CHARACTERIZATION AND

CLASSIFICATION OF SUGARCANE
GROWING SOILS OF MEDAK
DISTRICT OF TELANGANA STATE

K. MAHESH CHOWHAN
B.Sc. (Ag.)

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

(SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY)

2015
CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF SUGARCANE GROWING SOILS OF
MEDAK DISTRICT OF TELANGANA STATE
By
K. MAHESH CHOWHAN
B.Sc (Ag.)

THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE AGRICULTURAL
UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

(SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY)

CHAIRPERSON: Dr. RAJESHWAR MALAVATH

DEPARTMENT OF SOIL SCIENCE & AGRICULTURAL

CHEMISTRY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
RAJENDRANAGAR, HYDERABAD 500 030.

2015
 CERTIFICATE
Mr. K. MAHESH CHOWHAN has satisfactorily prosecuted the course of
research and that thesis entitled CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION
OF SUGARCANE GROWING SOILS OF MEDAK DISTRICT OF TELANGANA
STATE" submitted, is the result of original research work and is of sufficiently high
standard to warrant its presentation to the examination. I also certify that neither the thesis
nor its part thereof has been previously submitted by him for a degree of any University.

Date: (Dr. RAJESHWAR MALAVATH)

Place: Hyderabad Chairperson

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled CHARACTERIZATION AND
CLASSIFICATION OF SUGARCANE GROWING SOILS OF MEDAK DISTRICT
OF TELANGANA STATE" submitted inpartial fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE of the Professor
Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University, Hyderabad is a record of the
bonafide original research work carried out by Mr. K. MAHESH CHOWHAN under our
guidance and supervision.
No part of the thesis has been submitted by the student for any other degree or
diploma. The published part and all assistance and help received during the course of the
investigations have been duly acknowledged by the author of the thesis.

(Dr. RAJESHWAR MALAVATH)

Chairperson of the Advisory Committee

Thesis approved by the Students Advisory Committee

Chairman Dr. Rajeshwar Malavath, _________________

Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Soil Science & Agril. chemistry,
Agricultural college, Rajendranagar,
PJTSAU.

Member Dr. D.Balaguravaiah, _________________

Principal Scientist & Head,
Radio Tracer laboratory, ARI,
Rajendranagar.

Member Dr. G.E.CH.Vidyasagar _________________

Professor,
Dept.of Agronomy

Date of final viva-voce:

 DECLARATION

I, K. MAHESH CHOWHAN, hereby declare that the thesis entitled

CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SUGARCANE GROWING
SOILS OF MEDAK DISTRICT OF TELANGANA STATE " submitted to the
Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University for the degree of
Master of Science in Agriculture is the result of original research work done by me. I
also declare that no material contained in the thesis has been published earlier in any
manner.

Date: (K.MAHESH CHOWHAN)

Place: Hyderabad I.D. No: RAM/2013-66
 LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO.

NO.

I INTRODUCTION

II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

III
MATERIAL AND METHODS

IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

LITERATURE CITED

ANNEXURES

APPENDIX
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

% : Per cent
@ : at the rate of
BD : bulk density
BSP : Base saturation percentage
c mol (p+) kg-1 : Centimol proton per kilogram
CEC : Cation Exchange Capacity
cm : centimeter
dS m-1 : desi Simens per metre
EC : electrical conductivity
FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization
FCC : Fertility Capability Classification
Fig. : Figure
FYM : farm yard manure
GPS : Global Positioning System
ha : Hectare
i.e. : that is
K : potassium
kg : Kilogram
kg ha-1 : kilogram per hectare
M ha : million hectare
Mt : million tones
Meq-1 : Milli equivalent per litre
mg kg-1 : milligrams per kilogram
Mg m-3 : Mega gram per metre cube
ml : milliliter
mm : milli meter
N : Nitrogen
NBSS & LUP : National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use
Planning
NO3N : nitrate nitrogen
OC : organic carbon
o
C : degree celsius
P : phosphorus
pH : Soil reaction
ppm : parts per million
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

1 Geo-referenced location points of Sugarcane growing pedons
of the Medak district.
2 Mandal wise Sugarcane cultivated area (ha) of the Medak
district for the year 2013-14.
3 Geological formations of the Medak district.
4 Standard procedures used for soil analysis.
5 Soil site suitability criteria (crop requirements) for Sugarcane.
6 Morphological characteristics of Sugarcane growing soil
pedons of the Medak district.
7 Physical characteristics of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of
the Medak district.
8 Ratios of the fine earth fractions of pedons (Particle size-
analysis).
9 Physico-chemical characteristics Sugarcane growing soil
pedons of the Medak district.
10 Available nutrient status of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of
the Medak district.
11 Classification of Sugarcane growing soils of the Medak
district (Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 by Soil Survey Staff).
12 Land capability classification of Sugarcane growing soil
pedons of the Medak district based on soil characteristics.
13 Soil-site characteristics for land evaluation of Sugarcane
growing Soils of the Medak district.
14 Actual and potential soil suitability for Sugarcane growing
Soils of the Medak district.
15 Fertility capability classification - soil sample coding for
Sugarcane growing Soils of the Medak district.
16 Morphological characteristics of Sugarcane growing soils of
Medak district.
17 Physical characteristics of surface and subsurface soils of
Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak district.
18 Physico-chemical and available nutrient status of surface and
subsurface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak
district.
19 Nutrient Index Values (NIV) and Fertility Ratings in surface
horizons of all the pedons of Sugarcane cultivated areas of
Medak district.
Table No. Title Page No.
20 Nutrient Index Values (NIV) and soil fertility ratings in
surface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of Medak district.
21 Comparative evaluation of productivity of soils in study area
along with the management options.
 LIST OF PLATES

Plate Title Page No.

No.
1 Surface and subsurface soil samples collection in standing
Sugarcane crops in between rows with the farmers at Almaipet,
Andole division.
2 Surface and subsurface soil samples collection in standing
Sugarcane crops in between rows at Kowdipally, Medak division.
3 Surface and subsurface soil samples collection after harvest of
Sugarcane at Zaheerabad division.
4 Distinct prominent slickensides (pedon 9) indicating high swell-
shrink potentials soils in Andole division at a depth of 52-100 cm.
5 In-situ qualitative rapid test for free CaCO3 (Effervescence) within
the soil profile by adding 10 ml of diluting HCL (1:3) at Andole
division.
6 Pale light grayish and soft white, small to bigger size (0.2 mm to 5
cm diameter) hard nodules found in surface layers of black soil
pedons at Aroor, Sadasivpet division.
7 Ferro manganese dark brownish red concretions (Lateritic
concretions).
8 Ferro manganese red and reddish yellow and reddish brown
concretions.
9 Ferro manganese red and reddish yellow and reddish brown
concretions mixed with soils.
10 Massive and tough sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layerwith in 10 to 30 cm in sugarcane areas at Kohir
mandal Zaheerabad division.
11 Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated compact laterite
layer which leads the impedance to root penetration and
proliferation (pedon 3) at Zaheerabad division.
12 The shallow root sugarcane plant susceptible to drought during dry
spells due to subsurface hardening (pedon 3) in red laterite soils at
Zaheerabad division.
13 Ferro manganese red and reddish brown laterite rock (used as
brick) with concretions.
14 The stabilized blocks (natural bricks) hard and durable excavated
from the soil and cut in form of large blocks used as building
materials.
15 The laterite brick harder, heavier and more resistant to moisture is
used for construction of building at Metalkunta, Zahirabad
division.
16 Sub surface hard pan where the penetration and proliferation roots
are very few within 20-40 cm depth in black soil pedon 1.
17 Explaining the importance of collection of surface and subsurface
soil samples and importance of soil testing to the farmers at
Rayalpur, Narsapur division.
Plate Title Page No.
No.
18 Free drained surface red soils with sandy clay texture on surface
horizon and clay texture in subsurface horizon.
19 Sugarcane crop with healthy vegetation at Andole division due to
high WHC.
20 Exposed weathered granite-gneiss material due to severe erosion.
21 Laterite surface soils having hard crust layer with sparse
vegetation.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page No.

No.
1 Pedon location map in the sugarcane growing areas of Medak
district of Telangana State.
2 Mandal/Tehsil map of Medak district of Telangana State.

LIST OF ANNEXURES

S.No. Title Page No.

1 Morphological properties of pedons of Sugarcane growing soils of

the Medak district.

2 Morphological characteristics of surface and subsurface Sugarcane

growing soils of Medak district.

3 Physical characteristics of surface and subsurface Sugarcane

growing soils of Medak district.

4 Physico-chemical and available nutrient status of surface and

subsurface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak district.

LIST OF APPENDIX

S.No. Title Page No.

1 Land Capability Classification Quantification of the Criteria
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am pleased to place my profound etiquette to Dr. Rajeshwar Malavath,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Soil Science & Agril. Chemistry, Agricultural
college, Rajendranagar and esteemed Chairman of my Advisory Committee for
his learned counsel, unstinted attention, arduous and meticulous guidance on the
work in all stages. His keen interest, patient hearing and constructive criticism
have installed in me the spirit of confidence to successfully complete the task.

I deem it my privilege in expressing my fidelity to Dr. D.Balaguravaiah,

Principal Scientist & Head, Radio Tracer laboratory, ARI, Rajendranagar,
Hyderabad and Co-chairman of my Advisory Committee for his munificent
acquiescence and meticulous reasoning to refine this thesis and most explicitly to
reckon with set standards.

I sincerely extend my profound gratitude and appreciation to the member

of my advisory committee to Dr. G.E.CH.Vidyasagar, Professor, Dept.of
Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad, for his valuable
help and cooperation during the course of my study.

I sincerely extend my profound gratitude and appreciation to Dr. K.

Jeevan Rao, Professor and Head, Dr. G. Padmaja, Professor, Dr. Prabhu
prasadini, Professor, Dr. Uma devi, principal scientist WTC, Dr. Ch. Sujani
Rao, Associate Professor, Dr. V. Sailaja, Assistant Professor, Dr. Anjaiah,
Assistant Professor, Dr. M. Srilatha, Assistant Professor, and Dr. Harish Kumar
Sharma, Assistant Professor. Dept. of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry,
Rajendranagar, Hyderabad for their guidencee and cooperation.

I am thankful to laboratory members Shoba, Anitha, Khaja, Bikshapathi,

Prabhavathi, Ismael, Azeem, Jangaiah and other non teaching staff of the
Department Soil Science for their timely assistance and cooperation.
Words are not enough to express my whole-hearted and affectionate
gratitude to my beloved parents Sri. K.Devi singh and Smt. K.Parvathi bai and
my uncle and aunt Sri. K.Sravan kumar and Smt. K.Chandra Kala for their
unbounding love, unparallel affection and unstinted encouragement throughout
my educational career.
With boundless affection, I would hearty acknowledge the constant
encouragement, co-operation and enthusiasm given to me by beloved sisters and
brothers Shobha, Priyanka, Magee, Rahul, Vasanth rao, Vishnu, Pandu,
Ashok, Gopal, Raju, Parsuram, Suresh and Mohan.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the affection and inspiration rendered by my
classmates Govardan, Sankuper, Nagendra, Saritha, Samina, Swetha and
Pavani for their love, affection, special upliftment during my studies and worries;
and juniors Raj shekar, Naresh, Abhay, Apoorva, Jessi, Archana, Swetha,
Meraj in whose cheerful company I have never felt my work as burden.

No words are enough to express the affection to my special friends Nethaji

Rathod, Harish kumar, laxman rao, Mahesh Lankati, Mahesh Babu, Srijan,
Raja Shekar Bontha, Banoth Kranthi, Raja, Revanth Nathan, Vijay Shekar,
Rama Krishna, Vinay Gaddi and Bollepally, Siddu, Shiva Mam, Sathish and
Ravi Teja for their help, guidance, constant encouragement and companionship
in my personal and professional life and moral support during research work.

I express my heartfelt gratitude and thanks to my Divisional senior Suresh,

Venu gopal, Ranjith, Ravi, Naveen, Chandrashekar, Sharan bopal, Raju,
Kiran, Sai, Giri, Madhavi, Sri ramya, Kalyani, Geetha sheerisha, Chaitanya,
Prabavathi and Sunita for their valuable guidance and encouragement.

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the affection and inspiration rendered

by my junior friends A.Balaji naik, Raghunath, Srikanth Reddy, Karunakar,
Prashanth and V.Raju, for their help, constant encouragement and
companionship in my personal and professional life.

I humbly thank the authorities of Professor Jaya Shankar Telangana State

Agricultural University, Government of Telangana for the financial help in the form
of stipend during my study period.

Finally, I wish my humble thanks to one and all who have directly or
indirectly contributed to the conduct of the study.

K.MAHESH CHOWHAN
Author : K.MAHESH CHOWHAN
Title of the thesis : CHARACTERIZATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF
SUGARCANE GROWING SOILS OF MEDAK
DISTRICT OF TELANGANA STATE

Degree to which it is : MASTER OF SCIENCE IN AGRICULTURE

submitted
Faculty : AGRICULTURE
Discipline : SOIL SCIENCE AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY
Chairperson : Dr. RAJESHWAR MALAVATH
University : PROFESSOR JAYASHANKAR TELANGANA STATE
AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

Year of submission : 2015

ABSTRACT
The study was carried out to characterise and classify the sugarcane growing soils of
Medak district of Telangana State and assess the suitability for growing sugarcane and to
develop strong soil resource database for proper appraisal of their productivity potential and
their rational use.

Based on the morphological characteristics and land elevation, fourteen geo

referenced pedons were selected from sugarcane growing areas of Medak district of
Telangana State. Simultaneously field wise surface and subsurface soil samples (0-15 cm
and 15-30 cm depth) numbering two hundred and fifty eight were also collected from
sugarcane growing areas from the divisions of Sadasivpet, Zaheerabad, Sangareddy,
Jogipet, Medak, Narsapur, Narayankhed and Dubbaka.

The study area was under the influence of semi-arid monsoon type climate. The
selected red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were developed on weathered granite-gneiss
parent material at gently sloping lands, red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) developed
on weathered granite-gneiss over hard laterite parent material at gently sloping lands
whereas the black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) were formed at nearly level and plain
topography on granitic gneiss parent material mixed with calcareous murram. The red soil
pedons were relatively more weathered than black soil pedons.

The colour of the horizons in different pedons was described and attributed the
reasons such as presence / absence of iron and manganese oxides, degree of oxidation,
hydration, organic matter content, drainage condition etc.

The texture of the red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils (pedon
2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) was widely ranging from gravelly sandy loam (coarse) and sandy clay loam
(medium) in the surface horizons and sandy loam, sandy clay loam and sandy clay (fine) in
sub-surface horizons. The black soil textural class of fine earth fraction was clay loam
(pedon7) and clay (pedon 1, 9 and 12).

The gravel content was observed in all the horizons and their distribution varied
widely with depth. The clay content ranged from 13.2 to 71.4 per cent in surface horizons
and 14.6 to 76.2 per cent in subsurface horizons. The sand content varied from 10.3 to 75.1
per cent in surface horizons and 3.6 to 77.1 in subsurface horizons. Whereas the silt content
ranged from 4.1 to 18.3 per cent in surface horizons and 4.6 to 19.8 in subsurface horizons.

The silt clay ratio was found to be less than 0.5 in black and red laterite soils pedons
indicating the moderate weathering, whereas in red soils pedon silt clay ratio ranged from
0.19 to 0.82 indicating the moderate to high weathering.

Red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)
were developed weak pedality with granular structure in the surface horizons and sub-
angular blocky peds in sub-surface layers. The pedality of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12)
had blocky structure (either sub-angular or angular) and the peds were medium to coarse in
size with strong grade (strength).

Soil pH of the pedons showed wide variation with soil types. The black soil pedons
recorded higher pH values ranging from neutral to strongly alkaline (6.5 to 9.2 ) followed by
red soils ranging from strongly acidic to neutral (5.3 to 7.5 ) and red laterite soils (5.1 to 6.8 )
ranged from moderately acidic to slightly acidic. These soils were non saline in nature (EC
ranging from 0.06 to 0.40 ds m-1).

The organic carbon content varied from medium to high (4.3 to 8.4 g kg-1) in
surface horizons and in subsurface horizons it was low to medium ranged from 1.5 to 6.7 g
kg-1. The CaCO3, CEC, base saturation and CEC/clay ratios were higher in black soil
pedons compared to red and red laterite soil pedons.

The soils were low to medium in available N, medium to high in available P, high in
available K and S. Further, the soils are deficient to sufficient in available Zn, sufficient in
available Cu and Mn, Fe and B in the surface horizons.

Based on the morphology, physical, physico-chemical and chemical properties of

the soils, the soil pedons were classified as per USDA soil taxonomy. Soils were classified
into four orders viz., Vertisols, Alfisols, Inceptisols and Entisols.

Land capability classification was done based on the inherent soil characteristics,
external land features and environmental factors. All the area fall under one land capability
classe with three subclasses in the study area, viz., III stef, III tsdef, and III swef. Four
fertility capability units were identified in the study area. The conditions modifiers
identified in the study area wered dryness, v high clay content, b basic reaction, and
h acid but not Al-toxic. The condition modifierd dominated in its occurrence followed
by the condition modifier h, v and b.

Sub surface hardening and gravelly hardened in-situ as crust was observed in red
laterite soil pedons, which leads the impedance to root penetration and proliferation.
Shallow root system makes the plant susceptible to drought during dry spells. In the second
horizon of all red laterite soil pedons, mottles with evidence of enrichment of sesquioxides
were observed.

The soil constraints observed in the study area were slope, shallow depth, erosion,
problems related to drainage and low organic carbon, low and high pH, low CEC, low
availability of N, P and micronutrients content. If management is adopted such as deep
ploughing, addition of farm yard manures and addition of black soil/tank silt, the area under
marginally suitable for cultivation can be brought to moderately suitable and highly suitable
for cultivation of sugarcane.
 Black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) were found moderately suitable with limitation of
poor drainage with slow permeability, sub surface hardening and low hydraulic
conductivity. In the black soil area, improved management practices can enhance the
productivity such as addition of river sand @ 100 t ha-1 ; deep ploughing with mould board
plough or disc plough during summer enhances the infiltration and percolation and improve
the for the sugarcane cultivation.
Red soils are found to be marginally suitable (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) for sugar
cane cultivation. However the fertility related constraints can be managed through
appropriate management practices. Slope, texture and depth, fertility and erosion and
surface crusting were the major limitations. Therefore to realize the full potential, these soils
should be, supplemented with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers with assured irrigation.
However red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) were found marginally suitable
for sugarcane cultivation. Slope, texture, sub surface hardening and in-situ crusting, depth,
high coarse fragments, CEC and OC content were the major fertility related problems.
There is scope that the area under marginally suitable may be converted to moderately suitable
with the addition of organic manure and inorganic fertilizers.
 Chapter I

INTRUDUCTION
Land is a finite natural resource and there is little scope to increase the areas
under cultivation. The efforts made in the past to bring new areas under cultivation at
the cost of forests have reduced to 20% of total geographical area of the country. For
decades, advancement in agricultural practices has been a necessity due to ever
increasing demand caused by growing population.

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L) is being cultivated is India is an area of

42.45 lakh ha in the states of Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala with total sugar production of 192.67
lakh tones. India is one of the largest producers of sugar and shares about 41.11 % and
13.25 % of Asian and Worlds sugar production respectively.

The population in India is increasing steadily and as well the demand for sugar
and other sweetening agents because of changing food habits. There is no scope to
increase the area under sugarcane to meet the requirements. This envisages the adoption
of better crop production and protection technologies for increased production per unit
area and time apart from varietal improvement.

Medak district of Telangana state is with a geographical area of 9,519 km2

forms a part of Deccan Plateau under Godavari basin and lies between North Latitudes
17 0 27 and 18 0 18 and East longitudes 770 28 and 790 10. Sugarcane is cultivated in
the district in an area of 22076 hectares producing 1721 thousand tonnes with an
average productivity of 74.41 t ha-1 (Center for Monitoring Indian Economy, 2014-15).

Telangana state being under a semi-arid tropical monsoon climate, has a number
of soil types which are found in all types of climates, occupying 3.5 per cent (114,840
sq km or 114.84 lakh ha or 11.484 m.ha) of the countrys geographical area. Hence
their management varies from place to place besides the crop variation. Maintaining the
soil with high productivity on sustainable basis is important to meet basic needs of the
people. Hence delineating the sugarcane growing soils for their fertility helps in
understanding the soil related constraints and their intensity which is essential to
develop site specific management strategies.

Classification of sugarcane growing soils in a taxonomic perspective provides

information on the nature and its potential production capabilities. The characterization
and classification of soils helps in determining the soil potential, identifying constraints
and giving detailed information on different soil properties of the sugarcane growing
areas.

Soil site suitability studies provide information on the choice of crops to be

grown on best suited soil unit for maximizing crop production per unit land, labour and
inputs. For planning and effective utilization of soil resources, the information relating
to soil site and characteristic for cultivation of crops is necessary. Each plant species
require specific soil-site condition for its optimum growth. For rationalizing land use,
the soil site suitability for different crops needs to be determined. These suitability
models provide guidelines to decide the policy of growing most suitable crops
depending on the capacities of each soil unit (Sehgal, 1986). It has become imperative
that the land resources need to be intensified in terms of their suitability for different
agricultural uses with a view to maximize production of food, fuel and fiber.

The present investigation is aimed to assess the characteristics of soils and land
resources to comprehend the potential capability of sugarcane growing soils of Medak
district in the perspective of developed land use decision for effective utilization of
resources. The information available on the sugarcane growing soils is very meager,
hence, the present study is proposed with the following objectives:

To characterize and classify the sugarcane growing soils based on morphological

and pedological characteristics.
To determine the soil physical, physico-chemical and available nutrient status
for surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas.
To evaluate the land by identifying potentials and limitations to suggest suitable
management options.
To evaluate the application of fertility capability classification system in
sugarcane growing soils.
 Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Soil is a natural resource and life supporting system of a country and socio-
economic development of its people depends on its proper use. An intimate knowledge on
their characteristics, classification, location, extent and distribution, potentials and
problems is a prerequisite for developing rational land use planning. Excerpts of the
reviewed literature relevant to the present research work have been systematically
reviewed, cited and presented under following topics in this Chapter

2.1 Soil formation

2.2 Characterization of soils
2.3 Classification of soils
2.4 Interpretative grouping of soils

2.1 Soil Formation

2.1.1 Factors of Soil Formation

Dokuchaiev (1898) was the first person to show that soils usually form a as result of
the interplay of soil forming factors viz., parent material, climate, organisms, topography
and time. The soils forming factors were independent variables; each of them would change
and vary from place to place without the influence of the other (Jenny, 1941).
Bhattacharyya et al. (2013) reported that different kinds of soils in India indicate that soil
diversity is quite large because of variability in several factors of soil formation.

2.1.1.1 Climate

Development of red and black soils under dry sub-humid climate and semiarid
climate in Karnataka was reported by Rudramurthy et al. (1997). The laterites, red loams
and black soils of Karnataka were formed under the influence of semi-arid, sub-tropical and
sub-humid climate (Reddy and Shivaprasad, 1999). Black soils of India were occurring
under a wide climatic conditions ranging from arid to moist sub-humid conditions (Murthy
et al., 1982).
 Sarkar et al. (2001) found the occurrence of sequence of Alfisols formed under hot
dry tropical sub-humid climate influenced by ustic soil moisture regime and hyperthermic
soil temperature regime in lower outlier of Chotanagapur plateau. The pedoclimatic
environment indicated well-expressed alternate brief wet cycle followed by longer dry
cycle with strong desiccation. Alfisols and Inceptisols of Ethiopia were formed in a typical
sub-humid climate (Nagassa and Gebrekidan, 2003). According to Sharma et al. (2004)
Haplustalfs of Neogal watershed in northwest Himalayas were developed under warm sub-
humid to humid eco-region. Udic soil moisture regime and hyperthermic soil temperature
regime were characteristics of semi-arid to sub-humid sub-tropical monsoonic climate of
the Alfisols developed in eastern region of Uttar Pradesh (Singh and Agarwal, 2005).

Lingade et al. (2008) observed that pedo climate of Nagpur is characterized by

Ustic moisture regime and hyperthermic temperature regime but as aridity is increasing day
by day it might results in the development of sodicity as the soil carry potential acidity.

2.1.1.2 Parent material and lithosequence

Ramaiah and Raghavendrachar (1936) reported that the origin of black and red soils
in close proximity was due to the variation in mineralogical composition of the parent rock.
According to them, black soils were originated from rocks rich in soda lime feldspars and
the red soils on rocks rich in potash feldspars (Rudramurthy and Dasog, 2001). Red and
black soils were developed on dharwar rock system in Karnataka (Rudramurthy et al.,
1997). Reddy and Shivaprasad, (1999) reported development of red loams and black soils
on gneiss / schist and basalt, respectively in Western Ghats of Karnataka.

Vertisols of Andhra Pradesh were formed on different parent materials and the soils
were having more or less uniform chemical composition (Subbaiah and Manickam, 1989).
Hirekurubar et al. (1991) reported the development of Vertisols in some parts of India
having granite gneiss as parent material. Formation of Vertisols on different parent
materials like shale, limestone, charnockite, granite, and granite-gneiss was reported by
Surekha et al. (1997) in India. Bharambe et al. (1999) found the occurrence of Vertisols
due to weathering of trap rock rich in iron, lime and magnetite along with augite in
Majalgao canal command area of Maharashtra.
 The formation of red and associated black soils on basalt, granite-gneiss and
chlorite schist from Bidar, BGudi and Mantagani in north Karnataka was reported by
Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001). According to Patil and Prasad (2004), red soils of Dindori
district, Madhaya Pradesh were developed on laterite-capped basalt. The Alfisols of
Chandragiri mandal, Andhra Pradesh were formed on calcareous murram and granite-
gneiss parent material (Basavaraju et al., 2005). Thangasamy et al. (2005) reported the
development of Alfisols and Inceptisols over granite-gneiss and quartzite parent materials
in Sivagiri micro-watershed of Andhra Pradesh. The less siliceous nature of the substratum
of Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh was reported by Singh and Agarwal (2005)
based on high silica content and its ratio with alumina and sesquioxides in surface layer
than in sub-surface layers.

Tripathi et al. (2006) found that Kiar Nagali watershed soils have high base
saturation with dominant species of Ca2+ gives the evidence to the dolomite parent material
in North-West Himalayas. Balpande et al. (2007) found that soils of Nasik district of Pedon
Darana (P1), Telegaon (P2), Mahiravani (P4), Kothure (P5), Andersool (P6) were
developed from basaltic parent material occur at an elevation of 550 M MSL. The soils in
guava growing areas of Bhandra district of Maharastra developed from recent alluvium
parent material (Sardae and Jagdish Prasad, 2008).

2.1.1.3 Topography and toposequence

Coulombe et al., (1996) indicated the Vertisols developed on higher elevation were
shallower than the ones developed on lower elevations which were deep. The Vertisols of
Wardha district were formed at a slope of 1 to 3 per cent with slight erosion and moderate
well-drainage (Kadao et al., 2003). Reddy et al. (2004) observed the Vertisols and soils of
vertic properties formed on 1 to 3 per cent slopes in eastern Maharashtra plateau.
According to Gabhane et al. (2006), the Vertisol and Inceptisol pedons were developed on
1 to 3 per cent slope while Entisol pedons on 3-5 per cent slope in Vidarbha region of
Maharashtra.

These soils were influenced by slight to moderate erosion and were well-drained.
Soils on high land and medium land, both under irrigated and un-irrigated conditions were
Alfisols, whereas soils in low land situation were transitional soils, belonging to
Inceptisoils in Hirakud command of Orissa (Taha and Nanda, 2003). The red soils and their
associated soils of Sivagiri micro-watershed were formed over nearly level to gently
sloping topography (Thangasamy et al., 2005). Nikam et al. (2006) reported the existence
of Haplustalfs at a slope of 1-3 and 3-5 per cent in Nagpur district of central India.

Balpande et al. (2007) observed that P4 P5 and P6 were developed moderately well
drained and other well drained. P1, P3 and P6 found to occur in valley (1-3%) slope and
others an undulating land (3-8%) slope except P6 (1-3%) in grape growing soils of Nasik
district of Maharastra. Mini et al. (2007) found that soils of North Karnataka clay
distribution in low land is not uniform due to the influence of Aganashini river system.
Vara Prasad Rao et al. (2008) observed the pedon 1, 2 and 3 were developed on plain land,
pedon 4&5 on upland and pedon 6&7 on hill slopes. The soils on plain are very deep and
poorly drained whereas the soils on upland and hill slopes are moderately deep to shallow
and are well drained in soils of Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh.

2.1.1.4 Vegetation

Natural vegetation for the development of black soils (Vertisols) was not an
important factor (Coulombe et al., 1996). Naitam and Bhattacharyya (2004) identified the
natural vegetation occurring in shrink-swell soil areas of sub-humid tropics of India as
Acacia, Zizyhpus jujuba, Madhuca indica, Cynodon dactylon, tectonia sp., and Butea sp.,
various bushes and shrubs.

According to Baral et al. (2000), the natural vegetation existing in red clay soils of
Nepali middle hills comprised of Shorea robusta, Scima wallichii and Phoenix sylvestris.
Prasad et al. (2001) found the existence of natural vegetation like babul, palas, charolio
etc., in red soil areas of Nagpur district of Maharashtra. Kurihara et al. (2002) observed the
occurrence of red soils under deciduous broad-leaved forest vegetation. Swarnam et al.
(2004) reported that natural vegetation of Sahibi basin of Haryana and Delhi was Acacia
arabica, Azadirachta indica, Dalbergia sisoo, Prosopis julifera, Calotropis procera and
Saccharum munja. High precipitation and coniferous type of vegetation were favourable for
the formation of argillic horizon (Pradeepkumar and Verma, 2005). The natural vegetation
of red and associated soils of Sivagiri micro-watershed of Andhra Pradesh comprised of
grasses, Prosopis julifera, Parthenium sp., Tridax sp., mango, neem etc., (Thangasamy et
al., 2005).

Vara Prasad Rao et al. (2008) observed that vegetation influence the soil formation
in Ramachandrapuram Mandal in Chittoor District are calotropis gigontia, parthenium,
hystenophorus, lantana camera, Acalypha indica, lucas aspera, azdiracta indica and
tectana grandis.

2.1.1.5 Pedological time

Digar and Barde (1982) reported that it was during the Archean period, the red soils
were formed, whereas the black soils were developed during Cenozoic era, which included
tertiary and quatenary periods (Coulombe et al., 1996). The red soils of Zaheerabad region
of Andhra Pradesh were found to be moderately weathered and were medium aged due to
the presence of weatherable minerals (Srivastava et al., 2000).

The ancient plateau was exposed for long ages to denudation and had approached
pediplanation over which the paleosols of south India were formed (Dutta et al., 2001). Pal
(2005) made a case study of highly weathered ferroginous soils of tropical India and
suggested that formation of Alfisols and Ultisols and their pedogenic threshold supported
that steady state might existed in soils developed over long periods of time not only
spanning a few hundreds to thousands of years but also millions of years.

Rajkumar et al. (2005) stated that southern part of Indus plain was formed from
Pleistocene and recent period by rivers of Indus system. Sawhney et al.(2005), conformed
that geomorphic domains in semi-arid tract of Punjab formed at different times in the past
under changing set of geological and climatic conditions.

2.1.2 Soil Forming Processes

Generally soil forming processes lead to additions, losses, translocations and

transformations of various constituents in the soil profile (Singh and Agarwal, 2003). Pal et
al. (2006) indicated that clay illuviation was more important than pedoturbation in the
development of shrink-swell soils of central India. A time of a century was not adequate
for the formation of slickensides that were hitherto considered to be rapid pedogenic
process for structure formation of Vertisols.
2.1.2.1 Red and Red laterite soils

Sheet wash and retreat of hill slopes were the major geomorphic processes
responsible for sculpturing of the present day landforms (Bhan and Bhatnagar, 1974) in
paleoslols of south India under semi-arid to arid conditions. It was well established that the
soils in tropical areas were formed due to desilication, leaching, illuviation, dessication and
lateral movement of soil solute along the slopes (Peterschmitt et al., 1996).

Dutta et al. (1999) stated that clay illuviation as one of the major soil forming
processes in the red soils of Anantapur, which was identified by the presence of clay films
in the Bt horizon. Based on the micro-morphology of endopedons, Walia et al. (2000)
pointed out that the dominant processes of soil formation in red soils were decomposition,
synthesis, bruanification, eluviation and illuviation, and loosening as evident from mineral
alteration, weathering and iron accumulation, argillans, porosity and structure. Gleization
seemed to be active on level flood plains, while argillopedoturbation in undulating flood
plains. According to Kurihara et al. (2002), the dark red soils of Kunimidake series derived
from andesite parent material were formed due to hydrothermal action of volcanism, while
chloritization was the main pedogenic process occurring in the paleo-red soils of Nyu
mountains (Kurihara et al., 2003).

Patil and Prasad (2004) while studying the red soils of Dindori district of Madhya
Pradesh, observed that laterization as the main process of soil formation. According to
Singh and Agarwal (2005), illuviation, lessivage and calcification were the dominant
processes responsible for the development of Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh.

2.1.2.2 Black soils

According to Ellis et al. (1994), podzolization was the pedogenic process operating
in some black soils of north east Pakistan. Pedoturbation or churning was a fundamental
process in the formation of soils with vertic character (Mermut et al., 1996).
Argillopedoturbation was operating in development of black soils on dharwar rock system
in Karnataka (Rudramurthy et al., 1997). In Intramountane basins, southwest Nepal,
Bronger et al. (2000) found rubification as process leading to the formation of black soils.
Lakshmi et al. (2001) recorded wider molar ratios of silica - sesquioxides and silica
alumina in the black soils of Bapatla-Karlapalem mandals of Andhra Pradesh and
concluded that silication might be the dominant process operating in the soils. Development
of varied particle size in soils formed on basaltic terrain in central India might be attributed
to the transportation of finer particles and partly because of active churning process
resulting from swelling and shrinking nature of clay minerals (Maji et al., 2005).

2.2 Characterization of soils

2.2.1 Morphological Characteristics

2.2.1.1 Horizon development

Soil profile development is basically a re-arrangement of soil particles into soil

horizons, each of them with specific properties. Soil formation can proceed rather fast in
aggressive humid tropical climates, but is much slower in cold or dry climates. Well
developed soil structure in the sub surface horizon is an indication of moderate to high
degree of soil development (Sharma et al., 1997).

Chinchmalatpure et al. (2005) reported Ap, Bw1, Bw2, C; Ap, A12, Bss1, Bss2 and
BC horizon sequence in certain black soils of Gujarat. In the black soil pedons of Nasik
district of Maharashtra. The horizon sequence observed by Singh and Agarwal (2005) in
Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh was Ap, Bt1, Bt2, and 2Bt3. Balapande et al.
(2007) demarcated the horizons Ap, Bw, Bss, Cr; Ap, Bw, Bss1, Bss2, And Bss3 in
sequence.

Najar et al. (2009) observed better soils development in northern aspect of some
apple growing soils of Kashmir due to high organic matter which retains water for longer
time and releases it slowly there by enabling to pass through colums and results in well
developed soils.

2.2.1.2 Boundary between adjacent horizons

Ermia et al. (2002) described the boundary between horizons of Vertisol of Italy as
diffuse smooth and gradual wavy. Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003) described the boundary
between different horizons of Bako soils as abrupt smooth, gradual smooth, clear wavy and
clear smooth. The boundary between the adjacent horizons was clear smooth or gradual
smooth in Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh (Singh and Agarwal, 2005).

2.2.1.3 Colour

The differences in colour at different locations and in different pedons might be due
to various pedological process and also variation in organic matter content, quality of iron,
the degree of oxidation and imperfect hydration as reported by Rajeshwar et al. (2009).

Dutta et al. (2001) reported that the colour of paleosols of south India were varying
from hue of 5YR to 2.5YR due to formation of iron oxides from the iron released by
weathering influenced by climate (high rainfall and temperature). The soil colour variation
(10YR 6/2 to 2.5YR 4/6 to 2.5Y 6/1) indicated release of iron oxides and their occurrence
in various hydrated forms

Dark colour of surface soils may be due to high amount of organic matter at the
surface and yellowish brown and reddish colour in subsurface soils due to the formation of
non-hydrated iron oxide under excessively drained and heavy rainfall conditions. There is
no distinct effect of vegetation on colour variation of the soil (Nayak et al., 2002).

All the pedons of black soils exhibited hue of 10YR throughout the profile whereas
a redder hue (5YR and 2.5YR) was observed in red soil pedons in north Karnataka
(Rudramurthy and Dasog, 2001). Chroma in red soils was often 3 and 4, whereas, in black
soils it was 2 or less in upper part of the solum, which was suggestive of poor internal
drainage. The colour of the black soil pedons was in hue 10YR, with value varying from 3
to 5 and chroma 2 to 3 (Kadao et al., 2003).

Tripathi et al. (2006) observed that soils of Kiar Nagali Micro watershed, due to the
presence of oil in surface soil colour varies from dark brown (10 YR 3/3) to yellowish
brown (10 YR 5/4) while subsurface horizon are brown (10 YR 4/3) to dark yellowish
brown (10 YR 4/4). Mini et al. (2007) observed the colour of soil in pedon of hill ranges,
soil surface layer had 5 YR hue and redness increased with depth 2.5 YR due to decrease in
organic matter content and increase in free corn oxide in North Karnataka of Coastal agro-
ecosystem.

Dhale and Jagadish Prasad (2009) observed in the soils of sweet orange growing
soils of Jalana district, Maharastra, and reported that the pedons of study area had their
Munsell colour notation in the hue 10 YR / 7.5 YR / 5 YR with value 3 to 4 and chroma 1
to 4. Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that some typical sugarcane
growing soils of Maharastra are having the Munsell colour notation of 10YR/7.5YR hue
with a value of 3 to 4 and chroma of 1 to 4.

2.2.1.4 Mottles

Yellowish brown mottles, ferro manganese concretions, thin discontinuous clay film
were observed in the sodic soils of the Gangetic plains at Banthra, Lucknow (Garg et al.,
2000). According to Sahu et al. (2001) slow to very slow permeability and reduction
oxidation cycle might be the reason for Fe and Mn concretions in all the subsurface
horizons of Vertisols in western zone of Orissa.

Sharma (2002) observed red and yellow mottles and concentric nodules of hydrated
iron and manganese oxides in the subsurface layers which indicated influence of fluctuating
water tables in saline soils of Gohana, Haryana. Marathe et al. (2003) reported the presence
of gleyed mottles below 100 cm depth indicates temporary water logging during rainy
seasons. Sawhney et al. (2005) inferred that if the pedons had no mottles in their horizons,
it indicates the presence of groundwater at the lower depth. Flood prone soils of Eastern
plains of Rajasthan have mottles in all the pedons examined indicated drainage problems in
these soils (Ram et al., 2010).

2.2.1.5 Texture

Singh and Agarwal (2003) revealed that sand and clay content of the soils depends
on physiographic position of pedons and their distance from river. The increase or decrease in
sand and clay content in a particular horizon is complimented by each other. Nagpur mandarin
growing soils of central India had clay content of 24.5 to 84.2 per cent with smectite as the
dominant mineral which has high swell-shrink potential (Marathe et al., 2003).

Gupta et al. (2003) reported that the soils of granitic terrain of Jabalpur developed
on lower and middle topographic positions had clayey texture whereas, the soils on upper
topographic positions exhibited sandy clay loam texture. The higher clay content might be
due to its topographic position (lower), which favoured the accumulation and retention of
bases thus promoting the formation of smectite.
 The soils in Sivagiri micro-watershed of Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh showed
wide textural variations (sandy to clay). This variation in soil texture was caused by parent
material, topography, in situ weathering and translocation of clay (Thangasamy et al.,
2005). Textural variations in Shikohpur watershed area are mainly associated with variation
in parent material and topography (Sitanggang et al., 2006). Mini et al. (2007) revealed that
North Karnataka of Coastal Agro ecosystem area having sandy clay loam to sand clay
texture in surface and clay to sandy loam in lower horizons. Lingade et al. (2008) observed
that clay was the dominant fraction (upto 82.8 per cent) throughout the profiles of sodic
Vertisols in Nagpur district.

Yerpedu mandal of Chittoor district soils showed irregular distribution of sand with
depth which might be due to lithological discontinuities in the profiles (Leelavathi et al.,
2009). Kharche and Pharande (2010) observed high amount of clay content in all horizons
of soils of Maharashtra which are developed from basaltic parent material. Jaya Prakash et
al., (2012) reported that arecanut growing soils of Southern Karnataka region, had sandy
loam to sandy clay loam texture.

2.2.1.6 Structure

As per the reports of Kadao et al. (2003), the Vertisols of Wardha district exhibited
typical angular blocky structure particularly in the sub-soils and others had dominantly sub-
angular blocky structure. The strength of the peds was varying from moderate to strong and
the size from medium to coarse. Gabhane et al. (2006) described the structure of Vidharbha
region as sub-angular blocky type in shallow soils, while the surface soils of remaining
soils had sub-angular type with well-developed angular blocky structure in sub-surface
horizons. The surface structure of Vertisols of Nasik was moderate medium sub-angular
blocky which gradually changed to moderate strong angular blocky in the zone of pressure
faces or coarse strong angular blocky in slickensides zone (Balapande et al., 2007).

Sarade and Jagdish Prasad (2008) observed sub angular blocky to angular blocky
structure in guava growing soils of Bhandara district, Maharashtra. Bipul Deka et al. (2009)
observed single grained structure in hill soils of Assam. The soils of surface horizons
developed granular structure at higher altitudes on both Southern and Northern aspects
were as at lower altitude these had sub angular blocky structure on both aspects.
 Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that typical sugarcane growing
soils of Maharastra are dominantly moderate, medium and sub-angular blocky type, but
angular blocky structure is a common feature in slickenside zone of Vertisols.

2.2.1.7 Soil consistence

Sureshkumar et al (2001) described the consistence as friable in Typic Ustorthents

and very friable in Typic Haplustepts of Puralia district, West Bengal. According to
Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003) the consistence of Alfisols and Inceptisols of Bako soils
was varying from slightly hard to hard, very friable to friable and slightly sticky to slightly
plastic under dry, moist and wet conditions, respectively.

Thangasamy et al. (2005) observed that the consistence of the soils in Sivagiri
micro-watershed of Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh was loose to very hard (dry), loose
to very firm (moist) and non-sticky and non-plastic to very sticky and very plastic (wet).
Najar et al., (2009) observed that the consistence of the soils in apple growing area of
Kashmir was soft to very hard (dry), firm to friable (moist).

2.2.1.8 Clay Cutans

Nayak et al. (2002) noticed thin patchy clay cutans in some acid soils of lower
Subansiri district indicates formation of argillic subsurface diagnostic horizons. Basavaraju
et al. (2005) noticed thick patchy cutans developing into argillans in Alfisols of
Chandragiri mandal, Andhra Pradesh.

Verma et al. (2008) reported clay skins (Bt) in surface horizons of northern slope
soils of Surai forest in Garhwal Himalayas, since the illuviation process is more vigorous at
higher altitude. Similar observations were recorded by Leelavathi et al. (2009) in soils of
Chittoor district. Clay cutans in soil pedons are an indication of formation of Argillic
subsurface horizon and good profile development (Shalima Devi and Anil Kumar, 2010).

2.2.1.9 Concretions

Iron nodules were observed throughout the soil body in the exposed profile mainly
due to the redox situation as influenced by poor internal drainage (Singh and Mishra, 1996).

Calcium carbonate concretions were present to the extent of 5-9 per cent in saline
soils of Gohana, Haryana (Sharma, 2002). Nayak et al. (2002) reported that in Western
Ghat soils of laterite region have ferroginous nodules almost throughout the profile,
whereas in the alluvial zone are conspicuous by their absence except some fine and soft
nodules in the lower horizons. Soils of Satpura hills, Madhya Pradesh remained saturated
with water for longer period thereby showing existence of Fe and Mn concretions in these
soils (Tripathy et al., 2009).

2.2.2.1 Vertic properties

Naitam and Bhattacharyya (2004) reported the COLE values of sub-humid tropics
of India varying between 0.13 and 0.27. The COLE values varying between 0.105 and
0.172 cm/cm for the surface samples of Vertisols of different locations in India and all the
soils fall in the category of very high (greater than 0.09) swell-shrink class (Nayak et al.,
2006).

