during an oil change, with
the hot and thin oil. It is also to prevent over filling because oil will, over time, drain
into the engine causing the tank to show a lower level than the correct value. The
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manufacturer will often say, for example, oil levels must be checked between 15 and
30 minutes after shut down.
Another consideration is the recording of replenishments. A careful record of all oil
put into the engine must be kept in the technical log and, whilst a small, regular
consumption is acceptable, a slowly increasing quantity required for replenishment
requires investigation.
OIL FILTER MAINTENANCE

Depending upon the aircraft manufacturers published instructions, filters may be
replaced at a published life or, on occasions, if the design of the filter is different, it
may be cleaned either by flushing or by ultrasonic cleaning. The latter vibrates the
filter at very high frequency, in a solvent, which effectively shakes all the particles
out of the filter, leaving it clean and ready for re-installation.
An example of one of these ultrasonic cleaners is shown below.
Ultrasonic Filter CleanerFigure 10.6
SCAVENGE SYSTEM
The scavenge systems remove oil from the bearings and gearboxes, by scavenge
pump suction, and returns it to the oil tank.
The systems will normally contain scavenge filters, usually a coarse metallic grid, to
remove any metallic particles returning to the tank from bearings, gearboxes, etc. In
critical sub-systems, magnetic chip detectors may also be fitted in the return
scavenge lines, to collect ferrous particles.
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These plugs will be removed and inspected at regular intervals in accordance with
the engine manufacturers manuals. Some chip detectors, in addition to being
magnetic, can have electrical contacts in them, which will give a flight deck warning
if particles of metal are attracted to the magnet, giving the crew the option to close
down the affected engine.
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11. FUEL SYSTEMS

The functions of the engine fuel system are to provide the engine with fuel in a form
suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the required quantity necessary for easy
starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating conditions. To do this, one
or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the fuel spray nozzles, which inject it
into the combustion chambers in an atomised spray.
Because the flow rate must vary according to the amount of air passing through the engine,
to maintain a constant selected engine speed or pressure ratio, the controlling devices,
whether mechanical or electronic, are fully automatic. This is excepting the engine power
selection from the flight deck, which is achieved via a manual throttle or power lever.
A fuel shut-off valve or cock, lever is also normally used to stop the engine. In some cases,
these two levers, power and shut-off, are combined into one lever with both functions,
(usually protected against accidental closure by a gate).
There will also be protection devices fitted that prevent excess compressor delivery
pressure, (choking) and rotating assembly overspeeding.
With turbo-propeller engines, changes in propeller speed and pitch have to be taken into
consideration, as they affect the power output of the engine. Usually, the throttle lever and
propeller control unit will have to be inter-connected, thus the correct relationship between
the fuel and air flow is maintained at all engine speeds. This arrangement also gives the
pilot the advantage of single lever control. Although the propeller will control the speed of
the complete assembly, an additional governor in the fuel system acts as a back-up
Overspeed protection.
11.1 MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROLS

The control of the power or thrust of a gas turbine engine is achieved by the
quantity of fuel injected into the combustion system. When a higher thrust is
required, the throttle/power lever is advanced and the pressure to the fuel spray
nozzles increases giving a greater fuel flow. This has the effect of increasing the gas
temperature, which, in turn, accelerates the gases through the turbine assembly,
giving higher engine speeds and a greater airflow. The result of all this is to produce
more engine thrust.
Another variable which has to be taken into consideration by any fuel control device,
is the change of air density due to altitude, air temperature and aircraft speed. All of
these influence the density of the air, and hence the mass air flow, entering the
intake of the engine.
If these variables were not taken into consideration, the fuel would not be reduced
in proportion to the falling air density, as the aircraft climbed. The result would be a
steep rise in the exhaust temperature and the risk of overheating or possibly
destruction of the turbine assembly.
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Many engines are fitted with an electronic system of control and this generally
involves the use of integrated circuits, (ICs), to measure and translate changing
engine conditions to automatically adjust the fuel pump output. Some helicopters
also have electronic engine control which, in this case, have an additional free-
turbine and hence rotor speed control.
11.2 FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS

Typical high pressure fuel control systems for both turbo-propeller and turbo-jet
engines, consist of basically the following components:
HP fuel pump
Throttle control
Fuel spray nozzles
Sensing devices for flow and pressure
The usual method of varying the fuel flow to the spray nozzles is by adjusting the
output of the HP fuel pump, which is signalled through a servo system in response to
some or all of the following inputs:
Throttle movement.
Air temperature and pressure.
Rapid acceleration and deceleration.
Signals of engine speed, exhaust gas temperature and compressor delivery
pressure.
Simple Fuel SystemFigure 11.1
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PRESSURE CONTROLS (Turbo-prop engine)

The pressure control system shown below contains just the components mentioned
previously. The fuel pump (top left) output, is controlled by the spill valve in the
fuel/flow control unit (right) and the engine speed governor, (left centre). These
valves vary the servo pressure and hence correct the pump output.
Changes to the aircraft speed, altitude or the outside air temperature, (OAT), will
result in the changes being sensed by the bellows units in the Fuel Control Unit, FCU,
(right) and therefore, further alterations to the servo pressure, altering the pump
output to the correct amount.
Turbo-Propeller Fuel SystemFigure 11.2
From the above diagram, the basic operations are:

Movement of the throttle lever.
Aircraft climbing and descending.
Aircraft moving faster or slower.
Opening and closing of the High Pressure Cock, (HPC).
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All of the first three operations occur during each flight and involve signals being
sent to the fuel pump. The last operation occurs on the ground at the start and finish
of each flight or period of engine running.
The throttle valve moves as the pilot moves his throttle lever. This causes changes in
the differential pressure around the valve and signals the pump to increase or
decrease its output to match the demand.
Any change in either outside ambient or intake pressure will result in more or less
air entering the engine. This will require a change in fuel flow to match it. The
bellows, in the capsule assembly, will expand or contract, depending on
circumstances, again altering the fuel pump output to match the airflow.
Finally, to stop the engine, a separate lever is normally operated. The HP cock, cuts
off the fuel to the burners. However, the mechanical fuel pump continues to run as
the engine winds down, so the fuel still being pumped has to be recirculated back
to the LP side of the supply.
PRESSURE CONTROLS (turbo-jet engine)

Whilst the propeller controls the speed of the engine on a turbo-propeller
installation, the acceleration and deceleration of a turbo-jet is in direct proportion to
the change of fuel flow. These fuel control units control both the amount of fuel
being fed to the burners and the rate at which the fuel is increased and decreased.
The rate is very important because if the fuel is increased at too fast a rate, the
engine can quickly overheat and burn out, before it has time to accelerate and draw
in sufficient air to mix with the extra fuel. During throttle closing, however, if the
fuel flow is decreased too quickly, the combustion flame can blow out due to there
being too little fuel for the mass of air still coming through the engine.
Otherwise, the detection of throttle opening, the changes in atmospheric pressure
and airspeed are catered for by much the same way as the previous example.
11.3 FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM

A flow control system is generally more compact than a pressure control system and
it is not sensitive to the flow effect of variations downstream of the throttle. The fuel
pump delivery pressure is related to engine speed, thus, at low engine speeds pump
delivery pressure is quite low. The fuel pump output is controlled to give a constant
pressure difference across the throttle valve at constant air intake conditions.
Various devices are also used to adjust the fuel flow for intake pressure variations,
idling and acceleration control, gas temperature and compressor delivery pressure
control.
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11.4 COMBINED ACCELLERATION AND SPEED CONRTOL (CASC)

This is a mechanical system without small restrictors or spill valves. It is also an all-
speed governor system and, therefore, needs no separate governor unit for
controlling the maximum RPM The controlling mechanism is contained in one unit,
normally referred to as the fuel flow regulator, FFR.
An HP fuel pump is used, with the pump servo piston being operated by HP fuel on
one side and main nozzle (servo) pressure on the other side.
The fuel flow regulator, shown below, contains inputs from the HP fuel supply, (HP
pump), and air pressure tappings from P2.6 and P3. In addition, the drive shaft is
driven from the accessory gearbox, running at a speed that is proportional to engine
speed.
The outputs are the primary and main flows leading to the spray nozzles.
Combined Acceleration And Speed Control UnitFigure 11.3
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11.5 FUEL FLOW REGULATOR

The fuel flow regulator, driven by the engine, has two centrifugal governors, (speed
control and pressure drop control) and two sliding valves, which also rotate.
The first valve, known as the variable metering sleeve, has a triangular orifice known
as a variable metering orifice, VMO. This sleeve is moved by the capsule assembly.
The governor sleeve, sliding over the VMO sleeve, is moved by the speed control
governor and the stirrup arm, both of which are controlled by the throttle lever in
the cockpit.
The other, pressure drop valve, is also controlled by a governor and forms a piston.
It has a triangular, variable orifice and a rectangular, fixed-area orifice. Primary fuel
flow comes from the fixed area orifice and, on its own, will provide a satisfactory
fuel flow for idling at all altitudes. The triangular, variable orifice allocates the
amount of extra fuel to the Main fuel flow in proportion to throttle opening, HP fuel
pressure, engine RPM and VMO pressure.
11.6 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONRTOL

Some engines utilise a system of electronic control to monitor engine performance
and make necessary control inputs to maintain certain engine parameters within
pre-determined limits. The main areas of control are engine shaft speeds, (N1, N2
and N3), and exhaust gas temperature, EGT, which are continuously monitored
during engine operation. Some types of electronic control function only as a limiter,
that is, if the shaft speeds or the EGT approach dangerous levels, an input is made to
the fuel flow regulator, FFR, to reduce the fuel flow thus maintaining shaft speed or
EGT at safe levels.
Supervisory systems, such as those mentioned previously, may contain a limiter
function but, basically, by using aircraft generated data, the system enables a more
appropriate thrust setting to be selected quickly and accurately by the pilot. The
control system then makes small control adjustments to maintain engine thrust
consistent with that pre-set by the pilot, regardless of changing atmospheric
conditions.
Full Authority Digital Engine Control, (FADEC), takes over virtually all of the steady
state and transient control intelligence and replaces most of the hydro-mechanical
and pneumatic elements of the fuel system. The fuel system is thus reduced to a
pump and control valve, an independent shut-off cock and a minimum of additional
features necessary to keep the engine safe in the event of extensive electronic
failure.
As an example, the Rolls Royce RB211 engine FADEC system shown below,
demonstrates how the computer known as the Control Amplifier, has inputs of
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engine temperature and shaft speeds and control output to the differential pressure
regulator.
At high power settings, when there is a risk of shaft Overspeed or excess
temperatures, the pressure regulator returns excess fuel to the pump inlet. The fuel
flow regulator acts as a hydro-mechanical control, with inputs from the high-speed
compressor, the gas path pressures and the power lever position.
Typical FADEC SystemFigure 11.4
11.7 SYSTEM LAYOUTS

Engine fuel systems vary in detail, but generally they contain similar components
which do the same jobs. It can be seen from the two illustrations below, showing
typical turbo-propeller and turbo-jet installations, that components like HP pumps;
throttle unit/fuel flow regulators; shaft governors and HP shut-off cocks are
common to both installations. It will also be seen that the sensors measuring such
items as intake temperature; internal pressures; exhaust gas temperature and shaft
speeds are, again, common to both designs.
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Engine Fuel System LayoutsFigure 11.5
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There are a number of components, fitted to gas turbine engines, which require
either some limited maintenance or adjustment during their installed lives. The
short explanation and illustrations that follow will cover the most common of these.
11.8 ENGINE DRIVEN FUEL PUMP (EDP)

This pump delivers more fuel as the engine speeds up. It is designed to deliver a
continuous supply of fuel to the fuel control at a quantity in excess of the engine
needs. After metering the required amount of fuel to the combustor, the fuel
control unit returns the surplus fuel to the pump inlet.
Main pumps can be either spur gear types, (positive displacement output } speed),
or plunger types which have their output dependent on a servo signal from the
throttle position as well as the engine speed. The pump illustrated below is a single
unit, variable stroke, plunger type. The output of this type of pump can vary from
about 100 to 2000 gallons per hour, at 2000 psi. depending on demand.
Variable Output Fuel PumpFigure 11.6
11.9 FUEL SPRAY NOZZLES

The three major types of atomising fuel spray nozzles are Simplex, Duplex and
Airspray. These are the final component in the engine fuel system and the engine
performance depends upon their correct operation.
Their task is to either atomise or to vaporise the fuel to ensure its rapid burning. The
difficulties involved in this process can be appreciated when the velocity of the
compressor outlet air and the short burning length available is considered.
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The basic simplex burner imparts swirl to the fuel and then, after straightening out
the swirl, it atomises the fuel from when it can be ignited to produce energy. This
type of burner was first used on early jet engines and contained a chamber that
induced the swirl to the fuel. Its main limitation was that the pressure required to
achieve very high flows was difficult to achieve with the pumps available in those
days.
A cutaway of a simplex burner, together with a typical spray pattern is illustrated
below.
Simplex nozzleFigure 11.7
The duplex spray nozzle, (overleaf), requires a primary and a main fuel manifold
and has two independent orifices, one much smaller than the other. The smaller
orifice handles the lower flows, whilst the larger orifice deals with the higher
flows as the fuel pressure increases. A pressurising valve or flow divider may be
employed to apportion the fuel to each manifold, depending on the demand.
Duplex burnerFigure 11.8
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In this system, the duplex nozzles are able to give effective atomising over a wider
flow range than the simplex nozzle for the same fuel pressure. These nozzles are also
more effective in atomising the fuel at the low flows required at high altitudes.
The Airspray nozzle (right) carries a proportion of the primary combustion air with
the injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the local fuel rich concentrations, produced
by the other types of spray nozzle, are avoided. This gives a reduction in both carbon
formation and exhaust smoke.
Another advantage of this type of nozzle is that the low pressures required for
atomisation of the fuel permits the use of the comparatively lighter gear-type pump.
Airspray NozzleFigure 11.9
11.10 OVER-SPEED PROTECTION

Some engines require additional protection against overspeeding, other than the
normal fuel control unit with engine speed input. A device similar to that illustrated
(right) might be found on some engines, in this case the Rolls Royce Tay Turbo-fan
engine, to limit the rotational speed of the LP fan. It achieves this, in a potential
overspeeding condition, by directly restricting the fuel flow to the burners, via the
metering plunger, which is lifted by the centrifugal governor.
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Overspeed RPM GovernorFigure 11.10
Other components found within some engine fuel systems would include Filters,
which remove any foreign particles not removed by earlier filtration and, fuel
heaters, which ensure any ice crystals entrained in the fuel are melted before they
can block any filters.
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12. AIR SYSTEMS

