DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

STRENGTH OF MATREIALS LAB MANUAL

A.Y: 2014-15

MARRI LAXMAN REDDY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT
Dundigal, Quthbullapur (M), Hyderabad 500 043, R.R.Dist. A.P

Date of Issue: Compiled by

Document No:
Ms. C.BALA SAI Authorized by
MLRITM / ME / LAB / SOP

Date of Revision: Verified by

HOD ME
Version : Dr. R. Kotaiah

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 MECHANICS OF SOLIDS LAB

List of Experiments

1) Estimation of Mechanical properties of M.S. specimen under tensile load by Direct Tension Test

2) Estimation of ultimate shear strength of M.S. specimen.

3) Estimation of youngs modulus (E) of the different beams of Simply supported

4) Estimation of youngs modulus (E) of the different beams of Cantilever

5) Determine the Brinell & Rockwell Hardness number of the given specimen.

6) Comparison of compressive strength of clay brick & Reinforced cement concrete cube.

7) Determination of spring properties (stiffness & Rigidity Modulus) under tensile &
compressive loads.

8) Determine the impact strength of the M.S specimen by performing the Izod&Charpyimpact test.

9) Determine the rigidity modulus of mildsteel specimen by performing Torsion Test

10) Electric resistance of strain guage

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 1

a) Estimation of Mechanical properties of M.S. specimen under tensile load by Direct Tension Test
b) Estimation of ultimate shear strength of M.S. specimen

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 1. DIRECT TENSION TEST

1. AIM:To studythe behavior of a mild steel specimen under a gradually increasing tensile load and
to determine the following mechanical properties.

a) Tensile strength. b) Yield strength. c) Ultimate stress

d )youngs modulus. e) Percentage of Elongation. f) Percentage of reduction of area

2. APPARATUS REQUIRED: Universal testing machine (UTM), Extensometer.

3. SPECIMENS REQUIRED: Mild steel rod of 10 mm dia , steel rule, vernier calipers.
4. SKETCH-UTM Machine:

Mechanical Extensometer

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Mechanical Extensometer is an attachment to Universal /Tensile Testing Machines. It measures the
elongation of a test piece on load for the set gaugelength. The least count of measurement is 0.01
mm and maximum elongation measuredis upto 3mm.This elongation measurement helps in finding
out the proof stress at the required elongation percentage.

5. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The machine serves the purpose of conducting tension, compression and bending test. The testing
machine is operated hydraulically. Driving is performed by the help of electric motor. The machine is
equipped with pendulum dynamometer. A recording device is used for registering load deformation
diagram.

6. DESCRIPTION OF PARTS:

CONTROL PANEL:The control panel consists of a complete power pack with drive motor, oil tank,
control valves, a pendulum dynamometer, a load indicator system and an autographic recorder.

POWER PACK:The power pack generates the maximum pressure of 200kgf/cm 2. The hydraulic
pump provides continuously non-pulsating oil flow. Hence the load application is very smooth.

LOAD INDICATOR SYSTEM:

This system consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy pointer is provided to register the
maximum load reached during the test. Different measuring ranges can be selected by operating the
range selecting knob. An overload trip switch is incorporated, which automatically cuts out the pump
motor when the load range is exceeded.

The load ranges has 4 positions.

i.e., 0 to 40 KN

0 to 100 KN

0 to 200 KN

0 to 400 KN

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PENDULUMDYNAMOMETER:

This unit permits selection of favorable hydraulic ratios producing relatively small directional forces.
Pressurized oil in the loading cylinder pushes up the measuring piston proportionately and actuates the
special dynamometer system. The piston is constantly rotated to eliminate friction. The dynamometer
system is also provided with an integral damper and ensures high reliability of operation. The load
transmitted to the dynamometer is transferred through a pendulum to the load indicator.

Autographic continuous roll load Elongation recorder:

This unit is of the open and drums type and is supplied as standard.