Vertic features under differing moisture regimes were recorded particularly in soils
of the foothill and low-lying areas of Amensis sub-catchment of Hirna watershed in
Ethiopia by Gebrekidan and Mishra (2005). Vertic properties like 3 to 5 mm wide cracks
and indistinct slickensides were described by Basavaraju et al. (2005) in the Inceptisols
formed on plains in Chandragiri mandal of Andhra Pradesh.

Mohanty et al. (2006) observed significant effect of puddling on crack parameters

of Vertisols. The magnitude of cracks increased with increase in puddling intensity. For
reduction of cracking after rice harvest in Vertisols, the wheat residue of the previous crop
could be retained.

The COLE values had a significant positive relationship with 2:1 expanding clay
content and pH values. Generally the COLE increased with amount of clay in some typical
sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra (Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad, 2010).

2.2.2.2 Volume expansion

In black soils of Bapatla Karlapalem mandals, the volume expansion and moisture
at sticky point were increasing with depth (Lakshmi et al., 2002). Prakash and Rao (2002)
observed increasing values of volume expansion and moisture at sticky point with depth in
both red and black soils of Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh. Ramesh et al. (2004) studied
the physical properties of red and black soils of Singarayakonda mandal of Andhra Pradesh
and reported that volume expansion in red soils was in between 4.25 and 5.80 and in black
soils it is between 25.6 and 34.5 per cent.

2.2.2.3 Slickensides

Tamgadge et al. (1996) noticed deep, wide cracks and slickensides in all the
waterlogged soils of Maharashtra and inferred that the depth and width of cracks and angle
of slickensides are more in basaltic than granitic or sandstone soils because of the fine
nature and varied composition, high amount and kind of clay minerals. In Vertisols profile
of Maharastra pressure faces and slickensides were observed from 15 cm downwards
(Pacharne et al., 1996).

Sahu et al. (2001) reported slickensides and shiny pressure faces in the subsurface
horizon of Vertisols in Orissa indicating shrink swell properties of the soil. Soils under
Nagpur mandarin showed well developed intersecting slickensides with wedge shaped
aggregates that broke in to angular blocks indicating the pedoturbation as a result of shrink
swell property of the soils (Marathe et al., 2003). Dhale and Jagdish Prasad (2009) stated
that slickenside is a common feature of subsoils of vertisols and peds of subsurface
horizons had pressure faces.

2.2.2.4 Cracking

Deep wide cracks and slickensides were the diagnostic features observed by Prasad
et al. (2001) in the shrink swell soils of Nagpur. Soil Survey Staff (2003) reported that the
appearance of slickensides or wedge shaped aggregates as the unifying morphogenitic
marker in all Vertisols and their vertic intergrades.

2.2.3 Physical properties

2.2.3.1 Particle size distribution

The increase in clay content in argillic horizons could be attributed to vertical

migration or translocation of clay (Sarkar et al., 2002). Wide textural variations in texture,
sand and clay content in soils of Chanrdragiri mandal could be due to difference in parent
material, physiography, in situ weathering and translocation of clay (Basavaraju et al.,
2005). The high clay content in the red soils of Chandragiri mandal was attributed to
deposition of finer fractions in the plains from the uplands. The enrichment of clay in Bw
horizon was primarily due to in situ weathering of parent material.
 Rajeshwar et al. (2009) found that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal command
area of Andhra Pradesh clay, silt and sand contents in the soils varied from 5.4 to 34.6, 5.4
to 25.2 and 45.4 to 80.6 per cent respectively. Subsurface horizons shows the process of
illuviation, where the mobilization and translocation of clay content in Bt horizons
occurring during soil development.

Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that some typical sugarcane
growing soils of Maharastra having the Sand, silt and clay content ranged from 24.2 to
62.5, 5.6 to 45.2 and 5.0 to 70.2 % in different horizons. Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported
that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand the sand, silt and clay of collected samples ranges
from 58 to 67, 18 to 24 and 13 to 18 per cent respectively and these soils were categorized
as sandy loam.

2.2.3.2 Bulk density

Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) reported increased bulk density with increase in
depth and this may be attributed to organic matter content and texture etc. The surface layer
of Ramjanpur pedon had bulk density of 1.5 Mg m-3 and it increased to 1.84 Mg m-3 in
subsurface horizons. This was ascribed to sudden rise in sand fraction in these layers
(Swarnam et al., 2004). Bulk density of shrink-swell soils of central India varies from 1.33
to1.79 Mg m-3. Increase of bulk density with soil depth is due to over burden pressure
causing compaction in the subsurface horizon (Maji et al., 2005). Low bulk density values of
surface soils could be attributed due to high organic matter content (Thangasamy et al., 2005).

Willy Verheye (2005) studied the bulk density of different soils and it ranged from
1.0 to 1.3 Mg m-3 for clay soils, 1.3 to 1.8 Mg m-3 for sandy soils. Rajeshwar et al. (2009)
reported that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal command area of Andhra Pradesh the
bulk density values ranged from 1.37 to 1.50 Mg m-3 and the pedons showed increasing
trend with depth due to more compaction of finer particles in deeper layers caused by over
head weight of surface soil. Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that the
some typical sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra bulk density varies from 1.54 to 1.95
Mg m-3.

Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) observed higher bulk density in Bss
horizon than the surface and subsurface horizons due to high clay content in Bss horizon.
2.2.3.4 Water holding capacity

Kadao et al. (2003) reported that the water retention in black soils of Wardha was
more dependent on clay content in different horizons. The soils having more clay and
organic matter retained more moisture in Bako soils (Nagassa and Gebrekidan, 2003).

Durgude et al (2004) found that water retentivity was significantly and positively
correlated with clay, silt + clay, CEC and exchangeable Ca + Mg but negatively correlated
with sand content in soils of Mohol Agricultural Research Station, Solapur.

Basavaraju et al. (2005) recorded 15.43 to 52.34 per cent of water holding capacity
in red and associated soils formed on granite-gneiss and calcareous murram. Thangasamy
et al. (2005) reported that the water holding capacity of Alfisols of Sivagiri micro-
watershed was varying between 25.50 and 46.64 per cent in different horizons.

2.2.4 Physico chemical Properties

2.2.4.1 Soil Reaction

Singh and Agarwal (2003) noticed increase in pH down the depth of rice growing
soils of Chandauli district, Uttar Pradesh and indicated that it was influenced by
exchangeable Mg+2 and Na+. According to Sharma and Anil Kumar (2003) horizons with
high clay content exhibit higher pH than the horizons with low clay content.

Rajeshwar et al.(2009) found that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal command
area of Andhra Pradesh all the pedons were neutral (6.8) to moderately alkaline (8.6) in
reaction and increased with depth due to increase in accumulation of exchangeable Na+ and
CaCO3.

Shalima Devi and Anil Kumar (2010) reported that the coffee growing soils of
Karnataka were slightly acidic to moderately acidic in reaction.

Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that some typical sugarcane
growing soils of Maharastra are moderately to strongly alkaline in reaction

Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand the soil pH
(6.88 to 8.34) values indicated that the soil samples were neutral to moderately alkaline.
Jayaprakash et al., 2012 reported that arecanut growing soils of Southern Karnataka region
were moderately acid (5.6) to slightly alkaline (8.5) in surface soil. Patel et al., 2012
observed soil site suitability evaluation for soybean in meghal irrigation command area of
southern Saurashtra region of Gujarat, the soils on higher altitude have low pH ranging
from 7.91 to 8.19 than the soils on lower altitude.

Nadaf et al. (2015) conducted field survey to study the micronutrient constraints in
sugarcane growing Vertisols of northern Transition Zone of Karnataka reported that the
majority of the area was slightly saline to alkaline in nature and remaining less amount of
area was found acidic with a soil pH range of 6.60 - 9.69.

2.2.4.2 Electrical conductivity

Sharma et al. (2001) observed that the EC values of Entisols ranged from 0.30 to
0.35 dS m-1 and it increased with depth in the profile. Renukadevi (2003) reported that the
EC value of Parambikulam Aliyar project soils ranged from 0.02 to 0.31 dS m-1 and in
majority of the pedons EC was gradually increased with depth. This might be due to
leaching of electrolytes to the lower depth. EC of tsunami affected soils in coastal area of
Nagapattinam district varied from 3.1 to 62.0 dS m-1 indicating that these soils had turned
saline (Kumaraperumal, 2006). Similar results were observed by Gomathi (2007).

Sharma et al. (2008) inferred that the soils in semi arid sub region have relatively
lower EC values than the soils of arid sub region suggesting more accumulation of salts in
soils of arid sub region. Leelavathi et al. (2009) observed low to medium EC ranging from
0.03 to 1.24 dS m-1 in soils of Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh indicating non saline nature
of these soils.

Rajeshwar et al. (2009) reported that EC values in the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left
canal command area of Andhra Pradesh varied from 0.09-0.86 dS m-1 suggesting low
amount of soluble salts could be attributed to the loss of bases due to heavy rainfall. Ram et
al. (2010) recorded high EC values in surface soil horizons of eastern plains of Rajasthan.
High temperature during most part of the year in that area may results in accumulation of
soluble salts in surface layers.

Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand the electrical
conductivity (0.1 - 0.26 ds/m) values showed that all soil samples were non saline in nature.
Patel et al., (2012) studied soil site suitability evaluation for soybean in meghal irrigation
command area of southern Saurashtra region of Gujarat, the soils on higher altitude have
low EC ranging from 0.26 to 0.81 dS m-1 than the soils on lower altitude.

2.2.4.3 Organic Carbon

Soils under low rainfall and high temperature had low organic carbon content
whereas, the soils under forest contain comparatively higher organic carbon (Sharma et al.
2001). Nayak et al (2002) reported high organic carbon content in the surface soils under
Pinus species in Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh and this might be due to slow
mineralization of organic matter. Organic carbon content of saline soils of southern
Rajasthan ranged between 3.21 to 7.70 g kg-1, whereas moderately saline soils had higher
organic carbon (Sharma et al., 2004).

Sawhney et al. (2005) observed that the organic carbon content of semi arid track of
Punjab was less than 6.0 g kg-1 to limited biological activity and rapid decomposition of
biomass under the prevalent hyper thermic temperature regime.

Bhaskar et al. (2009) observed surfacial enrichment of organic carbon in soils of

Brahmaputra Valley of Assam which might be due to incorporation of organic materials
from water weeds in bil soils. Similar findings were reported by Bipul Deka et al. (2009).

Rajeshwar et al. (2009) reported that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal
command area of Andhra Pradesh, the organic carbon content of the soils was low to high
(1 to 8.5 g kg-1) and also reported that the surface soils have maimum organic carbon
content and decreased with depth of the pedons due to the addition of farm yard manure
and plant residues to surface horizons than in the lower horizons.

Organic carbon content of Punjab soils varied between 0.40 to 0.75 per cent. It may
be the result of heterogeneous landscape and rapid oxidation of organic matter due to high
temperature and aerobic conditions throughout the year in this region (Bali et al., 2010).
Majority of surface and sub-surface layers had relatively higher organic carbon content than
underlying ones in some typical sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra (Ashok Kumar and
Jagdish Prasad, 2010). Jayaprakash et al., 2012 reported that arecanut growing soils of
Southern Karnataka region, had an organic carbon ranged of 3.3 to 19.0 g kg-1.

Nadaf et al. (2015) conducted field survey in sugarcane growing Vertisols of

northern Transition Zone of Karnataka and reported that, soil organic carbon status falls
under low, medium and high category. Lower organic carbon status may be attributed to
lack of crop residues or organic manure application and soils were intensively cultivated
with commercial crops which removed more nutrients from these soils.

2.2.4.4 CaCO3 content

Maji et al. (2005) observed high amount of CaCO 3 ranging from 50 to 248 g kg-1 in
soils developed from basaltic parent material. The CaCO3 content increased with depth and
this may be due to leaching of bicarbonates during the rainy season and their subsequent
precipitations as carbonate in lower layers.

In Aridisols of Punjab the amount of CaCO3 ranged from 19 to 174 g kg-1 in

different horizons but lack a definite trend in distribution. This irregular distribution is due
to variable nature of geological material that contributed to the aeolion or alluvial soils or
due to rapid leaching from these sandy soils (Rajkumar et al., 2005).

Chaudhary et al. (2008) inferred that high CaCO3 content in different horizon will
cause water stagnation and poor drainage in soils. Rajeshwar et al. (2009) reported that the
soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal command area of Andhra Pradesh the CaCO3 content
was ranged from 0.2 to 20.7%. Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of
Uttarakhand the soil all soil samples were slightly calcareous (1.25 - 2 %) in nature.

2.2.5 Exchangeable properties

2.2.5.1 Cation Exchange Capacity

Sawney et al. (2003) observed higher CEC in fine textured soils from the lower
piedmont in comparison with coarse textured soils of upper piedmont plain and rivulet of
Siwalik piedmont of Punjab. Singh and Agrawal (2003) reported high CEC in rice soils of
lowland than that of upland. Similar CEC values were observed in Brahmaptra valley of
Assam by Bipul Deka et al. (2009). Higher CEC of soils in Jalna district, Maharastra
indicated the dominance of smectites in these soils (Dhale and Jagdish Prasad, 2009).
Rajeshwar et al.(2009) reported that in the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal command
area of Andhra Pradesh, CEC values ranged from 11.4 to 34.82 cmol (p+) kg-1.which
corresponds to clay content in the respective horizons. Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad
(2010) reported that the some typical sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra have CEC
varied from 21.6 to 61.7 cmol (p+) kg-1.
 Jayaprakash et al. (2012) reported that arecanut growing soils of Southern
Karnataka region the cation exchange capacity ranged from 9.0 to 29.0 cmol (p+) kg-1. Patel
et al., (2012) observed soil site suitability evaluation for soybean in meghal irrigation
command area of southern Saurashtra region of Gujarat, and reported that the soils on
higher altitude have CEC ranging from 26.55 to 36.54 cmol (P+) kg-1 than the soils on
lower altitude.

2.2.5.2 Exchangeable cations

In Vertisols of Orissa the exchange complex is mostly saturated with Ca2+ followed
by Mg2+, Na+ and K+. The exchangeable Mg2+ and Na+ increased and Ca2+ remained almost
constant with depth. Na+ and Mg2+ salts are relatively more soluble than the Ca2+ salts and
leached down to lower layers (Sahu et al., 2001). The higher exchangeable Ca in the
surface soil may be due to redistribution of Ca by tree species (Patil and Prasad, 2004).
Maji et al. (2005) observed the dominance of Ca2+ cations in soils over basaltic terrain, as
basalt is the source of high calcium.

Lingade et al. (2008) indicated that the decrease in Ca2+ ions and increase in Mg2+
and Na+ ions with depth clearly demonstrated the development of sodicity in sodic
Vertisols of Nagpur. Among the exchangeable cations Ca2+ and Mg2+ were the most
dominant cations followed by Na+ and K+ and it is due to preferential losses of monovalent
ions over divalent ions and at the same time there are greater losses of Na+ than K+ (Bipul
Deka et al., 2009). Calcareous soils in general dominated with Ca2+ on exchange complex
followed by Mg2+, Na+ and K+.

Rajeshwar et al.(2009) reported that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal
command area of Andhra Pradesh the exchangeable bases in all the pedons were in the
order of Ca++>Mg++>Na+>K+ on the exchangeable complex. Calcium and magnesium were
found to be dominant cations on the exchange complex in some typical sugarcane growing
soils of Maharastra (Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad, 2010).

Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand all soil
samples were containing adequate amount of available Calcium (116 - 328 meq/100 gm)
and Magnesium (52 -164 meq/100 gm).
 Patel et al., 2012 observed soil site suitability evaluation for soybean in meghal
irrigation command area of southern Saurashtra region of Gujarat, the soils on higher
altitude have ESP ranging from 2.82 to 12.07 than the soils on lower altitude.

2.2.5.3 Base saturation

Sharma et al. (2004) inferred that increase in clay content provides more exchange
sites to get the cations adsorbed on it. Mastri Sitanggang et al. (2006) found that the base
saturation and pH are positively correlated. Soils formed from dolomitic parent material
have high base saturation percentage (Tripathi et al., 2006).

Rajeshwar et al. (2009) reported that the soils of Nagarjuna Sagar left canal
command area of Andhra Pradesh the base saturation varied from 62.9 to 93.5%. High
base saturation percentage indicates the potential of soils in terms of soil fertility (Kadu et
al., 2009).Sugarcane growing soils of Ahmadnagar district of Maharastra are base rich and
the base saturation percentage ranged from 93.3 to 109.5 per cent, it may be due to
presence of base contributing minerals such as zeolites in these black soils (Ashok Kumar
and Jagdish Prasad, 2010).

The base saturation of coffee growing soils of Karnataka ranged from 24 to 98 per
cent in the surface layers, it could be attributed to the recycling of basic cations through
vegetation (Shalima Devi and Anil Kumar, 2010).

2.2.7 Mineralogy of Soil Clay Fraction

The CEC / clay ratios of different horizons of Alfisols of Chotanagpur plateau were
in between 0.13 and 0.43 and Sarkar et al. (2001) had grouped the clay under mineralogical
class mixed. The CEC / clay per cent varied from 44 to 54 indicating mixed mineralogy in
Ultic Haplustalfs of Bhubaneswar (Nayak et al., 2002). The CEC / clay ratio (0.39 to 0.59)
indicated the mixed mineralogy in some Alfisols and Inceptisols of wet temperate zone of
Himachal Pradesh (Sharma and Anil Kumar, 2003).

The fine clay fraction of non-vertic deep black soils of basaltic terrain was
dominated by smetites with very little amounts of kaolin and mica (Paranjape et al., 1999).
The clay fraction of Vertisols of Rajasthan comprised of smectite, illite, kaolinite and
vermiculite (Singh et al., 2001). Smectite, illite and kaolinite contents in Bss horizon were
274.2, 359.9 and 197.8 g kg-1 in Vertisols developed on gneissic alluviums, while Vertisols
formed on basaltic alluviums contained 60.5, 59.2 and 56.8 g kg-1 in Bss horizon,
respectively.

Kadao et al. (2003) reported smectitic mineralogy in the clay fraction of most of
the black soils of Wardha district. They also noticed mixed mineralogy in some pedons in
these black soils. Based on CEC /clay ratio of black soils of Krishna district, Babu et al.
(2002) identified the presence of smectite, illite and kaolintie.

The CEC/clay ratios (values) indicated that black soils were less weathered than red
soils (Satyavathi and Reddy, 2003). Higher ratios were due to less weathered nature of the
soils with weatherable primary minerals.

2.2.8 Nutrient status

2.2.8.1 Major nutrients

Mishra and Saithantuannga (2000) found that the soils of Mizoram were high in
available N content based on the organic carbon content of the soil. Seshagiri Rao et al.
(2004) revealed that the organic carbon content of coastal soils in Andra Pradesh varied
from low to high range (0.06 to 0.92 per cent).

Chaudhary et al. (2006) examined tsunami affected soils of Tamil Nadu and
reported that the available N, P and K content of Velanganni soil (Kilvelur taluk) was 100,
32.1 and 134 kg ha-1, respectively, whereas in Vellapalam (Vedaranyam taluk) it was
101,16.0 and 145 kg ha -1, respectively indicating low nitrogen status in Nagapattinam
district.

Varaprasad Rao et al. (2008) reported that the available nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium content of the soils in Ramachandrapuram Mandal, Chittoor district of Andra
Pradesh varied from 54 to 102 kg ha -1, 9.29 to 23.96 kg ha -1 and 135 to 320 kg ha-1,
respectively. The respective nutrient index values were 1.0, 1.96 and 2.37.

Rakesh Kumar et al. (2009) found the Santhal Paraganas region of Jharkhand was
low to medium in organic carbon and available N, P and medium in available K. Available
N, P and K content of Krishna district of Andra Pradesh ranged from 133 to 188, 5.3 to
33.4 and 100 to 389 kg ha -1, respectively. However available N, P and K content was
found to be maximum is surface horizons and decreased regularly with depth (Rajeswar et
al., 2009). The available N, P, and K status ranged from 47.0 to 228.9, 0.6 to 28.6 and 80.3
to 760.3 kg ha-1, respectively in some typical sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra
(Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad, 2010).

Ghosh et al. (2012) reported that the status of available sulphur (CaCl2 extractable
sulphur) in surface and sub-surface soils of red and lateritic soils of West Bengal ranged
from 0.5 to 219.5 mg kg -1 with an average of 29.5 mg kg -1 in surface soil and in sub surface
soil it ranged from 0.5 to 68.4 mg kg-1 with an average of 18.7 mg kg-1.

Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand the available
Nitrogen content (151 - 188 kg ha-1) of almost all samples was found to be low. The
Phosphorus content (2.49 - 63.76 kg ha-1) of soils very low, one low and very high amount
of Phosphorus. The available Potassium (115.4 -290 kg ha-1) status of the samples were contain
medium to high.

Vijay and Sohan (2012) observed that status of major nutrient were more in the
surface soils (0-15 cm) having low to medium organic carbon (1.8-5.8 g ha-1) content,
available N (125-260 kg ha-1), available phosphorus (10.80-18.10 Kg ha-1) and available
potassium (126-158 kg ha-1) were ranged from in different fruit block of Raya orchard
under rain fed condition.

2.2.8.2 Micronutrients

Micronutrient deficiencies have become one of the major constraints in sustaining

crop production in the present day exploitative agriculture. The availability of
micronutrients is influenced by their distribution within the soil profile and other soil
characteristics (Singh et al., 1988).

Gupta et al. (2003) reported that the surface horizon contained higher amount of
available zinc and iron which progressively declined with depth in all the profiles of
different soil series of northern Madhya Pradesh, which may be attributed to the higher
organic carbon and less calcium carbonate contents in the surface horizons.

In Ghazipur district of Uttarpradesh soils DTPA-Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn content varied

from 1.0 to 3.5, 0.3 to 2.1, 10.9 to 29.5 and 3.2 to 8.5 mg kg -1 respectively, and there is no
deficiency of available Cu and Fe in these area (Singh et al., 2009). Yadav and Meena
(2009) opined that availability of micronutrients increased significantly with increase in organic
carbon and clay content due to the formation of chelate complexes. Where as all the micro
nutrients are negatively correlated with soil pH (Talukdar et al., 2009). The DTPA extractable-
Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn ranged form 7.2 to 17.9, 7.9 to 25.0, 1.2 to 4.0 and 0.2 to 0.9 mg kg -1
respectively in some typical sugarcane growing soils of Maharastra (Ashok Kumar and
Jagdish Prasad, 2010) in different pedons.

Chaudhari et al. (2012) reported that in Haridwar district of Uttarakhand the soil
samples were contain high amount of available Fe (7.37 - 45.86 ppm), Mn (6.61 - 47.91
ppm), sufficient in available Zn (1.69 - 5.06 ppm) and deficient to sufecient in available
Cu (0.29 - 0.62 ppm). Meena et al., (2012) reported that the content of available iron,
manganese, zinc and copper were higher in the surface horizons and decreased with depth
in most of the pedons in malwa Plateau of Banswara district in Rajasthan. All the soils had
adequate amounts of iron, manganese, zinc and copper with the order of Fe (6.34 to 54.71)
> Mn (2.42 to 57.64) >Cu (1.01 to5.01) >Zn (1.20 to 6.10 mg kg -1).

Nadaf et al. (2015) conducted field survey to study the micronutrient constraints in
sugarcane growing Vertisols of northern Transition Zone of Karnataka and reported that,
maximum area under Fe deficiency followed by zinc, boron and sufficient in the available
status of manganese and copper.

2.3. Classification of soils

Soil Taxonomy or classification of soils, is the grouping of soils on the basis of their
morphology (texture and structure), appearance, form and fertility. The first complete US
taxonomic classification was published in 1938 and modified in 1949. Although the US
system has application worldwide, countries like France, Canada, China, Brazil and Russia
use their own systems.

2.3.1 Diagnostic Horizons and Features

2.3.1.1 Epipedons

The presence of ochric epipedon in Alfisols of Chotanagpur plateau was reported by

Sarkar et al. (2001) due to light colour and low organic matter content. Kadao et al. (2003)
recognized ochric epipedon in shrink swell soils of Wardha district, Maharashtra based on
colour and other diagnostic features. Presence of ochric epipedon was observed by Singh
and Agarwal (2005) in Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh. Balapande et al. (2007)
observed ochric horizon as the diagnostic surface horizon in soils of Nasik district.
2.3.1.2 Endopedons

In the lower piedoment plains of sub-humid ecosystem of Kahsmir region the soils
were comparatively well-developed and showed presence of structural B (cambic horizon)
as well as clay cutans (argillic horizon) (Mahapatra et al., 2000). Occurrence of cambic
horizon was reported by Hajare and Mandal (2003) in swell shrink soils of central India.
The black soils of Wardha district were exhibiting cambic horizon below the surface
horizon (Kadao et al., 2003) due to alteration of parent material.

Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003) identified argillic horizons Bt1 to Bt3 in sub-
surface of Alfisols and cambic horizons Bw1 and Bw2 in Inceptisols of Bako soils. Bhaskar
et al. (2004) found increased clay content in B horizon showing the formation of argillic /
kandic horizon even in the soils of high altitudes. Cambic horizon and argillic horizon were
endopedons recognized by Singh and Agarwal (2005) in soils eastern region of Uttar
Pradesh.

2.3.1.3 Diagnostic features

Deep wide cracks and slickensides were the diagnostic features observed by Prasad
et al. (2001) in the shrink swell soils of Nagpur. Soil Survey Staff (2003) reported that the
appearance of slickensides or wedge shaped aggregates as the unifying morphogenitic
marker in all Vertisols and their vertic intergrades.

Pillai and Natarajan (2004) described the presence of features relating to Kanhaplic
great group in certain Alfisols. Balapande et al. (2007) reported ustic moisture regime and
isohyperthermic temperature regime of soils of Nasik district, Maharashtra.

2.3.1.4 Classification of black soils

Prasad et al. (2001) classified the typical swell-shrink orange growing soils of
Nagpur district into Typic Ustorthents, Typic Haplustepts and Typic Haplusterts. Black
soils developed on granite-gneiss were classified under sub-group, Typic Calciusterts by
Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001). Vadivelu and Sarkar (2001) suggested to classify the dark
clay soils of sub-humid region under Vertic / Lithic Haplustoll instead of grouping under
Lithic / Vertic Ustochrepts like soils of dry semi-arid region. Hazare and Mandal (2003)
had reported that shrink swell soils of central India were belonging to great groups Lithic
Ustorthents, Vertic Haplustepts, or Typic Haplusterts.

Some of the deep black soils of Wardha district were classified by Kadao et al.
(2003) which were more than 50 cm deep with cracks, having more than 30 per cent clay
and slickensides (greater than 25 cm thick zone) into Vertisols. Up to great group level
these soils were classified as Typic Haplusterts, Typic Haplustepts, or Fluventic
Haplustepts.

The black soils of Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh were studied by Satyavathi
and Reddy (2004) which were belonging to very-fine, smectitic, isohyperthermic, Typic /
Chromic / Sodic Haplusterts or clayey-skeletal, smetitic, isohyperthermic, Vertic
Calciustepts / Hplustepts. Nayak et al. (2004) reported taxonomic groups of typical saline
black soils of Gujarat state as fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Ustorthents or fine,
mixed, hyperthermic Typic / Vertic Haplustepts. Some of the salt affected black soils of
Gujarat State were classified by Chinchmalatpure et al. (2005) under great groups Fluventic
Haplustepts, Typic / Udic Haplusterts, and Typic Halaquepts.

Dhale and Jagdish Prasad (2009) characterized and classified the soils of sweet
orange growing soils of Jalana district, Maharastra based on morphology and physico
chemical properties. The soils of Baraswada and Belgon were classified as Vertic
Haplustepts. The soils of Lalwadi and Sadesawangi were classified as Leptic Haplusterts.
The soils of Awa and Gothan were classified as Typic Haplusterts.

Jagdish Prasad et al. (2007) characterized and evaluated some typical sugarcane
growing soils of Jalgaon district, Maharashtra was based on morphology and physico
chemical properties. The soils were classified as Vertic Haplustepts and Leptic Haplusterts.
Ashok Kumar and Jagdish Prasad (2010) reported that the some typical sugarcane growing
soils of Maharastra were classified as Vertic Haplustepts, fine Vertic Haplustepts, loamy
skeletal Lithic Ustorthents and fine Sodic Haplusterts.

2.3.1.5 Classification of red and red laterite soils

A new Ultic sub-group was proposed by Dutta et al. (2001) under Rhodustalf
great group for classifying the paleosols of south India.
 Red soils developed on granite-gneiss were classified under sub-group, Typic
Haplustalfs by Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001). The Alfisols of Chotanagpur plateau
occurring in toposequence were classified under four different taxa - Ultic / Rhodic
Paleustalfs, Aquic Haplustalfs, and Aeric Endoaqualfs down the topography (Sarkar et al.,
2001). The pedons of research farm and virgin lands of Bako, Western Ethiopia were
classified as Hapludalfs and that of the farmers fields as Dystruepts at great group level by
Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003).

The soils of Garakahalli watershed were classified by Pillai and Natarajan (2004) up
to family category. The units were loamyskeletal, mixed, isohyperthermic, Ultic
Haplustalfs; fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, Kanhaplic Haplustalfs; fine, kaolinitic,
isohyperthermic, Kandic Palustalfs; and fine, kaolinitic, isohyperthermic, Rhodic
Kandiustalfs.

The red soils of Sivagiri watershed in Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh were
classified up to family category as per USDA soil taxonomy by Thangasamy et al. (2005).
The taxonomic units were fine-loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic, Typic Rhodustalf, and fine,
kaolintic, iso-hyperthermic, Typic Haplustalf. Pal et al. (2006) classified the shrink- swell
soils of central India as Vertic Haplustalfs. The soils under study had evidence of clay
illuviation enriching the B horizon with clay and there were no slickensides or wedge
shaped peds within 100 cm depth so as to qualify for Vertisols.

Nikam et al. (2006) reported classification of some of the non-vertic shallow soils
of Nagpur district under clayey, mixed, hyperthermic Typic Haplustalfs family. Verma et
al. (2007) proposed new taxonomic units, Calcic Natrustalf and Sodic Haplustalf for the
Alfisols of Indo-Gangetic alluvial plains.

Mini et al. (2007) characterized and classified the soils of the Mirjan village of
coastal agro-ecosystem of Karnataka in relation to topography by remote sensing
techniques, ground survey and laboratory analysis. There was gradation in colour from
reddish in the higher topographic position to yellowish colour in the lower topographic
position. There was an accumulation of clay in low hills and mid lands were with A-Bt-BC
horizon sequence. Soil temperature and moisture regimes of the study area are
Isohyperthermic and Ustic, respectively. The pedons on hills and hill ranges and garden
lands were classified as Dystrustepts. Pedons of low hills and mid lands showed a better
development and were classified into Haplustalfs. The soils of low lands with deep water
table were classified into Dystrustepts. The illuvial soils of low lands with shallow water
table were classified as Ustifluvents.

2.4. Interpretative groupings of soils

2.4. 1 Land Evaluation/ Land Use Planning

Land Evaluation (LE) is the assessment of land performance when used for a
specified purpose, involving the execution and interpretation of surveys and studies of land
forms, soils, vegetation, climate and other aspects of land in order to identify and make a
comparison of promising kinds of land use in terms applicable to the objectives of the
evaluation (FAO, 1976). Land evaluation using a scientific procedure is essential to assess
the potentials and constraints of a given land for agricultural purposes. Land evaluation and
crop suitability analysis would provide better land-use options to the farmers. Soil survey
data are indispensable for generating a soil map of the given region, which helps in deriving
crop suitability and cropping system analysis.

Sarkar et al. (2002) studied the characterization and classification of soils of Loktak
catchment area for suitability of land use planning on the basis of major soil constraints and
reported based on morphology and soil properties, that, soils have been classified in to the
order Inceptisols (pedon1) and Ultisols (pedons 2, 3, 4, 5 & 6). The high hill soils (p1 and
p2) are mostly classified in to capability class VI. The medium hill soils (p3and p4) are
classified into capability class IV the foot hill soils (p5) are classified in to capability class
III.

Gabhane et al (2006) studied the soils of Belora watershed in Akola district of

Vidarba region of Maharastra, reported that the soil site characteristics are quite variable in
the production potential and land use planning. The land suitability evaluation revealed that
the soils of the study area grouped under Typic Haplusterts and Vertic Haplustepts were
found to be moderately suitable for cotton, sorghum and pigeon pea while those grouped
under Typic Haplustepts and Typic Ustorthents where marginally suitable to unsuitable for
cotton and pigeon pea.Soil resource information of South Tripura district of North-eastern
India was utilized for land evaluation in terms of land capability classification (LCC)
(Gangopadhyay et al., 2008).

2.4.2 Land Capability Classification

The land capability classification is grouping of a land unit (s) in to defined class
(es) based on its capability. It is a broad grouping of soils based on their limitations and is
designed to emphasize the hazards in different kinds of soils. It serves as a guide to assess
suitability of the land for arable crops, grazing and forestry.

The land capability classification consists of three categories namely i) capability

classes ii) capability sub-classes and iii) capability units. In all eight capability classes,
class I, II, III and IV were suitable for cultivation and class- V, VI, VII were unsuitable for
cultivation but suitable for permanent vegetation (grazing). The capability sub classes are
based on kind of dominant limitation such as wetness or excess water (w), climate (c),
soil(s), erosion (e) and topography (t). The capability unit includes soils which are
sufficiently uniform in their characteristics. Potential and limitations and require fairly
uniform conservation treatments and management practices.

Esther et al. (2004) classified the soils of Sahaspur block in Uttaranchal in to six
land capability classes viz., II, III, IV, VI, VII and VIII. The soils Chandragiri mandal in
Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh have been classified in to three land capability sub-
classes i.e., IIS, IIIW, IIIes, IIIse, and IVs (Basavaraju et al., 2005). The soils resources in
Sivagiiri micro-watershed of Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh were classified in to three
land capability sub-classes i.e. IIS, IIIes, IIIW and IVS (Thangasamy et al., 2005).

The soils of Mirjan village of coastal agro-ecosystem of Karnataka, was studied and
find out the potential and constraints of these soils through land capability classification
and soil suitability evaluation. The mapped soils from the study area were matched with
criteria for land capability classification and soil site suitability evaluation. In the land
capability map, three classes have been differentiated viz., IIIS, IVS and VS (Mini et al.,
2007).

2.4.3 Soil-Site Suitability for Different Crops

Naidu et al. (2001) evaluated sugarcane- growing soils of Karnataka using climate
and soil parameters with the aid of FAO framework for land evaluation. They have
identified four categories such as S1 : highly suitable with >80 percent of optimum yield;
S2 : moderately suitable with 40-80 per cent optimum yield; S3 : marginally suitable with
20-40 per cent of optimum yield and N : non suitable with <20 per cent optimum yield.

Satyavathi and Suryanarayan Reddy (2004) stated that Typic Haplustalf was
marginally suitable for castor, chickpea, moderately suitable for cotton, groundnut and
maize and highly suitable for sorghum. Typic Ustipsamments were not suitable for the
crops due to very severe limitation of shallow soil depth and low organic matter content.

Rashmi et al., 2012 reported that soils of plateau, escarptment and isolated hillocks
are very shallow (Lithic Ustorthents/ Typic Ustorthents), soils of pediment are shallow
(Typic Ustorthents/Typic Haplustepts) whereas soils of valley are moderately deep to very
deep (Vertic Haplustepts/Typic Haplusterts). The soils of valley are moderately to highly
suitable whereas, soils of plateau and prediments are marginally to not suitable for growing
cotton and sorghum. Basanta Singh et al. (2013) evaluated the crop suitability in lateritic
soils for sugarcane crop and reported that the soils were moderately suitable (S2) to
marginally suitable (S3).

Rajeshwar and Mani (2014) evaluated the soils for their suitability to different crops
and reported that the red soils were marginally suitable to highly suitable for cultivation of
maize, greengram, blackgram, sorghum, redgram, greengram and blackgram, Black soils
were moderately suitable to highly suitable for cultivation of cotton, sorghum, soybean,
greengram, blackgram, redgram, sunflower, sesamum, maize, and pearlmillet. The red
laterite soils were marginally suitable to moderately suitable for cultivation of groundnut,
greengram, blackgram, redgram, horsegram and pearlmillet.

Isitekhale et al. (2014) studied the soil suitability evaluation for rice and sugarcane
in lowland soils of Anegbette, Edo State, Nigeria. Results of the evaluation showed that
10%, 30% and 60% of the soils were highly, moderately and marginally suitable for
sugarcane production.

2.4.4 Fertility capability classification

The concept of soil Fertility Capability Classification (FCC) system was developed
as an attempt to bridge the gap between sub-diciplines of soil classification and soil fertility
especially to interpret Soil Taxonomy and additional soil attributes in a way that is directly
relevant to the plant growth. Soil fertility parameters are mostly found in topsoil and have
been listed to form the FCC system and this classification system was proposed by Buol et
al. (1975) and modified by Sanchez et al. (1982). The FCC is a classification of soils on the
basis of fertility constraints, quantified from condition modifiers.

The FCC system was found to be useful in evaluation of crop response to

fertilization and in improving fertilizer recommendation (Denton et al., 1987). The six
groups of Kamaraj district, Tamil Nadu have been grouped into 8 FCC units based on type,
substrate type and condition modifiers. The condition modifiers such asd (dry condition),
b (basic reaction), v (vertic characters), m (magnesium deficiency, n (natric) , k
(potassium deficiency) , i (Fe-P fixation) and e (low CEC) were used to group the soil
into different units (Mathan et al., 1994).

Jawahar et al. (1999) surveyed eight soil series of Tirunelveli district, Tamil Nadu
under red sand dunal soils (Theries) and identified modifiers viz; Ustic moisture regime
(d), low CEC (e), medium acidity (h) and low exchangeable K (k). Both surface and
subsurface soil samples representing Entisols, Alfisols and Inceptisols consisting 13 soil
series were studied by Somasundaram et al., (2000) for the preparation of soil fertility class
in the Lower Vellar Basin area of Pudukkottai district. The study revealed that 13 soil series
resulted in 11 FCC units, that is 11 type/ substrata type which form the basis for conducting
fertility related experiments in that area.

Six physiographic units predominantly under rubber in Kerala were studied by

Nageswara Rao and Jose (2003) to ascertain the role of variation in the physiographic units
on FCC. They grouped five different soil taxa under fourteen FCC classes. Renukadevi
(2003) identified 10 FCC classes comprising 5 type / substrata type and 6 condition
modifiers in western Parambikulam Aliyar project area and stated that the condition
modifier d was prevalent in all the soil series and it indicates the need of supplemental
irrigation during off- season.

Rajeshwar and Mani (2014) identified four fertility capability units such as Ld, Ldei,
CLdband Cdvb in varied soil types of Tamil Nadu. The conditions modifiers identified in
the study area were d dryness, v high clay content, b basic reaction, e low CEC and
i P fixation. The condition modifier d were dominated in its occurrence followed by the
condition modifier e, b and i.
 Chapter III

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present study was carried out with the objectives of characterizing and
classification of sugarcane growing soils of Medak district of Telangana state.

3.1. Location and brief description of the study area

Medak district of Telangana state extending over an area of 9,519 km2. It forms a
part of Deccan Plateau under Godavari basin and lies between North Latitudes 170 27 and
180 18 and East longitudes 770 28 and 790 10 falling in topographical sheet nos. 56 F, G,
J and K of Survey of India. It is bounded by the Nizamabad district on the north,
Karimnagar district on the north and north-east, Warangal and Nalgonda district on the
east, Hyderabad and Rangareddy district on the south and Bidar district (Karnataka) on the
west. It is divided into three revenue divisions, viz., Sangareddy, Medak and Siddipet with
46 revenue mandals/tehsil and 1223 villages in the district. Sangareddy is the
administrative headquarters of Medak district. The district is divided into 12 agricultural
divisions. They are:
1. Andol-Jogipet (Aodol-Jogipet, Hathnura and Pulkal revenue mandals),
2. Dubbak (Dubbaka, Daulatabad, Mirdoddi and Tupran),
3. Gajwel (Gajwel, Jagdevpur, Mulug and Wargal),
4. Medak (Kulcharam, Medak and Papannapet),
5. Narsapur (Jinnaram, Kowdipalli, Narsapur and Sivampel),
6. Narayankher (Kalher, Kangti, Manur and Narayankher),
7. Ramayampet (Chegunta, Ramayampet, Shankarampet (A) and Yeldurti),
8. Sadasivpet (Kohir, Kondapur, Munipally and Sadasivpet),
9. Sangareddi (Ramachandrapuram, Patancheru and Sangareddi),
10. Shankarampet (R) (Alladurg,. Regode, Shankarampet (R) and Tekmal),
11. Siddipet (Chinnakodur, Kondapak, Nanganoor and Siddipet),
12. Zaheerabad (Jharasangam, Nyalkal, Raikode and Zaheerabad).
The sugarcane crop is cultivated in 10 agricultural divisions of Medak district
except Siddipet and Gajwel.
The forest cover is 96,267 hectares and the net area sown is 4, 23,000 ha with the
total cropped area of 5, 25,000 ha. There are no major surface irrigation projects worth
mentioning except for minor irrigation projects like Ghanpur, Ranapalli, Gangakathwam,
Bollampalle, Nallavagu and Pocharam. Manjira, a perennial tributary of river Godavari
with its tributaries of Haldi (Pasupuyeru) and Kundlair drains the district. The drainage
pattern is dendritic and parallel.

The district is drained by a major river Manjira and three minor rivers, viz., Haldi,
Kundlair and Mohedamada and several other ephemeral nalas and vagus. The drainage is
parallel to subparallel and dendritic.

3.2 Location and selection of Pedons

Based on the morphological characteristics and physiography, fourteen geo-

referenced pedons (Table 1) were selected in eight divisions of Medak district such as
Aroor (Pedon 1), Paidigummal (Pedon 2), Burdipad (Pedon 3), Kuppanagar (Pedon 4),
Basanthpur (Pedon 5), Kothur (Pedon 6), Budera (Pedon 7), Mamdipally (Pedon 8), Andole
(Pedon 9), Kaudloor (Pedon 10), Antharam (Pedon 11), Pulakurty (Pedon 12), Mudguntal
thanda (Pedon 13) and Ramakkapet (Pedon 14) The mandal wise sugarcane cultivated
area (ha) of the district for the Year 2013-14 was given in Table 2. The pedon locations and
mandal/tehsil map are shown in Fig.1 and Fig .2.

The selected pedons of the sugarcane growing area of the Medak district are broadly
categorized into three groups based on the soil types viz., Black soils (1, 7, 9 and 12), Red
laterite soils (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) and Red soils (8, 10, 11, 13 and 14).

3.3 Physiography
The district forms part of South Deccan Plateau. It is an ancient plateau exposed for
long ages to denudation. Sheet-wash and retreat of hill slopes are the major geomorphic
processes responsible for sculpturing of the present day landforms under semi-arid
conditions. The plateau has two erosional surfaces with altitudes of 150-600 m and 300-900
m above MSL.
The Medak district represents a variety of geological formations. It has been divided
into three physiographic regions, viz., granite and granite-gneiss landform, basalt landform
and laterite landform. The important rock types are Peninsular Gneissic complex, Dharwar
super group associated with Younger intrusive of Achaean age separated unconformably
with overlying Basaltic flows of late Cretaceous to early Eocene age with sub-Recent to
Recent alluvium along the stream courses. The rock formations are mainly divided into four
geological formations, i.e., Archaean, Mesozoic-lower Tertiary, Pleistocene and Recent
alluvium. The main formations in order of age from the oldest to the youngest along with
their occurrence in different Mandals are given in Table 3. The Archaean or Peninsular
gneisses occur all over the district in 6, 86,853 ha area (70.7%). They are partially
metamorphosed igneous rocks. They remained stable as a "Shield" area for a very long
time. The rocks are composed of grey or pink feldspars, quartz and muscovite mica
(NBSS&LUP, 2005).