A definition of the engine internal air system is Those airflows which do not directly
contribute to the engine thrust. The system has several important functions to perform for
the safe and efficient operation of the engine. These functions include internal engine and
accessory unit cooling, bearing chamber sealing, prevention of hot gas ingestion into the
turbine disc cavities, control of bearing axial loads, control of turbine blade tip clearance
and engine anti-icing.
The internal air system also supplies air for aircraft services. Up to one fifth of the total
engine core mass airflow may be used for these functions.
An increasing amount of work is done on the air, as it progresses through the compressor,
to raise its pressure and temperature. To reduce performance losses, the air is taken as
early as possible from the compressor, relative to the requirement of each particular
function. The cooling air is usually expelled overboard, once it is of no further use. It may,
however, be fed into the main gas stream, at the highest possible pressure, where a small
performance recovery is achieved.
12.1 COOLING AIR

At the design stage of a gas turbine engine, it must be designed to ensure that
certain parts of the engine, and in some instances certain accessories, do not absorb
heat to the extent that it is detrimental to their safe operation. The principal areas
that require air-cooling are the combustor and turbine.
Some internal airflow is used to control the temperature of the compressor shafts
and discs by either cooling or heating them. This ensures an even temperature
distribution and therefore improves engine efficiency by controlling thermal growth
and thus maintaining minimum blade tip and seal clearances. The illustration below
shows how the L.P, HP intermediate and HP air are used to cool the various internal
parts of a twin-spool by-pass engine.
Cooling AirflowsFigure 12.1
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12.2 TURBINE COOLING

A high thermal efficiency depends on a high turbine inlet temperature, which is
limited by the turbine and nozzle guide vane materials. Continuous cooling of these
components allows their environmental operating temperature to exceed the
melting point of the material, without affecting the blade and vane integrity.
Heat conduction from the turbine blades to the turbine disc requires the discs to be
cooled also and thus prevent thermal fatigue and uncontrolled expansion and
contraction rates.
The life of turbine blades and vanes depends not only upon their form, but also on
the method of cooling used therefore, the flow design of the internal passages is
very important. There have been numerous methods of cooling used over the
history of gas turbines. Single pass internal cooling was the most basic method used
in the early designs, whilst later designs have multi-pass internal cooling with
external air film cooling as well. Examples of three turbine blade design, from
different eras, are illustrated below.
Turbine Blade CoolingFigure 12.2
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It will be noticed that the later blades use both LP and HP cooling air to control the
operating temperature of the blades. These differing air supplies are taken from
tappings at different places along the compressor stage.
12.3 BEARING CHAMBER COOLING

Air cooling of the engine bearing chambers is not normally necessary since the
lubrication system is adequate for cooling purposes. The bearings are also normally
located in the cooler regions of the engine.
12.4 ACCESSORY COOLING

A considerable amount of heat is produced by some of the engine accessories; the
electrical generators for example. Separate cooling sub-systems may be necessary
for some components like these when the aircraft is on the ground, which may use
engine bleed air or atmospheric air, which is ducted from outside the cowling.
Whilst the bleed air is supplied from a pressure tapping, external air must be
induced to pass through the cooling system ducting. This is achieved by using
compressor delivery air passing through nozzles in the outlet duct, creating a low-
pressure area.
This induces a flow though the cooling system from the inlet louvers to the outlet
duct, as shown below.
Accessory CoolingFigure 12.3
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12.5 SEALING AIR

Seals are used to prevent oil leakage from the engine bearing chambers, to control
cooling airflows and to prevent ingress of the mainstream gas into the turbine disc
cavities. Various sealing methods are used on gas turbine engines. The choice of
which method is dependent upon the surrounding atmosphere and pressure,
resistance to wear, heat generation, weight, space available, ease of manufacture
and ease of installation and removal.
The typical turbine assembly illustrating hypothetical cooling and sealing
arrangements below, shows the usage of most of the common methods of sealing,
which will be described later.
Sealing Air ExamplesFigure 12.4
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12.6 LABRYNTH SEALS

This type of seal is widely used to retain oil in bearing chambers and as a metering
device to control internal airflows.
The seal comprises a finned rotating member with a static bore, which is lined with
either a soft abradable material or a high temperature honeycomb structure. On
initial running the fins lightly cut small grooves into the static bore material, leaving
a minimal clearance. This clearance varies throughout the flight cycle, depending on
the thermal growth of the parts and the natural flexing of the rotating members.
Across each seal fin there is a pressure drop resulting in a restricted flow of sealing
air from one side of the seal to the other. When used for bearing chamber sealing, it
prevents oil leakage by allowing air to flow from the outside to the inside of the
chamber, which also induces a positive pressure to assist the oil return system. The
illustrations below show two different uses of labyrinth seals, an oil and air seal and
a simple airflow control seal.
Labyrinth SealsFigure 12.5
12.7 RING SEALS

A ring seal comprises a metal ring housed in a close fitting groove in the static
housing.
The clearance between the ring and the shaft is smaller than with a labyrinth seal,
due to the ring being able to move in the groove, when it contacts with the shaft.
Ring seals are used for bearing chamber
sealing, except in the hot areas where oil
degradation due to heat would lead to ring seizure within its housing.
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Ring Type Oil SealFigure 12.6
12.8 HYDRAULIC SEALS

This method of sealing is often used between two rotating members to seal a
bearing chamber. Unlike the labyrinth and ring seals, it does not allow a controlled
flow of air to traverse across the sea.
These seals are formed by a seal fin immersed in an annulus of oil, which has been
created by centrifugal force. Any difference in air pressure inside and outside of the
bearing chamber is compensated by a difference in oil level either side of the fin.
12.9 CARBON SEALS

Carbon seals consist of a static ring of carbon, which constantly rubs against a collar
on a rotating shaft. Several springs are used to maintain contact between the carbon
and the collar. This type of seal relies upon a high degree of contact and does not
allow oil or air leakage across it. The heat caused by friction is dissipated by the oil
system.
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12.10 BRUSH SEALS

These seals comprise a static ring of fine wire bristles. They are in continuous
contact with a rotating shaft, rubbing against a hard ceramic coating. This type of
seal has the advantage of withstanding radial rubs without increasing leakage.
Carbon (Left) And Ceramic SealsFigure 12.7
Aircraft Services
To provide a wide range of air services, such as cabin pressurisation/air conditioning,
airframe/engine anti-icing, cross starting and, finally pressurisation of water and
hydraulic tanks, substantial quantities of air are required from the compressor. It is
desirable to bleed the air as early as possible from the compressor to minimise the
loss on engine performance.
However, during some phases of the flight cycle, such as a low engine speed during
the descent and approach, it may be necessary to switch the bleed source from an
earlier to a later stage tapping. This allows the higher pressure and temperatures,
required for the services, to be maintained. As an example, the Rolls Royce Tay
engine has tappings at the 7th and 12th stages of the HP compressor and the
changeover from one to the other occurs automatically when the engine speed falls
below, or rises above 80%.
The bleed air, tapped from the compressor of the engine, is distributed to numerous
services. The diagram below shows the air distribution on a typical twin-engined,
100-seat airliner. Of note are the additional inputs from the Auxiliary Power Unit
(APU) and the ground supply unit, as well as the two power plants.
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Pneumatic ServicesFigure 12.8
The more complex system diagram overleaf only shows how the two tappings from
theengine, at stages 7 and 12 are fed into the common manifold. From there it is
used to anti-ice the intakes, pressurise the cabin, anti-ice the wing and tail,
pressurise the hydraulic and water tanks, as well as cross-starting the other engine
in flight, if required. It will also be seen that the Shut-off and Temperature
Modulating Valve is the valve that switches between the bleed air stages 7 and 12,
depending on the engine speed.
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Typical Pneumatic SystemFigure 12.9
It will also be seen from the illustration on the previous page, that there are a
number of shut-off valves used to activate and de-activate the various engine bleed
air supply systems. The crew activates all these shut-off valves, from the flight deck,
when required.
Due to the large demand for bleed air from some systems, inhibitions are applied at
certain times such as take-off, to prevent a reduction in power, due to excessive
demand, at critical times. There are also overpressure valves and temperature
sensors, within the bleed air supply, that protect both the ducts and the services
that they supply.
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13. STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS

13.1 INTRODUCTION
Two main systems are required to ensure that a gas turbine engine will start
satisfactorily. Firstly, provision must be made for the compressor and turbine to be
rotated up to a speed at which adequate air passes into the combustion system to
mix with the fuel from the fuel spray nozzles. Secondly, provision must be made for
ignition of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion system.
During normal engine starting, the two systems must operate simultaneously. It
must also be possible to motor the engine over without ignition for maintenance
checks and to blow out residual fuel after a failed start. In addition, it must be
possible to operate the ignition system for relighting the engine during flight.
The functioning of both systems is co-ordinated during a starting cycle and their
operation is automatically controlled after the initiation of the cycle by an electrical
circuit. A typical sequence might be as follows:
Start button pressed
Ignition ON
HP Fuel ON
Light-Up
Self Sustaining
Starter Circuit OFF
Idle RPM
Methods of Starting
The starting procedure for all jet engines is basically the same, but can be achieved
by various methods. The type and power source for the starter varies with engine
and aircraft requirements. The power sources can be electrical, gas, air or hydraulic
and each method has its merits.
The requirements for a military aircraft, for example, are totally different to those
for a commercial airliner. The starter motor must, however, always produce a high
torque and then transmit this torque to the engine in a smooth manner to
accelerate it to self-sustaining speed.
13.1.1 ELECTRIC STARTING

The electric starter is usually a direct current, (D.C.), electric motor coupled
to the engine through a reduction gear and ratchet mechanism, or clutch,
which will automatically disengage once the engine is self-sustaining.
The electrical supply voltage can be progressively increased by the removal
of resistances in the circuit as the engine increases in speed. The ignition
system is also actuated and supplied at the same time as the start is initiated.
Once the engine is running, the starter supply is cancelled by the drop in
supply current or by the action of a timer mechanism. Either way, the starter
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slows down and the clutch or ratchet mechanism ensures that the engine can
accelerate free from the starter drive shaft.
The diagram below shows a simplified electric starter circuit. It contains most
of the components found in many starter circuits such as master switch, start
button and main starter relay. Overspeed relays usually disconnect the
starter motor electrically, once the amount of current being drawn falls
below a value which can only be reached if the engine is self-sustaining.
Electric Starting CircuitFigure 13.1
13.1.2 AIR STARTING

Air starting is used on most commercial and some military jet engines. It ahs
many advantages over other starting systems and is comparatively light,
simple and economical to operate.
An air starter motor transmits power through a reduction gear and clutch to
the starter output shaft, which is connected to the engine. A typical air
starter is a basic air turbine that rotates at high RPM when HP air is passed
through it from the on board Auxiliary Power Unit, (APU), a cross-feed from a
running engine, or an external air supply.
The air supply, from whichever source, is controlled by an electrically
operated control and pressure-reducing valve that is opened when an engine
start is selected. It is automatically closed at a pre-determined starter speed.
The clutch automatically disengages as the engine accelerates up to idling
RPM and the rotation of the starter ceases.
The illustration below shows a typical air starting system, with a cut-away of
the actual starter motor showing its rotor.
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Starter system(left)and starter motorFigure 13.2
13.1.3 IMPINGEMENT AIR STARTERS

Some turbo-jet engines are not fitted with starter motors, but use air
impingement onto the turbine blades as a means of rotating the engine. The
air is obtained from an external source, or a running engine, and is directed
on to the turbine blades.
GAS TURBINE STARTERS

On a few turbo-jet engines, a small self-contained gas turbine is used to start
the engine. It is completely independent of the aircraft systems, excluding
the electric starter. Once the small engine has started, its exhaust is directed,
through nozzleguide vanes on to the turbine of the main engine, which will
rotate through its own starting cycle, until it reaches self-sustaining speed.
HYDRAULIC STARTING
This form of starting is found, on occasions, fitted on to small gas turbine
engines. In most applications, one of the engine mounted hydraulic pumps is
utilised and is known as a combined pump/starter. This unit is coupled to the
engine through the accessory gearbox and a reduction gearing. The hydraulic
power, which will drive the unit in its starter mode can come from external
sources or on-board accumulators.
Once the starter has powered the gas turbine engine to self-sustaining
speed, the unit changes from being a starter and becomes a normal hydraulic
pump. In this form it acts as a normal pump throughout the remainder of the
flight.
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13.2 HIGH ENERGY IGNITION SYSTEMS

High-energy (HE) ignition is used for starting all jet engines and, excluding APUs, all
have dual systems fitted. Each system has an ignition unit connected to its own
Ignitor plug, the two plugs being fitted in different positions, (or Combustors), in the
engine.
Each HE ignition unit receives a low voltage supply, controlled by the starting system
circuit, from the aircrafts electrical system. The electrical energy is stored in the unit
until, at a pre-determined value, the energy is dissipated as a high voltage, high
current discharge across the plug.
These ignition units are rated in Joules. Each Joule is equal to one Watt/ Second,
with a value of 12 Joules being typical for a high output and 3 to 6 Joules for a low
output. A high output would be required for re-lighting at altitude and certain
ground starts, whilst a low output would only be required during continuous
operation in icing or wet weather, giving longer Ignitor and ignition unit life.
To be able to operate at both levels, combined systems, giving high and low level
outputs are most popular. Such a system would consist of one unit emitting a high
output to one Ignitor plug and a second unit giving a low output to a second Ignitor
plug. Some Ignitor units have been manufactured which contain both high and low
outputs, which means that two igniters can be operating at either level depending
on the conditions and the relevant cockpit selection.
A typical, simple ignition system is illustrated below and shows how the inputs are
modified, through several stages, to give a high voltage, direct current to the HT
terminal of the Ignitor.
LETHAL WARNING
The electrical energy stored in the HE ignition unit, (HEIU), is potentially lethal.
Before handling the component, the associated circuit breaker should be tripped or
the relevant fuse removed. Allow at least one minute to elapse, after isolating the
unit, before touching the unit itself, the HT lead or the Ignitor plug.
125

Typical Ignition SystemFigure 13.3
The Ignitor plugs operate in the same way as sparking plugs, except that they are
only required to start the engines, they are then switched off until the next start.
There are two basic types of Ignitor plug, the air gap type and the surface discharge
type. The air gap type require a potential difference in the region of 20,000 volts,
whist the surface discharge type only requires a voltage in the region of 2,000 volts.
As igniters are used for both low-tension D.C. systems and high- tension A.C.
systems and are NOT interchangeable, care must be taken to use the correct item,
as recommended by the manufacturer, in their overhaul/maintenance manuals.
The normal spark rate of a typical ignition system is between 60 and 100 sparks per
minute. Periodic replacement of the Ignitor plug is necessary due to the progressive
erosion of the electrodes caused by each discharge.
The two illustrations
below show one unit of
a dual ignition system
(left) and a surface
discharge Ignitor (right).
Ignition System(Left)And Ignitor PlugFigure 13.4
126

RELIGHTING
The jet engine requires the facility for relighting should the flame in the combustion
chamber become extinguished during flight. This relighting can only be safely
accomplished if the aircraft is at the correct speed and below a certain altitude. The
chart, (below) illustrates the relighting envelope for a specific aircraft. If the aircraft
is too slow or too fast, or if it is above about 25,000 feet, there is little chance for the
engine to relight. Within this envelope the airflow will rotate the compressor at a
speed satisfactory for relighting.
Relighting EnvelopeFigure 13.5
127

13.3 MAINTENANCE SAFETY

It has already been mentioned that the HEIUs can deliver a fatal shock if they are
handled whilst still live. It is also possible to be shocked if either the Ignitor leads or
the igniters themselves are handled before 1 minute has elapsed after removing all
power from the system.
DO NOT depend on just the starter master switch being placed into the OFF
position as it is possible someone may switch it to ON whilst you are working some
way from the cockpit, on aft mounted engines for example. At least pull AND LABEL
AS INOP, any circuit breakers applicable to the HEIUs. Also, disconnect the Low-
Tension connectors on the Ignitor box itself to be doubly sure.
Exercise great care when handling some types of ignition transformer units if they
are damaged. They can contain radioactive material on their air gap points.
Some Ignitor plugs are manufactured from exotic materials, which require special
disposal arrangements. Check to see whether the items you are removing for
disposal at life expiry are of this type.
128

14. ENGINE INDICATING SYSTEMS
All engine parameters require monitoring and, therefore, instrumentation is provided to

inform the pilot of the correct functioning of the various engine systems and to warn of any
impending failure.
Should any of the automatic controls fitted to the engine fail, the engine can be manually
controlled, by the pilot, who can select the required thrust setting by monitoring the
instruments to maintain the engine within the relevant operating limitations.
The multitude of dials and gauges on the instrument panels may be replaced by one or
more cathode ray tubes, (CRTs), to display engine parameters. These screens are often
integrated into a complete set of flight and engine instrumentation displays.
As an example, the first illustration below shows a typical analogue engine parameter
display for a twin engined aircraft. There are displays for the following engine parameters:
RPM
T.G.T.
E.P.R.
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL PRESSURE
VIBRATION
FUEL TEMPERATURE
FUEL QUANTITY
FUEL FLOW
Engine IndicationsFigure 14.1
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Whilst this display is from a typical twin-jet aircraft, the addition of one or two further
engines would complicate the display by adding at least 12 more instruments to the display.
Electronic indicating systems, however, consolidate engine indications, system monitoring
and crew alerting functions on to one or more CRTs mounted on the instrument panel.
The following illustrations show two forms of engine instrumentation. One form duplicates
the analogue instruments so that they display the readings much as the older analogue
instruments would have done. This example displays the following parameters:
E.P.R.
ENGINE SPEED (N1)
E.G.T.
OIL PRESSURE
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL QUANTITY
VIBRATION
ENGINE SPEED (N2)
ENGINE SPEED (N3)
FUEL FLOW
CRT Analogue DisplaysFigure 14.2
The other example,( below)displays its parameters in the form of ribbons or tapes, which
climb up the display as the quantities being represented increase. On this display the
parameters shown are as follows:
E.P.R.
T.G.T.
ENGINE SPEED (N1)
ENGINE SPEED (N2)
FUEL FLOW
OIL PRESSURE
OIL TEMPERATURE
OIL QUANTITY
VIBRATION
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FUEL TEMPERATURE
FUEL USED
Tape DisplaysFigure 14.3
14.1 TURBINE GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

The temperature of the exhaust gasses is always indicated, thus ensuring that the
temperature of the turbine assembly can be checked at any specific operating
condition. In addition, an automatic gas temperature control system can be fitted to
some gas turbine engines, to ensure that the maximum gas temperature is not
exceeded.
The turbine gas temperature, (T.G.T.), can sometimes be referred to as exhaust gas
temperature, (E.G.T.), or jet pipe temperature, (J.P.T.). It is a critical variable of
engine operation and it is essential to provide an indication of this temperature.
Ideally, turbine entry temperature, (T.E.T.), should be measured; however, because
of the high temperatures involved, this is not practical. As the temperature drop
across the turbine varies in a known manner, the temperature at the outlet from the
turbine is usually measured by suitably positioned thermocouples. The temperature
can also be measured at an intermediate stage of the turbine assembly.
The thermocouple probes use to transmit the temperature signal to the indicator
consist of wires of dissimilar metals that are joined together inside a metal guard
tube. Transfer holes in the tube allow the exhaust gasses to flow across the junction.
These wires are usually nickel-chromium and nickel-aluminium alloys. The probes
are connected in parallel and their output is transmitted to a milli-voltmeter
calibrated to read in degrees centigrade, (0C). For fine adjustments, there usually is a
trimmer resistor in the circuit.
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A basic system diagram is illustrated below, showing just a single temperature

probe.
Basic Thermocouple SystemFigure 14.4
14.2 ENGINE THRUST INDICATION

The thrust of an engine is normally shown on an instrument system that will be one
of two types. The first type measures the turbine discharge or jet-pipe pressure and
the second, known as an engine pressure ratio, (E.P.R.) gauge, measures the ratio of
two (normally) or three parameters. (The straight jet pipe pressure measurement
system is rarely used these days, due to the E.P.R. system being much more
accurate).
When E.P.R. is measured, the ratio is usually that of jet-pipe pressure to compressor
inlet pressure. On a fan engine, the ratio can be either between an integrated
turbine discharge/fan outlet pressure to compressor inlet pressure or, as on the
Rolls Royce Tay fan engine, between the by-pass duct pressure, (fan outlet), and the
compressor inlet pressure.
In each of the above examples, it will be necessary to have a correction figure for the
current ambient conditions. This figure will form a standard against which the jet
pipe or duct pressures can be compared. This comparison is normally carried out
automatically.
To measure the compressor inlet pressure a pitot type tube is normally used. The
pressure that is read by this is either connected directly to the indicator or to a
pressure transmitter that is electrically connected to the transmitter. Measurements
taken in the fan duct, or the jet-pipe itself, are also taken by probes that have to be
very sturdy to stand the air and temperature loads exerted on them.
The display shown to the pilot can be in either analogue or digital form. It will
simply be a ratio above 1.0 and normally below 2.0. The ratio for take-off on a
specific day, can be obtained from either the flight manual or, on modern aircraft,
132

from the flight management system, (FMS), computer. This ratio will be aimed for
when the pilot moves the throttle levers forwards prior to taking off.
14.3 TORQUE INDICATION

Engine torque is used to indicate the power that is developed by a turbo-propeller
engine and its indicator is known as a torquemeter. The engine torque, or turning
moment is proportional to the horse-power and is transmitted through the propeller
reduction gear.
A basic torquemeter system is shown in the illustration overleaf. In this system, the
axial thrust produced by the helical gears is opposed by the oil pressure acting on
the pistons. This pressure which is required to resist the axial thrust is transmitted to
the indicator.
In addition to providing an indication of engine power, the torquemeter system may
also be used to automatically actuate the propeller feathering system, if the power
fails at a critical time. It can also actuate a water injection system when hot or high.
Another method of measuring torque is to measure the twist on the main drive
shaft, in the reduction gear-box, whilst the engine is producing high power. A phonic
wheel is installed at each end of the shaft, each wheel having a sensor pick-up.
When the shaft is rotating without carrying power, the two phonic wheel outputs
are in synchronisation. When the shaft is carrying high torque, it twists, putting the
outputs out-of-phase. This phase difference is measured electronically and displayed
as torque, usually in foot/pounds.
14.4 OIL PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE

It is essential for correct and safe operation of the engine that accurate indication is
obtained of both the temperature and the pressure of the oil in the system.
14.5 OIL TEMPERATURE

This is sensed by a detector fitted in the oil system. On dry-sump engines, (those
with separate oil tanks), the temperature sensor is often located in a special fitting
between the oil tank and the pump. On wet-sump engines, (those whose oil is
contained within the lower section of the engine itself, together with the pumps
etc.), it is usually installed inside the oil screen immediately after the pump.
Early systems measure the oil temperature mechanically, by measuring the pressure
of a gas sealed inside a bulb located in the oil stream. The pressure of the gas varies
in proportion to its temperature and is displayed on the flight deck as oil
temperature.
On modern systems, an electrical temperature sensitive element is fitted. A change
in temperature causes a change in the resistance value and, consequently, a
corresponding change in the current flow at the indicator. The indicator pointer is
deflected by an amount equivalent to the temperature change. This is displayed on
the gauge in degrees centigrade.
133

14.6 OIL PRESSURE

Oil pressure is usually measured at the outlet of the engine driven pump and is
indicated on the instrument panel. It will give warning of impending engine failure
caused by a depleted oil supply, pump failure, damaged bearings or a ruptured oil
supply line, all of which will be indicated by a fluctuation or fall in oil pressure.
Again, early designs used a Bourdon Tube mechanism that measures the difference
between the oil pressure and the ambient air pressure. The rising oil pressure tends
to straighten the flattened and curved tube in the gauge. This mechanical movement
was transmitted to the needle, which displayed the oil pressure in pounds per
square inch.
Modern designs use electrical systems to indicate to the flight deck. Simple systems
use a flag method that simply indicates if the pressure is high, normal or low.
Normally though, the pressure sensed by a transducer in the oil supply line is
transmitted, through wires, to the cockpit gauge, with display changes being
inproportion to the oil pressure changes. The display may be in pounds per square
inch or bars.
In addition to a pressure gauge operated by a transmitter, an oil low-pressure
warning switch may be provided to indicate that a minimum pressure is available for
continued safe running of the engine. This switch can be set to operate a warning
caption on the instrument panel and/or an audible warning for the crew.
This type of warning allows the crew to immediately shut an engine down in flight,
allowing the fault to be found later, instead of the engine continuing to run dry and
being damaged, perhaps permanently.
14.7 FUEL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

The temperature and pressure of the low-pressure fuel supply are electrically
transmitted to their respective indicators. These show if the low-pressure system is
providing an adequate supply of fuel without cavitation and at a temperature to suit
the operating conditions.
Basically, a low fuel pressure could indicate the failure of a booster pump or other
flow problems. The gauge may also be supported by a warning light, (caption), or
even an audio warning. There are nearly always two booster pumps fitted in each
tank that cater for the pump failure situation.
A low fuel temperature indication might require the flight crew to actuate the fuel
heating facility to prevent the filter becoming clogged by ice crystals. This heat is fed
through a heat exchanger and can come from air, bled from the engine or oil from
the lubrication system.
On some engines, a fuel differential pressure switch, fitted to the low-pressure fuel
filter, senses the pressure differential across the filter element. The switch is
connected to a warning caption or an audio warning to indicate a partial filter
blockage, with the risk of fuel starvation.
134

14.8 FUEL FLOW

Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly
between engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the
satisfactory operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed during
the flight.
It is also useful to sum the fuel flow, over time, to give a total fuel used figure for
each engine, (or for the aircraft), so that the amount used at differing times of the
flight, such as climb, cruise, etc., can be logged.
A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is usually some form of
turbine or impeller, fitted in the low-pressure fuel system and an indicator.
Theindicator shows the rate of fuel flow, in whichever units the aircraft tanks are
calibrated, (gallons, pounds, kilograms or U.S. gallons per hour).
The transmitter measures the fuel flow electrically and an associated electronic unit
gives a signal to the indicator, proportional to the fuel flow.
14.9 ENGINE SPEED

All powered aircraft have a display that shows
the engine speed. On multiple spool engines, the
high-pressure spool speed is always shown and,
in most cases the intermediate, (if fitted), and
the low-pressure spool speeds are also
displayed.
The engine speed indication is usually electrically
transmitted from a small generator, driven by
the engine, to an indicator, which displays the
actual revolutions per minute, (RPM) or a
percentage of maximum engine speed.
Whilst the engine speed is sometimes used to
assess the engine thrust, it does not give an
absolute and accurate figure, due to the
atmospheric circumstances of the day. (Pressure
and temperature), which can change the thrust
available at a specific time.
Engine Speed Indicator

And TransmitterFigure 14.5
The engine speed transmitter is a simple 3-phase generator in which the frequencyof
the output is read by the indicator and displayed either as RPM or as a percentage
between 0% and 100%.
135

Where there is no provision for driving a generator, a speed probe in conjunction

with a phonic wheel may be used, (right). This will induce an electric current that is
amplified and then transmitted to an indicator. This method can be used to provide
an indication of RPM without the need for a separately driven generator, with its
associated drives; thus reducing the number of components and moving parts in the
engine.
Phonic Wheel SystemFigure 14.6
Some speed probe/phonic wheel assemblies have the additional facility of being
able to illuminate a light on the flight deck when the relevant shaft begins to turn.
This is used to assist the pilot by telling him when to open the HP fuel cock during
the start cycle. It is only in operation during the starting cycle.
14.10 VIBRATION MEASUREMENT AND INDICATION

A turbo-jet engine has an extremely low vibration level, especially when compared
to reciprocating engines, even fully balanced ones. Because of this, a vibration
change or the appearance of a new vibration due to an impending or partial failure,
may pass without being noticed. Many engines are therefore fitted with vibration
indicators thatcontinually monitor the vibration level(s) of the engine. The cockpit
indicator is usually a milliammeter that receives signals through an amplifier from
engine mounted transmitters.
A vibration transmitter is mounted on the engine casing and electrically connected
to the amplifier and the indicator. The vibration sensing element is usually an
electro-magnetic transducer that converts the rate of vibration into electrical signals
which cause the indicator to show the amplitude of the vibrations being sensed,
usually in inches per second, (I.P.S.).
Because of the rarity of an excessive engine vibration reading, there will be a
warning light/caption or audio warning to warn the flight crew that there is an
136

abnormal reading on the indicator, enabling them to shut the engine down and so
reduce the risk of damage.
On advanced, three-spool engines, there is an additional facility that allows the
vibrations from the three spools to be differentiated and, therefore, each spool can
be monitored separately. It is also possible for the flight crew to select a specific
area such as the accessory gearbox, for vibration monitoring.
137