The pink granite together with its pegmatite and quartz veins was a later intrusion
than the greygranite, as indicated by the presence of enclaves of the latter in the former and
also the intrusive relation of the former with the latter. The dark minerals of granite include
biotite mica and hornblende and other minerals like apatite, zircon etc. The important rock
types are granites, grano-diorites and banded gneisses. In some areas, the peninsular
gneisses are traversed by a number of dolerite dykes which represent the last phase of
igneous activity of the Archaean period. The Deccan Trap formations occur in the
northwestern and northern part of the district and cover about 1, 40,438 ha (14.5%) area.
They are mostly remnants of huge lava flows that poured out from extensive fissures. They
form flat-topped hills with step-like trappean topography. The common rock is basalt.
Seven Deccan Trap flows with unweathered outcrops and two completely lateralized flows
have been differentiated (Dutt, 1981). The basalts are composed of pigeonite-augite
andesine-labradorite, brown or green glass altering to palagonite, rarely olivine, and
microcrystalline silica and magnetite. The intertrappean overlie granite.

The laterites occur in the southwestern and southern part of the district and cover
about 84,652 ha (8.7%) area. They occur as caps (50-60 m thick) over Deccan Traps in
Zaheerabad and Narayankhed areas. Recent Alluvium occurs all along the rivers and vagus
like Manjira, Haldi, Kundlair, Peddavagu, Mohedamada, Nakkavagu etc. They are
colluvio-alluvial in nature (NBSS&LUP, 2005). Medak is predominantly an agricultural
district with a large number of artificial lakes and the river Manjira.

3.4 Climate

The climate is semi-arid. The mean annual rainfall is 870 mm of which 76 per cent
is received during the southwest monsoon (June to September), 14 per cent during the
northeast monsoon (October to December) and 8 per cent during the premonsoon period
(March to May). The rainfall is highest in the month of August.
The climate of Medak district is comparatively equitable and although it is very hot
o
in May with mercury rising up to 42 C. The temperature dips to 12oC in winters during the
months of December and January. The mean maximum and minimum temperature vary
from 40 to 26C. Mean humidity varies from 65 per cent in July to 74 per cent in
December. The soil moisture content is dry for more than 90 cumulative days or 45
consecutive days in the months of summer solstice. The soil moisture and temperature
regimes of the study area are Ustic and Isohyperthermic, respectively.

3.5 Natural Vegetation and Land Use

The natural vegetation existing in the study area are grasses, shrubs, thorny bushes
such as Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Butea frondosa, Dalbergia latifolia,
Azadirachta indica, Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomertose and Acacia spp. Prosopis
juliflora, Cacia sp, broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Parthenium, Eucalyptus, Euforbia
sps., etc. The principal crops cultivated are Rice, Maize, Sugarcane, cotton, redgram,
Greengram, Blackgram, Groundnut and potato.
3.6 Collection and processing of soil samples
The division wise geo-referenced pedons were selected on the basis of soil
heterogeneity and land forms in different locations of sugarcane growing areas of the
district. Horizon wise soil samples were collected from the above representative pedons for
laboratory analysis.

Simultaneously, a total of 258 surface (0-15 cm) and subsurface (15-30 cm) soil
samples were collected in every three to five villages of each sugarcane growing mandals
(plate 1, 2 &3) and processed the soil samples by following standard procedure. Standard
procedures used for soils analyses are presented in Table 4.

3.7 Soil Classification

The soils of the study area were classified based on the morphological, physical,
chemical and exchangeable properties of soils and climatic data (soil moisture and
temperature regimes) following the Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010).
3.8 Land Evaluation

3.8.1 Land Capability Classification (LCC)

The land capability is mainly based on the inherent soil characteristics, external land
features and environmental factors. Land capability classification was done keeping in view
of soil limitations and other soil related parameters like texture, depth, slope, erosion,
drainage, and nature of the substrata (Klingebiel and Montgomery 1961). Each soil was
interpreted in relation to soil- site suitability of major crops of the area. The soil related
characters viz., topography (t) and drainage (d) are interrelated for assessing the suitability
of particular land for different crops (Sys et al.,1993) and an action plan has been
suggested for land use planning.

3.8.2 Soil Site Suitability

The suitability of a given piece of land is its natural ability to support a specific
purpose. Soil site suitability classification was done for the study area by following the
framework of land evaluation (FAO, 1976)

Structure of land suitability classes (FAO, 1976)

Order Class Description
Suitable (S) S1 (Highly suitable) Land having no limitations to the given
type of use
S2 (Moderately suitable) Land having minor limitations to the
given type of use
S3 (Marginally suitable) Land having moderate limitations to
the given type of use
Not suitable (N) N1 (Currently not suitable) Land having severe limitations that
preclude the given type of use, but can
be improved by specific management
N2 (Permanently not suitable) Land with severe limitations which are
very difficult to overcome
Based on the criteria developed by Naidu et al. (2006), soil site suitability was
assessed for the study area for growing sugarcane (Table 5).

3.8.3 Fertility Capability Classification (FCC)

Fertility capability classification system was developed for evaluating soil

constraints to crop response in developing countries. Many criteria were used in the system,
but the properties of surface horizon are more emphasized due to its importance in soil
fertility. Fertility capability classification system classifies the soil at three levels: type,
subtype (substrata type) and condition modifiers (Sanchez et al., 1982).

Type, which is the highest category under the FCC system, was determined by the
texture of surface soil. The substrata or the subtype, which refers the texture of the subsoil,
that occurs within 50 cm of the surface (Buol et al., 1975). The condition modifier refers to
soil physical and chemical properties of the ploughed layer of top 20 cm those dominating
control on fertility capability of a soil.

3.9 Identification of Constraints

Soil constraints of the sugar cane growing areas for crop production were identified
based on the laboratory and field analysis.

3.10 Soil Nutrient Index

Nutrient Index Value was calculated from the proportion of soils under low, medium
and high available nutrient categories (Ramamurthy and Bajaj, 1969).

N1+2Nm+3Nh
Nutrient index = --------------------------
N1+Nm+Nh

Where,
N1-Number of soils falling under low category
Nm-Number of soils falling under medium category
Nh- Number of soils falling under high category
 Map no to scale
Fig.2. Mandal/Tehsil map of Medak district of Telangana State
 Location of pedons
Pedon -1-Aroor
Pedon -2- Pidigummal
Pedon -3- Burdipad
Pedon -4- Kuppanagar
Pedon -5- Basanthpur
Pedon -6-Kothur
Pedon -7-Budera
Pedon -8-Mamidipally
Pedon -9-Andole
Pedon -10- Kaudloor
Pedon -11- Antharam
Pedon -12-Pulakurthy
Pedon -13-Mudguntal Thanda
Pedon -14- Ramakkapet
Map not to scale
Fig.1. Pedon location map in the Sugarcane growing areas of Medak district of Telangana State
 Chapter IV

RESULTS AND DISUSSION

Telangana state being under semi-arid tropical monsoon climate has a number of
soil types which are to be managed on a sustainable basis is the need of the hour. Among
the district of Telangana state, Medak has the considerable area under sugarcane
cultivation. The sugar cane cultivated in the district in an area of 22076.0 hectares (Table 2)
(Nizam Deccan Sugars Ltd, 2013-14). Systematic study of sugarcane growing soils is
essential for their better management and productivity.

The division wise geo-referenced pedons were selected on the basis of soil
heterogeneity and land forms in different locations of sugarcane growing areas of the
district. The selected pedons of the sugarcane growing areas of the district was broadly
categorized into three groups based on the soil types viz., Black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12),
Red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) and Red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14).

The observations made during the survey of the sugarcane growing area and the
results obtained from the analysis of soil samples for soil characterization of pedon,
surface, and subsurface samples, soil classification, land evaluation and soil site suitability
for sugarcane crop data are presented in this chapter under the following headings.
4.1 Pedogenesis
4.2 Pedon wise characterization of soils
4.3 Clay mineralogy
4.4 Classification of soils
4.5 Land evaluation and soil-site suitability
4.6 Characterization of surface and sub surface soils
4.7 Major Soil constraints of the study area

4.1 Pedogenesis
4.1.1 Climate

The temperature and rainfall pattern of the study area indicated that the climate is
semi-arid monsoon type with distinct and well-defined dry season and wet season. The soil
moisture control section is dry for more than 90 cumulative days or 45 consecutive days in
the months of summer solstice. The soil moisture and soil temperature regimes of the study
area are Ustic and Isohyprerthermic, respectively. The soils of the study area were
influenced and formed under semi-arid type of climate. Dutta et al. (2001) noticed the
occurence of red soils under semi-arid climate in south India, whereas, the black soils
developing under similar type of climate was reported by Bandopadhyay et al. (2004) in
Maharashtra. The formation and development of red and black soils were occurring under
the semi-arid climate in Karnataka (Rudramurthy et al., 1997; Reddy and Shivaprasad,
1999) and Andhra Pradesh (Basavaraju et al., 2005; Thangasamy et al., 2005).

4.1.2 Parent Material

Eastern Ghats (south) of Deccan trap had been divided into three landforms viz.,
granite and granite - gneiss, dharawars, and cuddapahs and kurnools (Reddy et al., 1996).
The first landform was characterized by hills to gently sloping plains and valleys. The
eroded soil constituents and soluble constituents were washed / leached down the slope. In
the very gently sloping lands and valleys, the finer factions and calcium carbonate were
accumulating with weathered granitic gneiss. Hence, the parent material for the
development of these red and black soils was weathered granite - gneiss at higher
elevations and it was mixed with calcareous murram in very gently sloping lands, plains
and valleys. Granite gneiss complex covered most of the area of Andhra Pradesh (Rao et
al., 1995). Red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were formed and developed on weathered
granite-gneiss.

The red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) were developed on weathered

granite-gneiss over hard lateritic parent material and are farraginous aluminous rock. They
are formed by decomposition; because of they are found in black soil regions having heavy
rainfall in the study area. The rocks are completely leached out having a high proportion of
iron and aluminium as residue. High temperature and heavy rainfall transformed the black
soil into laterite.

The black soils (pedons 1 and 9) were derived from weathered granite-gneiss mixed
with calcareous murram whereas pedon 12 was derived from weathered basalt mixed with
calcium carbonate nodules. Similar occurrence of red and black soils on granite-gneiss was
reported earlier by Paramasivam and Gopalaswamy (1993) in Tamilnadu, Subbaiah and
Manickam (1992);Vijay Kumar et al. (1994) in Andhra Pradesh, Reddy and Shivaprasad
(1999) in Karnataka.

4.1.3 Landform and Topography

Red soils (pedons 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were formed near the foothills of granitic-
gneiss at higher topographic positions with the slope varying from 3 to 8 per cent on gently
sloping lands. Red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) were formed near the foothills of
laterite granitic - gneiss with the slope varying from 3 to 8 per cent on gently sloping lands.
Black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) were developed on nearly level to very gently sloping
lands with slope percent varying between 1 and 3. Many scientists in different locations
also reported formation of red soils on higher elements of topography and black soils on
lower elements of topography. Nagelschmidt et al. (1940) in deccan state of India; Curi and
Franzmeir (1984) in central plateau of Brazil; Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003) in Bako soils
of Ethiopia; Thangasamy et al. (2005) in Sivagiri micro-watershed of Andhra Pradesh; and
Gabhane et al. (2006) in Vidarbha region also observed the occurrence of red soils on
higher elements of topography and black soils on lower elements of topography.

Undulating and gently sloping lands had developed deep to very deep, well drained
and moderately eroded Haplustalfs in south of Eastern Ghats on granite-gneiss landform
(Reddy et al., 1996). Occurrence of red soils in gently sloping and undulating uplands was
observed by Dutta et al. (1999) in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh; Sarkar et al.
(2001) in Chotanagpur plateau; Chunale (2004) in sub-mountane zone of Maharashtra;
Singh and Agarwal (2005) in eastern region of Uttar Pradesh; Nikam et al. (2006) in central
India. Black soils were formed in lower topographic positions due to accumulation of clay
and basic cations in Karnataka (Rudramurthy and Dasog, 2001); in Wardha region (Kadao
et al., 2003), in eastern Maharashtra plateau (Reddy et al., 2004); in Nasik district of
Maharashtra (Balapande et al., 2007).

4.1.4 Vegetation

The natural vegetation in the study area included Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus
rotundus, Azadirata indica, Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Manjifera indica, Tectona
grandis, Tamarindus indica, Palmyra, Tadipalm, broad leaf weeds such as Selotia,
Parthenium, Euforbia spp., and shrubs etc. Similar type of vegetation was reported by
Satish (2003); Bhaskar (2005); and Thangasamy et al. (2005) in red and black soil areas of
Guntur, Prakasam and Chittoor districts of Andhra Pradesh, respectively. Though
vegetation served as a good sign of indication of soil properties, the influence of natural
vegetation on soil formation and development was not observed, as the natural vegetation
was sparse in different locations of the study area. Coulombe et al. (1996) stated that
Vertisol formation was not influenced by vegetation.

4.1.5 Pedological Time

The red, red laterite and black soils of the study area might have been formed during
Archean period about 3800 million years back (Rao et al., 1995). Digar and Barde (1982)
reported that it was during Archean period, the red soils were formed, whereas the black
soils were developed during Cenozoic era, which included tertiary and quaternary period
(Coulombe et al., 1996).

4.1.6 Soil Forming Processes

Argillic horizons (textural clay enriched B horizons) were recognized in the sub-
surface of red soils and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4,5, 6, 8, 10 11, 13 and 14) due to
presence of clay cutans (argillans). There was a translocation of clay and iron oxides from
Ap horizon to B horizon in the solum. The clay enrichment due to illuviation was
sufficient enough to meet the requirement of argillic horizon (Bt). The texture was finer
than the overlying horizon. Thus illuviation was the main pedogenic process in these
pedons. Similar observations were also reported by Peterschmitt et al., 1996; Dutta et al.,
1999; Walia et al., 2000; Singh and Agarwal, 2005.

In the black soils (pedon 1, 9 and 12), prominent or distinct slickensides were
noticed in the lower layers. Slickensides were originated due to sliding of one soil mass
over the other due to swelling and expansion of clay minerals in wet season. They were
seen as polished smooth surfaces in dry period when profile was opened up to the deeper
layers. The pedogeneic process was nothing but argillopedoturbation. Similar reports were
earlier given by Mermut et al. (1996), Rudramurthy et al. (1997) and Maji et al. (2005). In
the black soil locations including pedon 7, narrow to wide cracks were noticed revealing
the shrinking nature of the clay minerals in dry period. The soil particles particularly clay
which were loose on the surface, due to slight disturbance, wind and / or rain migrate to the
deeper layers along the sides of the cracks. This type of mechanical migration of inorganic
particles in the profile was described as lessivage (Buol et al., 1998).

The B horizon in the pedon 7 was exhibiting features of altered horizon and
thereby resulted in structural / colour B horizon (cambic horizon, a sub-surface diagnostic
horizon). The colour of the soil was darker in dry and moist conditions due to release of
iron oxides from weathering of rocks and minerals and their accumulation in the solum.
Hence, rubification / braunification must be operating in these red soil pedons. Similar
results were also reported by Walia et al. (2000).

4.2 Pedon wise Characterization of soils

4.2.1 Morphological Description of Soil Pedons

Fourteen sites were selected in the sugarcane growing areas covering eight divisions
of the district. Six pedons were selected at Zaheerabad division, two pedons were selected
at Narayanakhed division and each one pedon were selected from remaining division based
on soil morphology and elevation. The details of the morphological properties of the soils
were presented in Table 6 and salient morphological features of the soils were given in
Annexure I. The pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12 were belongs to black soils, pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
were belongs to red laterite soils and pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 were belongs to red soils.

Major part of the study area is coming under nearly plain and gently slopping land
forms with 1-3 and 3-8 per cent slopes. The land form of pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12 nearly level
to gently sloping. The landforms of pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 were classified
under gently sloping. With respect to drainage condition, pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12 was poorly
drained and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 was well drained. In pedon 1, 9 and 12
irregular CaCO3 concretions were observed through out the pedon. Thin clay films were
noticed in pedons 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13and 14.

4.2.1.1 Soil Depth

Soil depth of the pedon 10 was shallow (25-50 cm), pedon 2, 5, 13 and 14 were
moderate (50-75 cm), pedon 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11 was moderately deep (75-100 cm), pedon 6
was deep (>100 cm) and pedons 1, 9 and 12 were very deep (>150 cm). Soil depth was
shallow in moderate steep slope whereas deep soils were found in nearly level to very gently
sloping plain. The same types of observations were reported by Meena et al. (2009) and
Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b). The variation of depth in relation to physiography, mainly
because of non-availability of adequate amount of water for prolonged period on upland
soils associated with removal of finer particles and their deposition at lower pediplain have
resulted in shallow soils in uplands and deeper soils in lowland physiographic units. The
results obtained in the present study are in agreement with the findings of Ramprakash and
Seshagiri Rao (2002).

4.2.1.2 Number of Horizons

In pedon 1 and 9 six horizons were demarcated. In pedon 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13

and 14 five horizons and in pedon 2 and 10 four horizons were demarcated. All the pedons
were characterized as A- B-C horizons except pedon 10 (A-C). The thickness of the surface
horizons varied from 11.0 (pedon 10) to 27.0 (pedon 12) cm and sub surface horizons
ranged from 11.0 (pedon 10) to 40.0 cm (pedon 9).

Pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 13 and 14 showed considerable homogeneity in soil

pedon development (A-Bt-C), whereas pedons 1, 9 and 12 showed slicken sides (Bss) and
pedon 10 do not have any diagnostic horizons.

4.2.1.3 Boundary between Horizons

The boundary between the horizons varied from smooth to gradual in black soil
pedons whereas it was smooth, wavy, clear and abrupt in red and red laterite soil pedons.
The surface horizon was designated as Ap horizon at all the location because of the
ploughed and / or disturbed condition due to cultivation. Similar observation was made by
Rajeshwar et al (2009) and Ahok kumar and Jagadish Prasad (2010) to represent ploughed
condition of the soils. The surface horizon was characterized as ochric epipedon because
of less organic matter content and light colour as per the requirements specified by Soil
Survey Staff (1999). Singh and Agarwal (2005) and Balapande et al. (2007) recognized the
presence of ochric epipedon in red soils of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh and black soils
of Nasik district of Maharashtra, respectively.

The B horizon of black soils (pedon 1, 9 and 12) of CRS, Veppanthattai exhibited
prominent, well-formed distinct slickensides. Hence the symbol ss (sub-ordinate
distinction) was suffixed to the master horizon symbol B. Similar type of designation was
represented by Chinchmalatpure et al. (2005); Balapande et al. (2007); Ahok kumar and
Jagadish Prasad (2010); Rajeshwar and Aariff Khan (2008) in black soils of Gujarat,
Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh respectively.

Argillic horizon was developed in red soils (pedon 8, 11, 13 and14) and red laterite
soils of (pedon 2,3,4,5 and 6) in the subsurface layers which might be due to illuviation of
clay from the surface horizon. Clay orientation had taken place in the B horizon. That
resulted in the formation of clay cutans or clay skins. The broken to common and
moderately thick argillans were noticed in between 12 and 95 cm depth in the red soils
profiles 8, 11, 13 and14, whereas in the red laterite soils (pedons 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) patchy,
thin argillans were recorded between 14 and 100 cm depth. Such occurrence of argillic
horizons were identified in Alfisols of Bako soils in Ethiopia by Nagassa and Gebrekidan,
(2003) and by Singh and Agarwal (2005) in soils of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh.

The boundary between the sub-horizons of Bss horizon in black soil pedon 1, 9
and 12 was described as diffuse because of the presence slickensides and the clay content
was high enough for clay textural class. In the red soil and red laterite pedons, as there was
sufficient clay illuviation in argillic horizon (Bt) from the overlying horizons, the texture
had become finer. Hence, the boundary between Bt horizon and overlying horizon was
clear. Thangasamy et al. (2005) observed clear boundary in some red soils of Andhra
Pradesh whereas, diffuse boundary was noticed by Balapande et al. (2007) in black soils of
Nasik district of Maharashtra.

4.2.1.4 Soil Colour

The soil color of the black soils pedon, 1, 7, 9 and 12 had colour varying from very
dark grayish brown (10 YR3/2) to dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) under dry condition
and very dark gray (10 YR3/1) to dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) under moist condition.
The dark colour appears due to the presence of iron and manganese oxide in combination
with the organic complex (Srinivasan et al., 1969). The dark colour of these soils may be
attributed to domination of highly dispersed forms of humus and smectite minerals (Ashok
kumar and Jagadish Prasad, 2010). Santsingh (1987) stated that parent material,
topography, high clay content, clay-humus complex, smectite type of clay, moisture etc.,
were the factors responsible for the dark colour of the soils. The black soils of Nasik
district were exhibiting the Munsell colour notations varying from 10YR 3/1 to 10YR 3/3
(Balapande et al., 2007). The dark brown to very dark brown (10YR hues) colour was due
to the moist conditions prevailing for longer period favouring reduction under the influence
of impeded internal drainage conditions (Kadao et al., 2003; Maji et al., 2005).

The red soil color of pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 had varying from dark reddish
brown (5YR3/3) to brown (7.5YR5/4) under dry condition and dark reddish brown
(5YR3/2) to brown (7.5YR4/4) under moist condition might be due to the release of iron,
its degree of oxidation, hydration might have given the soil brownish to reddish / red
colour. The dark reddish brown colour was due to better drainage conditions in higher
slopes. Similar observations of red soils were corroborated with those of Dutta et al.
(2001); Thangasamy et al. (2005); Rajeshwar and Mani (2013).

The red laterite soils pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6, the soil colour varies from dark red (2.5
YR3/6) to brown (7.5YR4/4) under dry condition and dark reddish brown (2.5 YR3/4) to
dark brown (7.5YR3/4) under moist condition in different horizons and locations which are
indicative of release of oxides of iron during the process of weathering and different stages
of hydration. The intensity of the color increased in sub surface horizons. The differences in
colour might be due to various pedological process and also variation in organic matter
content, quality of iron, diffusion of iron oxides in mineral matters of soil, the degree of
oxidation and imperfect hydration as reported by Yadav et al. (1977); Gangopadhyay et al.
(1990) and Rajeshwar and Mani (2013).

4.2.1.5 Soil Structure

The structure designates the mode of arrangement of the particles and their
aggregates, therefore the structural variation in soils were useful to differentiate the horizon
(Landay et al., 1982).

Red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)
were developed weak pedality with granular structure in the surface horizons and sub-
angular blocky peds in sub-surface layers. The surface horizons were generally granular
type because of organic matter and inter-cultivation operations. The strength of the peds
was weak to moderate whereas, the size of the peds was very fine to medium. This type of
weak pedality was attributed to less clay content, low CEC and dominance of illite /
kaolinite type of clay. These structural descriptions observed in red soil profiles were in
agreement with those reported by Nagassa and Gebrekidan (2003) in Afisols of Ethiopia;
Patil and Prasad (2004) in red soils of Dindori district, Madhya Pradesh; Singh and
Agarwal (2005) in Alfisols of eastern Uttar Pradesh; Rajeshwar and Mani (2013) in red and
red laterite soils of Dindigal and Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu.

The pedality of black soils pedon (1, 7, 9 and 12) was more strongly developed
because of the high clay content, CEC, BSP and dominance of montmorillonite type of
clay. The surface horizons and subsurface horizons had blocky structure (either sub-angular
or angular) and the peds were medium to coarse in size with strong grade (strength).
Stronger pedality of soils at lower topographic positions might be due to finer fractions
(Shyampura et al., 1994). Similar type of aggregation was described by Pacharne et al.
(1996), Gabhane et al. (2006); Balapande et al. (2007), Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b) in
black soils.

4.2.1.6 Soil Texture

The texture of red and associated soils and black soils was markedly varying. The
texture of the red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5
and 6) was widely ranging from gravelly sandy loam (coarse) and sandy clay loam
(medium) in the surface horizons and sandy loam, sandy clay loam and sandy clay (fine) in
sub-surface horizons. As the red soils were derived from acidic coarse to medium grained
granite- gneissic parent material, the red soils were exhibiting these textural classes. Gupta
et al. (2003); Singh and Agarwal (2005); Rajeshwar and Mani (2013) reported similar
textural classes in Alfisols of Jabalpur, eastern part of Uttar Pradesh and Dindigal and
Sivaganga district of Tamil Nadu, respectively. This wide variation in soil texture was
caused by topographic position, nature of parent material, in-situ weathering, and
translocation of clay and age of the soils as explained by Vara Prasada Rao et al. (2008).

The distinguishing feature of the black soil textural class of fine earth fraction was
clay loam to clay (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12). The soil pedon (1, 9 and 12) have the finer textural
class throughout the depth. The texture was clayey. Where as in the pedon 7, the texture
was clay loam. The uniformity in texture was due to the argillopedoturbation operating in
the black soil profiles (Buol et al., 1998). Similar aggregate development was observed by
Marathe et al. (2003) and Balapande et al. (2007) in black soils of Maharashtra.

4.2.1.7 Soil Consistence

The consistence of red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils
(pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) varied from loose, slightly hard to hard, friable to firm and non-
sticky and non-plastic to slightly sticky and slightly plastic in dry, moist and wet
conditions, respectively. This physical behavior of soils influenced by dry, moist and wet
conditions was not only due to the textural make up but also due to type of clay minerals
present in these soils. The C horizon of all the pedons had shown non-sticky and non-
plastic or slightly sticky and slightly plastic consistence, which might be due to less amount
of clay. Similar findings were also reported by Thangasamy et al. (2005) in the soils of
Sivagiri micro-watershed of Andhrapradesh.

The horizons of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) exhibited sticky to plastic to very
sticky to very plastic, firm and hard to very hard in wet, moist and dry conditions,
respectively, which might be due to high clay content. Similar observations made by Sarkar
et al. (2001) in soils of lower outlier of Chhotanagpur plateau and Rajeshwar and Mani
(2013b) in black soils of Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu.

4.2.1.8 Vertic Features

Vertic properties like surface cracks ranging from 3-8 cm wide, slickensides,
microknolls and microridges were developed in the black soil pedons (1, 9 and 12).
Pressure faces were common in sub-surfaces horizon of black soil pedons (1, 9 and
12except pedon 7) and slickensides were observed from 52 and 55 cm of depth (Plate 4),
respectively and their thickness is more than 40 cm. Clay cutans were identified in the red
soils and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 and 14).Similar results were
reported by Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b)

4.2.1.9 Effervescences

Moderately strong to violent effervescences (Plate 4), were observed with dilute
HCl test in black soil pedons of 1, 7, 9 and 12 (Plate 5) while the effervescences were slight
to moderate in different horizons of red soil pedons of 8, 10,11, 13 and 14. Many calcium
carbonate nodules (calcrets) were formed in lower horizons of the pedons of 1, 7, 9 and 12.
No effervescence was observed in surface horizons and subsurface layers of red laterite soil
pedons (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Similar results were reported by Rajeshwar and Mani (2013) in
black soils of Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu.

4.2.1.10 Gilgai microrelief

The black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) had shown a prominent gilgai formation due
to wide deep surface cracks, the surface soil could have been sloughed off during rainy
season and swelling pressures developed in the lower layers pushed the peds upward which
leads the development of slickensides in the deeper horizons and mounds and depressions
on the surface. Similar observations were made by Subbaiah and Manickam (1992); Ashok
kumar and Jagadish Prasad (2010); Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b) in black soils of
Perambalur district of Tamil Nadu.

4.2.1.11 Concretions and nodules

Few lime concretions and nodules of different sizes were observed in the upper
layers of pedons 11, 13 and 14, while more CaCO3 concretions found in black soils (pedon
1, 9 and 13). The colour of CaCO3 concretions vary from pale brown to light grayish
white, small to bigger size (0.2mm to 8.0 cm diameter), hard irregular outlined found in
surface layers (Plate 6 & 7). The soft and easily separable lime nodules developed a zone of
accumulation below 150 to 178 cm (Pedon 1, 9 and 12). Similar observations were also
made by Singh et al. (2003). The uniform distribution of lime concretions (and pebbles) in
surface and subsurface horizon of black soils are observed. It may be probably due to the
localized movement of the sub-soil as described by Murthy et al. (1982).

4.2.1.12 Mottles

Red, reddish brown (Plate 8), brownish yellow to straw yellow and brownish black
mottles (Plate 9) were observed in the red laterite soil pedons (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) due to
periodic wetting and drying favored concretion formation and more permanent wetting leads to
mottling. Brownish yellow to straw yellow mottles were observed might be due to oxidation of
FeS2. The reddish mottles were composed predominantly of Fe whereas black mottles were
assumed due to manganese. Similar result was reported by Veneman et al. (1976) and
Diwakar and Singh (1994). The presence of concretions of Fe and Mn and of clay skins was
a common feature of all the red and red laterite soil pedons.

4.2.1.13 Subsurface hardening and insitu crusting

Sub surface hardening and gravelly hardened in-situ as crust was observed in red
laterite soil pedons (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) of the study area which leads the impedance to root
penetration and proliferation below plough layer (Plate 10&11). Shallow root system makes
the plant susceptible to drought during dry spells (Plate 12). In the second and third horizon
of all red laterite soil pedons mottles with evidence of enrichment of sesquioxide was
observed. The third and fourth horizon which overlies on the weathered parent rocks is
referred to as the pallid or leached zone (Plate 13). These soils are red in colour as it is
mixed with iron oxides and also used as building materials in Zaheerabad division of
Medak district (Plate 14&15), but the farmers practicing agriculture with the application of
huge amount of fertilizers.

Sub surface hard pan with high bulk density was observed in black soil pedon 1 and
12 where the penetration and proliferation roots are very few within 20-40 cm depth (Plate
16). This might be due to decades of cultivation practices of shallow ploughing and
migration of finer clays to deeper layers resulted in sub soil hard pan to some extent.

4.2.2 Physical properties

The data on fine earth fractions of the soil pedons are presented in Table 7. Among
different profiles, red and red laterite soil pedons recorded higher sand content, whereas
black soil pedons had higher clay content.

4.2.2.1 Clay

The clay content of the soils ranged from 13.2 per cent (pedon10) to 71.4 per cent (pedon
12) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons it ranged from 14.6 per cent (pedon
10) to 76.2 per cent (pedon 12). The distribution of clay varied widely both within the pedon and
among the pedons. Pedon 2, 3, 8, 10, 12, 13 and 14 showed increasing trends with increased soil
depth, while all other pedons showed irregular trend with soil depth.

The clay content of the soils ranged from 13.2 per cent (pedon13) to 32.4 per cent
(pedon 8) per cent in red soil pedons (8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) whereas in red laterite soil
pedons (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) clay content varied from 24.5 per cent (pedon 3) to 60.6(pedon 4)
per cent. The black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) clay content varied from 37.2 per cent
(pedon7) to 76.2 per cent (pedon12). Increase of clay up to certain depth and a decrease was
observed in pedon 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 11 due to the illuviation process occurring during soil
development. Similar observations were also made by Tripathi et al. (2006). The clay
content was found gradually increased in pedon 2, 3, 8, 12, 13 and 14. The increased clay content
with depth was an evidence of pedogenic development as their formation and distribution is time
dependent (Bhaskar et al., 2009). These variations could be attributed to the parent material,
topography, in situ weathering and / or pedogenesis. These results were in concurrence with
those of Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001); Gabhane et al. (2006) and Rajeshwar and Mani
(2013b) in red and black soils of northern Karnataka and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra
and Tamil Nadu respectively.The remaining pedon 10 showed irregular trend with soil depth

4.2.2.2 Silt

The silt content of the red soils (Pedon 8,10,11,13 and 14) varied from 4.1 (pedon
14) to 10.8 (pedon 10) per cent in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged
from. 4.6 (pedon 14) to 12.5 (pedon 14) per cent. In red laterite soil pedons, the silt content
varied from 5.6 (pedon 3) to 12.4 (pedon 4) per cent in surface horizons, whereas in
subsurface horizons ranged from 6.1 (pedon 3) to 18.3 (pedon 4) per cent. The silt content of
black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) varied from 16.5 (pedon 9) to 19.8 (pedon 1) percent,
where as in sub surface horizons ranged from 16.9 (pedon 9) to 20.1 (pedon 12) per cent.
There was a gradual increase in silt content with depth in pedons 11 and 12, 13 and 14.
Whereas reverse trend was noticed in pedon 2 and 10 and no uniform trend was observed in
the distribution pattern of silt content with depth in all other pedons. The silt content in
most of the pedons showed an irregular trend with soil depth. It might be due to coarse
nature of silt than clay, which restricts its movement with percolating water. This
corroborates the findings of Sharma et al. (2001) and Rajeshwar and Mani (2013).

4.2.2.3 Sand

The sand content was high in red soils and red laterite soils compared to black soils.
The sand content of red soils pedon (8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) varied from 72.3(pedon 11) to
75.1(pedon 14) per cent in surface horizons and 57.3 (pedon 14) to 77.1(pedon 10) per cent in
subsurface horizons. In the red laterite soils pedon (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) varied from 37.8 (pedon
2) to 68.4(pedon 3) per cent in surface horizons and in subsurface horizons 28.5 (pedon 4) to
53.2 (pedon 3) per cent. The sand content of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) varied from
10.3(pedon 12) to 41.2(pedon 7) per cent in surface horizon whereas, in subsurface horizon
3.6(pedon 12) to 43.2 (pedon 7) per cent. A decreasing trend in sand content with depth was
observed in pedon 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13 and 14, whereas an increasing trend was observed
in pedon 10. The remaining pedons did not exhibit any regular trend with depth in the
distribution pattern of sand fractions. This could be due to the translocation / migration of
finer particles into the lower layers and surface erosion. These observations were in
agreement with those of Bhaskar and Subbaiah (1995), Sarkar et al. (2001) and Monday et
al. (2003). The high sand content in pedon 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 were indicative of
high degree of transportation of fine fraction of the soil from higher topography to lower
topography.

4.2.2.4 Ratios of fine earth fractions

To confirm the presence or absence of lithological discontinuity among adjacent

horizons in different soil pedons, the ratios of fine earth fractions were computed (Table 8).
The red laterite soils (pedons 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) contained relatively higher sand / silt (1.56
(pedon 4) to 12.21(pedon 3)), silt / clay (0.12 (pedon 6) to 0.35 (pedon 4)) and sand / (silt +
clay) (0.40 (pedon 4) to 2.27 (pedon 3)) ratios followed by the red soils pedon 8, 10, 11, 13
and 14 (sand / silt (4.58 (pedon 14) to 18.32 (pedon 14)), silt / clay (0.19 (pedon 8) to 0.82
(pedon 10)) and sand / (silt + clay) (1.06 (pedon 13) to 3.38 (pedon 10)) and black soils
pedon 1, 7, 9 and12 had shown ratios of sand / silt (0.18 (pedon 12) to 2.45 (pedon 7)), silt /
clay (0.25 (pedon 12) to 0.50 (pedon 7)) and sand / (silt + clay) (0.04 (pedon 12) to 0.77
(pedon 7)). The silt clay ratio was found to be less than 0.5 in black soils and red laterite
pedons indicating the moderate weathering, whereas in red soils pedon silt clay ratio
ranging from 0.19 (pedon 8) to 0.82 (pedon 10) indicating the moderate to high weathering.
Similar finding was reported by Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b) in red, red laterite and black
soils of Tamil Nadu. The ratios of sand / silt silt / clay, sand / (silt + clay) were
comparatively higher in red soil pedons indicating the translocation and / or migration of
finer particles down the depth (Satyavathi and Reddy, 2003).
4.2.2.5 Gravel

Gravel content was observed in all the horizons and their distribution varied widely
with depth and among the pedons. The gravel content varied from 10.0 (pedon 12) to 35.6
(pedon 2) per cent in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 8.3
(pedon 1) to 67.8 (pedon 4) per cent. An increasing trend of gravel content with depth was
observed in the pedons 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14, whereas other pedon showed
irregular trend in gravel content with soil depth. The process like erosion and physical
weathering are responsible for different proportions of gravel content in the pedons. The
gravels of the red and red laterite soils were found to be very hard probably due to periodic
wetting and drying favored concretion formation and more permanent wetting leads to mottling
(Manickam et al., 1973); Rajeshwar and Mani (2013).

4.2.2.6 Bulk Density

The bulk density of the soils ranged from 1.38 Mg m-3 (pedon 8) to 1.56 Mg m-3
(pedon 1) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from1.39 Mg m-3 in
(pedon 8) to 1.68 Mg m-3 in (pedon 1). Bulk density increased with increasing depth in all
pedons except (pedon 7) showed irregular trend with soil depth. The increase in bulk
density with depth might be due to decrease in organic matter content, more compaction,
and less aggregation (Singh and Agarwal, 2005 and Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013). The
surface soils were less compact due to high organic matter content and more plant root
concentration (Coughlan et al., 1986). The Bss horizon of pedon 1, 9, and 12 had higher
bulk density than the surface and sub-surface horizons which may be due to high clay
content resulting in greater compaction in swelling clay soils (Ashok kumar and Jagadish
Prasad, 2010).

4.2.2.7 Maximum Water-Holding Capacity

The water holding capacity was found to vary from 19.0 per cent (pedon 4) to 48.0 per
cent (pedon 1) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 19.0 to 53.0
per cent in pedon 5 (red laterite soils) and pedon 9 (black soils) respectively.

The black soil pedons was recorded higher water-holding capacity (44.0 per cent
pedon 9 to 53.0 per cent pedon 9) followed by red soils (21.0 per cent pedon 13 to 41.0 per
cent pedon 8) and red laterite soils (19.0 per cent pedon 4 to 27.0 per cent pedon 3). The
water holding capacity showed increasing trend with soil depth in pedon 2, 3,9,11, 12, 13
and 14. The other pedons were exhibited an irregular trend with depth. In all the locations
these values showed increasing trend with increasing clay content in general. These types
of trends were in accordance with those of Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001) in Karnataka,
and Bhaskar et al. (2005) in red and black soils. The maximum water holding capacity in
all the soil pedons were in the order of black soils > red soils > red laterite soils Rajeshwar
and Mani (2013b).

4.2.2.8 Pore Space

The black soil pedons was recorded higher pore space (45.0 per cent pedon 12 to
62.0 per cent pedon 7) followed by laterite soils (39.0 per cent pedon 2 to 53.0 per cent
pedon 5) and red soils (38.0 per cent pedon 8 to 51.0 per cent pedon 13). A reduction in
porosity with depth was observed in pedons 1 might be due to soil compaction whereas
reverse trend was noticed in pedon 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. There was no trend in the
distribution pattern in other pedons. Similar trend was noticed by Rajeshwar and Mani
(2013b)

4.2.2.9 Volume Expansion

The black soil pedons was recorded higher volume of expansion (23.1 per cent
pedon 1 to 30.4 per cent pedon 9) followed by red soils (2.90 pedon 13 to 5.75 per cent pedon
13) and red laterite soils (2.88 per cent pedon 5 to 3.81 per cent pedon 4). The volume
expansion was high in black soil pedons might be due to presence smectite type of clay
minerals. The lower volume of expansion was found in red and red laterite soil pedon might
be due to presence of illitic or kaolinitic types of non expanding clay minerals showed
increasing trend with soil depth in pedon 2, 3,9,11, 12, 13 and 14. The maximum water
holding capacity in all the soil pedons were in the order of black soils > red soils > red
laterite soils.

4.2.2.10 Coefficient of Linear Extensibility (COLE)

The shrinkage and swelling phenomenon was exhibited only by black soils. Hence
coefficient of linear extensibility was determined for black soils pedon (1, 9 and 12). It
ranged from 0.13 (pedon 9) to 0.21 (pedon 1). The black soils fall in the category of very
high (greater than 0.09) swell-shrink class (Nayak et al., 2006). Generally COLE was
increased with amount of clay in black soil pedon (Ashok kumar and Jagadish Prasad, 2010
and Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013b).

4.2.3 Physico-Chemical Properties

The pedon wise physico-chemical properties of respective research stations are

described in (Table 9).

4.2.3.1 pH (1:2.5 Soil : Water)

Soil pH of the pedons showed wide variation with soil types. The black soil pedons was
recorded higher pH values (6.5 to 9.2) followed by red soils (5.3 to 7.5) and red laterite
soils (5.1 to 6.5). The pH value of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) found to vary from 6.5
(pedon 7) to 8.2 (pedon 1) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from
6.7 in pedon 7 to 9.2 in pedon 9. The pH value of red soil (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) ranged
from 6.5 (pedon 8) to 6.9 (pedon 11) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons
ranged from 6.0 in pedon 10 to 7.5 in pedon 11. The pH value of red Laterite soils (pedon 2,
3, 4, 5 and 6) ranged from 5.1 (pedon 5) to 6.0 (pedon 2) in surface horizons whereas in
subsurface horizons ranged from 5.6 in pedon 5 to 6.5 in pedon 4. The results showed that the
pedons of red laterite soils had lower pH values (moderately acidic to slightly acidic) followed
by slightly acidic to neutral range in red soils (slightly acidic to neutral) and higher pH values in
black soils ( neutral to strongly alkaline). Thangasamy et al. (2004 and 2005) and Gabhane
et al. (2006) reported similar trends of reaction in red and black soils of Andhra Pradesh
and Vidarbha region of Maharashtra, respectively.

The pH increased with depth in the pedon 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11 and 14 might be due to

increase in bases with depth and their complete downward leaching. The pedons 2, 10 and
13 showed decreasing trend which might be due to the chemical weathering which leads to
accumulation of exchangeable H+, Al3+, Fe and Al oxides and clay minerals (Bipul Deka et
al., 2009). The distribution was irregular in pedon 1, 2, 3, 7 and 12 which might be due to
downward movement of bases and they get adsorbed at different layers irregularly
(Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013). The lower pH values in surface layers of pedon 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12 and 14 which might be due to continuous removal of basic cations by crop
plants and leaching (Nagassa and Gebrekidan, 2003), movement of basic cations to deeper
layers (Singh and Agarwal, 2003) and / or due to precipitation of calcium carbonate
(Balapande et al., 2007).
 The pH value of red laterite soils ranged from 5.1 to 6.0 in surface horizons whereas
in subsurface horizons ranged from 5.5 to 6.5 and majority of these soils are moderately
acidic in soil reaction and appeared to be related with acidic parent materials and leaching
of bases such as calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium from the soil leading to high
hydrogen ion concentration caused by heavy precipitation during rainy season (Nayak et
al., 2002 and Rajeshwar and Mani, 2014).

4.2.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

The highest value of EC 0.40 dS m-1 was registered in pedon 9 and the lowest value
of 0.06 dS m-1 were recorded in pedon 6 indicating that these soils were non saline in nature.
The EC value of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) found to vary from 0.16 dS m-1 (pedon 12)
to 0.24 dS m-1 (pedon 1) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from
0.18 dS m-1 in (pedon 12) to 0.40 dS m-1 in pedon 9. The EC values of red soils (pedon 8, 10,
11, 13 and 14) ranged from 0.19 dS m-1 (pedon 8) to 0.24 (pedon 14) in surface horizons
whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 0.11 dS m-1 in pedon 10 to 0.29 in pedon 11.
The EC values of red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) ranged from 0.06 dS m-1 (pedon 6)
to 0.17 dS m-1 (pedon 2) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from
0.08 dS m-1 (pedon 5 and 4) to 0.13 dS m-1 in pedon 2. The EC was very low in red and red
laterite soils even in lower horizons because they were formed on relatively higher
elevations. The relatively high EC of black soils than red and red laterite soils could be due
to the location and the high clay content resulting in accumulation of soluble salts (Masri
Sitanggang et al., 2006 and Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013b). The EC gradually increased with
depth in majority of the pedons. This might be due to the leaching of electrolytes to the
lower depth and also due to foraging of nutrient ions by the vegetation in the surface layer.
These observations are in agreement with the findings of Renukadevi (2003). The EC
values suggesting low amount of soluble salts which could be attributed to loss of bases
(Sidhu et al., 1994) due to heavy rainfall during monsoon.

4.2.3.3 Organic Carbon (OC)

The organic carbon showed wide variation. The highest value of OC 8.4 g kg-1 was
registered in pedon 12 and the lowest value of 1.5 g kg-1 was recorded in pedon 6. The OC
value of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) found to vary from 6.6 g kg-1 (pedon 7) to 8.4 g kg-1
(pedon 12) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 1.7 g kg-1 in
pedon 1 to 6.7 g kg-1 in pedon 12. The OC values of red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14)
ranged from 4.3 g kg-1 (pedon 10) to 6.8 g kg-1 (pedon 14) in surface horizons whereas in
subsurface horizons ranged from 2.1 g kg-1 in pedon 8 to 5.2 in pedon 14.