15. POWER AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (level B1 only)

The maximum power output of a gas turbine engine depends to a large extent upon the
density, or mass, of air passing through the engine. There is, therefore, a reduction in thrust,
(or shaft horsepower on turbo-propeller engines), as the atmospheric pressure decreases
with altitude and/or the ambient air temperature increases.
Under these conditions of low power, the power output can be either restored or boosted
for take-off, depending on the engine design, by cooling the intake airflow with water or
water-methanol mixture. When methanol is added to the water, it gives both anti-freezing
properties and also provides an additional source of fuel.
The graphs below show how a gas-turbine engine can have its thrust restored when the
ambient temperature reaches high levels, (left) and how a turbo-propeller engine can have
its power either restoredorboosted at higher temperatures.
Power restored (left )and restored/boostedFigure 15.1
138

15.1 INTAKE INJECTION

Coolant is normally injected directly into the compressor inlet, although some have
it injected into the combustion chambers themselves. This is more efficient because
it gives both a more even distribution and a greater quantity of the liquid into the
engine. When water/water methanol mixture is sprayed into the compressor inlet,
the temperature of the compressor inlet air is reduced and consequently the air
density and, therefore, the thrust are increased. If water only was injected, it would
reduce the turbine inlet temperature. With the addition of methanol, however, the
turbine inlet temperature is restored by the burning of the methanol in the
combustion chamber. Thus, the power is restored without having to adjust the fuel
flow.
15.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER INJECTION

The injection of coolant into the combustion chamber inlet increases the mass flow
through the turbine, relative to that through the compressor. The pressure and
temperature drop across the turbine is thus reduced, which results in an increased
jet pipe pressure, giving additional thrust. The fuel system is now able to schedule
more fuel than before the water was injected, giving even more thrust. If water
methanol is injected, there is no need for extra fuel to be scheduled as the burning
methanol provides the extra power.
CARE MUST BE TAKEN WHEN REPLENISHING THESE SYSTEMS
WATER/METHANOL IN A WATER SYSTEM CAN DESTROY AN ENGINE.
139

16. TURBO-PROPELLER ENGINES

Whenever a gas turbine is used to power a propeller, by whatever means, it us normally
referred to as a turbopropeller engine. Other terms used are turboprop and, rarely, propjet.
The exhaust gasses from the basic part of the turbojet, often called the gas generator, are
used to rotate an additional turbine that drives the propeller through a speed-reducing
gearbox.
In some turbo-props, additional turbine stages are incorporated into the existing turbine
assembly that rotates the compressor. The additional power that is removed from the gas
stream achieves two things; firstly it reduces the thrust from the exhaust of the engine and,
secondly, the energy removed from the exhaust is used to drive the propeller reduction
gearing, directly from the compressor drive shaft. Engines of this type are known as direct-
drive turbopropeller engines.
More common these days are free-turbine turbopropeller engines. This design has the
additional turbine stage independent of the compressor drive turbines, which is free to
rotate by itself in the engine exhaust gas stream. The shaft on which the free turbine is
mounted drives the propeller through the propeller reduction gearbox.
The simplified illustrations below show (top) a turboprop with the propeller driven directly
from the compressor shaft through reduction gears and (bottom) a turboprop with the
propeller driven by a free turbine, also through reduction gearing.
Direct Coupled(Upper)And Free Turbine Turbo-PropFigure 16.1
140

Another configuration of the free turbine turbopropeller engine has a rather

unconventional rear-to-front air and gas flow direction. This configuration provides greater
flexibility in the design of nacelle installations. The space behind the engine, which is
normally occupied by the exhaust jet pipe, can be used for wheel wells, fuel tanks or a
baggage compartment.
Another advantage of this reverse design type of engine is the ease of hot end
replacement, which occurs when the turbine of the engine, (which is the most thermally
stressed part), has to be replaced partway through the overhaul life of the engine. This
often requires an engine change and even, occasionally, an overhaul at the factory.
With this design, the turbine is at the front of the engine and can be accessed by simply
removing both the propeller and the front engine casing. The engine remains fitted in the
airframe.
A typical engine of this type is the Pratt and Whitney PT6. A cutaway of one model of this
engine is shown below, where it can also be seen that the compressor is one of the
axial/centrifugal types popular with these small turboprop/turboshaft engines.
Reverse flow turbo-prop engineFigure 16.2
This type of engine will also be found installed in helicopters, marine craft and other
installations, where it is known as a turboshaft engine. This will be covered in the next
section.
141

16.1 REDUCTION GEARBOXES

Due to the fact that propellers are most efficient at relatively slow rotational speeds,
they will usually be found rotating at a speed of between 1,500 to 2,500 RPM, the
shafts of turbopropeller engines can be rotating at many times more than this. As an
example, the PT6 engine mentioned above has a power turbine rotational speed of
about 30,000 RPM, whilst the propeller rotates at only 1,700 RPM
This means that the shaft speed must be reduced by a factor of about 1:0.057. This
is achieved by the use of an epicyclic gearbox which steps down the speed of the
power shaft in two stages. This reduction will be explained later.
The illustration below shows where the reduction gearbox, which will be described
later, is located relative to the other parts of a typical turbopropeller engine.
Reduction GearboxFigure 16.3
The location of the gearbox at the front, immediately behind the propeller, is by far
the most common location and the explanation which follows will cover a single
stage reduction between an input shaft to an output propeller shaft
The high-speed pinion rotates at the same speed as the LP (or power turbine), shaft
and meshes with the large planet wheels. The large and small planet wheels are on
common shafts and, hence, rotate together, they are also all mounted on the planet
carrier which is rigidly fixed to the propeller shaft.
The annulus, or ring, gear is the only fixed item in the whole assembly, hence the
small planet gears, which mesh with it, pull themselves around as they rotate.
142

Epicyclic reduction gearsFigure 16.4
16.2 INTEGRATED CONTROLS

A motor car has a simple accelerator to increase and decrease the speed of its
engine, a turbojet has a single throttle lever to carry out the same operations. The
turbopropeller engine, however, requires either a single lever with two different but
integrated controls, or two levers that have to be operated separately to control
different functions.
The reasons for this is that the propeller has to be given instructions separate to the
engine itself. For example, the engine might need to be run on the ground with nil
thrust at some times and producing power at others. Normally this involves the lever
controlling the speed of the propeller, or that of the free-turbine and it usually
governs the pitch angle of the propeller blades.
In a free-turbine engine such as the PT6 mentioned earlier, the engine acts as a gas
generator furnishing high velocity gasses to drive the free turbine. It is normally
controlled by a power control lever and a propeller control lever. In addition a third,
start control lever, (also sometimes known as the fuel condition lever), is used to
select a high or low speed range for engine operations and to cut off fuel to shut
the engine down.
The power control lever modulates engine output from maximum take-off power to
full reverse power. It also controls the propeller blade angle when in reverse and in
what is known as the Beta range, (approach and landing).
143

The propeller control lever is in control of the propeller control unit, (P.C.U.), above
Beta, which is generally the normal flight regime. Here it operates as a normal
single lever throttle, when the thrust being produced is a function of lever angle
and the propeller RPM is governed to a specific speed, again for each lever angle.
The illustrations overleaf show how complex the three different lever positions are
and, also how difficult it is for the flight crew to know which lever has to be in which
position at different times.
Power lever anglesFigure 16.5
Some engines can have a different control layout when installed in different
airframes. For example, the Pratt and Whitney 120 series engines can be installed
with single or double lever control depending whether they are installed into the
Fokker 50 or the ATR 72 aircraft. The illustration, (below)shows the ATR72 layout,
which has power levers, (left) and condition levers, (right).
Pedestal LeversFigure 16.6
144

It can be seen that whilst the condition levers control the fuel shut-off and
feathering
controls, they also set the engine to automatic engine power and a maximum 100%
override position.
The power levers are used to change the engine thrust when taxiing, select ground
and flight idle, actuate reverse thrust and the automatic thrust position.
Finally, the installation of the early Rolls Royce Dart engine in the 1950s airframe
design, the Fokker 27, has basically a single lever operation. The illustration below
shows how the central pair of levers control RPM, e.g. propeller pitch angle and
fuel control, whilst the outer pair of levers, (H.P.C.), have no input to the power of
the engines, purely fuel shut-off and propeller feathering operations.
Single Lever ControlsFigure 16.7
16.3 OVERSPEED PROTECTION

A propeller that overspeeds, even by the small amount of, say 5 or 10% increases
the centrifugal forces on the hub by a huge amount. This could cause the blades to
separate from the hub with catastrophic results to the aircraft.
A gas turbine engine has its own fuel control system, which maintains the engine
within its operating speed range. With a turbopropeller engine it is normally the
propeller which acts as a governor by increasing or decreasing its pitch angle to add
or remove the loading on the rotating parts of the engine.
If a turbopropeller overspeeds, it is usually due to the fact that the propeller controls
have allowed the pitch angle of the propeller to decrease, so that the reduction of
load on the engine has caused it to Overspeed. This reduction of pitch is as a result
145

of aerodynamic and centrifugal forces acting on the rotating propeller which will be
covered later.
If the reduction of the propeller pitch has been caused by failure of the propeller
control unit, there may be a back-up method, built in to the control system, to drive
the propeller back to a coarser angle, thereby slowing it down to a safe value. These
back-up systems usually involve the use of centrifugal governors which sense the
slightest Overspeed.
If the propeller control system is damaged or it cannot drive the propeller to a safe,
coarser, blade angle, the fuel control of the engine reduces the flow of fuel to the
engine, effectively acting as if the pilot had retarded the throttle. This should bring
the hub loading within a safe value.
As an example, the system shown is that fitted to the Pratt & Whitney 124 engines
on the ATR72 aircraft, which has a combined hydraulic/pneumatic Overspeed
protection. If the propeller overspeeds above 102.5% NP, (NP = propeller speed),
The flyweights move outwards, opening the pilot valve and allowing metered oil
pressure to drive the propeller towards coarse.
In the event that the above system fails to operate, (propeller continues to
accelerate), the air bleed orifice opens at a slightly higher NP. This bleed biases the
fuel control system, (H.M.U.) to decrease the fuel flow, reducing the engine speed.
Propeller Control UnitFigure 16.8
146

Whilst the system previously described is rather complex, the engine is of a modern,
free power turbine design and has to have sophisticated protective measures
fitted. By comparison, the Overspeed protection installed on the Rolls Royce Dart, a
direct coupled drive enginedesigned in the 1940s, is a relatively simple system.
The pump case pressure is fed with fuel from radial tappings in the rotating pump
assembly. If the engine overspeeds, the fuel is centrifuged into the pump case at a
higher pressure. This pressure is fed to a diaphragm in the Overspeed governor,
which spills the servo pressure and reduces the fuel supply to the engine. This limits
the engine, which normally has a governed maximum of 15,000 RPM, to an
Overspeed maximum of 16,400 RPM The illustration below shows the basic system
showing how spilling the servo pressure reduces the pump output.
Overspeed protectionFigure 16.9
Apart from the protection mechanisms already mentioned, which have to react
extremely fast to prevent accidents, there are a number of flight deck indications
which may be in place of, or in addition to the automatic systems.
The simplest is the red line on the tachometer, (revolution counter), or power,
(percentage), instrument, which must not be exceeded at any time. If the aircraft
has an electronic flight warning system, (F.W.S.) however, then warning lights,
captions and audio warnings may be used to get the attention of the flight crew.
147

17. TURBO-SHAFT ENGINES

Gas turbine that delivers power through a shaft to operate something other than a
propeller is referred to as a turboshaft engine. These are widely used in such industrial
applications as electrical power generating plants and surface transportation systems. In
most cases, the output shaft, (power take-off), is driven by its own power turbine which
extracts about two thirds of the total output power from the gas generator.
In aviation, turboshaft engines are used, to power many modern helicopters of all sizes,
from under 1 tonne up to a Russian giant of 100 tonnes maximum weight. To produce the
power required for the previously mentioned helicopter applications, the turboshaft engine
have been designed to produce from as little as 400 shaft horse power, (S.H.P.), up to
11,500 S.H.P. from each engine.
An illustration of how efficient modern turboshaft engines are, can be seen from the weight
of the two, (extreme), cases mentioned. The Allison 250 produces the 400 S.H.P. mentioned
with a total weight of just 158 lbs. (72 kg.), whilst one giant Lotarev D-136 engine, which
produces that huge 11,500 S.H.P., weighs 2,300 lbs. (1,050 kg.), more than the weight of the
smaller helicopter.
17.1 APPLICATIONS
In many installations, possibly reflecting the greater emphasis on safety at times
such as over-water and over hostile lands, etc. they are installed in pairs, threes and
in on extreme case in two pairs to make a total of four engines on one craft. Because
of the need to drive the rotor systems, consisting of many different types of
gearbox, the turboshaft
engine has to be able to
drive from a variety of
different places.
This illustration, taken from
the Rolls Royce Gem
brochure, shows how the
designer could offer a power
take-off from the front, back
and side of the basic engine,
to suit different aircraft
designs. It can be seen that
the engines could also be
joined together by a
combining gearbox to
double the power output.
R.R. Gem InstallationsFigure 17.1
148

A few actual examples of turboshaft installations show how the engines can be
located ahead or behind of the main transmission gearbox. The Westland Lynx has
two Rolls Royce Gem engines mounted aft of the gearbox driving through couplings
at the front face of the engines. It can be seen from the illustration below how the
engine/gearbox unit is quite compact.
Turboshaft Installation(1)Figure 17.2
Another twin-engined installation is that which can be found fitted to numerous

Sikorsky and Westland helicopters. These are fitted ahead of the main gearbox, so
that the output shaft and coupling projects from the rear of each engine. The
location of all of the previously mentioned layouts permits very easy maintenance
and engine changes due to the unobstructed access to the engines. The illustration
is of the S-61N model which has two 1,400 S.H.P. turboshaft engines.
149

17.2 DE-RATING
A common method of being able to maintain normal flight in the event of losing one
of a pair of engines is de-rating. The engines might be advertised as having, say,
1000 S.H.P. each but, in the event of a single failure the second, good engine, can be
called upon to produce 1,500 S.H.P. for a limited time. This system of rating also
allows the engines to be operated in Hot and High situations without power loss.
17.3 ARRANGEMENTS
Finally, there are a few other installations on helicopters, using turboshaft engines,
that show the flexibility in the way these engines can be mounted to suit the
designers needs. The little Hughes 500 series, (upper illustration), has a small 400+
S.H.P. engine, installed at an angle, driving upwards at 450 to the main gearbox.
The large E.H. 101 helicopter, however, has not only three engines,each of 2,000
S.H.P., installed above the decking and all feeding into the main gearbox, but the
Auxiliary Power Unit is installed up there as well, (lower illustration).
150