The OC values of red Laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) ranged from 4.9 g kg-1
m-1 (pedon 2) to 5.7 g kg-1 (pedon 4) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons
ranged from 1.5 g kg-1 (pedon 6) to 4.9 g kg-1 in pedon 4. The depth wise distribution of
organic carbon showed a decreasing trend in all the pedons except pedon 7. The organic
carbon content ranged from low to medium in surface horizons of red and red laterite soils
OC could be attributed to the rapid oxidation and decomposition of added organic matter
under tropical condition (Saha et al., 1996, Mustapha et al., 2011). Higher organic carbon
content was recorded in surface soils as compared to subsurface soils.

The organic carbon content relatively higher in surface horizons than sub-surface
horizons in all the pedons and it decreased with depth. This was attributed to the addition of
farmyard manure and plant residues to surface horizons which resulted in higher organic
carbon content in surface horizons than that of lower horizons. These observations are in
accordance with results of Rajeshwar et al. (2009) and Rajeshwar and Mani (2013b).

4.2.3.4 Free Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

The calcium carbonate content of red laterite soils (pedons 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) was
absent. The red soil pedons (8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) having 1.3 per cent (pedon 10) to 3.2 per
cent (pedon 13) in surface horizons whereas, sub surface horizons 1.4 per cent (pedon 10) to
5.5 per cent (pedon 8). The CaCO3 content of black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) varying
from 2.8 per cent (pedon 7) to 7.8 per cent (pedon 12) in surface horizon and 3.2 per cent
(pedon 7) to 11.6 per cent (pedon 1) in subsurface horizon. The difference in the content
among red and black soils was due to the variation in elevation, drainage and parent
material. The content was relatively higher in deeper layers than in surface layers might be
due to the downward movement of it along with percolating water (pedogenic and / or
lithogenic) in soils of semi-arid regions ( Pal et al.,2000). The high CaCO3 content of black
soils might be due to the soil developed over basaltic weathered parent materials mixed
with calcareous murram on plain topography and had higher clay content resulting in the
accumulation of calcium carbonate (Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013b). Maji et al. (2005) stated
that increase in the calcium carbonate content down the depth was attributed to the leaching
of bicarbonate from upper layer during rainy season and their subsequent precipitation as
carbonate in the lower layer.

4.2.4 Exchangeable properties

4.2.4.1 Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The exchange capacity was higher in black soil pedons varied from 24.4 c mol (p+)
kg-1 (pedon 7) to 56.2 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface layers and 24.5 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 7) to 65.2 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12) in sub surface layers than in red soils pedons
varied from 7.8c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 10) to 16.1 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 11) in surface layers
and 11.1 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 10) to 20.1 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 8) in sub surface layers and
red laterite soil pedons varied from 7.7 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 4) to 11.5 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 4) in surface layers and 8.2 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 4) to 15.4 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 4)
in sub surface layers. Since CEC was the charge behaviour of soils, where clay was the
fundamental block contributing towards cation exchange, the high CEC of the black soils
was attributed to the high clay content and smectitic clay mineralogy (Pal and Deshpande,
1987). Confirming the above statement it showed the increasing trend of clay content with
depth. Similar results were reported by Rudramurthy and Dasog (2001) in red and black
soils of north Karnataka; Kadao et al. (2003) in black soils of Wardha region; Gabhane et
al. (2006) in balck soils of Vidarbha region; Balapande et al. (2007) in black soils of Nasik.

4.2.4.2 Ratio of CEC and Clay

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) values varied from 7.7 (pedon 5) to 15.5 c mol
(p+) kg-1 (pedon 4) in red laterite soils pedons whereas CEC/clay ratio ranged from 0.16
(pedon 2) to 0.46 (pedon 3). The CEC of the red laterite soils was quite low despite high clay
content indicating that the dominance of low activity clay minerals. The CEC values were
ranged from 7.8 (pedon 10) to 20.1 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 8) in red soil pedons whereas
CEC/clay ratios were found to vary from 0.43 (pedon 11) to 0.77 (pedon 10). In black soil
pedons, the CEC values were ranged from 24.4 (pedon 7) to 65.2 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12)
and CEC/clay ratios were found to vary from 0.58 (pedon 7) to 0.86 (pedon 12). The CEC
values are indicating that the black soils are less weathered than the red soils and red
laterite soils. Higher values of CEC/clay ratio indicate the less weathered nature of the
soils with weatherable primary minerals (Buol et al., 1998).
4.2.4.3 Exchangeable bases

4.2.4.3.1 Exchangeable Calcium

Soil exchange complex was dominated with Ca in all the pedons compared to other
exchangeable cations. The Exchangeable Calcium was higher in black soil pedons varied
from 11.4 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 7) to 25.2 (pedon 12) in surface layers and 12.2 (pedon 7)
to 30.9 (pedon 12) in sub surface layers than in red soils pedons ( 3.1 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon
10) to 8.2 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 13) in surface layers and 5.5 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 10) to 9.5
c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 11) in sub surface layers) and red laterite soil pedons varied from 1.1 c
mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 5) to 2.4 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 4) in surface layers and 1.5 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 2) to 3.0 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 6) in sub surface layers. In general, exchangeable Ca
content increased with depth in pedons 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. Whereas it
decreased with depth in pedon 2, 4 and 9. There was no regular pattern of distribution with
depth was noticed in pedon 1 and 8.

4.2.4.3.2 Exchangeable Magnesium

The Exchangeable magnesium higher in black soil varied from 6.0 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 7) to 16.3 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 12) in surface layers and 8.4 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 9)
to 20.6 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 12) in sub surface layers than in red soils pedons (2.0 c mol (p+)
kg-1 in pedon 10) to 4.9 c mol (p+) kg-1 in pedon 11 in surface layers and 2.7 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 14) to 6.8 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 11) in sub surface layers) and red laterite soil pedons
0.9 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 5) to 1.8 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 4) in surface and 0.9 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 4) to 1.9 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 3) in sub surface layers. Pedons 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12 and
14 showed increasing trend with soil depth, while in the other pedons did not show a clear
trend with depth.

4.2.4.3.3 Exchangeable Sodium

The exchangeable sodium was higher in black soils varied from (1,7,9 and 12)
varied from 0.7 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 9) to 0.81 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface layers
and 0.8 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 9) to 1.13 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12) in sub surface layers. In the
red soils pedons (8,10,11,13 and 14) the exchangeable sodium ranged from 0.1 c mol (p+)
kg-1 (pedon 10) to 0.14 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 8) in surface layers and 0.10 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 10) to 0.25 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 13) in sub surface layers.
 The red laterite soil pedons (2,3,4,5 and6) exchangeable sodium ranged from 0.10 c
mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 2) to 0.14 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 3) in surface and 0.10 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 2) to 0.16 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 3) in sub surface layers. The exchangeable Na content
increased with depth in pedons 1, 2, 5, 6. 7, 13 and 14. In the rest of the pedons, the depth
wise distribution was irregular.

4.2.4.3.4 Exchangeable Potassium

The exchangeable potassium higher in black soils varied from 0.5 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 9) to 0.80 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface layers and 0.2 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 9) to
1.6 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 1) in sub surface layers than in red soils pedons (0.3 c mol (p+) kg-1
(pedon 11) to 0.96 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 13) in surface layers and 0.2 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 10)
to 0.6 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 13) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons (0.45 c mol
(p+) kg-1 (pedon 4) to 0.96 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 3) in surface and 0.37 c mol (p+) kg-1 (pedon 3)
to 0.87 c mol (p+) kg-1(pedon 6) in sub surface layers.

The pedon 3, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14 shows that the exchangeable K content
decreased with depth and an increasing pattern was recorded in pedons 8. The remaining
pedons showed inconsistent pattern with depth. The exchangeable cations were found to be
low in red laterite soils when compared to red soils.

The exchangeable bases in the black and red soil pedons were in order of Ca+2 >
Mg+2 > Na+ > K+ on the exchange complex. From the distribution of Ca+2 and Mg+2, it is
evident that Ca+2 shows the strongest relationship with all the species, comparing these ions
(Ca+2, Mg+2, K+ and Na+) it was clear that Mg+2 was present in low amount than Ca+2
because of its higher mobility. These results are in conformity with findings of Thangasamy
et al., (2005). The exchangeable cations of red laterite soils (pedons 6 to 13), the
exchangeable bases were in order Ca+2 > Mg+2 > K+ > Na+. Low exchangeable Na and K
percentage was noticed in all the pedons as the exchange complex was dominated by
divalent cations like Ca and Mg.

4.2.4.4 Base Saturation (BS)

The BS was higher in black soil pedons ranged from 75.0 per cent (pedon 7) to 87.4
per cent (pedon 9) in surface layers and 60.69 per cent (pedon 9) to 87.40 per cent (pedon 9) in
sub surface layers. This could be due to the dominance of smectitic type of clays and
moderate to strongly alkaline reaction. The high CEC of black soils was attributed to the
smectitic clay mineralogy (Pal and Deshpande, 1987). These results were in accordance
with the findings of Singh and Agarwal (2005) and Gabhane et al. (2006).

The BSP in red soils pedons was low to high and ranged from 62.50 per cent (pedon
10) to 85.09 per cent (pedon 11) in surface layers and 58.36 per cent (pedon 8) to 95.52 per
cent (pedon 13) in sub surface layers might be due to either mixed or illitic mineralogy in
clay fraction.

The BSP was low to medium in red laterite soil pedons ranged from 28.66 per cent
(pedon 6) to 53.48 per cent (pedon 4) in surface and 21.17 per cent (pedon 4) to 49.25 per cent
(pedon 2) in sub surface layers might be due to kaolinite mineralogy in clay fraction and
moderately acidic to slightly acidic reaction.

An increasing trend with increased depth was noticed in pedons 10, while a reverse
trend was observed in pedon 2, 4 and 9. The base saturation increased up to certain depth
and then decreased in pedon 5, 6, 8, 11 and 12. Other pedons did not exhibit any regular
pattern of distribution. These results were in accordance with the findings of Singh and
Agarwal (2005) and Gabhane et al. (2006).

4.2.4.5 Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP)

The ESP was ranges between 0.57 in pedon7 and 1.80 in pedon 9 in surface
horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 0.50 per cent in pedon 7 to 2.82
percent in pedon 9.

The ESP of black soil pedons ranged from 0.57 (pedon 7) to 1.80 (pedon 9 ) in
surface layers and 0.57 (pedon 7 ) to 2.82 ( pedon 9) in sub surface layers where as in red and
red laterite soils ranged from 0.62 (pedon 11) to 1.14 (pedon 10) and 0.87 (pedon 6) to
1.30 (pedon 5) in surface layers and 0.66 (pedon 10) to 1.48 (pedon 13) and 0.74 (pedon 6)
to 1.57 (pedon 4) in sub surface layers respectively.

The pedons 1, 11 and 13 was found to follow an increasing trend with the increase
in depth for ESP and the pedons 2, and 3 exhibited decreasing trend. All other pedons
exhibited an irregular distribution pattern with the increase in depth. Similar observations
reported by Patel et al. (2012).
4.2.4.6 Sodium absorption Ratio (SAR)

The SAR was ranges between 0.03 (pedon11) to 0.58 (pedon 3) in surface horizons,
whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 0.03 (pedon10) to 0.80 (pedon 2). The SAR of
black soil pedons ranged from 0.04(pedon1) to 0.14 (pedon12) in surface layers and 0.04
(pedon 7) to 0.28 (pedon 9) in sub surface layers where as in red and red laterite soils ranged
from 0.03 (pedon11) to 0.05 (pedon10) and 0.25 (pedon 4) to 0.58 (pedon 3) in surface
layers and 0.03 (pedon10) to 0.08 (pedon13) and 0.20 (pedon 3) to 0.80 (pedon 2) in sub
surface layers respectively.

The pedons 1, 7, 11, 12 and 13 were found to follow an increasing trend with the
increase in depth for SAR and the pedons 3 exhibited decreasing trend. All other pedons
exhibited an irregular distribution pattern with the increase in depth.

4.2.5 Soil Fertility Status

The pedon wise fertility status of respective research stations are described in (Table
10).

4.2.5.1 Available Nitrogen

The available nitrogen content of the pedons was low to medium and varied from
246.0 kg ha-1(pedon 4) to 297.0 (pedon 7) kg ha-1 in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface
horizons ranged from 88 kg ha-1 (pedon 4) to 253 kg ha-1 (pedon 9) (low).

The availability of nitrogen in black soil is varied from 289 kg ha-1(pedon 1) to 297
kg ha-1(pedon 7) in surface layers and 88.0 kg ha-1(pedon 9) to 253.0 kg ha-1 (pedon 9) in sub
surface layers. The available N in red soils pedons ranged from 256 kg ha-1(pedon 10) to 276
kg ha-1(pedon 14) in surface layers and 92 kg ha-1 (pedon 14) to 232 kg ha-1(pedon 13) in
sub surface layers and in red laterite soil pedons ranged from 246.0 kg ha-1 (pedon 4) to 276
kg ha-1 (pedon 2) in surface layers and 88.0 kg ha-1 (pedon 4) to 193 kg ha-1(pedon 2) in sub
surface layers. The available N content was found to be relatively high in surface horizons
and decreased in sub surface horizons, which might possibly be due to decreasing trend of
organic carbon with depth. These observations are in accordance with the findings of
Rajeshwar et al. (2009).
4.2.5. 2. Available Phosphorus

The available P content of soils was medium to high in black and red soils (pedon 1,
7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14) when compared to red laterite soils. The available phosphorus
content of the pedons varied from 16.3 kg ha-1(pedon 11) to 58.94 kg ha-1(pedon 12) in
surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 8.11 (pedon 7) to 39.30 kg
ha-1 (pedon 9) where the soil pH is 7.0 (Olsen method followed for estimation of P in
neutral and calcareous soils). The reason for higher P in surface horizon might possibly be
the confinement of crop cultivation to the rhizosphere and supplementing of the depleted
phosphorus through external sources i.e. fertilizers. Similar results were reported by
Thangasamy et al. (2005); Rajeshwar et al.(2009)

The available phosphorus content was low to medium in red laterite soils pedons
varied from 20.4 (pedon 4) to 36.9 kg ha-1 (pedon 3) in surface horizons, whereas in
subsurface horizons ranged from 10.0 kg ha-1 (pedon 4) to 22.6 kg ha-1 (pedon 6) (Brays
method followed for estimation of available P where the soil pH is less than 6.5). The
availability of P in laterite soils was low which might be due to due to low CEC, clay
content and low pH of these soils causes P fixation with Fe or Al ions and hydroxides
resulting in deficiency of phosphorus in the form of insoluble compound of Al2(H2PO4)3
and FeH2PO4. The results are in conformity with the findings of Pandey et al (2000).
However, relatively higher available P was observed in the surface horizons and decreased
regularly with depth. Similar results were reported by Rajeshwar and Mani, 2013)

4.2.5.3. Available Potassium

The available potassium content of the pedons was high and ranged from 285 kg ha-
1
(pedon 5) to 415 kg ha-1(pedon 9) in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons, it
ranged from 121 kg ha-1(pedon 3) to 395 kg ha-1(pedon 9) (low).

The availability of potassium in black soils was varied from 310 kg ha-1(pedon 7)
to 415 kg ha-1 (pedon 9) in surface layers and 181 kg ha-1(pedon 7) to 395 kg ha-1 (pedon 9) in
sub surface layers. The available K in red soils pedons 356 kg ha-1 (pedon 8) to 409 kg ha-1
(pedon 13) in surface layers and 195 kg ha-1(pedon 14) to 379 kg ha-1(pedon 13) in sub
surface layers and red laterite soil pedons (285 kg ha-1(pedon 5) to 384 kg ha1 (pedon 3) in
surface layers and 121 kg ha-1(pedon 3) to 321 kg ha-1 (pedon 2) in sub surface layers.
 The highest available K content was noticed in the surface horizons and showed
decreasing trend with depth in all the pedons. The available K was more in surface horizons
could be attributed to release of labile - K from organic residues, application of K fertilizers
and upward translocation of K from lower depths along with capillary rise of ground water.
Similar results were reported by Pal and Mukhopadyay (1992) and Rajeshwar et al. (2009).

4.2.5.4. Available Sulphur

The available sulphur content of the pedons was high and varied from 16.22 mg kg-1
(pedon 10) to 51.21 mg kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons
ranged from 5.56 kg ha-1 (pedon 6) to 31.98 mg kg-1(pedon 9).

The availability of sulphur in black soils is varied from 30.56 mg kg-1 (pedon 7) to
51.21 mg kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface layers and 6.23 mg kg-1 (pedon 9) to 31.98 mg kg-1(pedon
9) in sub surface layers. The available S in red soil pedons varied from 16.22 mg kg-1 (pedon

10) to 32.12 mg kg-1 (pedon 11) in surface layers and 8.62 mg kg-1(pedon 10) to 29.01 mg
kg-1(pedon 11) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons (16.63 mg kg-1 (pedon 4) to
21.35 mg kg-1(pedon 5) in surface layers and 5.56 mg kg-1 (pedon 5) to 20.78 mg kg-1(pedon
5) in sub surface layers.

The availability of S was more in surface horizon than the subsurface horizons
might be due to soil sulphur is continuously cycled between inorganic and organic forms of
sulphur (Ghosh et al., 2012). Similarly, the organic sulphur is also in equilibrium with
inorganic counterpart and if there is any decline in inorganic SO4-S level by means of crop
uptake or leaching loss, it will be adequately replenished by the organic fraction (Pasricha
and Fox, 1993).

Surface layers contained more available sulphur content than sub-surface layers
which could be due to higher amount of organic matter in surface layers than in deeper
layers. Similar type of results was observed by Rao et al. (2008).

4.2.6 Available micronutrients

4.2.6.1 Available Zinc

The DTPA extractable Zn content in all the pedons varied from 0.49 mg kg-1(pedon
6) to 1.65 mg kg-1(pedon 5) in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged
from 0.20 mg kg-1(pedon 6) to 0.80 mg kg-1(pedon 7).
 The availability of Zn in black soil pedons varied from 0.86 mg kg-1(pedon 1) to
1.36 mg kg-1(pedon 9) in surface layers and 0.23 mg kg-1(pedon 9) to 0.80 mg kg-1 (pedon 7)
in sub surface layers. The available Zn in red soils pedons varied from 0.55 mg kg-1(pedon
10) to 0.69 mg kg-1(pedon 10) in surface layers and 0.21 mg kg-1 (pedon 10) to 0.58 mg kg-
1
(pedon 13) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons ranged from 0.49 mg kg-1
(pedon 6) to 1.65 mg kg-1 (pedon 5) in surface layers and 0.20 mg kg-1 (pedon 6) to 0.62 mg
kg-1(pedon 5) in sub surface layers.

The available zinc content decreased with the depth in all pedons. The availability
was more in surface soils which might be due to accumulation of comparatively more
amount of organic matter and supplementing ZnSO4 through external sources. Similar
results were reported by Jalali et al., (1989), Nayak et al., (2000) and Rajeshwar et al.,
(2009). Considering 0.6 ppm as critical limit, 36.4 per cent of soils were found deficit in
available zinc.

4.2.6.2 Available Copper

The DTPA extractable Cu content in all the pedons varied from 0.94 mg kg-1(pedon
7) to 2.80 mg kg-1(pedon 8) in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged
from 0.36 mg kg-1(pedon 14) to 2.60 mg kg-1(pedon 1).

The availability of Cu in black soil pedons varied from 0.94 mg kg-1(pedon 7) to

2.63 mg kg-1(pedon 1) in surface layers and 0.38 mg kg-1(pedon 7) to 2.60 mg kg-1(pedon 1)
in sub surface layers. The available Cu in red soils pedons varied from 1.81 mg kg-1(pedon
10) to 2.80 mg kg-1 (pedon 8) in surface layers and 0.36 mg kg-1 (pedon 14) to 1.63 mg kg-
1
(pedon 11) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons ranged from 1.03 mg kg-
1
(pedon 4) to 1.98 mg kg-1(pedon 5) in surface layers and 0.50 mg kg-1(pedon 6) to 1.81 mg
kg-1(pedon 2) in sub surface layers.

A decreasing trend with depth was noticed in all the pedons except 1, 3, 6, 11 and
12, which were showing irregular trend with depth. The available copper was more in
surface layers and decreases with depth.

The available copper was more in surface layers and decreases with depth. Dipak
Sarkar and Sahoo (2000) and Rajeshwar et al. (2009) also reported similar findings. As per
the critical limit of 0.2 ppm (Lindsay and Norvel, 1978), all soils were well above the
critical limit.
4.2.6.3 Available Manganese

The available Mn content of all the pedons varied from 7.16 (pedon 10) to 20.15 mg
kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 4.26 mg
kg-1 (pedon 13) to 24.26 mg kg-1 (pedon 5).

The availability of Mn in black soil pedons varied from 7.69 mg kg-1 (pedon 1) to
13.80 mg kg-1 (pedon 12) in surface layers and 4.8 mg kg-1 (pedon 12) to 11.1 mg kg-1(pedon
12) in sub surface layers. The available Mn in red soils pedons varied from 7.16 mg kg-1
(pedon 10) to 10.88 mg kg-1(pedon 8) in surface layers and 2.19 mg kg-1 (pedon 11) to 9.80
mg kg-1(pedon 8) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons ranged from 13.93 mg kg-1
(pedon 6) to 20.15 mg kg-1 (pedon 5)in surface layers and 8.63 mg kg-1 (pedon 6) to 24.26 mg
kg-1(pedon 5) in sub surface layers.

A decreasing trend with depth was noticed in pedons 2, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13 and 14 and
the remaining pedons showing irregular trend with depth. The remaining pedons showing
irregular trend with depth where decrease in manganese content up to certain depth and
decreased in its bottom layer. The higher Mn status in the surface soils may be attributed to
the lower oxidation, acidic nature of the soils and also due to the release of chelated Mn
from the organic compounds. Similar findings were reported by Sharma and Chaudhary
(2007), Rajeshwar and Ariff Khan (2007) and Arokiyaraj et al., (2011). All the soils
analyzed well above the critical limit of 2ppm (Lindsay and Norvel 1978).

4.2.6.4 Available Iron

The DTPA extractable Fe content ranged from 7.66 (pedon 8) to 25.30 mg kg-1
(pedon 5) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 3.27 mg kg-1
(pedon 8) to 24.60 mg kg-1 (pedon 5).

The availability of Fe in black soil pedons varied from 8.94 mg kg-1(pedon 1) to

15.8 mg kg-1(pedon 7) in surface layers and 3.27 mg kg-1(pedon 1) to 14.4 mg kg-1(pedon 7)
in sub surface layers. The available Fe in red soils pedons varied from 7.66 mg kg-1(pedon 8)
to 15.96 mg kg-1(pedon 14) in surface layers and 3.27 mg kg-1(pedon 8) to 14.60 mg kg-1
(pedon 14) in sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons ranged from 18.18 mg kg-1
(pedon 6) to 25.30 mg kg-1 (pedon 5) in surface layers and 13.9 mg kg-1(pedon 5) to 24.60
mg kg-1 (pedon 5) in sub surface layers. A decreasing trend with depth was noticed in pedons
1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. The pedon 4, 7 and 9 showed irregular trend with
depth.

It was high in the surface horizon when compared to the subsurface layers which
might be due to accumulation of humic material in the surface soils besides prevalence of
reduced conditions in subsurface soils. The findings were in agreement with the findings of
Prasad and Sakal (1991). As per the critical limit of 4.0 ppm (Lindsay and Norvel, 1978),
all soils were well above the critical limit.

4.2.6.5 Available Boron

The hot water soluble B content varied from 0.51 (pedon 2) to 1.99 mg kg-1 (pedon
9 and 5) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 0.18 mg kg-1
(pedon 2) to 1.86 mg kg-1 (pedon 7).

The availability of B in black soil pedons varied from 1.85 mg kg-1 (pedon 1) to 1.99
mg kg-1(pedon 9) in surface layers and 0.39 mg kg-1(pedon1) to 1.74 mg kg-1(pedon 7) in sub
surface layers. The available B in red soils pedons varied from 1.66 mg kg-1(pedon 14) to 1.86
mg kg-1(pedon 11) in surface layers and 1.33 mg kg-1 (pedon 14) to 1.71 mg kg-1(pedon 8) in
sub surface layers and red laterite soil pedons ranged from 0.51 mg kg-1(pedon 2) to 0.61 mg
kg-1(pedon 6) in surface layers and 0.18 mg kg-1(pedon 2) to 0.59 mg kg-1(pedon 4) in sub
surface layers may be due to parent material.

A decreasing trend with depth was noticed in all the pedons and it was high in the
surface horizons when compared to the sub surface horizons which might be due to
accumulation of organic matter.

4.3 Clay Mineralogy

The dominance of smectite type clay was also confirmed by the CEC / clay ratio.
The CEC /clay ratios of these black soils were high (0.58 to 0.86). It indicates the presence
of smectitic type of clay minerals. Similar type of clay mineralogy in black soils was
reported by Rudramurthy et al. (1997), Ratnam et al. (2001), Kadao et al. (2003), Nayak et
al. (2006) and Balapande et al. (2007).

The black soils (1, 7, 9 and 12) were formed at lower topographic positions (nearly
level plains to gently sloping). The soluble weathering products including finer soil
constituents, calcium carbonate and basic cations and eroded products from surrounding
slopes had moved laterally and vertically down the slope and accumulated at the plain
topography. Because of the slow permeability, low hydraulic conductivity and restricted
drainage of the black soils formed at lower topography these constituents were
accumulating in the profile and not leached / removed out of the profile. Because of the
semi-arid type of climate, the ionic environment was concentrated by basic cations and the
base saturation was very high (60.69 to 87.40 per cent). At the same time there was
precipitation and deposition of calcium carbonate resulted either pedogenically or
lithogenically. The texture of these soils was very heavy (clay textural class). Because of
these conditions, the soil reaction was moderately to strongly alkaline (pedon 1, 9, and 12).
Thus, the soil environment had created a favourable pathway for the synthesis of smectite
type of clay minerals. Formation of smectite took place under such congenial conditions in
black soils of Karanataka (Rudramurthy et al., 1997).

The CEC /clay ratios of these red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were also
medium to high in range (0.43 to 0.77). The CEC / clay ratios of these red soils also
indicated the mixed or illitic mineralogy, where the presence of secondary clay minerals
such as kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite more or less in equal range. Similar findings
were were reported by Sarkar et al. (2001), Thangasamy et al. (2004) and Singh and
Agarwal (2005) in the clay fraction of red soils / Alfisols. The illite might have been
inherited from the parent material (Mall and Mishra, 2000; Singh and Sawhney, 2006). The
geology of the study area was granitic gneiss complex (Rao et al., 1995). Granitic gneiss
was an acid rock containing some mica as essential mineral. Transformation / alteration of
mica (primary mineral) of parent rock into illite (secondary mineral) were possible (Sehgal
et al., 1974).

The CEC /clay ratios of these red laterite soils (pedon 2,3,4,5 and 6) were low to in
range (0.16 to 0.46). The CEC / clay ratios of these red laterite soils also indicated the
presence secondary clay mineral such as kaolinite. Direct conversion of mica to kaolinite
might be one of the causes for the synthesis of kaolinite (Singh and Agarwal, 2005).
According to Verma et al. (1994), acid leaching and tropical climate were favourable for
the formation of kaolinite. The kaolinite clays might have been formed in the earlier
tropical humid climate and preserved or persisted in the present semi-arid climate (Agarwal
and Singh, 1995).

Sehgal (1996) suggested the intensity or the stage of weathering of soils based on
the clay minerals present in the soil clay fraction. According the weathering index of clay
size minerals (Jackson, 1964), montmorillonite was 9th while kaolinite was 10th stage of
weathering. Black soils (dominated by montmorillonite type of minerals) were grouped
under intermediate weathering stage, while, red laterite soils because of the significant
proportion of kaolinite could be grouped under advanced weathering stage according to the
stages in weathering of soil minerals as suggested by Sehgal (1996).

Black soils were having relatively high CEC/clay ratios followed by red and red
laterite soils. Hence, the black soils were comparatively less weathered than red and red
laterite soils. Similar conclusions were drawn by Satyavathi and Reddy (2003) after
studying the red and black soils of Telangana region. Singh and Agarwal (2005) recognized
advanced stage of development of Alfisols of eastern region of Uttar Pradesh.

4.4 Soil Classification

Sugar cane growing soils of Medak district were classified based on morphological,
physical, physico-chemical, chemical and meteorological data, according to revisions of
USDA Soil Taxonomy (2010). At the highest category (order), the presence or absence of
diagnostic horizons which are indications of pedogenic processes are considered. At sub-
order level, the moisture and temperature regimes were used. At lower categories (great
group, family etc.) mineralogy, texture, soil chemical properties and drainage are
considered. The soils of the study area were characterized and classified into four soil
orders viz., Alfisols, Vertisols, Inceptisols and Entisols as discussed in detail below (Table
11).

Vertisols

The pedons 1, 9 and 12 were classified under Vertisols because of the following
features.

A layer of 25 cm or more thick, with an upper boundary with in 100 cm of the

mineral soil surface.
 Clayey texture, more than 30 per cent clay in fine earth fraction throughout the
depth
Gilgai micro-relief (micro-knolls and micro-ridges) on the surface
Distinct intersecting slickensides in lower horizons
Cracks of greater than 1 cm width which remained open and close periodically to
the surface from a depth of more than 40 cm and
Absence of lithic or paralithic contact, duripan, petrocalcic horizon within 50 cm
from the surface.

Based on these characters, the soils were grouped under order Vertisols.

At sub order level

As the moisture regime is Ustic, have cracks in normal years that are 5 mm or more
wide, through a thickness of 25 cm or more within 50 cm of the mineral soil surface, for 90
or more cumulative days per year, the pedons 1, 9 and 12 were classified as Usterts at sub
order level.

At great group level

The pedons 1, 9 and 12 were classified as Haplusterts at great group level because
the pedons did not have either salic, gypsic and petrocalcic horizons with in 100 cm depth.
The pedons had EC less than 4 dS m-1 and pH more than 4.5. Similarly, Walia and Rao
(1997) and Singh et al. (1998) classified the black soils of Trans - Yamuna plain and
alluvial soils of Bihar as Haplusterts.

At sub group level

The pedons 1, 9 and 12 were further placed under the Typic Haplusterts at sub
group level classification because these pedons had deep cracks that remained open for
more than 150 cumulative days most years. Surekha et al. (1997) taxonomically classified
some Vertisols of Andhra Pradesh as Chromic / Typic Haplusterts. Prasad et al. (2001)
classified the typical swell-shrink orange supporting soils of Nagapur district as Typic
Haplusterts.
At Family Category level

The pedon 1 and 12 had clay content more than 60 per cent on weighted average in
fine earth fraction. Hence, it was qualified for Very fine particle size class. The pedon 9
had clay content less than 60 per cent on weighted average in fine earth fraction. Hence
qualified for fine particle size class and showed relative dominance of smectite mineral.
Hence the clay mineralogical class of these pedons was smectitic. Sehgal (1996)
recognized April, May and June as summer months and October, November and December
as winter months for the places between 80 and 260 N latitude. As per these criteria, the
difference between mean summer and winter temperatures was less than 60 C and the mean
annual soil temperature was more than 220 C. Therefore, the study area was classified as
iso- hyperthermic temperature regime.

Alfisols

The pedon 2, 3,4,5,6, 8, 11, 13 and 14 were classified under Alfisols because of the
presence of an argillic horizon. The argillic horizon was identified by the following
features.
Sandy clay loam to sandy clay and clayey texture
Illuvial accumulation of clay
Thickness of horizon was more than 7.5 cm
Presence of argillans (clay cutans) and
The base saturation was more than 35 per cent.

Based on the presence of argillic horizon in sub-surface, pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 and

14 were kept under the order Alfisol.

At sub order level

As the moisture regime is Ustic, the pedons 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 13 and 14 were

classified as Ustalfs at sub order level.

At great group level

The pedons 4 and 5 were classified as Rhodustalfs at great group level because of
following features:
 Presence of an argillic horizon in the upper 100 cm and or
Throughout the argillic horizon, the soil colors have Hue of 2.5YR and Value of 2.5
to 3 under moist condition and have Hue of 2.5YR and Value of 4 under dry
condition.

At great group level

The pedons 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 13 and 14 were classified as Haplustalfs at great group

level because of following features:
Presence of an argillic horizon.
Absence of natric horizon, petro calcic horizon, duripan and plinthite horizons.
Similar results were reported by Mahapatra et al. (2000).

At sub group level

The pedon 11and 13 classified as Lithic Haplustalfs at sub group level due to lithic
contact within 50 cm of the mineral soil surface. The pedon 4 and 5 classified as Kanhaplic
Rhodustalfs at sub group level because of Rhodustalfs that do not have a lithic contact
within 50 cm of the mineral soil surface and have a CEC of less than 24 c mol (p+) kg clay
(by 1N NH4OAc pH 7).
The pedons 2, 3 and 6 classified as Ultic Haplustalfs at sub group level due to a base
saturation (by sum of cations) of less than 75 percent throughout depth of pedon. The pedon
8 and 14 was classified as Typic Haplustalfs at sub group due to presence of argillic
horizon and that do not have a lithic contact within 50 cm of the mineral soil surface

At Family Category level

The pedons 2, 4, 5 and 6 had showed 35 percent or more (by volume) rock
fragments and clay content more than 35 per cent on weighted average in fine earth
fraction. Hence qualified for clayey-skeletal particle size class. The pedon 3 had showed
less than 35 percent (by volume) rock fragments and clay content more than 35 per cent on
weighted average in fine earth fraction. Hence qualified for Clayey particle size class.

The pedons 8, 11 and 13 had showed less than 35 percent (by volume) rock
fragments and clay content less than 35 per cent on weighted average in fine earth fraction.
Hence qualified for Loamy particle size class. The pedon 14 had showed 35 percent or
more (by volume) rock fragments and clay content less than 35 per cent on weighted
average in fine earth fraction. Hence qualified for Loamy-skeletal particle size class.

The April, May and June are summer months and October, November and
December as winter months for the places between 80 and 260 N latitude. As per these
criteria, the difference between mean summer and winter temperatures was less than 60 C
and the mean annual soil temperature was more than 220 C. Therefore, the study area was
classified as Iso- hyperthermic temperature regime. The red soils of Sivagiri watershed of
Andhra Pradesh were placed under taxonomic units fine-loamy, mixed / kaolinitic,
isohyperthermic, Typic Rhodustalf / Haplustalf (Thangasamy et al., 2005).

Inceptisols

The pedon 7 was classified under the order Inceptisols based on the presence of
cambic subsurface horizon. In these pedons the subsurface horizons were recognized as
cambic horizons because of the following features
A texture of loamy very fine sand or finer.
Absence of rock structure in one half or more of its volume.
In these pedons the subsurface horizons were recognized as cambic horizons.
Thangasamy et al. (2005) also observed similar type of features in soils of Sivagiri micro
watershed of Chittoor district. Similar results were noted by Sarkar et al. (2002) in soils of
Loktak Catchment area of Manipur.

At sub order level

As the moisture regime is Ustic, the pedon 7 was classified as Ustepts at sub order
level.

At great group level

The pedon 7 was classified as Haplustepts at great group level because the base
saturation is more than 60 per cent at a depth between 0.2 to 0.6 m from the soil surface.
These characters indicated that these pedons confirmed to the central concept of Ustepts.
So, these pedon grouped under Haplustepts at great group level.
At sub group level

The pedon 7 was classified as Vertic Haplustepts at sub group level, due to presence
of cracks within 125 cm of the mineral soil surface that are 5mm or more wide through a
thickness of 30 cm or more for some time in normal years and slickensides or wedge
shaped peds in a layer 15 cm or more thick that has its upper boundary within 125 cm of
the mineral soil surface.

At Family Category level

The pedon 7 had showed clay content more than 35 per cent on weighted average in
fine earth fraction. Hence qualified for fine particle size class. The April, May and June
are summer months and October, November and December as winter months for the places
between 80 and 260 N latitude. As per these criteria, the difference between mean summer
and winter temperatures was less than 60 C and the mean annual soil temperature was more
than 220 C. Therefore, the study area was classified as iso- hyperthermic temperature
regime. Prakash and Rao (2002) classified the red soils of Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh
under loamy, mixed, isohyperthermic, Lithic Haplustepts.

Entisols

The pedon 10 was classified under Entisols because of the slight degree of soil
formation and presence of less than 30 per cent clay in sub horizons within depth of 50 cm
and do not have gilgai micrirelief, wedge shaped natural aggregates and silken sides close
enough to intersect (Ahuja et al., 1997).

At sub order level

The presence of lithic contact that is shallower depth than 25 cm and above 1 m,
having an organic carbon content decrease with increasing depth and reaches a level of 0.2
per cent at a depth of 1.25 m, not permanently saturated with water and do not have
characteristics associated with wetness, hence placed under the Orthents at sub order level.
At great group level

As the moisture regime is Ustic, the pedon 10 was classified as Ustorthents at great
group level.

At sub group level

The pedon 10 classified as Typic Ustorthents at sub group level because of no

appreciable cementation with silica and there is no lithic contact within 50 cm of the
mineral soil surface.

At Family Category level

The pedon 10 had showed 35 percent or more (by volume) rock fragments and clay
content less than 35 per cent on weighted average in fine earth fraction. Hence, qualified
for Loamy-skeletal particle size class. The April, May and June are summer months and
October, November and December as winter months for the places between 80 and 260 N
latitude. As per these criteria, the difference between mean summer and winter
temperatures was less than 60 C and the mean annual soil temperature was more than 220 C.
Therefore, the study area was classified as iso- hyperthermic temperature regime.
The study area has semiarid climate with high summer temperatures with optimum
rainfall and monsoonic type of climate. The topography of the study area varied from very
gently sloping to steeply sloping. The interplay of climate, topography and vegetation
acting on parent material over a period of time in sugar cane growing areas resulted in the
development of different soils viz., Entisols, Inceptisols, Alfisols and Vertisols as pointed
out by Leelavathi et al. (2009). Among the soils Alfisols occupied a major area followed by
Vertisols, Inceptisols and Entisols.

4.5 Land evaluation

4.5.1 Land Capability Classification

Land capability classification is an interpretive grouping of soils mainly based on

the inherent soil characteristics, external land features and environmental factors that limits
the use of land. The classification of units provide information on the physiography, colour,
texture, structure of soil, type of clay mineral, consistence, permeability, depth of soil and
soil reaction (Appendix I). Each of above factor have definite role to play in behavior of
soil and its management. Based on soil properties, the red soils, red laterite soils and black
soils were classified into land capability classes III. Similar observations were also made by
Sarkar et al. (2002). Pedon wise land capability classification of the sugarcane growing
soils of Medak district is given in Table 12.

The red and red laterite soil pedons (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were
classified into III tsef land capability sub-class due to the limitations of slope, texture, soil
depth, erosion and soil fertility whereas the pedon 10 classified as III tsdef capability sub-
class due to the limitations of slope, texture, soil depth, severe erosion, coarse fragments
and soil fertility limitations. The pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12 classified into III swef land
capability sub-class due to the limitations of drainage, texture, erosion and soil fertility
limitations. Similar interpretation was also made by Rajeshwar and Mani, (2013).

4.5.2 Soil Site Suitability Evaluation for Sugarcane

Soil Site suitability evaluation for any crops forms an essential part of every land use
planning programme. Several soil and site characteristics are used as parameters for assessing the
suitability of land for crops in every land evaluation exercise. The performance of any crop is
largely dependent on soil parameters (depth, drainage, texture etc.) as conditioned by
climate and topography. The study of soil-site characterization for predicting the crop
performance of an area forms land evaluation. According to Van Wambeke and Rossiter
(1987) land evaluation is the rating of soil for optimum returns per unit area. The yield
influencing factors for important crops have to be evaluated and the results obtained may be
applied for higher production of these crops through proper utilization of similar soils
occurring elsewhere in same agro-climate sub-region under scientific management
practices. The soils of the study area were evaluated for their suitability for growing sugar
cane by the following criteria outlined by Naidu et al. (2006).

Important parameters viz., maximum and minimum temperature, relative humidity,

slope, erosion, drainage, texture, coarse fragments, depth, soil reaction, EC, CaCO3, organic
carbon, CEC, ESP and BSP were taken into consideration for evaluating the suitability of
crops (Table 13). The land suitability order and classes were assigned to the soils as per the
guidelines given in the Frame Work of Land Evaluation (FAO, 1976).
 The land is given a suitability rating depending on how well its properties meet the
requirement of the crop. If all the properties match well with the crop requirements, the land is
considered highly suitable: otherwise less suitable (moderate and marginal) and even not suitable
depending upon the deviation of the land properties from the optimal growth requirement of the
crops. The studied sugar cane growing soils vary in their suitability, according to the criteria
for the determination of land suitability classes (Table 14).

The suitability for sugarcane cultivation in black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) were
found moderately suitable to highly suitable with limitation of poor drainage with slow
permeability and low hydraulic conductivity. In the black soil area, improved management
practices have good potential to enhance productivity on these soils. If the improvements
could be done such as addition of river sand @ 100 t ha-1 and application of 100 cart loads of
red loam soil; deep ploughing the field with mould board plough or disc plough during
summer to enhance the infiltration and percolation will help to enhance moderately suitable to
highly suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane.

Soil site suitability in red soils indicated that study area was found marginally to
moderately suitable (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) for sugar cane cultivation. However
fertility related constraints can be managed through appropriate fertilizer management
practices. Slope, texture, depth, fertility, erosion and surface crusting were the major
limitations. Therefore to realize the full potential, these soils should be properly managed,
supplemented with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers and to be provided with assured
irrigation. If these improvements could be done, the marginally suitable land could be
converted to the moderately suitable lands and moderately suitable lands become highly
suitable for Sugar cane cultivation.

Regarding suitability for sugarcane cultivation in the red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4,
5 and 6) it was marginally suitable. Slope, texture, sub surface hardening and in-situ
crusting, depth, high coarse fragments, low pH, CEC and OC content were the major
fertility related problems. Therefore to realize the full potential, these soils should be properly
managed, supplemented with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers and to be provided with
assured irrigation. If the improvements could be done, there is scope that the area under
marginally suitable may be converted to moderately suitable to highly suitable for the cultivation.
4.5.3 Fertility capability classification

The concept of soil fertility capability classification (FCC) system was developed as
an attempt to bridge the gap between sub-disciplines of soil classification and soil fertility,
especially to interpret soil taxonomy and additional soil attributes in a way that is directly
relevant to plant growth. FCC is a classification of soils on the basis of fertility constraints,
quantified from condition modifiers (Buol et al., 1975; Sanchez et al., 1982). The system
considers three important items for classification: type, substrate type and modifier. The
sugar cane growing soils of the Medak district were classified for their fertility capability
and found that 2 types and 3 substrata types and 4 modifiers were present in these soils.
Combining all these parameters, fertility capability units were derived for representing area
of each soil pedons based on the analytical results type, substrata type and condition
modifiers were identified for each pedon and the results are discussed here under.

The conditions modifiers identified in the study area are

d - Ustic moisture regime: dry > 90 consecutive days in 20 60 cm depth

v - Vertic condition, very sticky and plastic with clay > 35 per cent.
b - Basic reaction with soil pH more than 7.3 or free CaCO3 within 50 cm.
h- Acid but not Al-toxic or pH in between 5.0 and 6.0
Prime ( ` ) symbol denotes presence of gravel 15-35% up to 50cm depth
Double Prime ( ``) symbol denotes presence of gravel >35% up to 50cm depth

Based on the results six fertility capability units were identified and the description
for each FCC unit is presented below

1. L`d Loamy surface and subsurface with dryness as limitation

2. L``d Loamy surface and subsurface with dryness as limitation

3. LC` dh Loamy surface and clayey subsurface with dryness and deficient in bases
as limitation

4. SC``dh Sandy clay surface with dryness and deficient in bases as limitation

5. Cdvb Clayey surface and subsurface. Dry soils with vertic properties and
basic reaction.

6. CLdv Clayloamy surface and subsurface and dry soils with vertic properties
 The condition modifierd dominated in its occurrence followed by the condition
modifier v, h and b. (Table 15)

The fertility capability class of Cdvb was assigned to pedon 1, 9 and 11 of black
soils. The v modifier indicates high clay content. Hence, tillage will be difficult when too
dry or too moist; low infiltration rates; poor hydraulic conductivity; good water-holding
capacity; runoff if sloping and difficult to till. But the soils have high productivity potential
if proper crop and nutrient management practices are adopted. The pedon 7 black soil was
comes under the FCC unit CL` dv indicating clayey surface and subsurface. The major
limitations for crop production were Ustic condition low infiltration rates; poor hydraulic
conductivity and good water-holding capacity.

The pedons (8 and 11) of red soils were comes under the FCC unit L` d indicating
loamy surface and subsurface. The major limitations for crop production were Ustic condition
and presence of gravels >15to 35% up to 50cm depth which limits the availability of WHC and
nutrients.

The pedons (10, 13 and 14) of red soils were comes under the FCC unit L`` d
indicating loamy surface and subsurface. The major limitations for crop production were Ustic
condition and presence of gravels 35% up to 50cm depth which limits the availability of WHC
and nutrients.

Sandy clay surface and clayey subsurface was found in red laterite soil pedons (2, 4,
5 and 6) were classified under FCC as SC``dh. As per the fertility capability unit the soils
had Ustic moisture condition, susceptible to severe soil degradation from erosion exposing
undesirable subsoil; high priority should be given to erosion control; poor water holding
capacity with high infiltration rate and presence of gravels >35% up to 50cm depth which
limits the crop production.

The pedon 3 of red laterite soils was comes under the FCC unit LC``dh indicating
loamy surface and sandy clay subsurface. The major limitations for crop production were Ustic
condition, susceptible to severe soil degradation from erosion exposing undesirable subsoil;
high priority should be given to erosion control; poor water holding capacity with high
infiltration rate and presence of gravels >35% up to 50cm depth which limits the crop
production .
4.6 Characterization of surface and subsurface soils

4.6.1 Morphological Properties

Morphological characteristics of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane

growing areas of Medak district are presented in (Tables 16). The Mandal wise detail
morphological characteristics of each division are summarized in annexure II.

4.6.1.2 Soil Depth

The depth of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas of Medak
district was ranging from 0-15 cm and 15-30 cm respectively (Plate 17).

4.6.1.3 Soil Structure

All the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas showed well
developed structural variation and exhibited granular to sub angular blocky structure in
surface and sub angular blocky to angular blocky in subsurface horizon. The variation in
soil structure is a reflection of physiographic position of the profile (Singh and Agarwal,
2003). Vara Prasad Rao et al. (2008) also reported well developed structural variations in
soils of Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh. The black soils developed from basalt and
basaltic alluvium had sub angular to angular blocky structure (Singh et al., 1995)

4.6.1.4 Soil Texture

The textural classes of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas
of Medak district are sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay to clay loam and clay. These
variations are caused by topographic position, nature of parent material, insitu weathering,
and translocation of clay and age of soils. These results are in conformity with the findings
of Raju et al. (2005). Ram et al. (2010). Similar studies were made by Sitanggang et al.
(2006), Mini et al. (2007) and Rao et al. (2008), and reported that, variations in texture
were attributed to the topography, parent material characteristics, weathering phenomena
and intensity and primarily age and translocation of clay in soils.

4.6.1.5 Consistency

The consistence of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas of
Medak district are varied from loose to hard, very friable to firm, non sticky, non plastic to
very sticky, very plastic in dry, moist and wet conditions respectively, Kumar et al. (2010)
reported consistency of the soils ranged from slightly hard to hard, friable to firm, slightly
sticky to very sticky, slightly plastic to very plastic in the typical sugarcane-growing soils
of Ahmadnagar district of Maharashtra. Similar results were noticed in the soils of
Nagarjunasagar catchment in Shorapur taluk of Gulbarga district in Karnataka by Ram et
al. (2010).

4.6.1.6 Vertic Features

Vertic properties like surface cracks were developed in the black soils of sugar cane
growing areas of Medak district might be due to presence exchangeable cations. This soils
distinguished by high amounts of swell-shrink clays resulting in deep, wide cracks in the dry
seasons. Shrinking of the drying soil mass induces cracks which have a polygonal
appearance. Vertically oriented cracks expose large blocks or prisms at the surface part of
the soil. The cracks are wide, about 3 to 8cm, and become progressively deeper as the soil
dries out. The surface soils show a self-mulching. The swell-shrink soils on wetting
develop a characteristic micro relief consisting of low mounds and shallow depressions.

4.6.1.7 Effervescence

Mild to strong effervescences were observed with dilute HCl test in all the surface
and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas of Medak district.

4.6.2 Physical Properties

Physical characteristics of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing

areas of Medak district are presented in (Table 17). The field wise detail physical
characteristics of soils are summarized in annexure III.

4.6.2.1 Clay, Silt and Sand

The sand, silt and clay content of sugarcane growing soils of Medak district ranges
from 10.9 to 77.4 per cent, 4.0 to 23.1 and 15.8 to77.9 per cent in surface soils, 10.1 to
74.7, 5.1 to 22.2 and 18.2 to 79.8 per cent in subsurface soils respectively. The clay content
was more in subsurface soils than surface soils.

The texture of the soils varied from sandy loam to clay (Plate 18). The maximum
clay content of 79.8 per cent was recorded in Narayankhed division soils, while minimum
clay content 15.8 per cent was noticed in Sangareddy division soil. The maximum silt
content of 23.1 per cent was noticed in Ramayampet division surface soils and minimum
silt content of 4.0 per cent was noticed in Narayankhed division soils. The maximum sand
content of 77.4 per cent was recorded in Sangareddy division soils, while minimum clay
content 10.1 per cent was noticed in Sadasivpet division soils.

4.6.2.2 Gravel

Gravel was observed in all the surface and subsurface soils and their distribution
varied widely with soil types. The Gravel content of sugarcane growing soils of Medak
district ranges from 5.1 to 48.4 per cent in surface soils, 4.0 to 55.6 per cent in subsurface
soils respectively.

The maximum Gravel content of 55.6 per cent was recorded in division Zaheerabad
soils, while minimum Gravel content of 4.0 per cent was noticed in Narayankhed division
soils.

4.6.2.3 Bulk Density

The bulk density of sugarcane growing soils of Medak district ranged from 1.32 to
1.65 Mgm-3 in surface soils, 1.34 to 1.69 Mgm-3 in subsurface soils at different moisture
regimes respectively.

The maximum bulk density content of 1.69 Mgm-3 was recorded in Jogipet
divisions soils, while minimum Gravel content of 1.32 Mgm-3 was noticed in Shankarampet
division soils.

The bulk density values in surface soil were low when compared to sub surface
samples. Lower bulk density values of surface soil might be due to loose and porous nature
and organic matter content (Walia and Rao, 1996).

4.6.2.4 Maximum Water Holding Capacity

The maximum water holding capacity of sugarcane growing soils of Medak district
ranges from 19.0 to 51.0 per cent in surface soils, 20.0 to 55.0per cent in subsurface soils at
different moisture regimes respectively (Plate 19).

The maximum water holding capacity of 55.0 per cent was recorded in Jogipet
division soils, while minimum water holding capacity of 19.0 per cent was noticed in
Zaheerabad division soils. Water holding capacity of the surface horizons ranged from 21.8
to 49.8 per cent was observed by Kumar et al. (2009) in the soils of Churu district,
Rajasthan. These differences were due to the variation in the depth and clay, silt and
organic carbon content (Rajeshwar et al., 2009)

4.6.3 Physico-Chemical Properties

Physico-chemical properties of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane

growing areas of Medak are presented in (Table 18). The field wise detail physico-chemical
properties of soils are summarized in annexure IV.

4.6.3.1 pH (1:2.5)

All the soil samples studied were extremely acidic to moderately alkaline in
reaction. The soil pH in surface and subsurface soils ranged from 4.60 to 8.86 and 4.40 to
8.89 respectively. The lowest pH (4.40) was recorded in Zaheerabad soil which might be
due to accumulation of exchangeable H+, Al3+, Fe and Al oxides, soil organic matter and
clay minerals (Bipul Deka et al., 2009). The highest pH values (8.89) were noticed in
Jogipet division soil. Increase in pH was observed in almost all subsurface soils caused by
an increase in CaCO3 with depth. Similar results were observed by Rajeshwar and Mani
(2013b) and stated that the parent materials, rainfall and topography, were greatly
influenced by the characteristics and behaviour of soil environs.

4.6.3.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

The E.C of sugarcane growing soils of Medak district ranges from 0.09 to 0.46 dS
-1 -1
m in surface soils, 0.11 to 0.45 dS m in subsurface soils respectively.

The maximum E.C of 0.46 dS m-1 was recorded in division of Narayankhed soils,
while minimum E.C of 0.09 dS m-1 was noticed in division of Zaheerabad soils. The low
amount of soluble salts in surface and subsurface soils could be attributed to loss of bases
(Sidhu et al., 1994) due to heavy rainfall.

4.6.3.3 Organic Carbon

The organic carbon content was found to be low to high (4.1 to 8.3 g kg-1 and 3.0 to
7.4 g kg-1) in surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas all the division of
Medak district respectively. Higher organic carbon content was recorded in surface soils as
compared to subsurface soils. The soil organic carbon decreased with increase in depth.
The general decrease in organic carbon content with depth could be due to organic matter
accumulation in the surface soil as a result of nutrient recycling by biomass (Vara Prasad
Rao et al., 2008 and Rajeshwar and Mani, 2014).

4.6.4 Soil Fertility status

The available macronutrient status of the surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane
growing areas of Medak is presented in (Tables 18). The detail field wise available macro
and micronutrient status of soils are summarized in annexure IV.

4.6.4.1 Available Nitrogen

The available nitrogen status was found to be low (240.0 to 328.0 kg ha-1 and 161.0
to 264.0 kg ha-1) in all the division of surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing
areas of Medak district respectively.

However, available N content of all the above soils was found to be more in surface
soils and decreased in sub surface soils which might possibly be due to decreasing organic
carbon with depth. These observations are in accordance with the findings of Prasuna Rani
et al. (1992) and Panwar et al. (2011). The semi-arid condition of the area might have
favoured rapid oxidation and lesser accumulation of organic matter releasing NO3-N which
could have been lost by leaching (Finck and Venkateswarlu, 1982). The reason for the
maximum available nitrogen content observed in the surface could be attributed to the fact
that cultivation of crops are mainly confined to the surface horizon (Rhizosphere) only and
at regular interval the depleted nitrogen content is supplemented by the external addition of
fertilizers during crop cultivation (Rajeshwar and Mani, 2014).

4.6.4.2 Available Phosphorus

The available phosphorus status was found to be medium to high in surface soils
(16.0 to 41.0 kg ha-1 ) and low to high in subsurface soils (10.0 to 34.0 kg ha-1) in all the
division of surface and subsurface soils of sugarcane growing areas of Medak district
respectively.

All the surface and subsurface soils showed a decreasing trend with the depth.
Decrease in available phosphorus is attributed to decrease in organic matter content with
increase in depth. Similar results were reported by NBSS and LUP (1997) and Vara Prasad
Rao et al. (2008). The reason for higher P in surface soils might possibly be the
confinement of crop cultivation to the rhizosphere and supplementing of the depleted
phosphorus through external fertilizers. Similar results were reported by Rajeshwar and
Mani (2014). Thangasamy et al. (2005) also reported that lower availability of phosphorus
was due to the fixations of released P by clay minerals and oxides of Fe and Al.

4.6.4.3 Available Potassium

The available potassium was high (261.0 to 457.0kg ha-1) in surface soils of all
divisions whereas in subsurface soils it was medium to high (169.0 to 399.0 kg ha-1).

In the present study, all the surface and subsurface soil samples showed a consistent
and gradual decreases available K with increasing depth. The available K status was more in
surface soils which could be attributed to release of labile-K from organic residues,
application of K fertilizers and upward translocation of K from lower depths along with
capillary rise of ground water. Similar results were reported by Pal and Mukhopadyay
(1992).

4.6.5 Nutrient Index Values and Fertility ratings

To find out the overall fertility status of the sugar cane growing soils of Medak
district, 128 surface soil 128 subsurface samples were collected. The pH ranges between
neutral to moderately alkaline and EC was non saline, organic carbon content ranged from
low to medium. The soils are low in available N, medium to high in P and high in available
K.

The nutrient index values (NIV) was worked out to know the fertility rating of
available macro and micronutrients in the surface soil horizons of fourteen pedons and 128
surface soil samples of sugarcane growing areas of Medak district (Table 19 and 20).

Based on NIV and fertility ratings of the soils were found to be low in N (1.29 and 1.44).
The low nutrient index values of N, in surface soils may be attributed due to several factors.
Among these some of the factors causing low availability and deficiency in the red lateritic
soils are inherent soil properties such as low native nutrients status, coarse texture, low
organic matter content and soil conditions that favour leaching losses.

The NIV are medium to high in availability of P (2.22 and 2.36). The reason for higher P
in surface soils might possibly be the confinement of crop cultivation to the rhizosphere and
supplementing of the depleted phosphorus through external fertilizers. Similar results were
reported by Thangasamy et al. (2005).

High NIV was noted for availabile of K (3.00 and 2.70). Panwar et al. (2011) also
reported higher available potassium in some surface horizons and it was due to the greater
proportion of feldspar group of minerals in arid and semi-arid regions of soils.

The availability of S was found high (3.00) might be due to soil sulphur is
continuously cycled between inorganic and organic forms of sulphur (Ghosh et al., 2012).
Similarly, the organic sulphur is also in equilibrium with inorganic counterpart and if there
is any decline in inorganic SO4-S level by means of crop uptake or leaching loss, it will be
adequately replenished by the organic fraction (Pasricha and Fox, 1993).

Among the micronutrients, the availability of Zn was marginal (1.79) might be due to
the application of higher amount of phosphotic fertilizers leading to the antagonistic reaction
which will make lesser availability of Zn. The availability of B was high (2.5), very high in Cu
(3.0), Mn (3.00) and Fe (3.00) in all the surface horizons respectively. Very high Fe fertility in
the red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) might be attributed to acidic soil reaction. Very high
fertility rating of Mn in the soils could be attributed to the oxidation of divalent Mn++ to trivalent
Mn+++ by certain fungi and by the organic compounds synthesized by micro- organisms and
plants (Vijayakumar et al., 2011).

4.7 Major Soil constraints of the study area and technical recommendations available
for overcoming the problem to improve the crop productivity
Soil constraints were identified using soil test data (Table 21) which include texture,
erosion, slope, depth, drainage and low organic carbon, low availability of N, P and
micronutrients. Similar observations were made by Reddy et al. (1998) and Francis Conant
et al. (1983). Major soil constraints for crop production and recommendations based on
limitations were discussed below.

4.7.1 Major Soil constraints and management options for sugar cane growing Red
soils of Medak district

Major constraints for crop production in red soils are shallow (pedon10) to
moderately deep with coarse loamy texture, slope, erosion, high coarse fragments, low to
medium OC, low availability of N and Zn (pedon 10 and 11). As the rainfall is high during
rainy season, runoff and erosion are the main problems. Improved soil management
practices by green manuring, application of organic manures such as farmyard manures,
composted coir pith; pressmud at 25 t ha-1 per year conserves soil moisture and crop
rotation with legumes to enhance the crop productivity on these soils. These soils are
deficient in nutrients like N followed by Zn. High soil productivity could be achieved by
enrichment of organic matter and maintenance of enhanced soil fertility.

4.7.2 Soil constraints and management options for sugar cane growing Black soils of
Medak district

Major constraints for crop production in sugar cane growing soils are very deep
soils, calcareous, clayey and poorly drained with slow permeability and low hydraulic
conductivity. Leaching of soluble weathering products were limited hence the contents of
available calcium and magnesium were high. The pH was above 8.0 with low to medium
availability of N. Soils have swell shrink characteristic and cracks during summer. The
moisture retention capacity of the soil was high. The early rainfall enters into the soils
through cracks and once the cracks are closed the water stagnation occurs due to slow
permeability. As the rainfall is high during rainy season, runoff and erosion are the main
problems. Soils are prone to water erosion due to their slow infiltration. Once the soil is
thoroughly wetted and the cracks are closed the rate of water infiltration becomes almost
zero. These soils need proper surface drainage during rainy season. As the available
moisture capacity of the surface and subsurface soils was high, the soils have potential for
double cropping. Improved management practices have good potential to enhance
productivity on these soils. Some of these soil management suggested are:

Addition of river sand @ 100 t ha-1 and application of 100 cart loads of red loam
soil ha-1 deep ploughing with mould board plough or disc plough during summer can be
recommended to enhance the infiltration and percolation. To overcome the problem of
water logging during rainy season, the broad bed and furrow system is suggested. Broad
bed and furrow system manage the surface drainage during rainy season cropping. The
raised beds should be 1.2 m wide and 15 cm high with two furrows of 30 cm width on
either side to drain out excess water. The broad bed and furrow system needs a graded
slope of land, 0.8 to 2.0 % and it should be formed across the slope. The furrows should
lead to a main drain at the end of the field. Pre monsoon sowing of green manures and
incorporation at flowering stage will enhance the nitrogen availability and improves the soil
physical, chemical and biological environment. Application of farmyard manure or
pressmud @ 25 t ha-1 year-1 conserves soil moisture, adds micronutrients, enhances aeration
and improves the soil physical properties; crop rotation with legume crops tend to take up
more cations in proportion to anions which aids in reduction of soil pH.

4.7.3 Soil constraints and management options for sugar cane growing Red laterite
soils of Medak districts

The soil constraints for sugar cane in red laterite soils were light to medium in surface
texture, shallow, moderately deep to deep rooting depth and gravelliness with kaolinite clay
mineralogy resulting in poor water holding capacity. Surface crusting is common problem
in this soil. The low water holding capacity does not permit post-rainy season cropping
without irrigation. They are denuded and subject to serious erosion problems (Plate
20&21). Intensive leaching causes nutrient losses and release of free iron and aluminum
oxides. The free iron and aluminum causes toxicity and nutrient imbalances in terms of N,
K, P and Zn. Due to low pH of these soils, acidification causes P fixation with Fe or Al ions
and hydroxides resulting in deficiency of phosphorus in the form of insoluble compound of
Al2(H2PO4)3 and FeH2PO4; reduced availability of K, Ca, Mg and toxicity due to high
availability of Mn, Fe, B and Mo. Improved management practices have good potential to
enhance productivity on these soils. The soil management suggestions given are:

Application of lime is the most effective remedy for soil acidity. It is the only cost-
effective option for acidic agricultural soils. Liming may result in substantial crop yield
responses for several years, as well as allowing or improving crop production.
Recommended quantity of FYM with enriched rock phosphate and zinc sulphate has to be
applied to enhance the phosphorous and zinc use efficiency and maintain the soil quality;
pre monsoon sowing of green manures and incorporation at flowering stage will enhance
the nitrogen availability and reduce surface crusting problem by creating favourable soil
physical environment. Application of organic manures such as farmyard manure,
composted coirpith or pressmud @ 25 t ha-1 per year conserves soil moisture, adds
micronutrients, enhances aeration and improves the physical properties of the soil, therefore
15-20 tonnes of well decomposed farmyard manure is added while preparing the land a
month before sowing the seed.

Maintenance of surface pH above 6.5 is essential in acidic soils for optimum soil
productivity. More than one application of 1.0 - 1.5 t/ha of lime is likely to be required over
a number of years. Application of higher rates of lime (2-5 t/ha) to reach the desired surface
pH may expose crops to nutrient deficiencies, particularly manganese and zinc. Rising of
soil pH decreases the level of available aluminum and manganese in the soil and at the same
time increases the availability of phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and molybdenum. To
overcome the leaching of Nitrogen, split application of nitrogen fertilizers along with
phosphorus and Zn for maximizing the crop yield; can be recommended use lower rates of
less acidifying fertilizers; application of acidifying fertilizers such as mono ammonium
phosphate or sulphate of ammonia to be avoided. Continuous cultivation of legumes crops
in acid soils tend to take up more cations in proportion to anions. As a consequence, H+
ions are excreted from their roots to maintain the electrochemical balance within their
tissues. This leads to a rise in soil acidification. Hence crop rotation with cereals crop is
mandatory.
Table 6. Morphological characteristics of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of the Medak district
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Colour Texture Structure Consistency Efferve Pores Roots Boundary Cutans Other
(cm) Dry Moist Dry Moist Wet scence features
Sadasivpet division
1 Aroor Ap 0-25 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c m1abk sh fi vs&vp ms ff mf cs Gilgai relief;
BA 25-52 10YR3/2 10YR3/1 c m2abk h vfi vs&vp ms ff cf gs surface cracks
Bss1 52-79 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c m2abk h vfi vs&vp ms ff - cd (5-8 cm wide);
Bss2 79-115 10YR4/2 10YR3/2 c m2abk h vfi vs&vp s ff - cd slickensides; sub
surface hard pan
Bss3 115-155 10YR4/2 10YR3/2 c m2abk h fi vs&vp vs ff - cd with high B.D
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram
Zaheerabad division
2 Paidigummal Ap 0-16 5YR4/4 5YR3/4 gsc m3gr sh fr ss - ff mf - - Sub surface
Bt1 16-43 2.5YR4/6 2.5YR3/6 gc m2sbk h fi ss&sp - ff mf cs t tk p hardening, insitu
Bt2 45-68 2.5YR3/6 2.5YR3/6 gc m2sbk h fi ss&sp - ff - cs t tn p crusting,
indurated
laterite layer,
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan massive and
tough

3 Burdipad Ap 0-16 7.5YR4/4 7.5YR3/4 scl m1gr-sbk sh vfr ss&sp - ff mf - - Sub surface
Bt1 16-38 2.5 YR3/6 2.5YR3/4 sc m1sbk h vfr ss&sp - ff ff gs t tk p hardening, insitu
Bt2 38-70 2.5YR3/6 2.5YR3/4 sc m2sbk h vfr ss&sp - ff - crusting,
indurated
Bt3 70-95 2.5YR4/8 2.5YR4/6 sc m2sbk h vfr ss - ff - cs t tn p
laterite layer,
massive and
tough
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

4 Kuppanagar Ap 0-14 2.5YR4/6 2.5 YR4/4 scl m2gr sh vfr ss&sp - ff mf cs - Sub surface
Bt1 14-30 2.5YR4/3 2.5YR3/3 gc m3sbk sh vfr ss&sp - ff cf cs - hardening, insitu
Bt1 30-50 2.5YR4/4 2.5YR3/4 gc m3sbk vh fr ss&sp - ff ff as - crusting,
Bt2 50-81 2.5YR4/6 2.5YR3/6 gc m3sbk vh fr ss - ff - ds - indurated
laterite layer,
massive and
tough
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

5 Basanthpur Ap 0-20 2.5YR4/4 2.5 YR3/4 sc m2gr h fr ss&sp ff mf cs - Sub surface

Bt1 20-38 2.5YR4/4 2.5YR3/4 sc m1sbk h fr ss&sp - ff ff cs t tn p hardening, insitu
Bt2 38-56 2.5YR4/6 2.5YR4/4 sc m2sbk h fr ss&sp - ff - ds t tk p crusting,
indurated
Bt3 56-70 2.5YR4/6 2.5YR4/4 sc m2sbk h fr ss&sp - ff - ds t tk p
laterite layer,
massive and
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Colour Texture Structure Consistency Efferve Pores Roots Boundary Cutans Other
(cm) Dry Moist Dry Moist Wet scence features
tough
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
6 Kothur Ap 0-15 2.5YR3/6 2.5YR3/4 sc m2gr sh fr ss&sp - ff mf cs - Sub surface
Bt1 15-45 2.5YR3/6 2.5YR3/4 gc m3sbk sh fr ss&sp - ff cf gs - hardening, insitu
crusting,
Bt2 45-75 2.5YR4/4 2.5YR3/4 gc m3sbk h fr ss&sp - ff - ds t tn p indurated
Bt3 75-105 2.5YR4/6 2.5YR3/6 gc m3sbk h fr ss - ff - ds t tk p laterite layer,
massive and
tough
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated

7 Budera Ap 0-14 10YR3/2 10YR3/1 cl f1sbk sh fr s&p ms ff mf cs - subsurface

Bw1 14-41 10YR3/2 10YR3/1 cl m1sbk h fr vs&p ms ff ff cw - cracks(3-4cm)
Bwss1 41-58 10YR4/2 10YR4/1 cl m1sbk h fr vs&p ms ff ff cw - &slickensides
Bwss2 58-79 10YR4/2 10YR4/2 cl m1sbk h fi vs&p ms ff - cw
BC 79-100 10YR4/4 10YR4/4 cl m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff - cw

Sangareddy division
8 Mamdipally Ap 0-15 5YR4/6 5YR4/6 sl f1gr sh fr so&po - ff cf cs - Argillic horizon
Bt1 15-40 5YR3/4 5YR3/4 scl m2 sbk sh fr ss&sp - ff ff gs -
Bt2 40-65 5YR4/6 5YR4/6 scl m2sbk sh fr ss&sp - ff ff gs t tn p
Bt3 65-95 5YR4/6 5YR4/6 scl m2sbk h fr ss - ff ff gs
C 95+ Weathered gneiss
Jogipet division
9 Andole Ap 0-25 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c m2sbk h fi vs&vp ms ff mf cs - Gilgai relief
BA 25-65 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff cs - surface cracks
Bss1 55-85 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h vfi vs&vp ms ff ff cd - (5-8 cm wide)
and subsurface
Bss2 85-117 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h vfi vs&vp ss ff - cd -
cracks (3-5cm)
Bss3 117-145 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h vfi vs&vp ss ff - cd -- slickensides
Bss4 145-178 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h vfi vs&vp ss ff - cd conca
Medak division
10 Kaudloor Ap 0-11 7.5YR 3/4 7.5YR4/6 gsl f1gr l vfr so&po - ff mf gs - -
A21 11- 22 7.5YR3/4 7.5YR4/6 gsl f2gr l vfr so&po - ff ff gs t tn p
A22 22-41 5YR4/4 5YR6/6 gsl f2gr sh fr so&po - ff - gs t tn p
C 41+ Weathered granite
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Colour Texture Structure Consistency Efferve Pores Roots Boundary Cutans Other
(cm) Dry Moist Dry Moist Wet scence features
Narsapur division
11 Antharam Ap 0-18 7.5YR3/4 7.5YR4/4 sl m1gr l vfr so&po ms ff mf as - Argillic horizon
Bt1 18-35 5 YR5/3 5YR4/3 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp ms ff cf gs t tn p
Bt2 35-50 5 YR5/4 5YR4/4 scl m2sbk sh fr ss&sp ms ff cf gs t tn p
Bt3 50-90 5 YR5/6 5YR4/6 scl m2sbk h fr ss ms ff - cs -
C 90+ Weathered granite- gneiss

Narayankhed division
12 Pulkurty Ap 0-27 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c m2sbk h fi vs&vp - ff cf cs Gilgai relief
BA 27-55 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff cf cs surface cracks
Bss1 55-87 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff cs (5-7 cm wide);
Bss2 88-124 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h fi vs&vp s ff - cd slickensides; sub
surface hard pan
Bss3 124-150 10YR3/2 10YR3/2 c c2abk h fi vs&vp s ff - cd with high B.D.
Narayankhed division
13 Mudguntal thanda Ap 0-13 7.5YR5/4 7.5YR4/4 sl m1gr l fr ss&po m ff cf cs Argillic
Bt1 13-25 5YR4/4 5YR3/4 scl m2sbk sh fi ss&sp m ff cf cs t tn p horizon
Bt2 25-46 5YR4/3 5YR3/4 scl m2sbk h fi ss&sp m ff ff ab
Bt2 46-65 5YR4/4 5YR3/3 sc m2sbk h fi ss&sp m ff - ab
C 65+ Weathered granite
Dubbaka division
14 Ramakkapet Ap 0-12 7.5YR5/4 7.5YR4/4 sl f1gr l fr ss m ff cf cs Argillic
Bt1 12-35 5YR4/4 5YR4/3 sl m1sbk sh vfr ss&sp m ff mf cs t tn p horizon
Bt2 35-46 5YR5/6 5YR4/6 gscl m2sbk h vfr ss&sp ms ff ff cw t tn p
Bt3 46-70 5YR5/6 5YR4/6 gsc m2sbk h vfr ss&sp ms ff - cw
C 70+ Weathered granite

Soil texture : ls Loamy sand ,sl- Sandy loam, scl Sandy clay loam, sc- Sandy clay, cl- Clay loam and c- Clay
Soil Structure : c-coarse, m- medium , f- fine , 1- weak, 2- moderate,3 - strong, gr- granular ,abk- angular blocky, sbk- sub-angular blocky
Soil Consistence : l- loose, sh- slightly hard, h- hard ,vh- very hard ,vfr-very friable ,fr- friable , fi- firm, vf- very firm, so non sticky, ss slightly sticky, s- sticky,vs- very
sticky, po- non plastic, ps slightly plastic, p-plastic, vp- very plastic
Pores : Size f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse; Quantity f-few, c-common, m-many
Roots : Size f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse; Quantity f-few, c-common, m-many
Effervescence : m-mild ,ms-moderately strong s-strong vs-very strong
Boundary : c- clear , d- diffuse, s- smooth ,w- wavy, g- gradual, a- abrupt
Cutans : T-Argillans;tn-thin; p-patchy
Table7.Physical characteristics of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of the Medak district

Pedon Location Horizon Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D Pore space W.H.C Volume COLE
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%) (%) expansion (%)
Sadasivpet division
1 Aroor Ap 0-25 11.50 20.1 19.8 59.6 1.56 55.0 48.0 23.1 0.14
BA 25-52 10.50 19.0 18.4 62.1 1.59 53.0 51.0 23.7 0.16
Bss1 52-79 9.00 17.3 17.3 63.9 1.61 50.0 49.0 25.5 0.18
Bss2 79-115 9.50 16.8 17.2 64.3 1.65 48.0 46.0 26.4 0.19
Bss3 115-155 8.30 16.4 20.0 61.1 1.68 46.0 45.0 28.4 0.21
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram

Zaheerabad division
2 Paidigummal Ap 0-16 35.6 37.8 10.2 50.7 1.46 39.0 21.0 3.10 -
Bt1 16-43 41.5 30.8 9.8 57.2 1.52 41.0 23.0 3.20 -
Bt2 45-68 61.2 33.6 8.3 57.9 1.54 40.0 24.0 3.30 -
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

3 Burdipad Ap 0-16 24.2 68.4 5.6 24.5 1.45 41.0 23.0 3.13 -
Bt1 16-38 28.9 53.2 6.2 39.2 1.49 45.0 25.0 3.25 -
Bt2 38-70 34.5 51.2 6.1 41.2 1.51 43.0 27.0 3.26 -
Bt3 70-95 51.2 48.6 8.9 41.9 1.51 42.0 27.0 3.42 -
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

4 Kuppanagar Ap 0-14 31.2 45.6 12.4 41.2 1.46 44.0 19.0 3.10 -
Bt1 14-30 36.5 37.5 12.1 50.1 1.47 42.0 20.0 3.35 -
Bt2 30-50 38.9 30.5 8.3 60.6 1.49 46.0 20.0 3.36 -
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D Pore space W.H.C Volume COLE
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%) (%) expansion (%)
Bt3 50-81 67.8 28.5 18.3 52.5 1.51 49.0 21.0 3.81 -
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

5 Basanthpur Ap 0-20 35.0 56.1 8.2 35.2 1.47 39.0 24.0 2.88 -
Bt1 20-38 46.3 53.2 9.3 37.1 1.48 41.0 23.0 3.12 -
Bt2 38-56 52.1 51.0 8.4 40.3 1.50 42.0 21.0 3.30 -
Bt3 56-70 61.3 53.3 11.6 34.6 1.51 44.0 19.0 3.45 -
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
6 Kothur Ap 0-15 29.2 55.3 8.4 35.6 1.39 47.0 23.0 2.95 --
Bt1 15-45 39.2 34.8 8.9 55.6 1.41 49.0 22.0 3.12 -
Bt2 45-75 45.3 32.2 7.2 60.2 1.44 49.0 26.0 3.81 -
Bt3 75-105 58.3 30.2 10.3 58.6 1.49 53.0 24.0 3.66 -
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
7 Budera Ap 0-14 12.30 41.2 18.6 38.7 1.43 46.0 32.0 23.10 -
Bw1 14-41 14.00 42.3 17.3 40.1 1.52 52.0 38.0 26.24 -
Bwss1 41-58 14.50 43.2 18.6 37.2 1.50 55.0 36.0 27.13 -
Bwss2 58-79 17.00 42.5 17.9 39.3 1.61 61.0 38.0 29.14 -
BC 79-100 17.60 39.9 17.2 42.1 1.62 62.0 39.0 29.10 -
Sangareddy division
8 Mamdipally Ap 0-15 15.6 73.6 6.1 19.8 1.38 38.0 36.0 2.91 -
Bt1 15-40 23.1 66.4 6.5 26.5 1.39 41.0 39.0 3.36 -
Bt2 40-65 32.4 63.9 5.8 29.9 1.42 46.0 42.0 3.90 -
Bt3 65-95 36.3 59.4 7.8 32.4 1.44 49.0 41.0 3.75 -
C 95+ Weathered gneiss
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D Pore space W.H.C Volume COLE
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%) (%) expansion (%)
Jogipet division
9 Andole Ap 0-25 10.9 28.2 16.5 54.2 1.51 45.0 44.0 22.8 0.13
BA 25-65 10.4 25.4 16.9 57.6 1.50 48.0 47.0 23.7 0.14
Bss1 55-85 11.1 23.2 17.4 58.9 1.54 51.0 49.0 25.8 0.16
Bss2 85-117 12.6 20.1 18.0 61.7 1.58 52.0 51.0 26.8 0.18
Bss3 117-145 12.3 19.0 17.7 63.1 1.58 52.0 48.0 30.4 0.18
Bss4 145-178 12.5 18.8 19.6 61.4 1.60 55.0 53.0 30.1 0.17
Medak division
10 Kaudloor Ap 0-11 26.8 74.6 10.8 13.2 1.46 41.0 31.0 2.94 -
A21 11-22 38.9 76.5 8.1 14.6 1.43 46.0 30.0 2.98 -
A22 22-41 45.3 77.1 7.2 15.6 1.49 47.0 36.0 3.13 -
C 41+ Weathered gneiss
Narsapur division
11 Antharam Ap 0-18 23.0 72.3 4.6 22.6 1.44 39.0 22.0 3.60 -
Bt1 18-35 25.5 66.4 7.9 25.6 1.46 41.0 23.0 4.10 -
Bt2 35-50 29.1 60.1 8.2 31.2 1.49 44.0 27.0 4.22 -
Bt3 50-90 33.2 59.6 11.6 28.7 1.49 46.0 29.0 4.35 -
C 90+ Weathered granite- gneiss
Narayankhed division
12 Pulkurty Ap 0-27 10.0 10.3 17.5 71.4 1.49 45.0 46.0 23.5 0.14
BA 27-55 9.4 8.2 18.1 73.4 1.55 48.0 47.0 24.6 0.15
Bss1 55-87 8.9 6.3 18.4 75.1 1.62 51.0 49.0 26.8 0.17
Bss2 88-124 10.1 4.3 19.5 75.7 1.66 53.0 51.0 28.6 0.19
Bss3 124-150 10.5 3.6 20.1 76.2 1.66 53.0 52.0 30.1 0.20

13 Mudguntalthanda Ap 0-13 22.5 74.2 4.4 20.4 1.41 43.0 21.0 2.90 -
Bt1 13-25 26.3 65.1 6.8 27.4 1.43 45.0 25.0 4.10 -
Bt2 25-46 35.3 60.1 9.3 29.9 1.49 47.0 29.0 5.22 -
Bt2 46-65 45.9 56.4 11.1 32.2 1.51 51.0 33.0 5.75 -

C 65+ Weathered granite

 Pedon Location Horizon Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D Pore space W.H.C Volume COLE
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%) (%) expansion (%)

Dubbaka division
14 Ramakkapet Ap 0-12 17.9 75.1 4.1 20.2 1.42 46.0 25.0 2.96 -
Bt1 12-35 35.9 72.1 4.6 23.2 1.45 45.0 28.0 3.25 -
Bt2 35-46 51.1 67.1 7.3 25.4 1.52 46.0 30.0 3.65 -
Bt3 46-70 60.2 57.3 12.5 27.1 1.54 47.0 31.0 5.21 -
C 70+ Weathered granite-gneiss
Sand (0.02-2.0 mm); Silt (0.002- 0.02mm) and Clay (<0.002mm)
Table 8.Ratios of fine earth fractions of pedons (Particle size-analysis)

Pedon Location Horizon Depth Sand+ Silt Silt + Clay Sand / Silt Silt / Clay Sand / Sand /
(cm) (Sand + Silt) (Silt + Clay)
Sadasivpet division
1 Aroor Ap 0-25 39.9 79.4 1.02 0.33 0.50 0.25
BA 25-52 37.4 80.5 1.03 0.30 0.51 0.24
Bss1 52-79 34.6 81.2 1.00 0.27 0.50 0.21
Bss2 79-115 34.0 81.5 0.98 0.27 0.49 0.21
Bss3 115-155 36.4 81.1 0.82 0.33 0.45 0.20
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram
Zaheerabad division
2 Paidigummal Ap 0-16 48.0 60.9 3.71 0.20 0.79 0.62
Bt1 16-43 40.6 67.0 3.14 0.17 0.76 0.46
Bt2 45-68 41.9 66.2 4.05 0.14 0.80 0.51
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
3 Burdipad Ap 0-16 74.0 30.1 12.21 0.23 0.92 2.27
Bt1 16-38 59.4 45.4 8.58 0.16 0.90 1.17
Bt2 38-70 57.3 47.3 8.39 0.15 0.89 1.08
Bt3 70-95 57.5 50.8 5.46 0.21 0.85 0.96
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
4 Kuppanagar Ap 0-14 58.0 53.6 3.68 0.30 0.79 0.85
Bt1 14-30 49.6 62.2 3.10 0.24 0.76 0.60
Bt1 30-50 38.8 68.9 3.67 0.14 0.79 0.44
Bt2 50-81 46.8 70.8 1.56 0.35 0.61 0.40
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
5 Basanthpur Ap 0-20 64.3 43.4 6.84 0.23 0.87 1.29
Bt1 20-38 62.5 46.4 5.72 0.25 0.85 1.15
Bt2 38-56 59.4 48.7 6.07 0.21 0.86 1.05
Bt3 56-70 64.9 46.2 4.59 0.34 0.82 1.15
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Sand+ Silt Silt + Clay Sand / Silt Silt / Clay Sand / Sand /
(cm) (Sand + Silt) (Silt + Clay)
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
6 Kothur Ap 0-15 63.7 44.0 6.58 0.24 0.87 1.26
Bt1 15-45 43.7 64.5 3.91 0.16 0.80 0.54
Bt2 45-75 39.4 67.4 4.47 0.12 0.82 0.48
Bt3 75-105 40.5 68.9 2.93 0.18 0.75 0.44
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
7 Budera Ap 0-14 59.8 57.3 2.22 0.48 0.69 0.72
Bw1 14-41 59.6 57.4 2.45 0.43 0.71 0.74
Bwss1 41-58 61.8 55.8 2.32 0.50 0.70 0.77
Bwss2 58-79 60.4 57.2 2.37 0.46 0.70 0.74
BC 79-100 57.1 59.3 2.32 0.41 0.70 0.67
Sangareddy division
8 Mamdipally Ap 0-15 79.7 25.9 12.07 0.31 0.92 2.84
Bt1 15-40 72.9 33.0 10.22 0.25 0.91 2.01
Bt2 40-65 69.7 35.7 11.02 0.19 0.92 1.79
Bt3 65-95 67.2 40.2 7.62 0.24 0.88 1.48
C 95+ Weathered gneiss
Jogipet division
9 Andole Ap 0-25 44.7 70.7 1.71 0.30 0.63 0.40
BA 25-65 42.3 74.5 1.50 0.29 0.60 0.34
Bss1 55-85 40.6 76.3 1.33 0.30 0.57 0.30
Bss2 85-117 38.1 79.7 1.12 0.29 0.53 0.25
Bss3 117-145 36.7 80.8 1.07 0.28 0.52 0.24
Bss4 145-178 38.4 81.0 0.96 0.32 0.49 0.23
Medak division
10 Kaudloor Ap 0-11 85.4 24.0 6.91 0.82 0.87 3.11
A21 11-22 84.6 22.7 9.44 0.55 0.90 3.37
A22 22-41 84.3 22.8 10.71 0.46 0.91 3.38
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Sand+ Silt Silt + Clay Sand / Silt Silt / Clay Sand / Sand /
(cm) (Sand + Silt) (Silt + Clay)
C 41+ Weathered gneiss

Narsapur division
11 Antharam Ap 0-18 76.9 27.2 15.72 0.20 0.94 2.66
Bt1 18-35 74.3 33.5 8.41 0.31 0.89 1.98
Bt2 35-50 68.3 39.4 7.33 0.26 0.88 1.53
Bt3 50-90 71.2 40.3 5.14 0.40 0.84 1.48
C 90+ Weathered granite- gneiss
Narayankhed division
12 Pulkurty Ap 0-27 27.8 88.9 0.59 0.25 0.37 0.12
BA 27-55 26.3 91.5 0.45 0.25 0.31 0.09
Bss1 55-87 24.7 93.5 0.34 0.25 0.26 0.07
Bss2 88-124 23.8 95.2 0.22 0.26 0.18 0.05
Bss3 124-150 23.7 96.3 0.18 0.26 0.15 0.04
13 Mudguntal thanda Ap 0-13 78.6 24.8 16.86 0.22 0.94 2.99
Bt1 13-25 71.9 34.2 9.57 0.25 0.91 1.90
Bt2 25-46 69.4 39.2 6.46 0.31 0.87 1.53
Bt2 46-65 67.5 43.3 5.08 0.34 0.84 1.30
C 65+ Weathered granite
Dubbaka division
14 Ramakkapet Ap 0-12 79.2 24.3 18.32 0.20 0.95 3.09
Bt1 12-35 76.7 27.8 15.67 0.20 0.94 2.59
Bt2 35-46 74.4 32.7 9.19 0.29 0.90 2.05
Bt3 46-70 69.8 39.6 4.58 0.46 0.82 1.45
C 70+ Weathered granite- gneiss
Table 9. Physico-chemical characteristics Sugarcane growing soil pedons of the Medak district

Pedon Location Horizon Depth pH EC OC Exchangeable Cations Total Ex. BS CEC Free ESP SAR CEC/
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1) (c mol (p+) kg-1) Bases (%) (cmol CaCO3 (%) Clay
Ca Mg Na K (p+) kg-1) (%) ratio
Sadasivpet division
1 Aroor Ap 0-25 8.1 0.24 7.5 18.6 11.6 0.55 1.70 32.45 80.32 40.4 5.6 1.36 0.11 0.68
BA 25-52 8.2 0.28 5.4 21.4 12.4 0.66 1.52 35.96 84.61 42.5 7.4 1.55 0.13 0.68
Bss1 52-79 8.3 0.33 5.1 22.4 12.5 0.73 1.53 37.13 78.83 47.1 8.3 1.55 0.14 0.74
Bss2 79-115 7.9 0.33 3.7 22.1 12.8 0.75 1.55 37.25 77.28 48.2 9.3 1.56 0.14 0.75
Bss3 115-155 8.5 0.34 1.7 22.4 13.1 0.81 1.50 37.81 76.69 49.3 11.6 1.64 0.15 0.81
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram
Zaheerabad division
2 Paidigummal Ap 0-16 6.0 0.17 4.9 2.2 1.3 0.1 0.81 4.41 50.11 8.8 - 1.14 0.48 0.17
Bt1 16-43 5.9 0.13 3.6 2.0 1.7 0.1 0.78 4.58 49.25 9.3 - 1.08 0.46 0.16
Bt2 45-68 6.4 0.11 2.2 1.5 1.3 0.1 1.17 4.07 39.90 10.2 - 0.98 0.80 0.18
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