One major difference between turbopropeller and turboshaft engines is their

operating regime. Whilst turbopropeller engines are called upon to vary their speed
as the pilot varies the throttle position, turboshaft engines, as a general rule,
operate at a constant speed. This is because helicopter rotors have to operate at an
almost constant speed so that the engines, especially the non-free turbine designs,
also have to remain at the same speed also.
The free turbine designs will also remain at a constant speed for most of the flight,
only altering slightly up or down as the demand for climb or descent are initiated,
requiring a little more or a little less lift from the rotors.
17.4 DRIVE SYSTEMS

Because of the way that both the engines themselves and their attached main
gearbox are normally mounted to the airframe, there has to be a small amount of
permitted movement between the components. This poses problems when they
have to be connected together, with the need for both accurate alignment and the
ability to transmit many thousands of brake horsepower. To this end there will be
found between the engines and their respective gearboxes, some form of flexible
drive couplings with a short, (rigid) drive shaft between them. This arrangement
allows the two components to move small amounts, independently of each other.
One of the most common couplings is the Thomas Coupling that consists of a
number of thin, steel laminations which are attached to the engine output flange
and either the gearbox flange or the drive shaft flange. They are attached at
different radial points, e.g. at three places, 1200 apart and displaced 600 from the
opposite flange.
In some cases, including the illustration below, there is an additional outer structural
sleeve, which is part of the actual mechanical connection between the engine and
the gearbox. This also will have a mechanism to allow slight, controlled movement
between the two components. It will be seen that, in the example shown, the drive
shaft has a Thomas Coupling on the left-hand connection and a rigid flange-to-flange
connection on the right. The outer support tube, however, is rigidly mounted on the
left and flexibly mounted on the right.
Coupling shaftFigure 17.5
151

When there are two engines installed, driving into a common main gearbox, there
are two main design choices. The engines can be connected direct to the gearbox at
two separate points, with the drives being connected within the gearbox casing,
through their respective freewheels. Alternately, the engines can drive into a
combiner or coupling gearbox, separate from the main gearbox with two input
connections and one, larger, output connection to the main gear box.
These boxes allow the main box to remain smaller, with the added advantage that
either can be changed for fault rectification or at overhaul without disturbing the
other.
As mentioned previously, there are a number of combining gearboxes used on many
twin engined helicopters.
The first example,(below), called in this case a coupling gearbox, has the inputs low
on the left hand side and the single output in the centre right of the box.
Coupling gearboxFigure 17.6
152

This box also contains mechanisms to allow separate connection and dis-connection
of each input drive. Also, it has drives to a number of accessories such as pumps and
generators. It also has its own self-contained oil system, with pump, filter etc.
The second example, seen below, is installed in one of the larger, 15 seat Sikorsky
helicopters. It is also connected to the main gearbox via a short drive shaft, again
allowing for movement between the components.
Transmission DetailsFigure 17.7
Because the engines in this class rotate at extremely high rates and the outputs need
to be considerably less, a train of reduction gears needs to be built into the system.
(As an example, the Garrett TPE 331-11 has a gas generator shaft speed of 41,730
RPM, whilst its output shaft rotates at only 1,600 RPM).
In some installations the reduction gearing is installed in the front of the engine
itself, so that its shaft output is already at a useable rotational speed. The Gem
engine mentioned earlier has the option of being built without a reduction gear
installed; output is the same as the gas generator, 27,000 RPM orwith the reduction
gears installed with a 4.5:1 ratio, giving an output of about 6,000 RPM
The illustration below is of the, (optional), reduction gearbox fitted to the front of
the R.R. Gem turboshaft engine. This will take the 27,000 RPM and, through the two-
stage epicyclic gear train, reduce it to around 6,000 RPM At this speed, it can be
directly connected to the main rotor gearbox, which will reduce it further to around
250 300 R.R.P.M. (Rotor RPM). This reduction mechanism allows the engine to be
153

installed directly in a number of different situations such as powering marine craft,

power-generating stations and pumping stations. This use of turbo shaft engines is
very common and even engines as large as the Rolls Royce RB211 are used for such
purposes, providing all the power for complete oil exploration and production
platforms.
Reduction Gearbox Figure 17.8
17.5 CONTROL SYSTEMS

The controls of turboshaft engines are, generally, the same as turbopropeller
engines. There has to be some form of fuel shut-off, to permit starting and closing
down of the engine and there has to be some form of speed control, often called the
speed select lever.
The fuel shut-off is simply a high-pressure fuel cock that is opened at start-up of the
engine and closed to stop the engine at the end of the flight. The speed selector
might have a number of positions, including ground idle, flight idle and flight
positions. Sometimes these points are indicated, by feel, using detents in the
quadrant.
154

Because of the need for rotors, (and electrical generators, pumping units, etc.), to be
driven at more or less constant speeds, there is often a governing mechanism, either
mechanical or electronic which is engaged when the speed select levers are placed
into the flight or constant speed position. Normally the pilot does not have to
touch the control again until he retards the speed selector to the ground idle
position.
Once the speed select levers have been advanced to their normal operating position,
the engines will be maintained at their governed speed regardless of the load being
applied by their governor or fuel computer. This will simply increase the fuel flow
when there is an application of load, (up to the maximum limits of speed and
temperature), and reduce the flow under low demand circumstances.
The illustration below shows the lever quadrant from a Sikorsky S-76. It can be seen
that whilst the fuel levers, (outboard), have additional positions of D/R(Dry Run)
and PRIME peculiar to the Allison 250 engine, the power levers simply have
OFF,IDLE and FLY positions.
Lever QuadrantFigure 17.9
155

The complete diagrammatic representation of the S-76 engine control system

below, shows the pilots control inputs to the engines. They are simply the Off-Idle-
Fly speed lever which control the gas generator, (N1), part of the engine, and the
collective, (lift), lever which simply increases the fuel flow to the gas generator part
of the engine when more lift is demanded. The beeper is simply a fine trimming
switch that allows the pilot to adjust the rotor/engine speeds to an exact figure.
System DiagramFigure 17.2
156

18. AUXILIARY POWER UNITS (APUs)

The Auxiliary Power Unit, (A.P.U.), is fitted in many aircraft to provide a supply of electrical,
pneumatic and sometimes, hydraulic power when the aircraft is on the ground, parked,
without the engines running. The A.P.U. can, in some circumstances, be used to provide
limited services usually electrical power, in flight, during an emergency such as an engine
failure on a twin-jet. The A.P.U. engine provides shaft power for electrical generation and
hydraulic power, (if applicable), and bleed air for pneumatic supplies.
Pneumatic power is supplied for starting aircraft main engines, aircraft cabin air
conditioning and pressurisation, air for A.P.U. oil cooler A.P.U. enclosure and fuel heating,
(in some cases).
Electrical power can be provided independently of, or together with pneumatic power and,
with some installations, the A.P.U. generators can provide power throughout the flight, in
the case of a main generator having failed. (In this case, there may be a limit on the
maximum altitude that the aircraft may fly).
Note: Electrical power has priority at all times
For the majority of the notes that follow, reference will be made to the Allied Signal GTCP
36-150, which is a typical, medium sized A.P.U. fitted to a range of aircraft in the 100+ seat
category.
18.1 DESCRIPTION
The basic A.P.U. consists of three main sections; power section, gearbox assembly
and the controls and accessories. Operation of the engine is controlled by four
systems; fuel, engine lubrication, electrical and pneumatic.
The rotating group of the power section consists of a single-stage centrifugal
compressor with a single stage turbine, both mounted on a single shaft, which is
mounted on ball and roller bearings.
The gearbox is attached to the inlet housing and converts the power section input,
which is high speed / low torque to an output of low speed / high torque suitable for
the accessories fitted to the gearbox. These include an alternator, fuel control unit,
cooling fan and starter motor.
An Electronic Control Unit, (E.C.U.), provides a fully automatic control system,
including starting sequencing, normal speed control and Overspeed protection.
Other protective shutdown circuits, monitored by the E.C.U., include the following:
Over Temperature
Low Oil Pressure
Over Current
Loss of Thermocouple
Loss of Speed Signal
Hot Oil Temperature.
All are inhibited in flight except fire, loss of speed signal and too long start time.
157

18.2 CONSTUCTION
The construction of the power unit is simple and conventional. The simplified
diagram below shows the gearbox / engine assembly with single stage compressor
and turbines, fuel injection, single Ignitor and a drive to the accessory gearbox.
A.P.U ConstructionFigure 18.1
18.3 INSTALLATION
The A.P.U. is usually mounted in a non-pressurised area aft of the rear pressure
bulkhead. Space available and the aircraft centre of gravity considerations usually
dictate the exact mounting, which is why the Boeing 727 and the Bae ATP have the
A.P.U. installed in the wing root and the Fokker 27 / 50 aircraft have it installed in
the rear of the starboard engine nacelle.
The illustration below shows a typical rear fuselage installation of an A.P.U. in an
Embraer EMB 120.
A.P.U InstallationFigure 18.2
158

18.4 BASIC OPERATING CYCLE

The block diagram below shows the major sections of the A.P.U. in question and
they are: The compressor, combustor, turbine and gearbox. The operating cycle,
similar to a normal jet engine, consists of the compressor, when driven, drawing
large volumes of ambient air and delivering it under pressure to the combustor. Fuel
and ignition are added in the combustor and the resultant added energy delivers
high velocity hot gasses to the turbine section. The turbine captures most of the
energy of these high velocity gasses and converts it to the mechanical energy to
drive both the compressor and the gearbox. The gearbox drives the required fuel
and oil system components, as well as providing a means for mounting the airframe
furnished components, such as generator; alternator, (a.c. generator); etc.
A.P.U Major SectionsFigure 18.3
A.P.U. operation is usually fully automatic from start to shut down, thus the flight
compartment controls are kept to a minimum. Operational control is through an
A.P.U. control panel like the one illustrated on the below.
Included on this panel are a three position rotary switch, an available light and a
fault indicator. A more complex and powerful A.P.U., from a much larger aircraft,
might, additionally, have an RPM percentage indicator as well as gauges showing
E.G.T. and duct pressure. It might also have warning caption lights for fire, low oil
pressure, starting,etc.
159

A.P.U. Control PanelFigure 18.4
The selector switch functions are as follows;
OFF Shuts down the A.P.U.

START Arms the start circuit, sprung loaded to the RUN/ON position
ON Normal position during running. Opens inlet doors prior to start.
18.5 BLEED AIR CONTROL

The A.P.U. provides the required bleed air for aircraft use when this air is not
available from the main engines.
Bleed air can be taken from the A.P.U. after the unit has accelerated to its normal
operating speed and has stabilised for a period of time. Providing the ground/flight
system is in the ground position and the bleed push switch on the control panel is
pushed, air will be supplied to whichever services is selected.
160

The panel illustrated is from the Fokker 100 airliner. It shows both the APU BLEED
push switch, which selects the A.P.U. supply to the services required and the bleed
manifold pressure on the display.
Bleed Air Control PanelFigure 18.5
The push switch will show one of three indications:
BLANK System selected and operating

OFF (White) System switched off
FAULT (Amber) A fault has occurred and the A.P.U. has shut itself down.
There is a similar system for using the electrical generating unit. There is usually a
similar push-button switch on the electrical supply panel with ON (Blank) - OFF
(White) FAULT (Amber) selections. Pushing the button whilst the A.P.U. is running
will supply any of the aircraft electrical services both on the ground and in flight. It is
fairly common for the ac. Generator, fitted to the A.P.U., to be identical to that fitted
to the engines. This ensures that the A.P.U. generator can take over the generating
work for either of the engine-driven generators in the event of a total failure.
161

18.6 MAINTENANCE
There is little line maintenance carried out on the A.P.U., apart from a daily check of
the oil level, (with a replenishment if required); the filter by-pass indicators and an
overall check for signs of damage or distress. The only other maintenance that might
be carried out on a unit, whilst still installed in the aircraft, could include an oil and
oil filter change or a check of the magnetic drain plug, looking for signs of metallic
debris.
There are a large number of Line Replaceable Units, (LRU), that can be replaced,
mostly in situ, if a fault indicator has shown that they require replacement. Whilst
the purpose of some units shown have not been mentioned in this chapter, the
thermocouple, ignition unit, the electronic control unit, fuel control unit, etc should
be self-explanatory.
Line Replaceable UnitsFigure 18.6
162

18.7 PROTECTIVE SYSTEMS

Because the A.P.U. operates automatically once it has stabilised at its normal 100%
running speed, which can be around 60,000 RPM, there is little if anything that an
engineer needs to do with regards to checking the condition of the unit.
As everything is under the control of the Electronic Control Unit, (E.C.U.), all faults
come through this unit, which then either notifies the flight deck crew, (if it is an in-
flight notifiable fault), or keeps it in its internal memory for later interrogation.
The E.C.U. can be regarded as the brain of the control system and will usually be
found in an avionics bay or some similar location with conditioned air. It receives its
input signals from a speed sensor and a thermocouple, both located in the A.P.U.
These allow the E.C.U. to control the actuation of the start, ignition, fuel, pneumatic
and protective shutdown circuits.
The unit also provides electronic control of all the parameters required to start,
accelerate, and safely operate the A.P.U. during start, acceleration, idle and
load conditions.
Different A.P.U.s have different methods and parameters when giving warnings. In
fact, in some cases, the unit will close itself down if the risk is high and, it will have a
different close down schedule depending whether the aircraft is in flight or on the
ground.
For example, in the GTCP 36-150, a low oil pressure will be an alert if the aircraft is
in flight and a shutdown if the aircraft is on the ground.
Finally, the E.C.U. has a set of three dolls eye indicators which will indicate to the
engineer what fault occurred, no matter if this was an airborne alert or an on ground
shutdown. The code for the trouble shooting of the faults is shown in the table
below.
BITE NUMBER DECODED BITE INFORMATION

1 2 3
RESET
O OVERSPEED
O OVERTEMPERATURE
O O LOW OIL PRESSURE
O OVERCURRENT
O O LOSS OF THERMOCOUPLE
O O LOSS OF SPEED SIGNAL
O O O HOT OIL TEMPERATURE
BITE Code InformationFigure 18.7
163