3 Burdipad Ap 0-16 5.8 0.10 5.5 2.0 1.5 0.14 0.96 4.60 41.07 11.2 - 1.25 0.58 0.46
Bt1 16-38 6.4 0.10 4.3 2.4 1.9 0.15 0.86 5.31 43.88 12.1 - 1.24 0.47 0.31
Bt2 38-70 6.3 0.11 2.2 2.7 1.3 0.16 0.57 4.73 35.83 13.2 - 1.21 0.31 0.32
Bt3 70-95 6.0 0.10 2.6 2.8 1.2 0.15 0.37 4.52 32.06 14.1 - 1.06 0.20 0.34
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan

4 Kuppanagar Ap 0-14 5.6 0.08 5.7 2.4 1.8 0.11 0.45 4.76 53.48 8.9 - 1.24 0.25 0.22
Bt1 14-30 6.1 0.09 4.9 2.2 1.2 0.16 0.69 4.25 41.67 10.2 - 1.57 0.41 0.20
Bt1 30-50 6.4 0.08 2.7 2.0 1.2 0.15 0.65 4.00 25.81 15.5 - 0.97 0.40 0.26
Bt2 50-81 6.5 0.09 2.6 1.7 0.9 0.12 0.54 3.26 21.17 15.4 - 0.78 0.37 0.29
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
Pedon Location Horizon Depth pH EC OC Exchangeable Cations Total Ex. BS CEC Free ESP SAR CEC/
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1) (c mol (p+) kg-1) Bases (%) (cmol CaCO3 (%) Clay
Ca Mg Na K (p+) kg-1) (%) ratio

5 Basanthpur Ap 0-20 5.1 0.07 5.5 1.2 0.9 0.10 0.66 2.78 36.10 7.7 - 1.30 0.45 0.22
Bt1 20-38 5.6 0.08 3.6 1.5 1.0 0.11 0.80 3.41 41.59 8.2 - 1.34 0.57 0.22
Bt2 38-56 6.1 0.10 3.1 2.4 1.2 0.11 0.72 4.43 47.63 9.3 - 1.18 0.42 0.23
Bt3 56-70 6.1 0.12 3.0 2.5 1.3 0.12 0.69 4.61 38.10 12.1 - 0.99 0.39 0.35
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
6 Kothur Ap 0-15 5.4 0.06 4.9 2.0 1.1 0.10 0.85 4.05 35.21 11.5 - 0.87 0.31 0.32
Bt1 15-45 5.9 0.11 2.7 2.4 1.6 0.10 0.77 4.87 36.07 13.5 - 0.74 0.43 0.24
Bt2 45-75 6.3 0.09 2.5 2.9 1.8 0.15 0.87 5.72 39.18 14.6 - 1.03 0.45 0.24
Bt3 75-105 6.5 0.09 1.5 3.0 1.8 0.15 0.65 5.60 38.10 14.7 - 1.02 0.33 0.25
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
7 Budera Ap 0-14 6.5 0.21 6.6 11.4 6.0 0.14 0.76 18.30 75.00 24.4 2.8 0.57 0.04 0.63
Bw1 14-41 6.8 0.26 4.5 12.2 6.0 0.15 0.52 18.87 66.68 28.3 3.2 0.53 0.04 0.71
Bwss1 41-58 7.0 0.29 5.0 13.1 6.2 0.15 0.51 19.96 66.98 29.8 3.9 0.50 0.04 0.80
Bwss2 58-79 6.7 0.31 3.5 13.2 6.4 0.20 0.55 20.35 81.08 25.1 4.7 0.80 0.05 0.64
BC 79-100 7.0 0.34 2.4 13.3 6.5 0.21 0.55 20.56 83.92 24.5 4.7 0.86 0.05 0.58
Sangareddy division
8 Mamdipally Ap 0-15 6.6 0.19 5.3 6.5 3.9 0.14 0.20 10.74 74.58 14.4 3.2 0.97 0.05 0.73
Bt1 15-40 6.8 0.15 2.7 6.8 3.8 0.13 0.30 11.03 58.36 18.9 4.6 0.69 0.04 0.71
Bt2 40-65 7.1 0.16 2.3 8.8 4.1 0.20 0.34 13.44 68.57 19.6 5.2 1.02 0.06 0.66
Bt3 65-95 7.3 0.12 2.1 7.5 4.9 0.20 0.35 12.95 64.43 20.1 5.5 1.00 0.06 0.62
C 95+ Weathered gneiss
Jogipet division
9 Andole Ap 0-25 8.2 0.21 7.9 24.6 8.2 0.7 0.5 34.00 87.40 38.9 5.5 1.80 0.13 0.72
BA 25-65 8.2 0.29 5.1 21.3 11.6 0.8 0.3 34.00 87.40 38.9 6.3 2.06 0.15 0.68
Bss1 55-85 8.4 0.28 4.5 20.4 10.9 0.9 0.3 32.50 79.08 41.1 6.5 2.19 0.18 0.70
Bss2 85-117 8.4 0.34 3.3 19.1 11.3 1.2 0.3 31.90 75.06 42.5 6.6 2.82 0.24 0.69
Pedon Location Horizon Depth pH EC OC Exchangeable Cations Total Ex. BS CEC Free ESP SAR CEC/
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1) (c mol (p+) kg-1) Bases (%) (cmol CaCO3 (%) Clay
Ca Mg Na K (p+) kg-1) (%) ratio
Bss3 117-145 8.9 0.36 3.3 18.3 12.3 1.0 0.2 31.80 70.51 45.1 7.8 2.22 0.20 0.71
Bss4 145-178 9.2 0. 40 2.9 18.1 8.4 1.3 0.3 28.10 60.69 46.3 9.9 2.81 0.28 0.75
Medak division
10 Kaudloor Ap 0-11 6.5 0.19 4.3 3.1 2.0 0.1 0.3 5.50 62.50 7.8 1.3 1.14 0.05 0.59
A21 22-Nov 6.3 0.16 3.5 5.5 3.7 0.2 0.2 9.60 67.13 11.3 1.4 1.40 0.07 0.77
A22 22-41 6.0 0.11 2.5 7.2 2.9 0.1 0.2 10.4 68.87 11.1 1.4 0.66 0.03 0.71
C 41+ Weathered gneiss
Narsapur division
11 Antharam Ap 0-18 6.9 0.20 5.9 6.5 4.9 0.1 0.3 13.70 85.09 16.1 3.1 0.62 0.03 0.71
Bt1 18-35 7.1 0.22 4.6 7.2 5.1 0.15 0.3 12.95 79.45 16.3 3.8 0.92 0.05 0.64
Bt2 35-50 7.3 0.26 4.5 7.4 5.3 0.14 0.2 14.54 94.42 13.4 4.3 0.91 0.04 0.43
Bt3 50-90 7.5 0.29 2.4 9.5 6.8 0.19 0.2 9.89 71.67 13.8 4.8 1.38 0.05 0.48
C 90+ Weathered granite- gneiss
Narayankhed division
12 Pulkurty Ap 0-27 7.9 0.16 8.4 25.2 16.3 0.81 0.80 43.11 76.71 56.2 7.8 1.44 0.14 0.79
BA 27-55 8.1 0.18 6.7 26.6 18.5 0.86 0.60 46.56 82.85 60.2 8.4 1.43 0.14 0.82
Bss1 55-87 8.0 0.20 4.8 29.2 19.6 0.89 0.60 50.29 83.54 64.7 8.6 1.38 0.14 0.86
Bss2 88-124 8.2 0.22 4.6 30.5 20.1 1.11 0.60 52.31 80.85 64.2 10.1 1.73 0.17 0.85
Bss3 124-150 8.4 0.23 3.6 30.9 20.6 1.13 0.50 53.13 82.76 65.2 11.2 1.73 0.18 0.86

13 Mudguntal thanda Ap 0-13 6.8 0.22 6.6 7.6 2.3 0.12 0.96 10.98 83.18 13.2 1.8 0.91 0.04 0.65
Bt1 13-25 6.7 0.19 4.9 8.2 3.6 0.15 0.60 12.55 95.08 14.3 3.2 1.05 0.05 0.52
Bt2 25-46 6.6 0.16 4.1 8.3 4.6 0.21 0.55 13.66 95.52 16.5 3.4 1.27 0.06 0.55
Bt2 46-65 6.5 0.13 3.9 8.6 4.8 0.25 0.30 13.95 84.55 16.9 5.1 1.48 0.08 0.52
C 65+ Weathered granite
Pedon Location Horizon Depth pH EC OC Exchangeable Cations Total Ex. BS CEC Free ESP SAR CEC/
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1) (c mol (p+) kg-1) Bases (%) (cmol CaCO3 (%) Clay
Ca Mg Na K (p+) kg-1) (%) ratio

Dubbaka division
14 Ramakkapet Ap 0-12 6.8 0.24 6.8 7.6 2.5 0.11 0.25 10.46 79.24 13.2 2.1 0.83 0.04 0.65
Bt1 Dec-35 7.1 0.21 5.2 8.0 2.7 0.13 0.36 11.19 63.58 17.6 2.8 0.74 0.04 0.76
Bt2 35-46 7.2 0.19 4.5 8.7 2.9 0.15 0.36 12.11 77.63 15.6 3.2 0.96 0.05 0.61
Bt3 46-70 7.4 0.21 2.9 8.7 3.1 0.15 0.28 12.23 90.59 13.5 4.5 1.11 0.05 0.50
C 70+ Weathered granite- gneiss
Table 10. Available nutrient status of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of the Medak district

Pedon Location Horizon Depth Available Macronutrients Available S Available Micronutrients (mg kg-1)
(cm) (kg ha-1) (mg kg-1)
N P K Zn Cu Mn Fe B
Sadasivpet division
1 Aroor Ap 0-25 289 41.8 401 44.6 0.86 2.63 7.69 8.94 1.85
BA 25-52 210 24.1 383 31.1 0.73 2.32 7.25 7.05 1.12
Bss1 52-79 189 19.6 281 26.2 0.54 2.60 6.65 5.52 0.56
Bss2 79-115 168 15.2 241 16.2 0.51 1.89 5.24 4.85 0.39
Bss3 115-155 101 10.2 222 13.3 0.36 1.48 5.44 3.27 0.42
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram
Zaheerabad division
2 Paidigummal Ap 0-16 276 28.8 382 19.63 0.56 1.94 15.69 22.26 0.51
Bt1 16-43 193 18.4 321 12.96 0.42 1.81 14.29 21.06 0.46
Bt2 45-68 132 16.4 296 8.72 0.36 0.67 12.04 18.89 0.18
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
3 Burdipad Ap 0-16 261 36.9 384 21.35 0.51 1.81 14.02 23.6 0.59
Bt1 16-38 188 15.6 264 16.34 0.44 1.05 12.24 22.4 0.52
Bt2 38-70 96 12.1 132 9.74 0.34 1.01 9.03 18.5 0.46
Bt3 70-95 90 10.1 121 7.57 0.25 1.03 10.03 20.3 0.34
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
4 Kuppanagar Ap 0-14 246 20.4 356 16.33 0.66 1.03 19.27 23.79 0.60
Bt1 14-30 163 15.6 246 15.23 0.54 0.95 14.23 22.67 0.59
Bt1 30-50 106 11.5 195 11.41 0.51 0.85 16.81 12.13 0.55
Bt2 50-81 88 10.0 184 8.68 0.48 0.71 10.40 14.0 0.45
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
5 Basanthpur Ap 0-20 268 24.6 285 21.32 1.65 1.98 20.15 25.3 0.54
Bt1 20-38 163 14.9 265 20.78 0.62 1.92 19.60 24.6 0.49
Bt2 38-56 125 14.3 186 15.62 0.43 1.64 22.54 14.2 0.35
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Available Macronutrients Available S Available Micronutrients (mg kg-1)
-1
(cm) (kg ha ) (mg kg-1)
N P K Zn Cu Mn Fe B
Bt3 56-70 95 12.6 187 12.36 0.22 1.62 24.26 13.9 0.26
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
6 Kothur Ap 0-15 268 24.6 286 15.63 0.49 1.58 13.93 18.18 0.61
Bt1 15-45 151 22.6 265 14.23 0.33 0.50 13.24 17.02 0.59
Bt2 45-75 108 21.5 186 7.69 0.20 0.46 9.81 15.54 0.47
Bt3 75-105 92 11.3 151 5.56 0.20 0.50 8.63 15.32 0.33
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated

7 Budera Ap 0-14 277 21.03 310 30.56 0.88 0.94 12.36 15.8 1.94
Bw1 14-41 184 20.62 281 18.52 0.80 0.86 10.60 11.6 1.86
Bwss1 41-58 152 14.80 267 15.47 0.42 0.66 10.25 14.4 1.51
Bwss2 58-79 96 11.23 210 10.75 0.36 0.39 9.57 12.6 1.36
BC 79-100 92 8.11 181 9.23 0.31 0.38 10.98 11.1 1.22
Sangareddy division
8 Mamdipally Ap 0-15 270 20.6 356 19.66 0.61 2.80 10.88 7.66 1.84
Bt1 15-40 174 14.1 308 13.42 0.45 1.60 9.80 6.54 1.71
Bt2 40-65 161 12.9 303 11.12 0.44 1.40 9.11 6.42 1.63
Bt3 65-95 109 10.3 294 9.96 0.23 0.70 5.26 3.27 1.53
C 95+ Weathered gneiss
Jogipet division
9 Andole Ap 0-25 296 42.1 415 48.56 1.36 1.05 10.60 10.2 1.99
BA 25-65 253 39.3 395 31.98 0.69 1.02 10.23 8.1 1.84
Bss1 55-85 165 29 336 24.52 0.48 0.96 9.63 5.2 1.74
Bss2 85-117 168 18.91 358 19.23 0.37 0.62 9.51 6.2 1.58
Bss3 117-145 96 18.52 321 9.65 0.34 0.61 8.86 6.6 1.41
Bss4 145-178 88 16.4 294 6.23 0.23 0.61 5.45 5.2 1.23
Pedon Location Horizon Depth Available Macronutrients Available S Available Micronutrients (mg kg-1)
(cm) (kg ha-1) (mg kg-1)
N P K Zn Cu Mn Fe B
Medak division
10 Kaudloor A 0-11 25 19.1 396 16.22 0.55 1.81 7.16 13.70 1.75
A21 11-22 189 10.3 364 11.23 0.32 1.02 4.13 11.69 1.61
A22 22-41 123 9.02 351 8.62 0.21 0.60 5.17 9.64 1.52
C 41+ Weathered gneiss

11 Antharam Ap 0-18 265 16.3 394 32.12 0.58 1.91 8.11 14.11 1.86
Bt1 18-35 194 15.2 286 29.01 0.45 1.63 4.17 13.23 1.63
Bt2 35-50 127 15.2 291 20.16 0.32 1.54 2.19 10.25 1.51
Bt3 50-90 98 11.6 231 14.52 0.25 1.57 2.26 5.31 1.38
C 90+ Weathered granite-gneiss
Narayankhed division
12 Pulkurty Ap 0-27 289 58.94 404 51.21 0.96 2.34 13.8 9.5 1.89
BA 27-55 178 27.66 384 26.25 0.72 2.14 11.1 9.1 1.74
Bss1 55-87 165 20.02 348 18.29 0.52 2.51 6.5 8.3 1.68
Bss2 88-124 129 16.56 334 15.52 0.41 1.63 5.2 8.2 1.51
Bss3 124-150 113 16.21 256 10.31 0.36 1.61 4.8 4.9 1.42

13 Mudguntal thanda A 0-13 266 18.32 409 23.26 0.66 2.14 9.99 11.72 1.72
Bt1 13-25 232 15.0 392 20.21 0.61 1.21 8.03 10.85 1.69
Bt2 25-46 130 11.16 379 19.65 0.58 1.10 7.22 10.66 1.63
Bt2 46-65 140 9.90 368 12.32 0.33 0.91 4.26 9.60 1.56
C 65+ Weathered granite
Dubbaka division
14 Ramakkapet A 0-12 276 17.16 356 16.32 0.69 2.30 7.30 15.96 1.66
Bt2 35-46 226 11.82 308 15.23 0.48 1.30 6.33 14.60 1.53
Bt3 46-70 126 9.93 292 11.75 0.41 0.41 6.32 13.55 1.49
Bt3 46-70 92 9.81 195 11.11 0.35 0.36 5.23 10.49 1.33
C 70+ Weathered granite-gneiss
Table 11. Classification of Sugarcane growing soils of the Medak district (Keys to Soil Taxonomy, 2010 by Soil Survey Staff)

Pedon Location Order Suborder Great group Subgroup Family

1 Aroor Vertisols Usterts Haplusterts Typic Haplusterts Very-Fine Smectitic, Calcareous, Superactive,
Isohyperthermic Typic Haplusterts
2 Paidigummal Alfisols Ustalfs Haplusalfs Ultic Haplustalfs Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Subactive,
Isohyperthermic Ultic Haplustalfs
3 Burdipad Alfisols Ustalfs Haplusalfs Ultic Haplustalfs Clayey, Kaolinitic, Semiactive, Isohyperthermic
Ultic Haplustalfs
4 Kuppanagar Alfisols Ustalfs Rhodustalf Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive,
Isohyperthermic Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs
5 Basanthpur Alfisols Ustalfs Rhodustalf Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs Clayey-Skeletal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive,
Isohyperthermic Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs
6 Kothur Alfisols Ustalfs Haplusalfs Ultic Haplustalfs Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive,
Isohyperthermic Ultic Haplustalfs
7 Budera Inceptisols Ustepts Haplustepts Vertic Haplustepts Fine, Smectitic, Superactive, Non calcarious,
Isohyperthermic Vertic Haplustepts
8 Mamdipally Alfisols Ustalfs Haplusalfs Typic Haplustalfs Loamy, Mixed, Superactive, Isohyperthermic Typic
Haplustalfs
9 Andole Vertisols Usterts Haplusterts Typic Haplusterts Fine, Smectitic, Calcareous, Superactive,
Isohyperthermic Typic Haplusterts
10 Kaudloor Entisols Orthents Ustorthents Typic Ustorthents Loamy-Skeletal, Mixed, Superactive,
Isohyperthermic Typic Ustorthents
11 Antharam Alfisols Ustalfs Haplusalfs Lithic Haplustalfs Loamy, Mixed, Active, Isohyperthermic Lithic
Haplusalfs
12 Pulkurty Vertisol Usterts Haplusterts Typic Haplustrets Very- Fine, Smectitic, Calcareous, Superactive,
Isohyperthermic Typic Haplustrets
13 Mudguntal thanda Alfisols Ustalfs Haplustalfs Lithic Haplustalfs Loamy, Mixed, Active, Isohyperthermic Lithic
Haplustalfs .
14 Ramakkapet Alfisols Ustalfs Haplustalfs Typic Haplustalfs Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Superactive,
Isohyperthermic Typic Haplustalfs
Table 12. Land capability classification of Sugarcane growing soil pedons of Medak District based on soil characteristics
Physiographic Location Topography Physical soil characteristics Pedon Soil fertility LCC
unit development factors
Slope Erosion Drainage Texture Sur.coarse Sub.sur.coarse Soil CEC BS OC
fragments fragments Depth
Pedon 1 Aroor II II IV III II II I I I III II IIIwef
Pedon 2 Paidigummal III III I V III IV III II IV IV III IIIstef
Pedon 3 Burdipad III III I IV III III III II IV IV IV IIIstef
Pedon 4 Kuppanagar III III II IV III III III II IV III III IIIstef
Pedon 5 Basanthpur III III II V III IV III II IV III III IIIstef
Pedon 6 Kothur III III I V III III II II IV IV IV IIIstef
Pedon 7 Budera III II III II II II II I I I III IIIwef
Pedon 8 Mamdipally III IV I III III III III II I III III IIIstef
Pedon 9 Andole II II IV III II II I I I I II IIIwef
Pedon 10 Kaudloor III VI I III III III IV V IV III IV IIItsdef
Pedon 11 Antharam II IV I III III III III II I III III IIIstef
Pedon 12 Pulkurty II II IV III II II I I I I II IIIwef
Pedon 13 Mudguntal thanda II IV I III III III III II I IV III IIIstef
Pedon 14 Ramakkapet II IV I III III III III II I III III IIIstef
Table 13. Soil-site characteristics for land evaluation of Sugarcane growing Soils of Medak District
Physiographic Location Climate Land form characteristics Physico-chemical characteristics(weighted averages)
unit

Depth (cm)

OC (g kg-1)
Sur.coarse
Min. temp
Max.temp

fragments

pH (1:2.5)
Slope (%)

Drainage

B.S (%)
Rain fall

(p+)/kg)
RH (%)

Texture
Erosion

(vol %)
(oC)

(oC)

(Cmol
(mm)

CEC
Pedon 1 Aroor 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 1-3 Moderate Poor 155 11.5 c 8.1 7.5 40.4 80.32
Pedon 2 Paidigummal 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 67 35.6 gsc 6.0 4.9 8.8 50.11
Pedon 3 Burdipad 980 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 95 24.2 scl 5.8 5.5 11.2 41.07
Pedon 4 Kuppanagar 980 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 81 31.2 scl 5.6 5.7 8.9 53.48
Pedon 5 Basanthpur 980 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 70 35.0 sc 5.1 5.5 7.7 36.10
Pedon 6 Kothur 980 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 105 29.2 sc 5.4 4.9 11.5 35.21
Pedon 7 Budera 980 40.0 26.2 74.0 1-3 Moderate Poor 100 12.3 cl 6.5 6.6 24.4 75.00
Pedon 8 Mamdipally 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 95 15.6 sl 6.6 5.3 14.4 74.58
Pedon 9 Andole 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 1-3 Moderate Poor 178 10.4 c 8.2 7.9 38.9 87.40
Pedon 10 Kaudloor 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 41 24.6 gsl 6.5 4.3 7.8 62.50
Pedon 11 Antharam 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 90 23.0 sl 6.9 5.9 16.1 85.09
Pedon 12 Pulakurty 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 1-3 Moderate Poor 150 10.0 c 7.9 8.4 56.2 76.71
Pedon 13 Mudguntal 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 65 22.5 sl 6.8 6.6 13.2 83.18
thanda
Pedon 14 Ramakkapet 855 40.0 26.2 74.0 3-8 Severe Well 70 17.9 sl 6.8 6.8 13.2 79.24
 Table 14. Actual and potential soil suitability for Sugarcane growing Soils of Medak District

Max. temp

Min.Temp

Texture (s)

Suitability

Suitability
CaCO3 (s)
Pedon No

Drainage

Depth (s)

Potential
Location

Slope (t)

CEC (f)
ESP (n)

BSP (f)
EC (n)

Actual
pH (n)

OC (f)
RH

(w)
Pedon 1 Aroor S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1
Pedon 2 Paidigummal S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S3 S3 S3 S1 S1 S2 S3 S3 S3 S3 S2
Pedon 3 Burdipad S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S1 S2 S3 S1 S1 S2 S3 S2 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 4 Kuppanagar S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S1 S2 S3 S1 S1 S2 S3 S3 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 5 Basanthpur S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S3 S3 S3 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 6 Kothur S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S3 S1 S3 S1 S1 S3 S3 S3 S3 S3 S2
Pedon 7 Budera S1 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S2 S2 S1
Pedon 8 Mamdipally S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S2 S2 S2 S1 S1 S2 S2 S2 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 9 Andole S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1
Pedon 10 Kaudloor S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S2 N1 S3 S1 S1 S2 S1 S3 S3 S3 S2
Pedon11 Antharam S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S2 S2 S2 S1 S1 S2 S1 S1 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 12 Pulakurty S1 S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S1 S1 S1 S1 S1 S1 S1 S1 S2 S1
Pedon 13 Mudguntal thanda S1 S1 S1 S3 S3 S2 S3 S2 S1 S1 S3 S3 S2 S2 S3 S2
Pedon 14 Ramakkapet S1 S1 S1 S3 S1 S2 S3 S2 S1 S1 S2 S2 S2 S2 S3 S2
Soil Suitability class: S1 - Highly suitable; S2 - Moderately suitable ; S3 - Marginally suitable
Not Suitability class: N1- Temporarily not suitable N2 - Permanently not suitable AS - Actual Suitability PS - Potential Suitability
Table 15. Fertility capability classification soil sample coding for Sugarcane growing Soils of Medak District

Pedon Location Type/ Check list for modifiers Modifiers FCC unit
Substrata d e i v k b n s h
1. Aroor C * - - * - * - - - dvb Cdvb
2. Paidigummal SC * - - - - - - - * dh SC``dh
3 Burdipad LC * - - - - - - - * dh LC``dh
4. Kuppanagar SC * - - - - - - - * dh SC``dh
5. Basanthpur SC * - - - - - - - * dh SC``dh
6. Kothur SC * - - - - - - - * dh SC``dh
7. Budera CL * - - * - - - - - dv CLdv
8. Mamdipally L * - - - - - - - - d L` d
9. Andole C * - - * - * - - - dvb Cdvb
10. Kaudloor L * - - - - - - - - d L``d
11. Antharam L * - - - - - - - - d L`d
12. Pulakurty C * - - * - * - - - dvb Cdvb
13 Mudguntal thanda L * - - - - - - - - d L``d
14. Ramakkapet L * - - - - - - - - d L``d

S: high rate of infiltration, low water-holding capacity.

L: medium infiltration rate, good water-holding capacity.
C: low infiltration rates, good water-holding capacity, high potential, runoff if sloping, difficult to till
SC, LC, LR, SR: susceptible to severe soil degradation from erosion exposing undesirable subsoil; high priority should be given to erosion control.
d - ustic moisture regime: dry > 90 consecutive days in 20 60 cm depth
v - Vertic condition, very sticky and plastic with clay > 35 per cent.
k - Potassium deficiency in the surface soils (less than 0.2 cmol (p+) kg-1of exchangeable K).
b - Basic reaction with soil pH more than 7.3 or free CaCO3 within 50 cm.
e - Low CEC (< 7 cmol (p+) kg-1 of soil by sum of cations at pH 7).
i - phosphorus fixation. Hues of 7.5 YR or redder and granular structure
h- Acid but not Al-toxic or pH in between 5.0 and 6.0
n- 15% Na-saturation of CEC within 50 cm of the soil surface
s- 4 mmhos/cm of electrical conductivity of saturated extract at 25oC within 1 m of the soil surface
Prime (`) symbol denotes presence of gravel 15-35% up to 50cm depth
Double Prime (``) symbol denotes presence of gravel >35% up to 50cm depth
Table 21. Comparative evaluation of productivity of soils in the study area along with the management options

Soil type Pedon Location Suitability Major limitations Management suggested

Black Soils
1 Aroor Moderately suitable Addition of river sand at 100 t ha-1;
Drainage, texture, runoff,
to highly suitable erosion and CaCO3, highapplication of 100 cart loads of red loam
pH, sub surface hard pan
soil; summer deep ploughing; furrow system
9 Andole Moderately suitable Drainage, texture, runoff,
to manage the surface drainage; raised beds
to highly suitable erosion and high CaCO3,should be 1.2 m wide and 15 cm hight with
high pH in subsurface two furrows of 30 cm width on either side to
horizon drain out excess of water; pre monsoon
12 Pulakurty Moderately suitable Drainage, texture, runoff,
sowing of green manures; application of
to highly suitable erosion and high CaCO3,farmyard manures, composted coir pith
or press mud at 25 t ha-1 per year and crop
high pH, sub surface hard
pan rotation. Follow site-specific nutrient
management.
7 Budera Moderately suitable Slope, medium OC and N Pre monsoon sowing of green manures;
to highly suitable and Low Zn application of farmyard manures, composted
coir pith or press mud at 25 t ha-1 per year
and crop rotation. Follow site-specific
nutrient management.
Red Soils
8 Mamdipally Marginally suitable Texture, slope, Low N and Application of black soils/ tank silt; pre
to Moderately Zn monsoon sowing of green manures;
suitable application of farmyard manure, composted
11 Antharam Marginally suitable Texture, slope, Low N and coir pith or press mud at 25 t ha-1 per year
to Moderately Zn and crop rotation. Follow site-specific
suitable nutrient management.
13 Mudguntal Marginally suitable Texture, slope, low OC,
thanda to Moderately Low N and Zn
Soil type Pedon Location Suitability Major limitations Management suggested
suitable
14 Ramakkapet Marginally suitable Texture, slope, low OC,
to Moderately Low N and Zn
suitable
10 Kaudloor Marginally suitable Depth, Slope, Erosion, Application of black soils/ tank silt; pre
to Moderately Texture, Coarse fragments, monsoon sowing of green manures;
suitable OC, Low N & low Zn application of farmyard manures, composted
coir pith or press mud at 25 t ha-1 per year
and crop rotation. Follow site-specific
nutrient management to overcome the
nutrients deficiencies.
Red Laterite Soils
2 Paidigummal Marginally suitable Texture, slope, Low WHC, Deep ploughing, sub-soiling or chiseling up
to Moderately Moderately acidic, coarse to a depth of 50 - 75 cm at 90 cm;
suitable fragments, OC, Low N ,Sub Application of black soils/ tank silt;
3 Burdipad Marginally suitable surface hardening, insitu application of Lime (1.0-1.5 t ha-1);
to Moderately crusting, indurate laterite application of FYM enriched rock phosphate
suitable layer, massive and tough and zinc sulphate; Green manuring;
4 Kuppanagar Marginally suitable application of organic manures; application
to Moderately of bio char @ 5 -10; maintenance of surface
suitable pH; split application of nitrogen to reduce
5 Basanthpur Marginally suitable leaching; use lower rates of less acidifying
to Moderately fertilizers; avoid acidifying fertilizers such
suitable as mono ammonium phosphate or sulphate
6 Kothur Marginally suitable of ammonia; crop rotation with legumes.
to Moderately Follow site-specific nutrient management.
suitable
Table 1. Geo-referenced location points of Sugarcane growing pedons in the
Medak district

Pedon Location of Pedon Latitude o N Longitude o E Altitude (m)

o o
1 Aroor 17 3742.34 77 5310.33 539
o o
2 Paidigumma 17 3239.17 77 4414.26 651
o o
3 Burdipad 17 4343.50 77 3338.09 602
4 Kuppanagar 17 o 4431.90 77 o 4138.59 626
5 Basanthpur 17 o 4740.52 77 o 3250.03 615
6 Kothur 17 o 4352.78 77 o 3615.96 611
7 Budera 17 o 3837.18 77 o 5035.00 585
o o
8 Mamdipally 17 3612.54 78 0859.68 514
o o
9 Andole 17 4934.54 78 0507.31 492
o o
10 Kaudloor 17 5704.04 78 0036.82 489
11 Antharam 17 o 5152.75 78 o 1117.34 539
12 Pulakurty 17 o 5645.77 77 o 4243.82 527
13 Mudguntal 18 o 0334.95 77 o 4920.43 484
14 Ramakkapet 18 o 1110.10 78 o 3747.53 509
Table 2. Mandal wise Sugarcane cultivated area (ha) in the Medak district for the
year 2013-14
S.No Division Name of the Planted Rattoon Total
Mandal sown (ha) sown (ha) area (ha)
1 Andol-Jogipet Andole 322 383 705
Pulkal 727 1144 1871
Hathnoora 262 331 593
2 Dubbaka Dubbaka 100 110 210
Toopran 0 10 10
Mirdoddy 5 13 18
Doulthabad 0 0 0
3 Gajwel Gajwel 0 0 0
Jagadevpur 0 0 0
Wargal 0 0 0
Mulugu 0 0 0
4 Medak Medak 163 369 532
Papannapet 104 235 339
Kulcharam 72 140 212
5 Narsapur Narsapur 307 267 574
Kowdipally 590 460 1050
Shivampet 3 15 18
Jinnaram 0 0 0
6 Narayankhed Narayankhed 92 206 298
Kangti 124 199 323
Manoor 599 2084 2683
Kalher 167 233 400
7 Ramayampet Ramayampet 123 97 220
Shankarampet A 16 30 46
Chegunta 1 9 10
Yeldurthy 28 54 82
8 Sadashivapet Sadashivapet 156 265 421
Kohir 360 376 736
Munipally 150 266 416
Kondapur 138 260 398
9 Sangareddy Sangareddy 351 481 832
Patancheruvu 16 21 37
Ramchandrapuram 0 0 0
10 Shankarampet R Shankarampet R 74 78 152
Tekmal 162 200 362
Alladurg 22 56 78
Regode 12 16 28
11 Siddipeta Siddipeta 0 0 0
Chiinakodur 0 0 0
Nanganoor 0 0 0
Kondapak 0 0 0
12 Zaheerabad Zaheerabad 1640 2904 4544
Raikode 182 336 518
Nyalkal 676 1453 2129
Jarasangham 498 733 1231
Total: 8242 13834 22076
Table 3. Geological formations of Medak district

Formation Age Occurrence (Mandals)

Archaean Lower Nangnur, Chinnakodur, Siddipet, Dubbak,

Gneisses Precambrian Mirdoddi, Ramayampet, Shankarampet(R),
Chegunta, Daulatabad, Gajwel, Jagdevpur,
Mulugu, Wargal, Tuphran, Shivampet,
Yeldurthi, Medak, Papannapet, Shankarampet
(A), parts of Kalher, Narayankhed, Regode,
Alladurg, Andole, Raikode, Manur,
Munipalli,Sadasivpet, Kondapur, Sangareddy,
Patancheru, Ramachandrapuram, Jinnaram,
Narsapur, Hatnura, Pulkal, Kowdipalli,
Kulcharam and Tekmal

Deccan Traps Mesozoic-Lower Parts of Zaheerabad, Kohir, Sadasivpet,

Tertiary Munipally, jharasangam, Nyalkal, Raikode,
Andale, Alladurg, Regode, Narayankher,
Manur, Kangti and Kalher.

Laterites Pleistocene- Parts of Zaheerabad, Kohir, jharasangam,

recent Munipalli and Nyalkal.

Alluvium All the mandals.

Table 4. Standard procedures used for soil analysis

S.No. Analytical Parameter Method Author (s)

A. Morphological properties of soil
Soil colour Munsell Soil-colour charts (Soil Survey Staff, 1951)
with genuine Munsell color
chips of hue, value and
chroma (Revised 2009-10)
B. Physical properties of soil
1. Mechanical analysis International Pipette Piper (1966)
Method
2. Gravel Gravimetry Govindarajan and Koppar
(1975)
3. COLE (Coefficient of Soil Survey Laboratory Soil Survey Staff (2010)
linear extensibility) Methods Manual
4. Water holding capacity Keen Raczkowskis box Sankaram (1966).
and volume expansion method
5. Physical constants Core sampler method Gupta and Dakshinamurthi
(1980)
C. Physico-chemical properties
6. Soil reaction (pH) Potentiometry Jackson (1973)
(1:2.5 Soil : water)
7. Electrical Conductivity Conductometry Jackson (1973)
(EC) (1 : 2.5 soil : water)
8. Organic carbon Chromic acid wet digestion Walkley and Black (1934)
9. Free calcium carbonate Rapid titration method Piper (1966)
10. Cation Exchange Neutral Normal Ammonium Schollenberger and
Capacity (CEC) acetate method Dreibelbis (1930)
11. Exchangeable Ca and Versenate titration Jackson (1973)
Mg
12. Exchangeable sodium Flame photometry Stanford and English (1949)
13. Exchangeable potassium Flame photometry Stanford and English (1949)
D. Chemical properties of soil
14. Available Nitrogen Alkaline KMnO4 method Subbiah and Asija (1956)
15. Available Phosphorus 0.5M NaHCO3 extractant Olsen et al. (1954)
for neutral and calcareous
soils
16. Available Phosphorus Bray No.1 extractant for Brays and Kurtz (1945)
acid soils (0.03N NH4F and
0.025N HCl)
17. Available Potassium Flame photometry Stanford and English (1949)
18. Available Sulphur 0.15% CaCl2 solution and (Williams and Steinberg,
using Spectrophotometer 1959).
19. Available DTPA Extractant Lindsay and Norvell (1978)
Micronutrients (Fe, Zn,
Mn and Cu)
20. Available Boron Hot water extraction Berger and Truog, (1939)
 Table 5. Soil site suitability criteria (crop requirements) for Sugarcane

Soil-site characteristics Rating

Unit Highly suitable (S1) Moderately Marginally Not suitable
suitable (S2) suitable (S3) (N)
Climatic Mean temperature C 30-34 26-29 25-20 <20
regime in growing season 35-38 39-40 >40
Mean minimum C 10-20 21-30 9-5 <5
temperature in growing
season
Mean RH (%)in Growing season 70-85 60-70/85- 90 60-50/>90 <50
Ripening stage 55-76 75-90 <55/>90 -
Land quality Land characteristics
Oxygen Soil drainage Class Well Mod. / Poorly V. Poorly/
availability drained Imperfectly drained Excessively
to roots drained drained
Depth of water m >1.0 1.0-0.5 <0.5
Nutrient Texture Class l, cl, sil, sicl, sc, scI c(m/k), sl c+(ss)
availability pH 1:2.5 7.0-8.0 6.0-6.9 8.1-9.0 4.0-5 .9/ <4.0/
9.1-9.5 >9.5
CEC c mol >20 10-20 10-5 .0 <5
(p+)/kg
Rooting Effective soil depth cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50
conditions Stonnines % <15 15-35 35-50 >50
Soil toxicity Salinity (EC dS/m <2.0 2.0-4.0 4.0-9.0 >9
saturation extract)
Sodicity (ESP) % <10 10-15 15-25 >25
Erosion Slope % <3 3-5 5-8 >8
hazard
Clay (m/k)= mixedlkaolinitic; Clay (ss)= shrink-swell clays

(NBSS&LUP2005)
 Table 16. Morphological characteristics of Sugarcane growing soils of Medak district

S.No Division No. of No. of No of Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
Mandal Villages samples (cm) Dry Moist Wet
1 Medak 3 14 14 0-15 Scl to c m2gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff mf to
m3abk vh fi vs&vp cf
14 15-30 scl-c f1sbk to l to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff to ff
m3abk vh vfi vs&vp
2 Zaheerabad 5 27 27 0-15 scl-c f1gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff mf to
m3abk vh fi vs&vp cf
27 15-30 scl-c f2gr to sh to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff to ff
m3abk vh vfi vs&vp
3 Sangareddy 2 14 14 0-15 sl to c m1gr to l to h fr to so&po nil to ms ff mf to
m1sbk fi to s&p cf
14 15-30 sl to c m1sbk to sh to fr to ss&sp nil to ms ff ff
m3abk h vfi
4 Sadasivpet 3 13 13 0-15 scl-c m1sbk to vh to fr to s&p to nil to ms ff mf to
m2 sbk h fi vs&vp cf
13 15-30 scl-c m1sbk to vh to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff
c3 abk h vfi vs&vp
5 Narayankhed 4 20 20 0-15 sl to c m1gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff mf to
c3abk vh fi vs&vp cf
20 15-30 sl to c m1sbk to sh to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff
c3abk vh vfi vs&vp
6 Jogipet 3 15 15 0-15 sl to c m1gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff mf to
c1sbk vh fi vs&vp cf
15 15-30 sl to c m1sbk to sh to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff
c3abk vh vfi vs&vp
7 Dubbaka 2 5 5 0-15 sl to scl f1 gr to l to fr to so&po nil to ms ff mf to
m2 sbk sh fi cf
5 15-30 sl to scl m2 gr to l to fr to ss&pp nil to ms ff ff
m2sbk sh fi
8 Narsapur 3 12 12 0-15 sl to cl f1 gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff mf to
m2 sbk sh fi s&p cf
12 15-30 sl to cl m2 gr to l to fr to ss to nil to ms ff ff
m3abk sh fi vs&vp
9 Shankarampet 2 7 7 0-15 scl-c m1sbk to vh to fr to s&p to nil to ms ff mf to
S.No Division No. of No. of No of Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
Mandal Villages samples (cm) Dry Moist Wet
m2 sbk h fi vs&vp cf
7 15-30 scl-c m1sbk to vh to fr to ss to nil to s ff ff
c3 abk h vfi vs&vp
10 Ramayampet 3 8 8 0-15 cl to c m3sbk to vh to fi to s&p to ms to s ff mf to
c3 abk h vfi vs&vp cf
8 15-30 cl m2sbk to vh to fi to vs&vp ms to s ff ff
c3 abk h vfi to
vs&vp
Total 256
 Table 17. Physical characteristics of surface and subsurface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak district

S.No Division/ No of soil Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
mandal/ samples (cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay Mgm-3 (%)
vilages
1 Medak 14 0-15 9.0-37.4 12.8-72.3 5.8-19.8 20.8-77.9 1.39-1.52 33.0-51.0
(15.6) (30.4) (14.6) (54.3) (1.5) (44.0)
14 15-30 5.6-23.6 10.4-66.4 6.5-17.3 26.5-79.1 1.41-1.54 38.0-54.0
(11.5) (28.4) (13.9) (56.9) (1.49) (48.3)
2 Zaheerabad 27 0-15 9.8-47.7 10.9-65.9 5.8-20.1 26.3-72.3 1.33-1.59 19.0-50.0
(30.8) (44.8) (11.1) (43.5) (1.4) (30.7)
27 15-30 6.6-55.6 9.6-63.6 6.1-19.4 29.9-73.2 1.34-1.61 21.0-53.0
(31.3) (43.4) (11.3) (44.9) (1.4) (34.2)
3 Sangareddy 7 0-15 9.6-33.3 15.4-77.4 6.3-18.2 15.8-49.9 1.32-1.51 23.0-49.0
(19.4) (54.5) (10.3) (34.7) (1.4) (35.6)
7 15-30 9.1-36.6 13.9-74.7 6.1-18.4 19.6-67.2 1.34-1.53 24.0-51.0
(20.5) (52.3) (9.9) (37.2) (1.4) (38.7)
4 Sadasivpet 13 0-15 9.4-33.1 12.3-69.3 4.8-18.7 25.5-76.5 1.41-1.54 32.0-51.0
(14.4) (27.1) (14.1) (58.2) (1.5) (43.4)
13 15-30 8.4-35.4 10.1-67.1 5.8-18.6 26.4-79.8 1.42-1.56 40.0-55.0
(13.2) (25.3) (14.3) (59.9) (1.5) (48.1)
5 Narayankhed 20 0-15 5.1-39.4 11.1-76.4 4.0-22.6 16.1-69.6 1.35-1.58 22.0-48.0
(16.9) (39.7) (12.4) (47.3) (9.2) (37.0)
20 15-30 4.0-40.3 10.2-73.3 5.1-21.3 20.5-72.9 1.38-1.59 23.0-54.0
(16.6) (38.1) (12.8) (48.6) (1.5) (39.7)
6 Jogipet 15 0-15 9.4-48.4 12.8-75.8 5.2-19.2 16.8-67.3 1.36-1.65 23.0-47.0
(32.2) (51.1) (25.1) (56.9) (15.0) (49.8)
15 15-30 6.5-51.5 12.4-74.2 5.6-20.3 18.2-67.9 1.40-1.69 26.0-55.0
(31.3) (49.8) (25.2) (58.7) (15.1) (52.5)
7 Dubbaka 5 0-15 26.4-48.4 61.9-76.2 5.6-6.3 18.2-31.2 1.33-1.48 18.0-29.0
(35.2) (71.3) (6.1) (22.2) (1.4) (22.0)
5 15-30 29.1-52.3 59.4-73.4 5.9-6.9 19.5-32.4 1.43-1.51 21.0-32.0
(38.0) (69.3) (6.3) (23.3) (1.4) (25.8)
8 Narsapur 12 0-15 9.4-38.4 39.6-74.6 5.1-18.6 19.5-45.8 1.33-1.55 19.0-42.0
 S.No Division/ No of soil Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
mandal/ samples (cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay Mgm-3 (%)
vilages
(25.5) (61.6) (8.1) (29.7) (1.4) (29.6)
12 15-30 6.6-41.5 38.1-73.2 5.5-17.3 20.6-47.1 1.42-1.57 20.0-49.0
(26.8) (59.3) (8.5) (31.6) (1.5) (32.8)
9 Shankarampet 7 0-15 9.6-33.6 16.4-61.3 8.4-17.7 28.1-66.6 1.32-1.55 30.0-49.0
(19.1) (35.2) (13.9) (50.3) (1.5) (42.0)
7 15-30 6.8-35.4 15.2-59.9 8.3-19.6 31.6-67.4 1.36-1.57 33.0-54.0
(18.8) (33.7) (14.1) (51.7) (1.5) (45.4)
10 Ramayampet 8 0-15 8.9-18.4 16.5-41.2 11.2-23.1 38.7-64.3 1.46-1.61 39.0-47.0
(11.8) (25.8) (18.1) (55.3) (1.5) (42.8)
8 15-30 6.4-12.6 14.6-42.3 11.1-22.2 40.1-62.5 1.44-1.55 44.0-50.0
(9.3) (24.4) (18.0) (56.7) (1.5) (48.0)
Overall range 0-15 5.1-48.4 10.9 -77.4 4.0-23.1 15.8-77.9 1.32-1.65 19.0-51.0
Mean (22.1) (44.1) (13.4) (45.2) (3.6) (37.7)
15-30 4.0-55.6 10.1-74.7 5.1-22.2 18.2-79.8 1.34-1.69 20.0-55.0
(21.7) (42.4) (13.4) (46.9) (2.8) (41.3)
The data in parenthesis ( ) indicate the average values
 Table 18. Physico-chemical and available nutrient status of surface and subsurface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak
district