To summarise, if a fault is not considered immediately threatening to both the

aircraft and its passengers, the E.C.U. will generate an alert to the flight deck crew
and leave the decision up to them, whether to shut the unit down or to leave it
running. This allows them to continue with the unit output, (electrical power),
during flight, if there is a more urgent need for the output than for the continued
health of the A.P.U.
If the aircraft is on the ramp, and the A.P.U. is producing both an air supply and
electrical power, any fault will result in the unit shutting itself down and indicating
what the fault is, via the dolls eyes. This is because, at times, the aircraft is not
manned by either flight deck crew or ground crew, so the decision to shut the unit
down is left to the E.C.U.
In the case of a fire, not only does the A.P.U. shut itself down, but it can fire its own
fire extinguisher bottle, after all the vent doors have been closed, as well. The unit
will then sound an alert outside of the aircraft to attract the attention of the ground
engineers.
164

19. POWERPLANT INSTALLATION
When a gas turbine engine is installed in an aircraft it usually requires a number of

accessories to be attached to it. It also requires a number of connections, some of them
quick release type, to connect the engine to the many aircraft systems. The engine, jet
pipe, accessories and, in some installations, a thrust reverser, must be suitably cowled. An
intake with minimum losses must also form part of the powerplant installation.
The powerplant location and aircraft configuration are of an integrated design the form of
which will be dependant upon the duties the aircraft has to perform. Turbo-jet engine
installations can be in the form of pods that are attached to the wings by pylons or pods
attached to the sides of the rear fuselage by short stub wings. They can also have a
combination of rear fuselage and tail mounted power plants. Combinations of the preceding
layouts can also be found on some aircraft.
Turbo-propeller engines are normally limited to installation on the wings or the nose of the
aircraft, whilst turbo-shaft engines, almost exclusively installed in helicopters, can be found
buried within the fuselage, installed above the cabin structure and, on some larger
machines in pods, external to the fuselage structure.
The following illustration shows some typical installations, both of turbojet, turbo-propeller
and turboshaft powered aircraft.
Powerplant InstallationsFigure 19.1
165

19.1 ENGINE MOUNTINGS

The position of the powerplant must not affect the efficiency of the air intake and
the exhaust gasses must be discharged clear of the airframe and its control surfaces.
All installations must produce the lowest drag possible. Installations are always
numbered from left to right when viewed from the rear of the aircraft.
The engine is mounted in the aircraft in a manner that allows the thrust forces
developed by the engine, (or propeller), to be transmitted to the aircraft main
structure, in addition to supporting the engine weight and carrying any flight loads.
Because of the wide variations in the temperature of the engine casings, the engine
is mounted so that the casings can expand freely in all directions. Turbojet engines
are usually either side mounted or underslung as illustrated previously and below,
whilst turbopropeller engines are usually mounted on a tubular framework, often
called the engine mounting.
Engine MountingsFigure 19.2
166

JET PIPE
The jet pipe is usually attached to the rear of the engine and supported by the
engine mountings. On longer jet pipes, rollers on each side of the pipe, run in rails
attached to the sides of the jet pipe bay.
ACCESSORIES
An aircraft powerplant installation generally includes a number of accessories that
are either electrically operated, mechanically driven or driven by high pressure air.
Electrically operated accessories might include actuators, amplifiers, control valves
and solenoids.
Mechanically driven units however, might include generators, constant speed drive
units, hydraulic pumps, oil pumps, fuel pumps, engine speed signalling components,
measuring and governing units.
Air driven accessories are generally driven through bleed air tapped from the engine
compressor. They can include the air starter, using the other engine(s) or the A.P.U.,
and possibly the thrust reverser and water injection pump. The air conditioning and
pressurisation air will also be taken from compressor tappings in most cases. The
total air drawn from the compressor must be a small percentage of the total airflow
to avoid loss of power and higher fuel consumption
FIREWALLS
The firewalls are the metal dividing partitions that are made of fireproof material,
often stainless steel, and which divide the complete engine bay into smaller
compartments. These smaller compartments are usually to assist both in fire
detection and extinguishing. In the majority of installations, each bay will have its
own detection system and fire-extinguishing bottle.
The other very important purpose of the firewalls, (or fireproof bulkheads), is to
restrict the spread of fire to the bay in which it originated, making extinguishing the
fire much easier. The firewalls might divide the bay into different areas where a fire
is most likely to occur, such as ones containing heat and combustible materials or
fluids.
A typical division of an engine bay might be:
Engine power section includes burners, turbine and jet pipe.
Engine compressor and accessory section
Or
Complete powerplant compartments, in which NO isolation exists between the
other two sections mentioned earlier. A twin engined example is shown below.
167

Single Engine Bay FirewallsFigure 19.3
COWLINGS
Access to an engine mounted in the wing or fuselage is by hinged doors; on pod and
turbopropeller installations, the main cowlings are hinged. Access for minor
servicing is by small detachable or hinged panels with most fasteners being of the
quick- release type.
A turbopropeller engine, or a turbojet engine mounted in a pod, is usually far more
accessible than a buried engine because of the larger area of hinged cowling that
can be provided. The illustrations below, show the clear access to the engine
afforded by the petal cowlings (left) of a turbopropeller installation, and, (right),
the clamshell doors fitted to a turbofan engined airliner.
168

Engine CowlingsFigure 19.4
The method of holding the large cowlings securely closed, usually involve over-
centre fasteners.(figure 22.5) These fasteners will have a hook-and-clasp system
allowing the fastener parts to be hooked together, whilst the cowling is almost
closed, and then allowing the two parts to be pulled snugly together by a form of
lever. The lever will also be covered by a small access panel.
Depending on the size of the cowling, there can be any number of primary,
overcentre latches, backed up by other types of fastener, normally always quick
acting.
Cowling doors can be manufactured from either aluminium alloy, Glass Reinforced
Plastic, G.R.P., in a honeycomb formation or even Carbon Reinforced Plastic, C.R.P.
169

Cowling FastenerFigure 19.5
170

ACOUSTIC PANELS
Whilst great steps have been taken to silence the exhaust noise by air-mixing and
other methods, there are still lower levels of noise to be suppressed. Increasing the
size and slowing the fan has lowered the noise from the front of the engine, leaving
the highest amount of noise, now being produced by the engine, coming from the
internal rotating assemblies especially the turbine. To reduce the noise from these
assemblies, optimum use of acoustically absorbent linings is made.
Noise absorbing lining material converts acoustic energy into heat. The absorbent
linings, shown in the illustration below, normally consist of a porous skin supported
by a honeycomb backing, to provide the required separation between the
facesheet and the solid engine duct.
The acoustic properties of the skin and the liner depth are carefully matched to the
characteristics of the noise, for optimum suppression. The disadvantages of this
method of suppression are the slight increase in weight and skin friction and, hence,
a slight increase in fuel consumption. This method does, however, provide a very
powerful suppression technique.
Various materials can be used to produce acoustic linings for jet engines. They fall
mainly within two categories, lightweight composite materials are used in the lower
temperature regions, and fibrous metallic materials are used in the higher
temperature regions. The noise absorbing material consists of a perforate metal or
composite facing skin, supported by a honeycomb structure on a solid backing skin
which is bonded to the parent metal of the duct or casing.
171

Acoustic Cowling MaterialsFigure 19.6
172

19.2 ENGINE MOUNTINGS 2

Earlier in this chapter, the mounting/suspension of the power units was mentioned.
The critical part of the assembly is the mounting itself, which has to transfer all the
forces, including both the thrust as well as aerodynamic loads from the engine to the
airframe itself. The mount also has to isolate the airframe from any vibrations
produced by the engine or its accessories.
Many of these mountings are made of stainless steel and can be located in different
patterns around the engine, depending on the designers need to manage all of the
forces encountered. Some mounts that are not required to carry high loadings can
be manufactured from certain hard rubber compounds, which can be formed into
circular toroidal form or as flat blocks that work in shear.
The first example, illustrated below, is the mounting of the Rolls Royce Tay engine,
which has two metallic vibration isolators and one thrust trunnion to carry all the
loads from the engine to the airframe, via the two strong crane beams which are
attached to two of the fuselage frames. The vibration isolators are of the stainless
steel type, (called Met-L-Flex by the manufacturer), and are shown in the detail
drawing.
The trunnion has two sets of Met-L-Flex mounts inside that have to carry, in this
example, 14,000 pounds of thrust.
Engine Mountings(1)Figure 19.7
173

Mountings that are for lighter, less powerful engines, can be manufactured from
other materials including the most common, rubber and other elastomers. In the
following example, which is the installation of the 1,400 S.H.P. CT-58 engine on the
top decking of the Sikorsky S-61N helicopter, the mountings are elastomeric and
both support the front of the engine and limit the vibration that travels down from
the engine to the cabin beneath. As they are only used to support the front of the
engine, they are unlikely to be subjected to much heat generated by the aft end of
the unit.
Finally, the P&W 124 engine mountings are again elastomeric and are, in some
cases, in shear and others in compression. The mounting frame, to which these are
attached, is shown in the introduction to this topic as the tubular example.
174

175

19.3 CONNECTION OF SERVICES

The basic engine has many self-contained systems within its configuration. These
can include fuel, oil, electrical, fire warning, controls, HP air, etc. However, the actual
powerplant installation has to be connected to the airframe interface, (pylon, stub-
wing, etc.), via many different forms of connection.
Due to the pressures of time and economics, the airframe and engine manufacturers
have to make the removal of the engine, especially the disconnection procedure, as
simple as possible. To this end, many powerplants have all of their system and
service connections in one place, so that they can all be dis-connected and re-
attached at one time. To avoid, as much as possible, the loss of vital fluids from
some systems when the engine is being disconnected, (not to mention the ingress of
air back into those systems), some form of quick-release and/or self-sealing
couplings are required.
19.4 QUICK DISCONNECT SHELF

The example below shows the quick disconnect shelf where most of the services of
the Lycoming T-55 are joined to the aircraft systems. Notice that, in this example,
there are a number of quick release couplings allowing systems such as the hydraulic
fluid lines, to be dis-connected without loss of oil and ingress of air or dirt.
Quick disconnect couplingsFigure 19.10
176

Another operation to assist in engine changes is the handing of the ancillary

equipment and connections. This means that an engine installed on the port stub-
wing would have a different layout than one installed on the starboard stub-wing.
For example, on a popular turbo-fan engine, it has its hydraulic pumps etc., located
on the right hand side of the engine. This means that when installed on the aircraft
port side, its connecting hoses are all short, between the fuselage and the engine.
When installed on the starboard side, however, there has to be a complete gallery of
rigid pipes, fitted to the engine, to connect the pumps to the aircraft systems.
BREAK POINTS
The mechanical controls to the engine, Throttle, Fuel Control (H.P.C.) and, if
applicable, Propeller Controls, will all have break points, where the simple removal
of a bolt or pin will separate the engine parts from the aircraft control runs.
The simple removal of a pin or bolt has a further advantage during some
disassembling operations. If the relevant system is reconnected again, without other
disturbance, it should not require re-rigging.
The illustration below shows how a simple turbopropeller engine has the three
connections of its major controls; throttle, H.P. cock and fuel trimmer all grouped
together at one point to ease disconnection and/or engine removal.
Engine Control DisconnectsFigure 19.11
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19.5 ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS

There is a wide range of electrically powered components on the average gas
turbine engine, all of which have to be connected to the aircrafts own electrical and
instrument systems. This can include indications of the R.P.M., fuel flow, T.G.T.,
vibration, as well as a filter blockage warning, ignition leads and other systems. All of
these connections are normally made using multi-pin connectors, which not only
connect 30, or more, different pairs of wires, but also keep the connections free
from oil, moisture and dirt by being sealed inside the plug.
A simple, four-pin connector is illustrated below to show how a plug and receptacle
fit together. It should be clear that a keyway and groove always ensure that the plug
is connected correctly. This is especially important when angled plugs are used to
ensure that cable looms, which approach the connectors at a particular angle, are
not put under any strain, which might tend to break the wires in the looms.
Electrical ConnectionsFigure 19.12
19.6 LIFTING POINTS

As mentioned earlier, the engines on commercial aircraft today are designed for the
simplest and quickest removal and re-installation. To this end, the engines will often
be found with built-in lugs and other attachment points that will allow a crane, of
suitable lifting capacity, to lift the engine from the airframe attachments to a
suitable support frame or transportation trolley. If some form of lifting sling is used
between the crane hook and the engine attachments, it must be checked both for
serviceability and that its inspection due date, marked on it, has not been exceeded.
If the engine is to be lifted using a purpose built sling, care must be taken to check
the relevant manuals because some lifting slings have more than one attachment
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point for the crane. This is to allow the engine to remain in balance, (the C of G of
the engine under the crane hook, when lifting), in different configurations. For
example, if the engine can be lifted with or without the thrust reverser or nose
cowling fitted, the centre of gravity will be in a different position for each and will,
therefore, require a different lifting point on the sling. The same applies with
turbopropeller engines that must be removable both with and without the propeller
being fitted.
The engine hoisting sling shown below, from the Rolls Royce Tay engine series, has
pin attachments to connect it to the engine and a range of lifting lug positions on the
top, which allow a variety of engine configurations to be lifted.
Engine Lifting SlingFigure 19.13
19.7 DRAINS
Drains are installed on gas turbine engines of all types, to relieve the collection of
different fluids from either within the engine itself or from one or more of its
external units. The drains will run into collector tanks, which will be either drained
during maintenance or will be self-emptying whilst the engine is operating.
Drains can be found from the fuel and hydraulic systems mainly; although, in most
circumstances, the drains are only put to use in situations when something out of
the ordinary has occurred.
For instance, if the engine has been turned over to start it, but it has not lit up the
start must be terminated after a specific time to avoid overheating the starter
motor. This means that a quantity of fuel has been spraying into the engine without
igniting and, therefore, a second start cannot be initiated until the fuel from the first
start has drained down to a collector tank.
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With the hydraulic pumps that are fitted to the accessory gearbox on the engine,
there is a slight risk that if a seal failed, the hydraulic oil might mix with the
gearbox/engine oils. To avoid this, a space is left between the two components and
this space is drained to the outside of the engine cowling. A drip of any oil from this
drain indicates that one or other of the seals has failed and deeper investigation is
required. Drains of this type are often referred to as witness drains in that they
bear witness to a fault.
As a general rule, if drains are directed outside the engine cowlings, they indicate
that the leaking fluid is from somewhere it should not be leaking from. If, however,
the fluid is directed to a collector, or holding, tank then the fluid is intended, at some
time, to be there. (Such as the wet start described earlier).
The illustration overleaf, from the Rolls Royce Tay engine again, it can be seen that
any leaks from the hydraulic pumps, air starter, internal gearbox, front bearing and
I.D.G. will show beneath the engine and alert the engineers of the fault. Leakage
from the H.P. shut off valve and various fuel and air control units is directed to the
drain tank which returns the fuel back to the L.P. pump.
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Focker 100 Drains System Figure 19.14

20. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS
20.1 DETECTION SYSTEMS
Because of the complexity of many modern aircraft, there has to be a reliable fire
detection system, installed in the engine nacelles/cowlings. This will indicate to the
flight crew both that there is a confirmed overheat/fire in the engine nacelle or bay
and that the overheat/fire has been dealt with and the danger is passed.
N.B. The reason for using the terminology overheat/fire is that is the vast majority
of fire warnings are not actually fires, with combustion taking place, but are what
are generally known as hot gas leaks. These warnings often follow the failure of
bleed air ducts, jet pipe connections, etc.
There are three major different types of detection equipment, Thermal switch fire
detection, Thermocouple fire detection and Continuous loop fire detection systems.
20.2 THERMAL SWITCH

The thermal switch system is sometimes known as the spot detection system and
consists of a number of separate detectors, which are located in the most likely
positions within the nacelles where fire may occur. The detectors are all in parallel,
allowing any one detector to give the warning to the flight deck.
The simple detector shown below will expand longitudinally, pulling the contacts
together and setting off the alarm. As soon as the heat has been removed, (either by
shutting down the engine or discharging the extinguisher bottle), the detector
shortens again, allowing the spring wires to separate the contacts, cutting off the
fire warning.
Thermal SwitchFigure 20.1
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20.2.1 THERMOCOUPLES
The thermocouple system operates on the rate of temperature rise principle,
rather than operating when a specific temperature is reached, such as with
the spot detectors. The detection is actuated by a number of thermocouple
hot junctions in likely locations for fires. The thermocouples are in pairs, (a
detector and a reference unit), but they will only detect fire, not a general
bay overheat. This is because the detector has to have a temperature
difference between it and the reference unit, which does not occur with a
bay overheat situation but will with a direct fire source. The thermocouples
themselves are manufactured exactly the same way as those units that
measure the temperature of the jet pipe or turbine gasses. They consist of
two metals, usually Alumel and Chromel, which will generate a small
current when heated, the current proportional to the temperature.
20.2.2 CONTINUOUS LOOP (Resistance/Capacitance)

The third, and most common, system for the detection of overheat/fire in
engine bays and similar locations, is the Continuous Loop fire detection
system. This system is often also known as the firewire detection system.
This system allows a more complete coverage of a fire hazard area than any
type of spot detection systems. This system works on the same basic
principle as the spot detectors, except that in place of individual detectors, a
continuous-loop will detect an overheat or fire anywhere along the length of
the tube.
The firewire consists of an Inconel outer tube with a central Nickel wire.
Separating the inner from the outer is a eutectic salt, which changes
resistance with the application of heat, an increase in temperature causing a
decrease in resistance. This allows the measurement of both resistance and
capacitance. On the latest installations loops are are normally run
throughout the engine bay(s) in pairs. The result of this is that to get a 100%
confirmed fire warning, there needs to be a correct change in both the
resistance and capacitance in both firewire loops at the same time.
This system has the advantage that it will continue to operate, even if one of
the firewires is completely broken. (Although the break will be detected
during the firewire test carried out pre-flight).
Overleaf, is illustrated both the construction detail of the inside of a fire wire
and a typical firewire installation as fitted to the Pratt & Whitney 124 engine
on the ATR-72 aircraft.
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Firewire InstallationFigure 20.2
20.2.3 CONTINUOUS LOOP (Gas )

Another type of continuous loop fire detection system is the pressure-type.
This tube contains a sealed gas filled tube containing an element that
absorbs gas at a low temperature and releases it as the temperature rises.
The tube is connected to a pressure switch that will close when the gas
pressure in the tube reaches a pre-determined value. This pressure increase
can result from either a localised sharp rise in temperature, (Fire), or a
gentler rise in temperature over a longer length of tube, (Overheat).
20.2.4 CONTROLS AND INDICATIONS

The flight deck part of the fire detection and warning system can vary from
aircraft to aircraft. As a general rule the display panel shown below could be
taken as a typical example of a fire panel on a modern aircraft applicable to
the main engines. The push buttons labelled LOOP are for warning and the
isolation of faulty warning loops, whilst the AGENT 1/2 lights indicates
whether the extinguisher bottles have been discharged.
Fire Detection and Extinguishing PanelFigure 20.3
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NOTE: Many A.P.U. installations have a fully automatic fire detection,

extinguishing and engine shutdown system.
Because of the vital importance of the warning, all cockpit fire alerts will
have the highest priority within the cockpit alerting system, being a warning
more than a caution. They will also have aural alerts and flashing lights
indicating both the relevant fire extinguisher handle and the correct fuel
shut-off lever.
As an example, a fire detected within an engine cowling would probably have
the following effects:
A bell, chime or other audible alert.
A flashing attention getting light usually coloured red.
A FIRE caption on the master warning panel.
A light in the fire extinguisher operating handle/button.
A light in the relevant fuel shut-off or H.P. cock lever.
Once the fire has been detected and the correct engine identified, from
maybe two, three or four, the pilot will discharge the first, (of two),
pressurised fire bottles containing an extinguishant into the relevant engine
bay.
The chemical extinguishing fluid will be directed through pipes to spray
nozzles in the bay, which will give the quickest spread of the chemical
throughout the bay, smothering the fire. If the fire persists after the first
bottle has been discharged, the pilot has the option of firing the second
bottle into the same bay, which normally is sufficient to put the worst fire
out.
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21. ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATION
21.1 PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND ENGINE RUN-UP

Firstly, it is essential that before any ground running is commenced, reference is
made to the safety precautions and aircraft handling and storage notes that can be
found within Module 7. These notes will cover flight line safety with specific mention
of fuelling, towing, parking, noise, marshalling, etc. They will also cover such topics
as chocking, taxiing, securing, de-icing and work during other inclement weather
situations.
Before ground running an aircraft, reference must also be made to the current
Ground Handling Procedures Manual. This will list not only all of the rules that must
be followed, it will also give the references that are used to ensure the safety of all
concerned both directly and indirectly with the ground run.
Other topics may need to be consulted in this manual. They are the aircraft noise
limitations, the procedure to be followed in the event of a fire breaking out, where
the ground power units are to be placed and the ground support equipment that will
be required for the ground run.
The aircraft is parked with brakes applied and chocks in place; all personnel are in
their correct places both inside and outside the aircraft and all equipment is in place,
such as power unit and warning signs. It is now time to consider what is the object of
the ground run, why is it taking place and what it is hoped to achieve.
21.2 INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUT

The power output, as was mentioned earlier, is normally measured in E.P.R., (Turbo-
jet) or Torque, (Turbo-propeller) aircraft. The ratios or units that these indicating
systems use can be used to indicate the power of the aircraft engines on-the-day
and to indicate any loss of performance since the last engine run, (Provided the
weather and all other circumstances are similar). These systems also show when any
power boosting system, fitted to the aircraft, is operated and whether it is working
to full capacity.
When the engine run is being carried out, it will normally be necessary for other
parameters to be noted, at specific times, at certain engine powers and when called
for by the ground running schedule itself. These figures could include the following
parameters:
T.G.T.
Oil Temperature
Oil Pressure
R.P.M.
Fuel Flow
E.P.R./Torque
Bleed Air Temp.
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Bleed Air Press

Vibration Level
Ground running is normally made much easier, especially when a complex, large and
modern jet airliner is concerned, by the use of a ground running booklet. This has
both the running procedure itself and also places for marking specific data or tick
boxes to confirm certain operations were carried out during the run.
To give an idea of what might be found in a booklet for ground running, the ATR-72
engine run-up guide contains the following information:
General details of safety areas, control operations, adjustments & emergencies:
Engine control theory.

Aircraft preparation.
Propeller control theory.
Engine starting procedure.
Failure codes produced by the engine computers.
Engine parameters and limits.
Engine stopping procedure.
And, of course,
Operational tests during engine running.
The booklet also includes sets of Diagrams, (safe zones, etc.); Tables, (limits) and
Graphs, (performance calculations).
21.3 TREND MONITORING/ANALYSIS

There is a much stronger reliance these days on trends, than there used to be. Years
ago, if an engine started to use a little more fuel or oil, if it got progressively rougher
when running or if it ran a little hotter than its companion engines, then little
interest was shown until either the engine became too bad too use or, in the worst
case, it failed completely. Today we monitor trends in a number of different ways
and they can loosely be divided into three groups:
1. Those which monitor the condition of the oil-washed components such as

gearboxes and bearings.
2. Techniques such as vibration analysis and non-destructive testing, (N.D.T.), that
can be applied to both the air and oil washed components of the engine. (The
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N.D.T. inspection procedure is a complex and specialised technique that will be

covered later).
3. Those, which enable the air-washed components such as blades, guide vanes
and combustion chambers to be inspected.
With oil washed components any mechanical wear from contact surfaces, such as
gears and bearings, will produce debris which will be carried within the oil circulating
around the engine. Analysis of debris in the oil system can provide a very useful
method of assessing any trends in the wear from the internal engine components.
This analysis can involve a number of different methods, including:
Magnetic detector plug debris analysis

Oil filter debris analysis
Spectrometric Oil Analysis Programme (SOAP).
21.4 MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTORS

The magnetic chip detectors, (M.C.D.), are small permanent magnets placed in the
oil scavenge/return line to collect ferrous debris from the oil. At specific intervals,
the plugs are removed and either visually inspected on site or returned to a
specialist department. The particles are examined, by a skilled and experienced
technician using a microscope, and the debris particles identified as being from ball
bearings, roller bearings, gearbox teeth, propeller mechanisms, etc.
From these inspections, the decision as to whether to reject the component or just
to increase the frequency of sampling depends on the trend of the particle build-up.
A slow and steady build-up can best be monitored by an increase in inspection
frequency, whilst a sharp increase between one inspection and the next could
require the immediate removal of the offending gearbox or engine.
21.5 OIL FILTERS

The analysis of debris collected in the oil system filters, both pressure and scavenge,
forms a useful technique to complement the M.C.D. method. The debris are
carefully washed off the filter and collected for thorough examination. Particles of
some metals will require further careful checking, whilst some metal debris might be
considered quite normal.
The particles obtained from the filters will be catalogued for comparison with other,
later, debris collections although, the frequency of filter inspection is less than for
M.C.D.s. The information obtained provides a back up for establishing and
confirming trends within the components.
21.6 S.O.A.P
The spectrometric oil analysis programme removes a sample of oil from the engine
oil system. This will contain microscopic traces of all the metals that are washed by
the oil. Chemical analysis of the sample particles enables the wear rate to be
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evaluated and quantified. In a typical oil system, traces of the following metals might
be found:
Aluminium
Iron
Chromium
Silver
Copper
Tin
Magnesium
Lead
21.7 VIBRATION
Vibration analysis is part of the on-condition maintenance policy that checks on the
condition of rotating assemblies. The requirement is that defects can be detected
sufficiently early to permit rectification before secondary and more serious damage
occurs. Analysis of engine vibration signatures is an important tool for the detection
of early failure in mechanical components.
A vibration monitoring system consists of a sensor, which converts the mechanical
vibration of the machine to which it is attached, into electrical signals that are in
proportion to the magnitude of the vibrations. In addition, there are amplifiers with
their associated wiring, to produce some form of cockpit display. This display can be
analogue, digital or even simply in the form of warning lights.
There will be a vibration limit set by the engine manufacturer, which will be the level
to which the flight deck displays have their warning/caution limits set.
On some engines there is more than one limit, which might be both a caution and a
warning. The caution would allow the pilot to close the engine down before little or
no damage has occurred, whereas the warning would possibly indicate a serious
failure within the engine itself.
Analogue and digital displays allow the crew to record readings for each engine, in
flight, which can be later compared with previous flights to identify any increase in
the levels of vibration.
Other forms of sensor can be found on some aircraft. One is the dual sensor that
consists of two separate but integral units that permit the pilot to switch between
them if one fails for any reason. Another useful variation is the wide and narrow
band measurement, which means the reading can either be taken from over the
whole range of vibrations emanating from the engine, or from one or two major
rotating assemblies such as the N1 and N2 spools.
The illustrations below show two sensors that are mounted vertically and
horizontally. Also shown is a typical linear (tape) display from a twinjet airliner which
is showing both N1 and N2 vibration for both engines. The port engine has its
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vibration in limits while the starboard engine has exceeded the caution limit on
both spools.
Vibration sensors and displayFigure 21.1
21.8 VISUAL/OPTICALINSPECTIONS
The examination of air washed components can be divided into two different
inspections, unaided visual inspection and optical inspection. These will allow the
engineer to inspect the internal parts of the engine, at various times, enabling any
deterioration to be detected early, allowing the rectification to start before any
damage has gone too far.
VISUAL
Inspection with the naked eye can detect obvious damage in the front stages of the
compressor and the rear stages of the turbine. With twin and triple spool engines,
the amount of the rotating parts that can be inspected visually is proportionally less.
Such inspections will detect cracks or other damage only when the operator is
extremely vigilant. Jet pipe and turbine inspections cannot be carried out
immediately after engine shutdown because of the heat. Visual inspection however
is still extremely important for monitoring the condition of engines.
OPTICAL
Optical inspection of the inside of a gas turbine engine, including the hot end, is best
carried out using a remotely illuminated optical probe, sometimes known as a
borescope. These probes can be obtained in a variety of lengths, diameters and, for
difficult places, in a flexible form.
On earlier engines, the inspection probes had to be inserted into already existing
holes in the engine casing. These might be igniter or thermocouple installation
holes, which would have the item removed to allow use of the holes by the
borescope. The limitation of this system was that the parts of the engine that were
visible to the inserted probes were very limited.
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Most modern engines however, have purpose-built inspection holes fitted in the
casing at the correct places, thus allowing complete inspection of all of the air
washed parts of the engine from the first stage of the compressor to the final stage
of the turbine.
However, with rigid borescopes it can still sometimes be difficult to orientate the
probe to give the desired view. With modern probe sets, there will be a fibre-optic
probe, which is flexible. This can be either fed directly in to the engine or via a
purpose built guide tube, which will turn the flexible probe to the exact position for
viewing.
Several borescope sets have, in addition to the range of probes mentioned earlier, a
low light CCTV camera mounted on to the eyepiece of the probe. This means that
more than one person can watch the inspection at the same time. Also, the viewing
can be recorded on video both for a permanent record and to allow trend
monitoring by comparison of wear, damage and discoloration with earlier
recordings.
The illustration below of the Rolls Royce Tay 650 engine shows the borescope and
visual inspection access to the inner parts of the engine. It will be seen that almost
all of the internal parts of the engine can be inspected by the mixed use of both rigid
probes, (solid lines), and flexible probes, (dotted lines).
Engine Inspection LocationsFigure 21.2
The illustration below shows a flexible borescope being used to inspect the first
stage of a turbine assembly via ports on the fan duct and in the combustion
chamber.
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Boroscope InspectionFigure 21.3
21.9 INSPECTION CRITERIA, TOLERANCES AND DATA