S.No Division No of soil Depth (cm) pH EC OC Available macronutrients (kg ha-1)

samples (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1) N P K
1 Medak 14 0-15 7.58 - 7.91 0.24 - 0.27 4.2 - 8.1 243.0 - 305.0 21.0 - 39.0 290.0 - 428.0
(7.70) (0.26) (6.05) (278.7) (30.5) (357.0)
14 15-30 7.64 - 7.93 0.36 - 0.45 3.6 - 6.9 169.0 - 264.0 19.0 - 34.0 169.0 - 368.0
(7.75) (0.27) (5.24) (191.3) (26.1) (290.1)
2 Zaheerabad 27 0-15 4.60 - 7.60 0.09 - 0.27 4.4 - 7.4 243.0 - 326.0 16.0 - 39.0 262.0 - 426.0
(6.38) (0.18) (5.8) (275.1) (27.6) (336.7)
27 15-30 4.40 - 7.70 0.14 - 0.32 3.2 - 6.6 177.0 - 256.0 11.0 - 27.0 182.0 - 314.0
(6.42) (0.18) (4.9) (201.9) (19.9) (241.3)
3 Sangareddy 7 0-15 7.03 - 7.23 0.22 - 0.24 4.6 - 6.7 263.0 - 322.0 26.0 - 33.0 262.0 - 431.0
(6.99) (0.22) (5.5) (285.0) (28.1) (355.3)
7 15-30 7.40 - 7.55 0.26 - 0.34 3.9 - 6.1 179.0 - 241.0 16.0 - 24.0 198.0 - 337.0
(7.24) (0.22) (4.6) (212.7) (18.9) (264.4)
4 Sadasivpet 13 0-15 7.25 - 7.82 0.19 - 0.26 4.8 - 6.9 240.0 - 328.0 18.0 - 41.0 271.0 - 454.0
(7.50) (0.22) (5.7) (291.4) (26.1) (381.9)
13 15-30 7.60 - 7.90 0.25 - 0.38 3.9 - 5.2 184.0 - 241.0 14.0 - 27.0 196.0 399.0
(7.70) (0.21) (4.6) (199.6) (17.5) (307.2)
5 Narayankhed 20 0-15 5.54 - 8.04 0.16 - 0.45 4.9 - 8.2 245.0 - 314.0 18.0 - 36.0 261.0 - 452.0
(7.32) (0.20) (6.4) (277.3) (22.0) (388.9)
20 15-30 6.94 - 8.05 0.18 - 0.46 3 - 7.2 174.0 - 213.0 14.0 - 21.0 191.0 - 396.0
(7.36) (0.21) (5.0) (189.7) (17.8) (293.0)
6 Jogipet 15 0-15 7.00 - 8.34 0.15 - 0.32 4.8 - 8.3 264.0 - 259.0 18.0 - 33.0 268.0 - 457.0
(7.9) (0.18) (6.9) (278.7) (25.0) (370.7)
15 15-30 7.01 - 8.38 0.16 - 0.39 3.7 - 7.1 161.0 - 211.0 13.0 - 26.0 206.0 - 364.0
(7.9) (0.20) (5.7) (200.1) (18.1) (272.7)
7 Dubbaka 5 0-15 5.55 - 5.70 0.12 - 0.31 4.4 - 6.0 261.0 - 294.0 24.0 - 31.0 271.0 - 399.0
(5.6) (0.21) (5.1) (279.8) (26.8) (333.0)
5 15-30 5.69 - 5.70 0.14 - 0.36 3.9 - 5.4 168.0 - 199.0 15.0 - 22.0 194.0 - 312.0
(5.7) (0.22) (4.4) (188.2) (19.6) (226.4)
8 Narsapur 12 0-15 6.99 - 7.69 0.16 - 0.32 4.1 - 5.8 259.0 - 298.0 16.0 - 28.0 261.0 - 443.0
(7.4) (0.22) (5.2) (277.9) (21.5) (364.7)
S.No Division No of soil Depth (cm) pH EC OC Available macronutrients (kg ha-1)
samples (1:2.5) (dSm-1) (g kg-1)
N P K
12 15-30 7.01 - 7.73 0.19 - 0.39 3.4 - 4.9 174.0 - 231.0 10.0 - 19.0 232.0 - 381.0
(7.4) (0.19) (4.1) (196.5) (15.6) (295.0)
9 Shankarampet(A) 7 0-15 7.29 - 7.38 0.22 - 0.23 4.6 - 7.8 263.0 - 305.0 20.0 - 32.0 275.0 - 422.0
(7.3) (0.22) (6.2) (278.9) (26.7) (355.7)
7 15-30 7.32 - 7.41 0.24 - 0.31 4.1 - 6.4 204.0 - 236.0 15.0 - 26.0 214.0 - 382.0
(7.4) (0.24) (5.0) (216.4) (20.3) (274.4)
10 Ramayampet 8 0-15 5.88 - 8.13 0.16 - 0.28 5.1 - 7.0 256.0 - 296.0 14.0 - 36.0 261.0 - 448.0
(7.1) (0.25) (5.8) (276.6) (24.8) (367.9)
8 15-30 6.07 - 8.09 0.20 - 0.32 4.2 - 5.8 164.0 - 234.0 11.0 - 29.0 201.0 - 368.0
(7.2) (0.26) (5.0) (201.9) (19.8) (266.6)

Overall range 0-15 4.60 - 8.86 0.09 - 0.45 4.1 - 8.3 240.0 - 328.0 16.0 - 41.0 261.0 - 457.0
Mean (7.13) (0.21) (5.89) (280.0) (25.9) (361.2)
15-30 4.40 - 8.89 0.11 - 0.46 3.0 - 7.4 161.0 - 264.0 10.0 - 34.0 169.0 - 399.0
(7.21) (0.22) (4.86) (199.8) (19.4) (273.1)

The data in parenthesis ( ) indicate the average values

Table 19. Nutrient index values (NIV) and Fertility Ratings in surface horizons of all the pedons of sugar cane cultivated areas of
Medak district
Division No of Nutrient Index values and fertility ratings
Pedon N P K S Zn Cu Mn Fe B
Sadasivpet 1 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Zaheerabad 6 1.17 1.83 3.00 3.00 1.67 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.33
Sangareddy 1 1.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Jogipet 1 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Medak 1 1.00 5.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Narsapur 1 1.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Narayankhed 2 1.50 2.50 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 1.50
Dubbaka 1 1.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 2.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00
Overall NIV 14 1.29 2.36 3.00 3.00 1.79 3.00 3.00 3.00 2.50
Sadasivpet 1 Medium High High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high Very high
Zaheerabad 6 Low Medium High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high Adequate
Sangareddy 1 Low Medium High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high Very high
Jogipet 1 Medium High High High Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high
Medak 1 Low High High High Very Low Very high Very high Very high Very high
Narsapur 1 Low Medium High High Very Low Very high Very high Very high Very high
Narayankhed 2 Low Medium High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high Low
Dubbaka 1 Low Medium High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high Very high
Overall Fertility 14 Low High High High Marginal Very high Very high Very high High
Ratings

Soil fertility ratings (Macronutrients):< 1.66 Low; 1.67 2.33 Medium; High >2.33 Soil fertility ratings (S and micronutrients) :
< 1.33 Very Low; 1.33 1.66 Low, 1.67 2.00 Marginal, 2.0 2.33 Adequate; 2.33 2.67 High; >2.67 Very high.
Table 20. Nutrient index values (NIV) and soil fertility ratings in surface soils of sugar cane growing areas of Medak district

S.No Division Nutrient Index values and fertility ratings

N P K
1 Medak 1.29 2.86 2.79
2 Zaheerabad 1.56 1.74 2.67
3 Sangareddy 1.43 2.71 2.71
4 Sadsivpet 2.00 2.23 2.77
5 Narayankhed 1.30 1.95 2.75
6 Jogipet 1.33 2.47 2.73
7 Dubbak 1.60 2.80 2.60
8 Narsapur 1.33 2.08 2.67
9 Shankarampet (A) 1.29 2.29 2.57
10 Ramayampet 1.13 2.25 2.63
Overall NIV 1.44 2.22 2.70
1 Medak Low High High
2 Zaheerabad Low Medium High
3 Sangareddy Low High High
4 Sadsivpet Medium Medium High
5 Narayankhed Low Medium High
6 Jogipet Low High High
7 Dubbak Low High High
8 Narsapur Low Medium High
9 Shankarampet (A) Low Medium High
10 Ramayampet Low Medium High
Overall Fertility Ratings Low Medium High
Soil fertility ratings (Macronutrients):< 1.66 Low; 1.67 2.33 Medium; High >2.33
Plate 1. Surface and subsurface soil Plate 2. Surface and subsurface soil samples
samples collection in standing crops in collection in standing crops in between rows at
between rows with the farmers at Kowdipally, Medak division.
Almaipet, Andole division.

Plate 3. Surface and subsurface soil Plate 4. Distinct prominent slickensides (pedon
samples collection after harvest of 9) indicating high swell-shrink potentials soils
sugarcane at Zaheerabad division. at Andole at a depth of 52-100 cm.
Plate 5. In-situ qualitative rapid test for free Plate 6. Pale light grayish and soft white,
CaCO3 (Effervescence) within the soil small to bigger size (0.2mm to 5 cm
profile by adding 10 ml of diluting HCL diameter) hard nodules found in surface
(1:3) at Andole division.
layers of black soil pedons at Aroor,
Sadasivpet division.

Plate 7. Ferro manganese dark brownish red Plate 8. Ferro manganese red and reddish
concretions (Lateritic concretions). yellow and reddish brown concretions.
Plate 9. Ferro manganese red and reddish Plate 10. Massive and tough Sub surface
yellow and reddish brown concretions mixed hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite
with soils. layerwith in 10 to 30 cm in sugarcane areas
at Kohir mandal Zaheerabad division.

Plate 11. Sub surface hardening, insitu
crusting, indurated compact laterite layer
which leads the impedance to root
penetration and proliferation (pedon 3) at
Zaheerabad division.
Plate 12. The shallow root sugarcane plant
susceptible to drought during dry spells due
to subsurface hardening (pedon 3) in red
laterite soils at Zaheerabad division.
Plate 13. Ferro manganese red and reddish Plate 14. The stabilized blocks (natural
brown laterite rock (used as brick) with bricks) hard and durable excavated from
concretions. the soil and cut in form of large blocks used
as building materials.

Plate 15. The laterite brick harder, heavier Plate 16. Sub surface hard pan where the
and more resistant to moisture is used for penetration and proliferation roots are very
construction of building at Metalkunta, few within 20-40 cm depth in black soil
Zahirabad division.
pedon 1.
Plate17. Explaining the importance of Plate 18. Free drained surface red soils with
collection of surface and subsurface soil sandy clay texture on surface horizon and
samples and importance of soil testing to clay texture in subsurface horizon.
the farmers at Rayalpur, Narsapur division.

Plate 19. Sugarcane crop with healthy Plate 20. Exposed weathered granite-gneiss
vegetation at Andole division due to high material due to severe erosion.
WHC.
Plate 21. Laterite surface soils having hard
crust layer with sparse vegetation.
 CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

A study was taken up to characterise and classify sugarcane growing soils of

Medak district of Telangana state and to evaluate the land suitability for sugarcane.
Based on morphological characters, heterogeneity and physiography fourteen geo-
referenced pedons of sugarcane growing areas were selected. Simultaneously a total of
two hundred and fifty six surface and subsurface soil samples were collected from
sugarcane growing areas and analyzed for physical, physico-chemical and chemical
parameters. The profile samples as well as surface and subsurface samples were
analysed. Soil classification, land use classification, land evaluation, soil site suitability
and fertility capability classification were attempted.

The pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12 belonged to the black soils, pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6

belonged to the red laterite soils and pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 belonged to the red soils
of sugarcane growing areas of Medak district.

The study area was under the influence of semi-arid monsoon type climate. The
selected red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) were developed on weathered granite-
gneiss parent material at gently sloping lands, red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6)
developed on weathered granite-gneiss over hard laterite parent material at gently
sloping lands whereas the black soils (pedon 1, 7, 9 and 12) were formed at nearly level
or plain topography on granitic gneiss parent material mixed with calcareous murram.
Illuviation was the dominant pedogenic process operating in the red and red laterite
soils pedons, while argillo pedoturbation was responsible for the development of black
soil pedons. Vertic properties like coefficient of linear extensibility, slickensides, gilgai-
releif and cracks were observed in black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12), while red and red
laterite soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) exhibited argillans
in sub-surface.

The depth of the soils ranged from shallow (41 cm of red soils in pedon 10) to
very deep (178 cm of black soils in pedon 9). Soil depth was shallow in moderately
steep slope, where as deep soils were found in nearly level to very gently sloping plain.
Further the soils were described in the field for their morphological properties and later
characterized in the laboratory for their physical and chemical properties and classified
up to family level.
 The colour of the black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) varied from very dark
grayish brown (10 YR3/2) to dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) under dry condition and
very dark gray (10 YR3/1) to dark yellowish brown (10YR 4/4) under moist condition.
The dark colour appears due to the presence of iron and manganese oxide in
combination with the organic complex. The dark colour of these soils may be attributed
to domination of highly dispersed forms of humus and smectite minerals.

The soil colour of the red soil pedons (8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) varied from dark
reddish brown (5YR3/3) to brown (7.5YR5/4) under dry condition and dark reddish
brown (5YR3/2) to brown (7.5YR4/4) under moist condition which might be due to the
release of iron, its degree of oxidation, hydration which might have given the soil
brownish to reddish / red colour. The dark reddish brown colour was due to better
drainage conditions in higher slopes.

The soil colour of red laterite soils pedons (2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) varied from dark red
(2.5 YR3/6) to brown (7.5YR4/4) under dry condition and dark reddish brown (2.5
YR3/4) to dark brown (7.5YR3/4) under moist condition in different horizons and
locations which are indicative of release of oxides of iron during the process of
weathering and different stages of hydration. The intensity of the colour increased in
subsurface horizons. The differences in colour might be due to various pedological
process and also variation in organic matter content, quality of iron, diffusion of iron
oxides in mineral matters of soil, the degree of oxidation and imperfect hydration.

The texture of red and red laterite soils when compared to black soils was
markedly varying. The texture of the red soils (pedon 8,10,11,13 and 14) and red laterite
soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) was widely ranging from gravelly sandy loam (coarse) and
sandy clay loam (medium) in the surface horizons and sandy loam, sandy clay loam and
sandy clay (fine) in sub-surface horizons. As the red and red laterite soils were derived
from acidic coarse to medium grained granite-gneissic and laterite parent material, the
soils were exhibiting these textural classes. This wide variation in soil texture was
caused by topographic position, nature of parent material, in-situ weathering, and
translocation of clay and age of the soils.

The distinguishing feature of the black soil textural class of fine earth fraction
was clay loam (pedon7) and clay throughout the depth in pedon 1, 9 and 12. The
uniformity in texture was due to the argillopedoturbation operating in the black soil
profiles.
 Red soils (pedon 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) and red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and
6) were developed weak pedality with granular structure in the surface horizons and
sub-angular blocky peds in sub-surface layers. The surface horizons were generally
granular type because of organic matter and inter-cultivation operations. The strength of
the peds was weak to strong whereas, the size of the peds was fine to medium. This type
of pedality was attributed to variation in clay content, low CEC and dominance of illite /
kaolinite type of clay.

The pedality of black soils pedon (1, 7, 9 and 12) was more strongly developed
because of the high clay content, CEC, BSP and dominance of montmorillonite type of
clay. The surface horizons and subsurface horizons had blocky structure (either sub-
angular or angular) and the peds were medium to coarse in size with strong grade
(strength). Stronger pedality of soils at lower topographic positions might be due to
finer fractions.

The clay content ranged from 13.2 to 71.4 per cent in surface horizons and 14.6
to 76.2 per cent in subsurface horizons. Increase of clay up to certain depth and a decrease
was observed in pedon 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 and 11 due to the illuviation process occurring
during soil development. The clay content was found gradually increased in pedon 2, 3, 8,
12, 13 and 14. The increased clay content with depth was an evidence of pedogenic
development as their formation and distribution is time dependent.

The sand content varied from 10.3 to 75.1 per cent in surface horizons and 3.6 to
77.1 in subsurface horizons due to the high degree of transportation of fine fraction of
the soil from higher topography to lower topography.

The silt content varied from 4.1 to 18.3 per cent in surface horizons and 4.6 to
19.8 in subsurface horizons. It might be due to the translocation / migration of finer
particles into the lower layers and surface erosion. The silt clay ratio was found to be
less than 0.5 in black and red laterite soils pedons indicating the moderate weathering,
whereas in red soils pedon silt clay ratio ranging from 0.19 to 0.82 indicating the
moderate to high weathering.

The gravel content was observed in all the horizons and their distribution varied
widely with depth. The process like erosion and physical weathering are responsible for
different proportions of gravel content in the pedons.
 The bulk density was increased with increasing depth. The increase in bulk
density with depth might be due to decades of cultivation practices of shallow
ploughing, decrease in organic matter content, migration of finer clays to deeper layers
resulted in sub soil hard pan more compaction to some extent. The black soil pedons
was recorded higher water-holding capacity followed by red soils and red laterite soils.

Soil pH of the pedons showed wide variation with soil types. The black soil pedons
recorded higher pH values ranged from neutral to strongly alkaline (6.5 to 9.2) followed
by red soils ranged from slightly acidic to neutral (5.3 to 7.5) and red Laterite soils
ranged from moderately acidic to slightly acidic (5.1 to 6.8). Generally, horizons with
high clay content exhibited higher pH with few exceptions. The electrical conductivity
of pedons ranged from 0.06 to 0.40 dS m-1 indicating that these soils were non saline in
nature.

The organic carbon showed wide variation and the values found to vary from
medium to high (4.3 to 8.4 g kg-1) in surface horizons whereas in subsurface horizons it
was low to medium ranging from 1.5 to 6.7 g kg-1. The organic carbon content of
surface horizons was relatively higher than sub-surface horizons due to incorporation of
organic materials to the surface horizons.

The CaCO3 content was absent in red laterite soil pedons, whereas in red and
black soil pedons it was in the range of 1.3 to 7.8 per cent in surface horizons. The sub
surface horizons were non calcareous to moderately calcareous (3.2 per cent to 11.6 per
cent). The cation exchange capacity of soils ranged from low to high (7.7 to 65.2 c mol
(p+) kg-1).The high CEC of the soils was attributed to the high clay content.

The exchangeable bases in the black and red soil pedons were in the order of
Ca+2 > Mg+2 > Na+ > K+ on the exchange complex. The exchangeable bases were in the
order Ca+2 > Mg+2 > K+ > Na+ in red laterite soils. Low exchangeable Na and K
percentage was noticed in all the pedons as the exchange complex was dominated by
divalent cations like Ca and Mg.

The base saturation percentage ranged from 35.21 to 87.40 per cent in surface
horizons, whereas in subsurface horizons ranged from 21.17 to 95.52 per cent. It might
be due to clay minerals (smectite, illite and kaolinite) and soil reactions
 The soils were low to medium in available N, medium to high in available P,
high in available K and S. Further, the soils are deficient to sufficient in available Zn,
sufficient in available Cu and Mn, Fe and B in the surface horizons.

The dominance of smectite type clay was also confirmed by the CEC / clay
ratio. The CEC /clay ratios of these black soils were high (0.58 to 0.86). It indicates the
presence of smectitic type of clay minerals. The CEC /clay ratios of these red soils
were medium to high in range (0.43 to 0.77) which is indicates the mixed or illitic
mineralogy, where the presence of secondary clay minerals such as kaolinite, illite and
montmorillonite are more or less in equal range. The CEC /clay ratios of the red laterite
soils were low to medium in range (0.16 to 0.46), indicating the presence of secondary
clay mineral such as kaolinite. Direct conversion of mica to kaolinite might be one of
the causes for the synthesis of kaolinite.

According to the criteria of USDA soil taxonomy (2010), the soils of the study
area were characterized and classified into four soil orders viz., Vertisols, Alfisols,
Inceptisols and Entisols. With families belonging to subgroups of Typic Haplusterts,
Ultic Haplustalfs, Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs, Typic Haplustalfs, Lithic Haplustalfs, Vertic
Haplustepts, and Typic Ustorthents. Among the soils, Alfisols occupied a major area
followed by Vertisols, Inceptisols and Entisols of the sugarcane growing soils of Medak
district.

Sub surface hardening and gravelly hardened in-situ as crust was observed in red
laterite soil pedons, which leads the impedance to root penetration and proliferation.
Shallow root system makes the plant susceptible to drought during dry spells. In the
second horizon of all red laterite soil pedons, mottles with evidence of enrichment of
sesquioxide was observed.

The soil constraints observed in the study area were slope, shallow depth, coarse
and fine texture, erosion, drainage and low organic carbon, low and high pH, low CEC,
low availability N, P and micronutrients content in the soils. If the improvements could
be done such as deep ploughing, addition of farm yard manures and addition of black
soil/tank silt, the area under marginally suitable for cultivation may be converted to
moderately suitable and highly suitable for cultivation of sugarcane.

The red and red laterite soil pedons (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14 were
classified into III stef land capability sub-class due to the limitations of slope, texture,
soil depth, erosion and soil fertility whereas the pedon 10 classified as III tsdef
capability sub-class due to the limitations of slope, texture, soil depth, severe erosion,
coarse fragments and soil fertility limitations. The pedons 1, 7, 9 and 12 were classified
into III swef land capability sub-class due to the limitations of drainage, texture,
erosion and soil fertility limitations.

Four fertility capability units were identified in the study area. The conditions
modifiers identified in the study area wered dryness, v high clay content, b basic
reaction, and h acid but not Al-toxic. The condition modifierd dominated in its
occurrence followed by the condition modifier h, v and b.

The suitability for sugarcane cultivation in black soil pedons (1, 7, 9 and 12) was
found moderately suitable with limitation of poor drainage with slow permeability, sub
surface hardening and low hydraulic conductivity. In the black soil area, improved
management practices have good potential to enhance productivity on these soils. If
improved technologies such as addition of river sand @ 100 t ha-1 and application of 100
cart loads of red loam soil; deep ploughing the field with mould board plough or disc
plough during summer which will enhance the infiltration and percolation will help to
enhance moderately suitable to highly suitable for the sugarcane cultivation.

Soil site suitability in red soils found to be marginally and moderately suitable
(pedon 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 13 and 14) for sugar cane cultivation. However this
fertility related constraints can be managed through appropriate management practices.
Slope, texture and depth, fertility and erosion and surface crusting were the major
limitations. Therefore to realize the full potential, these soils should be properly managed,
supplemented with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers and be provided with assured
irrigation. If these improvements could be done, the marginally suitable land could be
converted to the moderately suitable lands and moderately suitable lands become highly
suitable for Sugar cane cultivation.

The red laterite soils (pedon 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) of the study area were found
marginally suitable. Slope, texture, sub surface hardening and in-situ crusting, depth,
high coarse fragments, low CEC and OC content were the major fertility related
problems. Therefore to realize the full potential, these soils should be properly managed,
supplemented with organic manures and inorganic fertilizers and to be provided with assured
irrigation. If the improvements could be done, there is scope that the area under marginally
suitable may be converted to moderately suitable to highly suitable for the cultivation.
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 Annexure I

Pedon 1: Aroor, Sadasivpet division, Medak district.

Site Characteristics

Classification : Very-Fine Smectitic, Calcareous, Superactive,

Isohyperthermic Typic Haplusterts.
Location : Aroor, Sadasivpet division, Medak district
Latitude : 17 o 3742.34N
Longitude : 77 o 5310.33E
Altitude : 539 m above the Mean Sea Level
Slope (%) and : 1-3%, Moderate
erosion
Parent material : Weathered granite gneiss mixed with calcareous murram
Drainage : Poor
Land use : Paddy, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Cotton
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-25 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium week angular blocky,
very sticky, very plastic, firm, slight hard; few fine pores; and
many fine roots; moderately strong effervescences; clear
smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides.
BA 25-52 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark gray
(10YR3/1 Moist); clayey; medium moderate angular blocky,
very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few fine pores; and
common fine roots; moderately strong effervescences; gradual
smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides; sub surface hard pan with high B.D.
Bss1 52-79 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few fine
pores; moderately strong effervescences; clear diffuse
boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides; sub surface hard pan with high B.D.
Bss2 79-115 Dark grayish brown (10YR4/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few fine
pores; strong effervescences; clear diffuse boundary. Gilgai
relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface
hard pan with high B.D.
Bss3 115-155 Dark grayish brown (10YR4/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
very strong effervescences; clear diffuse boundary. Gilgai
relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface
hard pan with high B.D.
C 155+ Mixed with calcareous murram
 Pedon 2: Pidigummal, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Subactive, Isohyperthermic, Ultic

Haplustalfs.
Location : Pidigummal, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 3239.17N
Longitude : 77 o 4414.26E
Altitude : 651 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Laterite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Potato, Turmeric, Sorghum, Sugarcane,
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera, Parthenium,
Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-16 Reddish brown (5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown (5YR3/4
Moist); gravelly sandy clay; medium strong granular, slightly
sticky, friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; many fine roots; Sub
surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive
and tough.
Bt1 16-43 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and dark red (2.5YR3/6 Moist); gravelly
clay; medium moderate subangular blocky; slightly sticky and
slightly plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores; medium fine roots; Sub
surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive
and tough.
Bt2 45-68 Dark red (2.5YR3/6 Dry) and dark red (2.5YR3/6 Moist); gravelly
clay; medium moderate subangular blocky; slightly sticky and
slightly plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores; Sub surface hardening,
insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
C 67+ Weathered Laterite hard pan.
 Pedon 3: Burdipad, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Clayey, Kaolinitic, Semiactive, Isohyperthermic Ultic

Haplustalfs.
Location : Burdipad, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 4343.50N
Longitude : 77 o 3338.09E
Altitude : 602 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Laterite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Potato, Turmeric, Sorghum, Sugarcane,
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-16 Dark brown (7.5YR4/4 Dry) and brown (7.5YR3/4 Moist);
sandy clay loam; medium weak granular to subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, very friable, slightly hard;
few fine pores; medium fine roots; Sub surface hardening,
insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt1 16-38 Dark Red (2.5YR3/6 Dry) and dark reddish brown (2.5YR3/3
Moist); sandy clay; medium weak subangular blocky, slightly
sticky and slightly plastic, very friable, hard; few fine pores;
few fine roots; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt2 38-70 Dark Red (2.5YR3/6 Dry) and dark reddish brown (2.5YR3/3
Moist); sandy clay; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, very friable, hard; few fine
pores; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite
layer, massive and tough.
Bt3 70-95 Dark Red (2.5YR4/8 Dry) and dark reddish brown (2.5YR4/6
Moist); sandy clay; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky, very friable, hard; few fine pores; Sub surface
hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and
tough.
C 95+ Weathered Laterite hard pan
 Pedon 4: Kuppanagar, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive, Isohyperthermic

Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs
Location : Kuppanagar, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 4431.90N
Longitude : 77 o 4138.59E
Altitude : 626 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Laterite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Potato, Turmeric, Sorghum, Sugarcane,
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-14 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and red (2.5YR4/4 Moist); sandy clay loam;
medium moderate granular; slightly sticky and slightly plastic,
very friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; medium fine roots; Sub
surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer,
massive and tough.
Bt1 14-30 Reddish brown (2.5YR4/3 Dry) and dark reddish brown
(2.5YR3/3 Moist); gravelly clay; medium strong subangular
blocky; slightly sticky and slightly plastic, very friable, slightly
hard; few fine pores; common fine roots; Sub surface hardening,
insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt1 30-50 Reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown
(2.5YR3/4 Moist); gravelly clay; medium strong subangular
blocky; slightly sticky and slightly plastic, friable, very hard; few
fine pores; few fine roots; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting,
indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt2 50-81 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and dark red (2.5YR3/6 Moist); gravelly
clay; medium strong subangular blocky; slightly sticky, friable,
very hard; few fine pores; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting,
indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
C 81+ Weathered Laterite hard pan.
 Pedon 5: Basanthpur, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Clayey-Skeletal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive, Isohyperthermic

Kanhaplic Rhodustalfs
Location : Basanthpur, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 4740.52N
Longitude : 77 o 3250.03E
Altitude : 615 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Laterite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Potato, Turmeric, Sorghum, Sugarcane,
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)
Ap 0-20 Reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown
(2.5YR3/4 Moist); sandy clay; medium moderate granular;
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores;
medium fine roots; clear smooth boundary; Sub surface
hardening, insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and
tough.
Bt1 20-38 Reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown
(2.5YR3/4 Moist); sandy clay; medium week subangular blocky;
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores;
few fine roots; clear smooth boundary; Sub surface hardening,
insitu crusting, indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt2 38-56 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Moist);
sandy clay; medium moderate subangular blocky; slightly sticky
and slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; diffuse smooth
boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt3 56-70 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Moist);
sandy clay; medium moderate subangular blocky; slightly sticky
and slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; diffuse smooth
boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layer, massive and tough.
C 70+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated.
 Pedon 6: Kothur, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Clayey-Skeltal, Kaolinitic, Semiactive, Isohyperthermic Ultic

Haplustalfs
Location : Kothur, Medak
Latitude : 17 o 4352.78N
Longitude : 77 o 3615.96E
Altitude : 611 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Laterite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Potato, Turmeric, Sorghum, Sugarcane,
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-15 Red (2.5YR3/6 Dry) and red (2.5YR3/4 Moist); sandy clay;
medium moderate granular; slightly sticky and slightly plastic,
friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; medium fine roots; clear
smooth boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting,
indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt1 15-45 Red (2.5YR3/6 Dry) and red (2.5YR3/4 Moist); gravelly clay;
medium strong subangular blocky; slightly sticky and slightly
plastic, friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; common fine roots;
gradual smooth boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting,
indurated laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt2 45-75 Reddish brown (2.5YR4/4 Dry) and red (2.5YR3/4 Moist);
gravelly clay; medium strong subangular blocky; slightly sticky
and slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; diffuse smooth
boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layer, massive and tough.
Bt3 75-105 Red (2.5YR4/6 Dry) and Dark red (2.5YR3/6 Moist); gravelly
clay; medium strong subangular blocky; slightly sticky and
slightly plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; diffuse smooth
boundary; Sub surface hardening, insitu crusting, indurated
laterite layer, massive and tough.
C 105+ Hard lithic contact which roots cannot penetrated
 Pedon 7: Budera, Zaheerabad division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Fine, Smectitic, Superactive, Non calcarious,

Isohyperthermic Vertic Haplustepts
Location : Budera, Medak
Latitude : 17 o 3837.18N
Longitude : 77 o 5035.00E
Altitude : 585 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and erosion : 1-3%, Moderate
Parent material : Weathered granite - gneiss over lateritic parent
material.
Drainage : Poor
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora,
Tadipalm, broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena
camera, Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes
etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-14 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark gray
(10YR3/1 Moist); clay loam; fine week subangular blocky,
sticky, plastic, friable, slight hard; few fine pores; and many fine
roots; moderately strong effervescences; clear smooth boundary.
subsurface cracks(3-4cm) &slickensides.

Bwss1 14-41 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark gray
(10YR3/1 Moist); clay loam; medium week subangular blocky,
very sticky, plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; few fine roots;
moderately strong effervescences; clear wavy boundary.
Subsurface cracks (3-4cm) &slickensides.

Bwss2 41-58 Dark grayish brown (10YR4/2 Dry) and dark gray (10YR4/1
Moist); clay loam; medium week subangular blocky, very sticky,
plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; moderately strong
effervescences; clear wavy boundary. Subsurface cracks (3-4cm)
&slickensides.

Bwss3 58-79 Dark grayish brown (10YR4/2 Dry) and dark gray (10YR4/1
Moist); clay loam; medium week subangular blocky, very sticky,
plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; moderately strong
effervescences; clear wavy boundary. Subsurface cracks (3-4cm)
&slickensides.

BC 79-100 Dark grayish brown (10YR4/4 Dry) and dark gray (10YR4/4
Moist); clay loam; medium week subangular blocky, very sticky,
plastic, friable, hard; few fine pores; moderately strong
effervescences; clear wavy boundary. Subsurface cracks (3-4cm)
&slickensides.
 Pedon 8: Mamdipally, Sangareddy division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Loamy, Mixed, Superactive, Isohyperthermic Typic

Haplustalfs
Location : Mamdipally, Sangareddy division, Medak district
Latitude : 17 o 3612.54N
Longitude : 78 o 0859.68E
Altitude : 514 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Weathered gneiss
Drainage : Well
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Ground nut.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-15 Yellowish red (5YR4/6 Dry) and yellowish red (5YR4/6 Moist);
sandy loam; fine week granular, no sticky, no plastic, friable,
slightly hard; few fine pores; common fine roots; Argillic
horizon.
Bt1 15-40 Dark reddish brown (5YR3/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown
(5YR3/4 Moist); sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular
blocky, slightly sticky, slightly plastic, friable, slightly hard; few
fine pores; few fine roots; Argillic horizon.
Bt2 40-65 Yellowish red (5YR4/6 Dry) and yellowish red (5YR 4/6 Moist);
sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky, slightly
sticky, slightly plastic, friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; few
fine roots; Argillic horizon.
Bt3 65-95 Yellowish red (5YR4/6 Dry) and yellowish red (5YR 4/6 Moist);
sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky, slightly
sticky, friable, hard; few fine pores; Argillic horizon.
C 95+ Weathered gneiss.
Pedon 9: Andole, Jogipet division, Medak district

Site Characteristics

Classification : Fine, Smectitic, Calcareous, Super active, Isohyperthermic

Typic Haplusterts
Location : Andole, Jogipet division, Medak district
Latitude : 17 o 4934.54N
Longitude : 78 o 0507.31E
Altitude : 492 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 1-3%, Moderate
erosion
Parent material : Weathered granite-gneiss mixed with calcareous murram
Drainage : Poor
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-25 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium moderate
subangular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few
fine pores; and many fine roots; moderately strong
effervescences; clear smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface
cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides;
BA 25-65 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate
angular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine
pores; and few fine roots; moderately strong effervescences;
clear smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm
wide); slickensides;
Bss1 55-85 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate
angular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few
fine pores; and few fine roots; moderately strong
effervescences; clear diffuse boundary. Gilgai relief; surface
cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides;
Bss2 85-117 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate
angular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few
fine pores; slightly strong effervescences; clear diffuse
boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides;
Bss3 117-145 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate
angular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few
fine pores; slightly strong effervescences; clear diffuse
boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides;
Bss4 145-178 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark
grayish brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate
angular blocky, very sticky, very plastic, very firm, hard; few
fine pores; slightly strong effervescences; clear diffuse
boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides;
 Pedon 10: Kaudloor, Medak division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Loamy-Skeletal, Mixed, Superactive, Isohyperthermic

Typic Ustorthents
Location : Kaudloor, Medak division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 5704.04N
Longitude : 78 o 0036.82E
Altitude : 489 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Weathered granite - gneiss
Drainage : Well
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Ground nut Green gram,
Black gram.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-11 Strong brown (7.5YR3/4 Dry) and dark brown (7.5YR4/6
Moist); gravelly sandy loam; fine weak granular, no sticky and
no plastic, very friable, loose; few fine pores; medium fine
roots; gradual smooth.
A21 11- 22 Strong brown (7.5YR3/4 Dry) and dark brown (7.5YR4/6
Moist); gravelly sandy loam; fine moderate granular, no sticky
and no plastic, very friable, loose; few fine pores; few fine
roots; gradual smooth.
A22 22-41 Reddish yellow (5YR4/4 Dry) and reddish brown (5YR6/6
Moist); gravelly sandy loam; fine moderate granular, no sticky
and no plastic, friable, slightly hard; few fine pores; medium
fine roots; gradual smooth.
C 41+ Weathered granite
 Pedon 11: Antharam, Narsapur division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Loamy, Mixed, Active, Isohyperthermic Lithic Haplusalfs

Location : Antharam, Narsapur division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 5152.75N
Longitude : 78 o 1117.34E
Altitude : 539 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and erosion : 3-8%, Severe
Parent material : Weathered granite - gneiss
Drainage : Well
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Ground nut Green gram,
Black gram.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth (cm) Description

Ap 0-18 Strong brown (7.5YR3/4 Dry) and dark brown (7.5YR4/4
Moist); sandy loam; medium weak granular, no sticky and no
plastic, very friable, loose; few fine pores; many fine roots;
moderately strong effervescence; abrupt smooth. Argillic
horizon.
Bt1 18-35 Reddish brown (5YR5/3 Dry) and reddish brown (5YR4/3
Moist); sandy clay; medium weak subangular blocky, slightly
sticky and slightly plastic, friable, slightly hard; few fine pores;
common fine roots; moderately strong effervescence; gradual
smooth. Argillic horizon
Bt2 35-50 Reddish brown (5YR5/4 Dry) and reddish brown (5YR4/4
Moist); sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, friable, slightly hard; few
fine pores; common fine roots; moderately strong
effervescence; gradual smooth. Argillic horizon.
Bt3 50-90 Reddish brown (5YR5/6 Dry) and reddish brown (5YR4/6
Moist); sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky, friable, hard; few fine pores; moderately strong
effervescence; clear smooth. Argillic horizon.
C 90+ Weathered granite- gneiss
 Pedon 12: Pulkurty, Narayankhed division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Very- Fine, Smectitic, Calcareous, Superactive,

Isohyperthermic Typic Haplustrets
Location : Pulkurty, Narayankhed division, Medak district.
Latitude : 17 o 5645.77N
Longitude : 77 o 4243.82E
Altitude : 527 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 1-3%, Moderate
erosion
Parent material : Weathered basalt
Drainage : Poor
Land use : Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Green gram, Black gram, Soy .
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)
Ap 0-27 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; medium moderate subangular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
common fine roots; clear smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface
cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface hard pan with
high B.D.
BA 27-55 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
common fine roots; moderately strong effervescences; clear
smooth boundary. Gilgai relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide);
slickensides; sub surface hard pan with high B.D.
Bss1 55-87 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
moderately strong effervescences; clear smooth boundary. Gilgai
relief; surface cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface
hard pan with high B.D.
Bss2 88-124 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
strong effervescences; clear diffuse boundary. Gilgai relief;
surface cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface hard pan
with high B.D.
Bss3 124-150 Very dark grayish brown (10YR3/2 Dry) and very dark grayish
brown (10YR3/2 Moist); clayey; coarse moderate angular
blocky, very sticky, very plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
strong effervescences; clear diffuse boundary. Gilgai relief;
surface cracks (5-8 cm wide); slickensides; sub surface hard pan
with high B.D.
 Pedon 13: Mudguntal thanda, Narayankhed division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Loamy, Mixed, Active, Isohyperthermic Lithic Haplustalfs .

Location : Mudguntal thanda, Narayankhed division, Medak district.
Latitude : 18 o 0334.95N
Longitude : 77 o 4920.43E
Altitude : 484 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Weathered granite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Ground nut Green gram,
Black gram.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)
Ap 0-13 Brown (7.5YR5/4 Dry) and dark brown (7.5YR4/4 Moist);
sandy loam; medium weak granular, slightly sticky and no
plastic, friable, loose; few fine pores; common fine roots; mild
effervescence; clear smooth. Argillic horizon.
Bt1 13-25 Reddish brown (5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown (5YR3/4
Moist); sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, firm, slightly hard; few fine
pores; common fine roots; mild effervescence; clear smooth.
Argillic horizon.
Bt2 25-46 Reddish brown (5YR4/3 Dry) and dark reddish brown (5YR3/4
Moist); sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
few fine roots; mild effervescence; abrupt smooth. Argillic
horizon.
Bt2 46-65 Reddish brown (5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown (5YR3/3
Moist); sandy clay; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky and slightly plastic, firm, hard; few fine pores;
few fine roots; mild effervescence; abrupt smooth. Argillic
horizon.
C 65+ Weathered granite
Pedon 14: Ramakkapet, Dubbaka division, Medak district.
Site Characteristics

Classification : Loamy Skeletal, Mixed, Superactive, Isohyperthermic Typic

Haplustalfs
Location : Ramakkapet, Dubbaka division, Medak district.
Latitude : 18 o 1110.10N
Longitude : 78 o 3747.53E
Altitude : 509 m above the mean sea level
Slope (%) and : 3-8%, Severe
erosion
Parent material : Weathered granite
Drainage : Well
Land use : Rice, Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane, Ground nut Green gram,
Black gram.
Vegetation : Cynodon dactylon, Cyprus rotundus, Azadirata indica,
Prosopis juliflora, cacia sps,. Prosofis juliflora, Tadipalm,
broad leaf weeds such as Selotia, Lantena camera,
Parthenium, Euforbia sps, and thorny bushes etc.