Modern engines have exceptionally high serviceability ratings and it is not unusual to
find some engines with 20,000 or 30,000 running hours in one position, on the same
aircraft. Because of this, there is little to do with respect to inspecting the engine
on a routine, day-to-day basis.
As a general rule, aircraft in service have a daily inspection, often overnight,
between cease flying on one day and the early departure on the next. During the
day, if the aircraft is not an inter-continental flyer, there will be pre-departure
inspections, prior to the aircraft departing on its next flight leg. Finally, at specified
intervals, such as every so many days, an A check would be carried out.
All of these checks require an inspection of the engine. This is usually little more
than a look into the intake for Foreign Object Damage(F.O.D.); a check of the jet pipe
for signs of turbine damage; a check of the engine, gearbox and I.D.G. oil levels and,
finally, a look around the engine cowlings, for any signs of damage and oil or fuel
leaks.
It is more likely that any inspection of the engine will be involved after the aircraft
captain has reported a fault/ defect. Trouble shooting an engine will often involve
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checking some part of the engines operation against figures produced by the
manufacturer and published in the maintenance manuals.
As an example, the following checks, etc. are typical of those which might be
encountered whilst carrying out trouble-shooting on a reportedly defective engine:
POWER The power of a gas turbine engine in service is never measured in pounds
thrust, as it is on the test bed at the manufacturers. As mentioned earlier, the
measurement of the power of a gas turbine engine in service is usually as engine
pressure ratio, (E.P.R.).
This E.P.R. might be checked against reference figures to prove whether the engine
is producing full power whist at maximum revolutions. (If the engine is being run in
any conditions other than at sea level and at a temperature of 150C. then
adjustments to the figures will have to be made).
TORQUE Torque is the measure of power being produced by a turbopropeller or
turboshaft engine. The torque pressure produced by the engine at maximum power
will be noted on a certificate from the manufacturers.
Ground runs will confirm, again with adjustments for airfield height and outside air
temperature, O.A.T., whether the engine is producing the torque, (shaft
horsepower), that it should be, at full throttle.
T.G.T. The reading of the T.G.T. on the cockpit gauge can give an indication of the
health of that engine. If the engine has some problem internally, it is possible that
more fuel may have to be burnt in the combustors to make-up the shortfall in
power. This increased fuel flow will show as a higher than normal T.G.T. reading.
The T.G.T. figures during start-up, maximum power and other engine situations, are
published in the aircrafts flight manual. The pilot (and any engineer ground running
the engines) must strictly follow these limitations, as well as reporting when the
figures are NOT in accordance with the limits.
REVERSER OPERATION It is possible that the crew may report that one reverser is
slower in operation than its companion(s). Testing the operation of these units will
involve timing their operation, both deploying and stowing, either during an engine
run or using some external power source to drive the reversers. If not within the
published time limits, rectification will be necessary.
R.P.M./% A number of different values of R.P.M. are published in the engine
manuals, including the idle and maximum values. On many engines however, this
will be represented not as R.P.M. but as a percentage of maximum engine speed,
(100%).
It may be necessary, at times, to convert from percentage to R.P.M., so the
maximum 100% value will be published in the manuals to facilitate this. Some other
settings that may require checking are flight idle, reverse thrust (less than 100%),
and cruise power.
ACCELERATION TIMES It is vital that the engines accelerate both as quickly as
possible, in case the pilot needs to go around after being unable to land, and
equally, so that there is no asymmetric thrust, which might cause an unwanted
turning moment.
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To achieve these requirements, it is normal for the engines to be subjected to what

are known as slam checks at intervals, or whenever the crew reports any problems.
The slam is the rapid movement of the throttle from idle to maximum, whilst timing
how long the engine takes to catch-up to maximum power. Adjustments will be
made if the engine is too slow, too fast or if it does not match the timing of the other
one(s).
ACCESSORIES Many of the components fitted on to the engine, such as pumps,
generators, measuring devices, etc., have to meet installed performance figures,
meaning for instance, that a fuel pump must have a specific output at a certain
engine speed. These figures are again published in the engine maintenance manuals.
21.10 COMPRESSOR WASHING/CLEANING

The atmosphere near the ground is filled with small particles of dirt, oil, soot, salt
(near the sea) and other foreign matter. A very large volume of air is drawn into the
compressor, with centrifugal force throwing the particles outwards so that they
build up a coating on the engine casing, the guide vanes and the compressor blades.
An accumulation of dirt on the compressor blades reduces the aerodynamic
efficiency of the compressor itself, which results in a loss of engine performance.
This deterioration in performance due to the build-up of dirt on the blades is the
same as an aircraft wing under icing conditions. Unsatisfactory acceleration and high
exhaust gastemperatures can be the result of this build-up.
Gas path erosion occurs from the ingestion of sand, dirt, dust and other fine
airborne particles. This erosion can occur in both the compressor and the turbine
sections of the engine. The accumulative effect of continuous ingestion of these
abrasive particles can result in the erosion of the surface coatings, and even further
into the base metal of the fan, the compressor blades and vanes.
Two common methods for removing dirt, salt and corrosive deposits are fluid
(liquid) wash and an abrasive grit blast.
21.11 FLUID CLEANING

The fluid cleaning procedure is easily accomplished by first spraying an emulsion
surface cleaner and then applying a rinse solution to the compressor. This is carried
out whilst the engine is either being motored over by the starter or during low speed
operation.
Note: It cannot be overstressed that the wash procedure must be performed in strict
accordance with the instructions laid down in the manufacturers manual.
Usually, when the water wash is performed solely to remove salt deposits, the
compressor wash is known as desalination. If the solution wash is performed solely
to remove baked on deposits to improve engine performance, the wash may be
known as a performance recovery wash.
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Motoring washing is carried out at whatever speed the starter will rotate the engine
up to, typically between 15% to 25%, with the cleaning mixture injected at high
pressure.
Running washing is carried out around ground idle, again typically 60% with a lower
water pressure.
The use of washing, on a regular basis, can vastly extend the life of an engine,
especially when the engine is given regular performance ground runs, measured
against standard figures.
21.12 ABRASIVE GRIT PROCESS
A second, more vigorous method of compressor cleaning is to inject abrasive grit
into the engine at selected power settings. The grit used may be ground walnut
shells or apricot pits. The type and amount of material and the procedure to be used
is prescribed by the engine manufacturer.
Whilst the intervals between operations is much longer, the abrasive effect on some
parts of the engine and the fact the grit is burned up in the turbine, (giving no
cleaning), means that this process is not carried out as often as washing.
Sometimes there is a rule-of-thumb, which says that if the deposit on the
compressors is still wet, then a liquid wash is all that is required. However, if the
deposit has hardened then abrasive grit is required.
Whether the material used for cleaning the compressor is liquid or solid, there will
be a correct procedure and most likely apparatus for delivering the cleaning medium
to the front of the compressor safely.
21.13 FOREIGN OBJECT DAMAGE (F.O.D.)

F.O.D. is the term used whenever such items as stones, grit, nuts, bolts; in fact
anything which can be found around the aircraft movements area, are sucked into
the intakes of a running jet engine. The damage that occurs is always expensive; it
just depends on whether it is a case of minor damage to a single compressor blade
or the total destruction of the engine. Any signs of damage in the intake area must
always be assumed to indicate further, worst, damage to the engine.
On most aircraft the front stage(s) of the engine can be seen with little effort,
however, certain aircraft, such as the DC-10/MD-11series and the Boeing 727 both
have buried centre engines. These will require great care when inspecting the
engines for signs of damage, due to the fact that an engineer would be invisible to
others who might start the engine. There must be others involved as safety-men and
the flight deck must be placarded with DO NOT START signs.
The damage that the compressor blades have received must be classified in
accordance with the manual, which will dictate whether it is a case of a single blade
replacement, a fan stage replacement or a total engine change.
If the damage received by the blade is slight, (as defined by the repair manual), then
the damage can be dressed out using a selection of fine abrasive tools. These
194

change any sharp edged damage into a smooth curved hollow, which will not cause
later failures due to cracking.
The examples of blade damage, illustrated below, show some extreme cases of how
a blade can be damaged and, below that, how the damage can be blended or
scalloped, if the damage is classified as slight.
Blade Damage ExamplesFigure 30.1
Foreign object damage can also be caused by poor workmanship and husbandry by
maintenance engineers. When working either in the engine intakes or in the vicinity
of them, great caremust be taken not to drop any hardware such as nuts and bolts,
or even larger items such as tools.
Whilst it is the responsibility of someone else to sweep the ramp, taxiways and
other aircraft movement areas, everyone who works around aircraft should acquire
the habit of:
IF YOU SEE SOMETHING ON THE GROUND THAT SHOULD NOT BE THERE
195

22. ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION (Level B1 only)

(ref; Civil Aircraft Airworthiness Information and procedures. CAAIP Leaflet 7-4)
22.1 INTRODUCTION
Under normal operating conditions the interior parts of an engine are protected
against corrosion by the continuous application of lubricating oil and oil mist, the
operating temperatures of which, are sufficient to dispel any moisture which may
tend to form, particularly during the wide temperature change which take place
during engine shut down and start up. After shut down the residual oil film gives
protection for a short period of time which varies, depending on the local
environmental conditions. When the engine is not in regular service, parts which
have been exposed to the bi-products of combustion and internal parts in contact
with acidic oil, are prone to corrosion. If engines are expected to be out of use for an
extended period of time, they should be ground run periodically or, some form of
anti-corrosive protection or treatment must be applied internally and externally to
prevent deterioration.
The type of engine protection applied depends on how long it is expected to be out
of service, if it is installed in the aircraft and if it can be turned.
The procedures adopted and the level of protection applied will very from one
manufacturer to another. In all cases, the approved Maintenance Manual procedure
should be complied with.
INSTALLED TURBINE ENGINES:- which are not going to be run for periods up to
seven days normally do not require protection apart from the installation of external
blanking covers to air intakes, exhausts and any other openings. This provides
protection against the ingress of dust, rain, sand, snow etc.
22.2 STORAGE PROCEDURES

Leaflet 7-4 of CAAIP
22.2.1 PREPARING FOR STORAGE AND DISPATCH

The preparation of the engine/module for storage and/or despatch is of
major importance, since storage and transportation calls for special
treatment to preserve and protect the engine from deterioration and
damage. To resist corrosion during storage, the fuel system is inhibited by
special oil and all apertures are sealed off. The internal of the engine and
engine components such as fuel pumps, hydraulic pumps, air starter motors,
etc. are also protected by inhibiting oils or powders. External surfaces are
usually protected by paper impregnated with inhibiting powder or oil and the
engine is enclosed in a re-usable bag or plastic sheeting into which a specific
amount of desiccant silica-gel is inserted. If transportation by tail or sea is
196

involved, the inhibited or bagged engine is usually packed in a wooden crate

or metal case.
22.2.2 PRESERVATION AND DEPRESERVATION
Preservation: is the procedure recommended as the minimum necessary
to protect a power plant against: -
liquid or debris (FOD) entering the power plant
Corrosion
Atmospheric conditions during periods of storage and inactivity.
Depreservation: Is the procedure recommended to restore a preserved

engine back to an operational state.
NOTE:For the purpose of this procedure, operational state is defined as:

A power plant that can be started. (On or Off the aircraft.)
22.2.3 PERIODS OF STORAGE (Installed engines) can be divided into two

catagories:
1. Short Term Storage from 7 days up to 1 month.

2. Long Term Storage from 1 month up to 6 months.
197


Center of Aviation Module 15 Gas Turbines

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EASA Part 66

Module 15: Gas Turbine Engine

Compiled by Engr. Hamza Asharf

Institute of Space Technology. All rights reserved Rev : 00

Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Training Notes

All rights reserved

No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any

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3.8 BELLMOUTH AIR INTAKE 38

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8.1.2 Ball Bearings 78

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14.1 TURBINE GAS TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT 131

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20.2.2 CONTINUOUS LOOP (Resistance/Capacitance) 182

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In attempts to improve aircraft performance, engines were increased in both size

1.2 Principles of Jet Propulsion

A fireman's hose is an example where reaction is felt. When a powerful jet of

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Hero's Engine (Fig 1)

Heros Engine Figure 1.1

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Accelerating a large mass through a small increase in velocity.

Jet Reaction Figure 1.2

1.2.2 POTENTIAL ENERGY

1.2.3 KINETIC ENERGY

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1.2.4 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION

1.2.5 BRAYTON CYCLE

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The Brayton Cycle Figure 1.3

During the C D part of the cycle, some of the energy in the

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1.3 PHYSICS TERMINOLOGY

Power = Work done

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Velocity/Speed DiagramFigure 1.4

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1.5 CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine EngineFigure 1.5

Single Spool Axial Flow TurbojetFigure 1.6

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1.5.3 TWIN-SPOOL TURBO-JET

1.5.4 BY-PASS ENGINE

Twin Spool By-Pass TurbojetFigure 1.7

1.5.5 TURBO-FAN ENGINE

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Triple Spool Turbo-FanFigure 1.8

Turbo-fan engines in a range of sizes, are installed in aircraft varying from

1.5.6 TURBO-SHAFT ENGINE

The primary purpose of this design of engine is to produce shaft horsepower.

On some designs of turbo-shaft engines,(Direct Coupled) the output shaft

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The illustration below shows a twin-spool turbo-shaft engine with a two-

Twin-Spool Turbo-Shaft (With Free-Power Turbine)Figure 1.9

Twin-Spool Axial Flow Turbo-PropellerFigure 1.10

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2. ENGINE PERFORMANCE (level B1 only)

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2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE

2.2.1 Compressor Casing

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International Standard Atmosphere