Pedon view Site view

Brief description of the typifying pedon

Horizon Depth Description

(cm)
Ap 0-12 Brown (7.5YR5/4 Dry) and dark brown (7.5YR4/4 Moist);
sandy loam; medium weak granular, slightly sticky and no
plastic, friable, loose; few fine pores; common fine roots; mild
effervescence; clear smooth. Argillic horizon.
Bt1 12-35 Reddish brown (5YR4/4 Dry) and dark reddish brown (5YR4/3
Moist); sandy loam; medium week subangular blocky, slightly
sticky, very friable, loose; few fine pores; many fine roots; mild
effervescence; clear smooth. Argillic horizon.
Bt2 35-46 Yellowish red (5YR5/6 Dry) and yellowish red (5YR4/6 Moist);
gravelly sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky, slightly plastic, very friable, hard; few fine
pores; many fine roots; moderately strong effervescence; clear
wavy. Argillic horizon.
Bt3 46-70 Yellowish red (5YR5/6 Dry) and yellowish red (5YR4/6 Moist);
gravelly sandy clay loam; medium moderate subangular blocky,
slightly sticky, slightly plastic, very friable, hard; few fine
pores; many fine roots; moderately strong effervescence; clear
wavy. Argillic horizon.
C 70+ Weathered granite
 Annexure II. Morphological characteristics of surface and subsurface Sugarcane growing soils of Medak district
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
1 Medak Medak Kuchanpally 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Rayalamadugu 0-15 c m3abk vh fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk vh fr vs&vp m ff ff
Janakampally 0-15 c m3abk vh fi vs&vp m ff fc
15-30 c m3abk vh fi vs&vp m ff ff
Burgupally 0-15 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff fc
15-30 scl f1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Togita 0-15 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff fc
15-30 scl f1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff

Papannapet Gandharipally 0-15 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff cf

15-30 c m3abk sh fr vs&vp m ff ff
Mallampet 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p m ff cf
15-30 c m2sbk l fi s&p m ff ff
Papanapet 0-15 c m3abk l fr vs&vp nil ff cf
15-30 c m3abk sh fr vs&vp nil ff ff
Podchanpally 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff cf
15-30 c m2sbk sh fr s&p m ff ff
Yellapur 0-15 c m3abk h fi vs&vp m ff cf
15-30 c m3abk l fi vs&vp m ff ff

Kulcharam Ansanpally 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff cf

15-30 c m3 sbk l fr ss m ff ff
Wariguntham 0-15 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff cf
15-30 c m3abk sh fr vs&vp m ff ff
Kongodu 0-15 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
15-30 c m3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
China ghanpur 0-15 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet

2 Zaheerabad Zaheerabad Hoti-b 0-15 scl f1gr l fr ss nil ff cf

15-30 scl f2gr sh fr ss nil ff ff
Mogdampally 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff ff
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Zaheerabad 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl f1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Burdhipad 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Sathwar 0-15 sc f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Rai pally 0-15 sc f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff

Jhairasangam Yelgoi 0-15 scl m1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr s&p nil ff ff
Bardipur 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff fc
15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Kuppanagar 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Vanampally 0-15 c m3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
Boregoan 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff

Nylkal Rejinthal 0-15 sc m1gr l vfr s&p nil ff mf

15-30 sc m2sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Mungi 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Hadnoor 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Metalkunta 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
Gunjetti 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Nylkal 0-15 c c3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff

Kohir Gurujwada 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff mf

15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Kohir 0-15 sc f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Nagireddypally 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff mf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Sajjapur 0-15 sc f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff fc
15-30 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Parsapally 0-15 sc f1gr l vfr s&p nil ff mf
15-30 sc m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff

Raikode Itkapally 0-15 scl m1gr l fr ss nil ff mf

15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Dharmapally 0-15 c m3abk vh fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk vh fr ss m ff ff
Pampad 0-15 c c3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff mf
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Kusnur 0-15 cl m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 cl m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Sirpoor 0-15 c c3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff mf
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff

3 Sangareddy Sangareddy Fasalwadi 0-15 scl m1gr l fr s0&p0 nil ff mf

15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff ff
Irigipally 0-15 scl m1gr l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Mamidipally 0-15 c m3abk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Tallapally 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet

Patancheru Lakdaram 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Patancheru 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Nandigama 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff fc
15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff

4 Sadasivpet Sadasivpet Nizampur 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff

15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Nandikandi 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Rejinthal 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
Athmakur 0-15 c m3abk vh fi s&p m ff cf
15-30 c m3abk vh fr ss ms ff ff

Kondapur Kondapur 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf

15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Malkapur 0-15 c m3abk h fi s&p m ff fc
15-30 c m3abk sh fr ss ms ff ff
Mansanpally 0-15 c m3abk vh fi s&p m ff cf
15-30 c m3abk vh fr ss ms ff ff
Ananthasagar 0-15 c c3abk vh fi s&p m ff cf
15-30 c c3abk vh fr ss ms ff ff

Munipally Peddachelmeda 0-15 scl m1sbk sh fr ss&sp nil ff mf

15-30 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff ff
Kammampally 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Thakkadapally 0-15 c c3abk vh fi s&p ms ff cf
15-30 c c3abk vh fr ss m ff ff
Antharam 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
Budhera 0-15 c c3abk vh fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh fr ss m ff ff

5 Narayankhed Narayankhed Jukkal 0-15 scl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Narayankhed 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Nizampet 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Ryakal 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Thurkapally 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff fc
15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff

Kalher Anthargoam 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Kadpal 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff
Kalher 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf
15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Mardi 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Sirgapur 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff fc
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff ff

Kangti D banswada 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc

15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Jamgi-b 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
Jamgi-k 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
Photpally 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
Manur Bellapur 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Badalgoam 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Borancha 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
N g hokarana 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Thornal 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Yelgoi 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff

6 Jogipet Andole Kansanpally 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Ramsanpally 0-15 c m2sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Dakur 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Masanpally 0-15 scl m1sbk l fr ss nil ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss nil ff mf
Almaipet 0-15 c c3abk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c c3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff fc

Pulkal Minpoor thanda 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff

15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff mf
Baswapur 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff fc
Chekriyal 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff mf
Pocharam 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff ff
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff fc
Mudimanikyam 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff ff
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp ms ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
Shivampet 0-15 c m1sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff

Hathnoora Hathnoora 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Chikmadur 0-15 scl m1gr l fi ss ms ff cf
15-30 scl m2gr sh fr ss m ff ff
Kasala 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf
15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Siripura 0-15 sl f1gr l vfr so&po nil ff fc
15-30 sl m2sbk l fr ss&pp nil ff ff

7 Dubbaka Dubbaka Dharmajipet 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Rameshwarpally 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr so&po nil ff fc
15-30 scl m2sbk l fr ss&pp nil ff ff
Nagaram 0-15 scl f1gr l vfr so&po nil ff mf
15-30 Scl m2sbk l fr ss&pp nil ff ff

Mirdoddi Kasulabad 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf

15-30 sl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Bhumpally 0-15 sl m1gr l fi ss ms ff cf
15-30 sl m2gr sh fr ss m ff ff

8 Narsapur Narsapur Reddypally 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff ff

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Ibrahimbad 0-15 scl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Moosapet 0-15 sl m1gr l fi ss ms ff cf
15-30 oscl m2gr sh fr ss m ff ff
Nagulapally 0-15 sl m1gr l fr ss m ff cf
15-30 scl m1sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Thujalpur 0-15 scl m1gr l fi ss ms ff cf
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
15-30 scl m2gr sh fr ss m ff ff

Kowdipally Ajjamari 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Bhujrampet 0-15 sc m1 sbk l fr ss m ff fc
15-30 sc m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Chitkul 0-15 cl M1 sbk h fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 cl M3abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Faizabad 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff fc
15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff

Shivampet Pambanda 0-165 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Shivampet 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Gundlapally 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf
15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff

9 Shankarampet(R) Tekmal Achannapally 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf

15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff ff
Kadloor 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff fc
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Tekmal 0-15 scl m1 sbk l fr ss m ff mf
15-30 scl m2sbk sh fr ss m ff mf
Bodmatpally 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff

Alladurg Muslapoor 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc

15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Gadipeddapoor 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Reddipally 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Texture Structure Consistency Effervescence Pores Roots
(cm) Dry Moist Wet
10 Ramayampet Ramayampet Chalmeda 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Konapur 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Naskal 0-15 c m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 c m2abk h fi vs&vp ms ff ff

Yeldurty Andugulapally 0-15 c c3abk vh fi vs&vp ms ff fc

15-30 c c3abk vh vfi vs&vp s ff ff
Damarancha 0-15 cl m3sbk h fi s&p ms ff ff
15-30 cl m2abk h Fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Kukunoor 0-15 c c3abk vh Fi vs&vp ms ff fc
15-30 c c3abk vh Vfi vs&vp ss ff ff

Shankarampet (A) Mandapoor 0-15 c m3sbk h Fi s&p ms ff ff

15-30 c m2abk h Fi vs&vp ms ff ff
Kamaram 0-15 c m3sbk h Fi s&p ms ff mf
15-30 c m2abk h Fi vs&vp ms ff ff

Soil texture : Ls loamy sand ,Scl Sandy clay loam, Sc- Sandy clay, Cl- clay loam and C- clay
Soil Structure : C-Coarse, M- medium , F- fine , 1- weak, 2- moderate,3 - strong, gr- granular ,abk- angular blocky, sbk- sub-angular blocky
Soil : l- loose, sh- slightly hard, h- hard ,vh- very hard ,vfr-very friable ,fr- friable , fi- firm, vf- very firm, so non sticky, ss slightly sticky, s-
Consistence sticky,vs- very sticky, po- non plastic, ps slightly plastic, p-plastic, vp- very plastic
Pores : Size f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse; Quantity f-few, c-common, m-many
Roots : Size f-fine, m-medium, c-coarse; Quantity f-few, c-common, m-many
Effervescence : m-mild ,ms-moderately strong s-strong vs-very strong
Annexure III. Physical characteristics of surface and subsurface Sugarcane growing soils of Medak district

S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
1 Medak Medak Kuchanpally 0-15 12.5 29.3 16.2 53.7 1.49 45.0
15-30 9.3 26.6 14.8 58.2 1.50 48.0
Rayalamadugu 0-15 11.1 20.1 19.8 59.6 1.42 51.0
15-30 10.3 19.1 16.8 63.9 1.46 54.0
Janakampally 0-15 9.0 17.3 17.3 64.9 1.49 43.0
15-30 5.6 16.8 17.2 65.3 1.51 47.0
burgupally 0-15 37.4 72.3 6.1 20.8 1.48 33.0
15-30 23.6 66.4 6.5 26.5 1.50 39.0
Togita 0-15 29.4 64.8 5.8 28.7 1.39 34.0
15-30 21.1 59.4 7.8 32.4 1.41 38.0

Papannapet Gandharipally 0-15 15.6 16.9 17.2 64.3 1.46 49.0

15-30 11.3 15.4 16.3 67.2 1.48 51.0
Mallampet 0-15 9.4 39.2 18.6 41.6 1.49 41.0
15-30 6.8 38.9 17.3 43.1 1.51 48.0
Papanapet 0-15 12.3 12.8 9.2 77.9 1.46 46.0
15-30 9.9 10.4 8.6 79.1 1.48 49.0
Podchanpally 0-15 11.6 34.1 18.6 46.4 1.44 44.0
15-30 10.5 32.6 17.3 49.6 1.47 47.0
Yellapur 0-15 14.9 15.8 13.8 69.3 1.45 51.0
15-30 11.2 14.4 12.8 71.2 1.52 55.0

Kulcharam Ansanpally 0-15 16.9 40.2 17.6 41.5 1.48 50.0

15-30 12.3 39.8 17.3 42.1 1.49 54.0
Wariguntham 0-15 11.9 26.2 16.5 57.2 1.52 43.0
15-30 8.8 24.4 15.9 59.6 1.54 46.0
Kongodu 0-15 16.6 21.2 17.4 60.5 1.49 41.0
15-30 13.9 19.1 16.4 62.8 1.51 48.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
China ghanpur 0-15 9.8 15.6 10.1 74.1 1.46 47.0
15-30 6.6 14.3 9.6 75.9 1.48 53.0

2 Zaheerabad Zaheerabad Hoti-B 0-15 37.5 65.9 6.8 26.3 1.39 21.0
15-30 41.2 63.6 6.1 29.9 1.41 24.0
Mogdampally 0-15 34.2 59.1 8.1 32.5 1.42 20.0
15-30 36.2 56.6 8.9 34.5 1.44 26.0
Zaheerabad 0-15 36.9 63.9 5.8 29.9 1.36 19.0
15-30 40.9 60.4 6.8 32.4 1.39 21.0
Burdhipad 0-15 47.6 57.6 8.6 32.9 1.45 20.0
15-30 50.5 56.8 7.3 34.6 1.46 23.0
Sathwar 0-15 46.3 53.1 8.2 38.5 1.38 26.0
15-30 48.9 51.9 8.9 39.1 1.40 29.0
Rai pally 0-15 45.5 56.1 8.2 35.2 1.41 23.0
15-30 46.2 53.2 9.3 37.1 1.43 29.0

Jharasangam Yelgoi 0-15 36.9 58.1 7.4 33.6 1.36 22.0

15-30 38.2 57.9 7.6 34.1 1.38 27.0
Bardipur 0-15 29.9 64.3 5.8 29.8 1.39 29.0
15-30 30.6 63.6 4.8 30.9 1.40 34.0
Kuppanagar 0-15 12.3 33.2 16.6 48.9 1.51 24.0
15-30 11.1 31.9 17.3 50.1 1.55 26.0
vanampally 0-15 10.3 15.9 16.3 67.3 1.59 20.0
15-30 9.6 15.4 15.8 68.7 1.61 21.0
Boregoan 0-15 33.3 60.8 8.2 30.6 1.41 23.0
15-30 36.6 58.3 8.9 32.7 1.43 27.0

Nylkal Rejinthal 0-15 36.4 55.6 7.3 36.3 1.38 23.0

15-30 38.2 54.2 8.6 37.1 1.41 24.0
Mungi 0-15 9.8 15.8 18.1 65.3 1.45 46.0
15-30 6.6 15.2 19.6 64.6 1.47 51.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
Hadnoor 0-15 47.7 60.1 8.2 31.6 1.35 29.0
15-30 50.5 57.6 7.9 34.3 1.36 33.0
Metalkunta 0-15 16.3 16.1 15.3 68.3 1.53 51.0
15-30 15.2 15.7 14.6 68.7 1.56 53.0
Gunjetti 0-15 19.6 40.2 17.6 41.3 1.43 42.0
15-30 12.3 39.6 17.3 42.6 1.46 49.0
Nylkal 0-15 18.4 16.1 16.9 66.6 1.45 47.0
15-30 12.5 15.8 14.6 68.7 1.47 51.0

Kohir Gurujwada 0-15 33.6 57.8 7.9 34.2 1.37 25.0

15-30 38.9 56.9 8.1 34.6 1.39 31.0
Kohir 0-15 42.6 50.3 8.4 40.3 1.38 36.0
15-30 44.4 49.1 9.1 41.5 1.40 30.0
Nagireddypally 0-15 47.7 64.3 5.8 28.9 1.33 38.0
15-30 48.9 61.3 7.4 30.9 1.36 41.0
Sajjapur 0-15 52.2 56.1 8.2 35.2 1.33 24.0
15-30 55.6 53.2 9.3 37.1 1.34 28.0
Parsapally 0-15 39.7 50.6 8.4 40.3 1.39 21.0
15-30 42.6 48.4 9.6 41.6 1.42 25.0

Raikode Itkapally 0-15 29.6 61.9 5.8 31.3 1.36 20.0

15-30 31.2 60.4 6.8 32.4 1.38 23.0
Dharmapally 0-15 15.5 13.6 19.6 66.3 1.44 45.0
15-30 12.2 12.1 18.8 68.8 1.48 49.0
Pampad 0-15 13.2 14.2 20.1 65.3 1.52 44.0
15-30 9.6 13.1 19.4 66.9 1.55 49.0
Kusnur 0-15 18.8 43.6 16.6 39.7 1.51 46.0
15-30 17.6 41.9 15.3 41.6 1.52 51.0
Sirpoor 0-15 19.4 10.9 16.2 72.3 1.55 45.0
15-30 18.5 9.6 17.1 73.2 1.56 48.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
3 Sangareddy Sangareddy Fasalwadi 0-15 25.5 67.7 10.8 20.3 1.32 33.0
15-30 28.3 66.6 7.8 24.6 1.34 36.0
Irigipally 0-15 33.3 69.3 5.8 24.4 1.36 31.0
15-30 36.6 66.2 7.8 25.9 1.36 35.0
Mamidipally 0-15 12.0 15.4 18.2 66 1.49 49.0
15-30 11.0 13.9 18.4 67.2 1.51 51.0
Tallapally 0-15 9.6 36.6 12.4 49.9 1.46 47.0
15-30 9.1 35.8 11.9 51.6 1.48 51.0

Patancheru Lakdaram 0-15 21.2 77.4 6.3 15.8 1.42 23.0

15-30 22.3 72.3 6.5 19.6 1.44 24.0
Patancheru 0-15 12.2 39.6 12.6 47.7 1.51 43.0
15-30 9.6 36.6 11.1 52.1 1.53 48.0
Nandigama 0-15 22.2 75.2 5.9 18.7 1.39 23.0
15-30 26.3 74.7 6.1 19.1 1.41 26.0

4 Sadasivpet Sadasivpet Nizampur 0-15 15.5 39.4 14.6 45.6 1.52 41.0
15-30 14.2 36.8 14.1 48.4 1.53 49.0
Nandikandi 0-15 16.3 18.2 17.5 64.3 1.53 47.0
15-30 12.3 15.6 16.9 66.7 1.55 53.0
Rejinthal 0-15 11.6 19.4 17.1 62.8 1.48 40.0
15-30 10.3 17.8 18.6 63.5 1.50 44.0
Athmakur 0-15 14.6 18.1 16.7 65.1 1.49 39.0
15-30 12.4 16.9 16.9 65.5 1.52 42.0

Kondapur Kondapur 0-15 15.5 31.2 13.6 54.6 1.54 49.0

15-30 14.6 30.3 14.1 55.5 1.56 51.0
Malkapur 0-15 9.6 14.8 16.3 67.3 1.51 43.0
15-30 9.1 13.6 15.9 69.4 1.52 51.0
Mansanpally 0-15 10.3 12.3 14.3 73.1 1.53 41.0
15-30 9.4 11.2 13.6 74.4 1.55 47.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
Ananthasagar 0-15 11.6 17.8 18.7 63.3 1.49 44.0
15-30 10.5 14.6 19.6 64.9 1.50 47.0

Munipally Peddachelmeda 0-15 33.1 69.3 4.8 25.5 1.41 40.0

15-30 35.4 67.1 5.8 26.4 1.42 46.0
Kammampally 0-15 16.5 43.1 14.6 41.7 1.51 47.0
15-30 14.4 42.3 15.1 42.6 1.52 51.0
Thakkadapally 0-15 10.6 15.4 13.2 71.3 1.50 44.0
15-30 9.4 14.1 12.2 73.2 1.53 49.0
Antharam 0-15 12.2 40.2 12.2 45.6 1.48 43.0
15-30 11.6 38.1 13 48.7 1.48 46.0
Budhera 0-15 9.4 12.8 10.2 76.1 1.47 46.0
15-30 8.4 10.1 9.9 79.8 1.49 49.0

5 Narayankhed Narayankhed Jukkal 0-15 27.5 71.6 5.9 22.1 1.41 25.0
15-30 28.5 68.9 5.8 25.1 1.43 27.0
Narayankhed 0-15 39.4 66.6 5.4 27.9 1.39 21.0
15-30 40.3 64.1 5.1 30.4 1.42 23.0
Nizampet 0-15 33.4 65.9 6.8 27.1 1.38 27.0
15-30 36.9 62.1 6.6 30.1 1.41 29.0
Ryakal 0-15 8.0 23.9 15.6 58.6 1.49 49.0
15-30 9.2 22.1 16.1 60.5 1.51 51.0
Thurkapally 0-15 27.5 74.6 6.1 18.2 1.44 31.0
15-30 28.5 73.1 6.5 19.6 1.46 33.0

Kalher Anthargoam 0-15 27.4 76.6 6.5 17.8 1.40 23.0

15-30 29.7 74.6 5.5 19.5 1.43 26.0
Kadpal 0-15 29.6 65.9 6.8 26.6 1.38 21.0
15-30 30.1 63.8 6.6 28.9 1.41 24.0
Kalher 0-15 27.4 76.4 5.9 16.1 1.36 27.0
15-30 29.7 74.3 5.8 19.5 1.38 28.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
Mardi 0-15 12.5 33.6 12.6 52.9 1.46 49.0
15-30 10.2 32.2 13.4 54.1 1.49 51.0
Sirgapur 0-15 29.9 69.6 6.2 23.5 1.35 30.0
15-30 30.2 67.4 6.4 25.4 1.37 31.0

Kangti D Banswada 0-15 8.0 18.2 12.1 69.6 1.49 47.0

15-30 7.2 16.4 12.7 69.3 1.50 48.0
Jamgi-B 0-15 10.8 17.6 17.5 64.9 1.51 43.0
15-30 8.9 17.9 16.2 65.3 1.53 49.0
Jamgi-K 0-15 8.3 19.6 16.7 63.1 1.55 40.0
15-30 5.2 18.8 19.6 61.4 1.57 44.0
Photpally 0-15 9.8 17.2 22.6 60.1 1.52 39.0
15-30 9.2 16.2 21.3 63.1 1.55 41.0

Manur Bellapur 0-15 5.9 11.1 16.5 72.1 1.52 35.0

15-30 5.3 10.2 16.9 72.9 1.53 42.0
Badalgoam 0-15 6.4 16.5 17.4 66.1 156 51.0
15-30 4.4 15.6 17 67.1 1.59 52.0
Borancha 0-15 6.8 18.2 17.7 63.1 1.56 47.0
15-30 4.8 18.1 19.6 61.4 1.58 51.0
N G Hokarana 0-15 5.1 16.9 16.5 66.6 1.49 52.0
15-30 4.0 14.2 16.9 67.4 1.50 54.0
Thornal 0-15 8.0 16.3 17.4 65.3 1.49 40.0
15-30 5.1 15.4 18 66.5 1.51 44.0
Yelgoi 0-15 5.6 19.6 17.7 62.1 1.48 42.0
15-30 4.0 18.8 19.6 61.4 1.49 45.0

6 Jogipet Andole Kansanpally 0-15 27.4 73.6 6.1 16.8 1.43 21.0
15-30 29.7 71.7 7.5 18.3 1.44 26.0
Ramsanpally 0-15 9.8 31.6 18.1 50.1 1.51 42.0
15-30 6.5 30.3 17.3 52.2 1.52 48.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
Dakur 0-15 10.3 23.2 18.6 57.4 1.55 46.0
15-30 9.9 20.1 18.1 60.2 1.57 51.0
Masanpally 0-15 29.4 56.1 8.2 33.6 1.39 24.0
15-30 31.1 53.2 9.3 35.0 1.40 21.0
Almaipet 0-15 9.4 29.4 18.6 50.7 1.51 48.0
15-30 6.6 30.1 17.3 51.3 1.52 51.0

Pulkal Minpoor Tanda 0-15 18.8 31.2 11.3 57.1 1.56 41.0
15-30 11.1 30.2 11.9 57.9 1.58 48.0
Baswapur 0-15 13.5 26.2 13.4 60.1 1.65 41.0
15-30 9.5 24.1 12.9 61.7 1.67 43.0
Chekriyal 0-15 17.0 21.5 13.9 63.4 1.61 53.0
15-30 16.2 19.6 14.6 65.8 1.68 54.0
Pocharam 0-15 10.8 12.8 19.2 67.3 1.62 42.0
15-30 8.9 12.4 20.3 67.2 1.69 44.0
Mudimanikyam 0-15 10.4 16.6 15.6 67.3 1.59 49.0
15-30 8.8 16.3 15.4 67.9 1.64 51.0
Shivampet 0-15 11.8 30.6 12.6 56.7 1.52 40.0
15-30 9.2 29.6 11.3 58.9 1.55 42.0

Hathnoora Hathnoora 0-15 27.4 74.2 5.6 19.2 1.36 35.0

15-30 29.7 73.9 5.8 19.8 1.39 39.0
Chikmadur 0-15 48.4 72.8 5.2 20.3 1.38 33.0
15-30 51.5 69.6 5.6 24.1 1.40 34.0
Kasala 0-15 34.2 62.5 5.8 29.9 1.33 28.0
15-30 36.3 60.9 6.8 32.1 1.35 30.0
Siripura 0-15 28.5 75.8 6.2 17.4 1.39 21.0
15-30 30.5 74.2 6.4 18.2 1.41 23.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
7 Dubbaka Dubbaka Dharmajipet 0-15 35.2 61.9 6.2 31.2 1.43 29.0
15-30 36.2 59.4 6.5 32.4 1.44 32.0
Rameshwarpally 0-15 27.4 71.6 6.3 21.8 1.46 21.0
15-30 29.7 69.6 6.9 22.5 1.48 26.0
Nagaram 0-15 38.4 72.8 5.9 20.8 1.48 19.0
15-30 42.5 71.4 6.3 21.3 1.51 23.0

Mirdoddi Kasulabad 0-15 48.4 74.1 6.3 18.8 1.33 20.0

15-30 52.3 72.9 6.1 19.7 1.35 24.0
Bhumpally 0-15 26.4 76.2 5.6 18.2 1.42 21.0
15-30 29.1 73.4 5.9 19.5 1.43 24.0

8 Narsapur Narsapur Reddypally 0-15 29.5 63.9 6.3 28.9 1.42 34.0
15-30 30.1 59.4 7.8 31.4 1.44 36.0
Ibrahimbad 0-15 27.1 70.4 5.7 23.8 1.43 33.0
15-30 29.6 68.9 6.5 24.4 1.46 36.0
Moosapet 0-15 36.4 73.2 6.8 17.8 1.48 32.0
15-30 41.5 70.4 6.5 19.0 1.49 36.0
Nagulapally 0-15 38.4 77.6 5.1 16.5 1.45 31.0
15-30 39.5 74.2 5.5 18.3 1.47 35.0
Thujalpur 0-15 21.6 78.6 5.9 15.4 1.48 38.0
15-30 22.2 76.1 5.5 18.8 1.49 41.0

Kowdipally Ajjamari 0-15 25.4 63.9 5.8 29.9 1.45 25.0

15-30 26.4 59.4 7.8 32.4 1.47 28.0
Bhujrampet 0-15 23.6 56.1 8.2 35.2 1.41 24.0
15-30 27.1 53.2 9.3 37.1 1.42 26.0
Chitkul 0-15 14.5 41.2 18.6 38.7 1.33 41.0
15-30 12.3 42.3 17.3 40.0 1.36 49.0
Faizabad 0-15 33.6 61.9 5.6 31.9 1.51 20.0
15-30 35.4 58.4 7.3 33.4 1.53 22.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)

Shivampet Pambanda 0-165 19.9 62.9 5.6 30.2 1.41 19.0

15-30 21.3 58.2 5.8 34.9 1.43 20.0
Shivampet 0-15 9.4 39.6 14.6 45.8 1.55 42.0
15-30 6.6 38.1 14.1 47.1 1.57 43.0
Gundlapally 0-15 26.6 58.6 8.4 32.3 1.43 16.0
15-30 29.4 57.7 8.1 33.6 1.44 21.0

9 Shankarampet(A) Tekmal Achannapally 0-15 33.6 61.3 8.1 30.2 1.32 30.0
15-30 35.4 59.9 8.3 31.6 1.36 33.0
Kadloor 0-15 25.5 39.6 13.6 46.2 1.55 39.0
15-30 27.4 38.6 12.9 48.2 1.57 41.0
Tekmal 0-15 31.2 63.3 8.4 28.1 1.36 40.0
15-30 33.6 58.8 8.6 31.6 1.39 45.0
Bodmatpally 0-15 12.5 30.2 15.6 52.6 1.43 49.0
15-30 9.9 29.6 15.3 54.3 1.47 51.0

Alladurg Muslapoor 0-15 9.6 16.5 17.4 65.2 1.47 45.0

15-30 6.8 15.6 17.2 67.1 1.49 50.0
Gadipeddapoor 0-15 10.2 18.9 17.7 63.1 1.51 42.0
15-30 9.4 18.1 19.6 61.4 1.52 45.0
Reddipally 0-15 11.3 16.4 16.5 66.6 1.53 49.0
15-30 8.8 15.2 16.9 67.4 1.54 53.0

10 Ramayampet Ramayampet Chalmeda 0-15 12.1 31.6 18.1 50.1 1.46 41.0
15-30 10.3 30.3 17.3 52.2 1.48 48.0
Konapur 0-15 12.2 23.2 18.6 57.4 1.52 42.0
15-30 12.2 20.1 18.1 60.2 1.54 50.0
Naskal 0-15 11.4 31.2 11.2 57.6 1.53 46.0
15-30 10.1 29.4 11.1 58.4 1.55 49.0
S.No Division Mandal Location Depth Gravel Particle size distribution (%) B.D MWHC
(cm) (%) Sand Silt Clay (Mg m-3) (%)
Yeldurty Andugulapally 0-15 9.4 16.8 17.2 64.3 1.61 47.0
15-30 6.4 16.4 20 61.1 1.63 50.0
Damarancha 0-15 9.6 41.2 18.6 38.7 1.59 43.0
15-30 8.5 42.3 17.3 39.8 1.64 47.0
Kukunoor 0-15 8.9 28.2 16.5 54.2 1.48 42.0
15-30 8.1 25.4 16.9 57.6 1.49 47.0

Shankarampet(A) Mandapoor 0-15 12.3 16.5 23.1 59.4 1.50 39.0

15-30 6.5 14.6 22.2 62.5 1.52 44.0
Kamaram 0-15 18.4 17.8 21.1 60.3 1.49 42.0
15-30 12.6 16.4 20.7 61.8 1.52 49.0
 Annexure IV. Physico-chemical and available nutrient status of surface and subsurface soils of Sugarcane growing areas of the Medak
district

S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)

(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
1 Medak Medak Kuchanpally 0-15 8.23 0.19 6.8 243 32 417
15-30 8.36 0.21 5.2 196 21 326
Rayalamadugu 0-15 8.14 0.21 6.5 305 28 366
15-30 8.26 0.24 5.9 210 22 280
Janakampally 0-15 8.31 0.16 6.8 271 23 343
15-30 8.29 0.14 4.9 161 21 263
burgupally 0-15 6.40 0.34 4.2 260 26 271
15-30 6.43 0.45 3.6 183 21 182
Togita 0-15 6.83 0.37 4.7 279 21 290
15-30 6.89 0.39 3.9 199 19 169

Papannapet Gandharipally 0-15 7.91 0.14 7.8 297 28 428

15-30 8.27 0.19 6.7 213 24 362
Mallampet 0-15 7.65 0.31 5.8 296 29 405
15-30 7.69 0.38 5.2 185 28 339
Papanapet 0-15 7.23 0.25 8.1 304 36 396
15-30 7.27 0.29 6.9 192 31 368
Podchanpally 0-15 7.85 0.33 5.1 279 29 264
15-30 8.14 0.34 4.5 216 28 210
Yellapur 0-15 7.23 0.16 6.5 274 33 402
15-30 7.26 0.18 6.2 198 25 278

Kulcharam Ansanpally 0-15 7.60 0.21 4.8 266 30 225

15-30 7.62 0.24 4.5 198 28 345
Wariguntham 0-15 8.15 0.45 5.8 277 39 389
15-30 8.16 0.48 4.9 163 34 347
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
15-30 8.00 0.12 6.3 169 31 265
China ghanpur 0-15 7.92 0.15 5.1 274 38 412
15-30 7.96 0.16 4.6 196 33 328

2 Zaheerabad Zaheerabad Hoti-B 0-15 5.90 0.13 5.1 233 33 386

15-30 5.40 0.16 4.9 196 22 261
Mogdampally 0-15 4.60 0.15 6.3 293 28 394
15-30 4.40 0.12 6.0 215 21 226
Zaheerabad 0-15 5.20 0.08 6.6 265 31 278
15-30 5.50 0.11 5.9 191 26 211
Burdhipad 0-15 5.90 0.12 5.6 251 29 275
15-30 5.70 0.16 4.5 210 24 186
Sathwar 0-15 5.20 0.11 5.8 269 36 349
15-30 5.00 0.13 3.6 214 25 274
Rai pally 0-15 5.60 0.12 5.1 298 34 384
15-30 5.40 0.14 4.0 182 26 216

Jhirasangam Yelgoi 0-15 6.80 0.14 6.7 253 26 348

15-30 6.90 0.16 4.8 189 18 199
Bardipur 0-15 7.20 0.12 5.6 225 16 308
15-30 7.40 0.11 4.5 184 11 191
Kuppanagar 0-15 6.80 0.21 5.2 271 25 262
15-30 7.20 0.23 3.6 188 21 189
vanampally 0-15 6.10 0.33 5.6 254 26 406
15-30 6.50 0.36 3.2 184 18 314
Boregoan 0-15 5.90 0.16 4.8 253 29 425
15-30 6.00 0.18 3.9 185 18 310

Nylkal Rejinthal 0-15 5.30 0.09 4.9 286 27 268

15-30 5.60 0.11 3.5 210 23 203
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Mungi 0-15 6.10 0.21 7.1 339 25 401
15-30 6.30 0.23 6.0 253 19 288
Hadnoor 0-15 5.60 0.11 6.9 325 21 276
15-30 5.90 0.12 5.6 256 14 213
Metalkunta 0-15 7.90 0.23 6.1 322 26 263
15-30 7.80 0.24 5.1 211 17 182
Gunjetti 0-15 7.60 0.13 6.9 310 23 380
15-30 7.70 0.19 3.8 254 16 290
Nylkal 0-15 8.10 0.28 5.7 280 33 419
15-30 7.90 0.26 4.9 177 18 312

Kohir Gurujwada 0-15 5.50 0.12 6.5 233 28 278

15-30 5.10 0.14 6.1 187 19 214
Kohir 0-15 5.90 0.16 4.3 255 24 268
15-30 5.70 0.19 3.9 192 17 226
Nagireddypally 0-15 6.90 0.21 4.4 289 28 323
15-30 7.50 0.19 3.9 181 19 246
Sajjapur 0-15 5.10 0.12 5.6 251 26 266
15-30 4.80 0.16 4.9 192 18 219
Parsapally 0-15 5.00 0.17 6.9 288 31 349
15-30 4.90 0.18 6.5 191 27 215

Raikode Itkapally 0-15 6.80 0.36 7.4 288 39 322

15-30 7.20 0.39 6.4 174 25 241
Dharmapally 0-15 8.10 0.15 7.1 294 23 263
15-30 7.80 0.19 6.3 198 17 211
Pampad 0-15 7.80 0.21 6.1 229 33 380
15-30 8.00 0.23 5.4 196 19 290
Kusnur 0-15 7.40 0.22 6.9 280 23 426
15-30 7.50 0.23 6.6 241 18 351
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Sirpoor 0-15 7.90 0.25 5.1 295 21 395
15-30 8.00 0.27 4.6 199 20 236

3 Sangareddy Sangareddy Fasalwadi 0-15 7.80 0.15 5.1 291 26 360

15-30 8.00 0.17 4.2 179 16 255
Irigipally 0-15 6.50 0.10 4.9 288 27 262
15-30 6.90 0.12 2.9 223 19 198
Mamidipally 0-15 7.10 0.22 6.7 276 29 406
15-30 7.30 0.27 5.9 215 18 336
Tallapally 0-15 7.50 0.34 4.6 322 33 431
15-30 8.00 0.35 3.9 241 18 337

Patancheru Lakdaram 0-15 6.20 0.25 4.1 278 26 271

15-30 6.30 0.26 3.9 199 19 214
Patancheru 0-15 7.40 0.33 6.9 277 26 391
15-30 7.60 0.34 6.1 213 18 217
Nandigama 0-15 6.40 0.12 6.8 263 30 366
15-30 6.60 0.14 5.9 219 24 294

4 Sadasivpet Sadasivpet Nizampur 0-15 7.41 0.11 5.5 280 20 384

15-30 8.12 0.16 4.2 186 16 225
Nandikandi 0-15 6.89 0.21 5.6 274 24 275
15-30 7.40 0.22 3.9 186 19 196
Rejinthal 0-15 7.81 0.26 6.9 255 25 435
15-30 8.11 0.28 4.1 189 16 382
Athmakur 0-15 7.97 0.17 4.8 240 28 454
15-30 8.06 0.18 3.9 195 14 398

Kondapur Kondapur 0-15 7.81 0.21 5.1 285 29 278

15-30 8.00 0.26 4.9 196 18 217
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Malkapur 0-15 7.00 0.12 5.5 299 31 365
15-30 7.20 0.15 4.9 192 16 254
Mansanpally 0-15 7.14 0.14 6.3 333 33 366
15-30 7.32 0.16 5.2 226 21 237
Ananthasagar 0-15 7.78 0.19 6.8 328 41 401
15-30 8.10 0.24 4.9 223 27 374

Munipally Peddachelmeda 0-15 6.84 0.14 5.6 318 29 271

15-30 6.89 0.18 4.3 196 18 216
Kammampally 0-15 7.85 0.19 5.4 288 19 447
15-30 8.10 0.21 4.9 184 15 369
Thakkadapally 0-15 8.30 0.34 6.1 310 22 428
15-30 8.27 0.36 5.0 241 19 399
Antharam 0-15 7.86 0.39 5.5 283 21 438
15-30 7.94 0.42 4.8 196 15 365
Budhera 0-15 7.77 0.16 6.2 296 18 423
15-30 7.89 0.18 4.8 186 14 362

5 Narayankhed Narayankhed Jukkal 0-15 6.21 0.12 5.1 269 20 450

15-30 6.30 0.16 4.6 184 19 356
Narayankhed 0-15 6.54 0.21 5.6 255 21 424
15-30 6.82 0.24 3.6 182 19 396
Nizampet 0-15 6.60 0.45 5.1 248 18 446
15-30 6.80 0.46 3.4 174 17 339
Ryakal 0-15 8.15 0.32 6.6 295 18 273
15-30 8.22 0.33 3.0 211 15 215
Thurkapally 0-15 6.69 0.19 5.9 284 19 414
15-30 6.80 0.21 4.4 199 14 285

Kalher Anthargoam 0-15 6.24 0.16 6.1 299 23 261

S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
15-30 6.51 0.17 4.7 186 21 198
Kadpal 0-15 6.52 0.18 7.8 312 20 398
15-30 6.81 0.19 6.3 189 19 295
Kalher 0-15 5.85 0.21 7.1 314 19 425
15-30 6.00 0.23 5.9 213 18 306
Mardi 0-15 7.33 0.22 6.6 289 22 443
15-30 7.50 0.23 5.1 185 18 259
Sirgapur 0-15 7.23 0.23 8.0 273 19 274
15-30 7.46 0.24 7.0 189 17 211

Kangti D Banswada 0-15 7.26 0.11 8.1 269 19 386

15-30 7.38 0.12 7.2 186 17 253
Jamgi-B 0-15 7.66 0.16 6.7 279 21 452
15-30 7.75 0.18 5.4 186 16 365
Jamgi-K 0-15 8.11 0.21 4.9 271 28 352
15-30 8.22 0.23 3.8 183 20 286
Photpally 0-15 7.16 0.15 4.9 277 22 419
15-30 7.36 0.17 3.3 189 15 351

Manur Bellapur 0-15 8.11 0.21 5.6 273 36 426

15-30 8.26 0.23 4.8 186 21 365
Badalgoam 0-15 8.21 0.12 6.8 277 29 269
15-30 8.32 0.14 5.0 186 18 191
Borancha 0-15 7.98 0.16 8.2 274 35 452
15-30 7.95 0.18 7.1 194 18 369
N G Hokarana 0-15 7.82 0.23 7.5 271 18 394
15-30 7.84 0.26 6.6 198 18 258
Thornal 0-15 7.69 0.23 6.4 245 14 421
15-30 7.86 0.25 5.1 174 18 322
Yelgoi 0-15 8.21 0.10 4.9 272 18 398
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
15-30 8.23 0.12 3.7 199 18 239

6 Jogipet Andole Kansanpally 0-15 8.35 0.12 4.8 274 20 386

15-30 8.36 0.14 3.7 213 16 223
Ramsanpally 0-15 8.52 0.14 6.9 279 22 276
15-30 8.56 0.16 5.5 198 19 224
Dakur 0-15 8.05 0.17 8.1 264 26 388
15-30 8.12 0.19 7.1 185 19 206
Masanpally 0-15 8.74 0.16 6.6 288 33 422
15-30 8.77 0.19 5.9 191 25 362
Almaipet 0-15 8.01 0.20 5.9 287 31 268
15-30 8.06 0.21 5.1 186 20 212

Pulkal Minpoor Thanda 0-15 8.52 0.11 8.0 311 30 440

15-30 8.56 0.12 7.1 261 19 362
Baswapur 0-15 8.86 0.13 7.7 278 18 451
15-30 8.89 0.16 6.0 190 15 289
Chekriyal 0-15 8.35 0.21 6.9 272 23 271
15-30 8.36 0.23 5.8 198 18 210
Pocharam 0-15 8.21 0.11 7.8 274 26 457
15-30 8.24 0.21 6.4 186 20 364
Mudimanikyam 0-15 7.96 0.12 8.3 277 32 409
15-30 8.03 0.26 7.1 187 21 304
Shivampet 0-15 7.91 0.18 6.9 264 19 399
15-30 7.94 0.25 5.8 210 13 265

Hathnoora Hathnoora 0-15 7.52 0.32 6.7 268 21 384

15-30 7.54 0.39 5.1 192 18 263
Chikmadur 0-15 6.86 0.19 5.9 259 22 273
15-30 6.89 0.28 4.9 188 14 217
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Kasala 0-15 6.58 0.21 6.4 281 28 411
15-30 6.66 0.26 5.8 184 17 363
Siripura 0-15 7.00 0.20 6.9 304 24 325
15-30 7.20 0.29 4.8 233 18 226

7 Dubbaka Dubbaka Dharmajipet 0-15 5.92 0.19 4.6 291 31 356

15-30 5.96 0.22 3.9 186 22 211
Rameshwarpally 0-15 5.45 0.15 5.1 265 24 271
15-30 5.55 0.16 4.1 168 19 206
Nagaram 0-15 5.68 0.19 4.4 261 26 362
15-30 5.69 0.22 3.9 199 15 194

Mirdoddi Kasulabad 0-15 5.23 0.17 5.6 294 25 399

15-30 5.51 0.18 4.5 191 20 312
Bhumpally 0-15 5.82 0.19 6 288 28 277
15-30 5.86 0.23 5.4 197 22 209

8 Narsapur Narsapur Reddypally 0-15 8.32 0.16 4.4 268 22 426

15-30 8.33 0.19 3.9 193 18 381
Ibrahimbad 0-15 6.66 0.15 4.8 272 20 401
15-30 6.69 0.18 4.1 174 19 356
Moosapet 0-15 7.42 0.15 5.0 266 24 274
15-30 7.54 0.16 4.7 186 18 241
Nagulapally 0-15 8.10 0.12 5.5 274 28 276
15-30 8.14 0.16 4.1 210 18 241
Thujalpur 0-15 7.96 0.27 5.7 270 23 269
15-30 7.97 0.29 3.9 195 16 232
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Kowdipally Ajjamari 0-15 6.65 0.10 5.1 293 24 351
15-30 6.66 0.14 3.4 211 13 265
Bhujrampet 0-15 6.78 0.16 5.8 298 21 411
15-30 6.79 0.17 4.0 231 10 297
Chitkul 0-15 7.65 0.16 5.1 296 19 425
15-30 7.66 0.19 4.9 184 12 306
Faizabad 0-15 7.81 0.13 5.5 296 16 416
5-30 7.85 0.14 4.0 177 15 361

Shivampet Pambanda 0-165 6.96 0.11 5.8 266 20 424

15-30 6.99 0.14 4.9 184 19 296
Shivampet 0-15 7.52 0.12 5.1 277 19 261
15-30 7.53 0.15 4.2 214 14 239
Gundlapally 0-15 6.51 0.25 4.1 259 22 443
15-30 6.54 0.27 3.5 199 16 326

9 Shankarampet Tekmal Achannapally 0-15 7.21 0.28 4.6 263 23 422

15-30 7.22 0.31 4.1 223 16 354
Kadloor 0-15 7.86 0.25 5.8 268 31 279
15-30 7.85 0.27 5.1 216 21 221
Tekmal 0-15 7.56 0.21 5.3 276 29 275
15-30 7.65 0.24 4.2 210 23 214
Bodmatpally 0-15 6.51 0.18 5.6 305 20 403
15-30 6.55 0.21 4.8 236 17 269

Alladurg Muslapoor 0-15 6.89 0.14 7.7 296 32 269

15-30 6.91 0.18 5.3 215 26 216
Gadipeddapoor 0-15 7.14 0.19 6.7 270 23 411
15-30 7.21 0.21 5.2 211 15 265
S.No Division Mandal Location/village Depth pH EC OC Available Macronutrients (kg ha-1)
(cm) (1:2.5) (dSm-1 ) (g kg-1) N P K
Reddipally 0-15 8.19 0.29 7.8 274 29 431
15-30 8.21 0.32 6.4 204 24 382

10 Ramayampet Ramayampet Chalmeda 0-15 6.93 0.21 5.6 279 36 423

15-30 7.12 0.23 4.9 183 29 265
Konapur 0-15 7.96 0.19 5.4 286 29 276
15-30 7.98 0.26 4.4 197 19 201
Naskal 0-15 5.91 0.22 7.0 274 31 448
15-30 5.93 0.23 6.5 226 21 362

Yeldurty Andugulapally 0-15 8.23 0.21 6.6 276 22 422

15-30 8.21 0.22 5.8 164 19 309
Damarancha 0-15 8.17 0.26 6.1 296 28 440
15-30 8.19 0.24 5.1 231 24 368
Kukunoor 0-15 7.89 0.36 4.8 256 14 399
15-30 7.86 0.39 4.6 189 19 225

Shankarampet(R) Mandapoor 0-15 5.60 0.31 5.8 277 18 274

15-30 5.90 0.36 4.3 234 11 195
Kamaram 0-15 6.16 0.19 5.1 269 20 261
15-30 6.23 0.25 4.2 191 16 208