Graph paper:The graph paper which is there in the UTM machine is used to draw the stress-strain
diagram for the given material.

Graph Drum:

Graph drums on which the graph paper is rolled. It is used to draw the stress Vs strain
diagram for the given material

ELONGATION SCALE:

On this scale we measure the elongation or compression of the specimen. This is marked from
0 to 20 cm.

PEN HOLDER:

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 This is placed above the graph drum, which is to be used for holding the pen. While the needle of
the pendulum dynamometer is rotating, this is to be moved. By using this pen holder we can draw
the stress-strain diagram.

LOADING PLATFORM:

Loading platform is one on which we keep the specimen for doing the compression test. This
loading platform is to be moved in to upward direction by switching on the upward switch of the
driving motor. And it is moved downwards by pressing the down switch of the driving motor.

3 ELECTRIC MOTOR:The electric motor gives the power supply to the system by which we can
operate the driving motor properly. This power supply is given to the threading device of the UTM.

THEORY:

The Universal Testing Machine (UTM) mainly consists of two units

1. loading unit and

2. control panel
The loading unit consists of

Lower cross head

Middle cross head
Upper cross head

The specimen is tested on the loading unit and the corresponding readings are taken from the
fixed dial on the control panel. The main hydraulic cylinders fitted in the centre of the base and the
piston slides over the cylinder when the machine is under operation. A lower table is rigidly
connected to an upper cross head by two straight columns. This assembly moves up and down
with the main piston. The test is conducted by fixing the specimen in between the lower and upper
crossheads by jaws inserts. An elongation scale is also kept sliding which is fitted between lower
table and upper crosshead.

The two valves on the control panel one on the right side and the other one on the left
side are used to control the oil flow in the hydraulic system. The right side valve is a pressure flow
control valve and the left side valve is a return valve to allow the oil from the cylinder to go back
to the tank. Control panel also consists of dynamometer which measures and indicates the load on
the specimen.

BEHAVIOUR OF STEEL UNDER STRESS:-

Steel is an important material used in structure as well as machines. While designing

a steel member the designer should have an idea of properties mentioned above. The knowledge of
behavior of steel under stress is very essential upto a certain stress limit the steel behaves as an elastic
material but beyond that the steel behaves differently. The designer should have an idea of youngs
modulus of elasticity, the elastic limit and the maximum tensile strength. Also the percentage
elongation at failure is a measure of ductility of steel. We get all this information from one single test
i.e. Tensile test on steel , (or for the matter on other metals also) in which specimen is subjected to
tensile load gradually till it fails.

BEHAVIOUR OF VARIOUS MATERIALS:

a) Mild steel has got definite yield point. It contains carbon content less than 0.3%. Medium carbon
steel contains carbon 0.3% to 0.8%. High carbon steel contains carbon 0.8% to 1.5%. As the

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 carbon content increases the strength also increases, but the ductility is reduced. High carbon
steel does not show clear yield point.
b) Cast iron is brittle, it does not exhibit any yield point, and it has a low limit of proportionality
Its ductility is low.
c) Non ferrous metals and their alloys:- These also do not show a definite yield point and their limit
of proportionality is low. But they are ductile.

Stress strain curves and derived properties for Mildsteel

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Overall Length=250mm,

Length of Reduced section =140mm

Distance between shoulders =150mm,

Diameter of reduced section= 10mm

Width or dia of grip section =20mm

PROCEDURE:

1) Measure the length and diameter of given specimen.

2) Fix the load range by placing counter weights on the balancing pendulum at the back of the
machine.

3) With the pressure release valve open adjust the middle cross head to fix the specimen between upper
and middle cross head by operating the up and down switches. Also adjust the machine to read zero.
4) Fix the specimen between upper and middle cross head properly so that load is applied axially.
5) Before operating the UTM ensure that the oil delivery valve (left) is open and the pressure release
valve (right) is closed.
6) After switching on the UTM open the pressure release valve and close the oil delivery valve.
7) Now, push the ON button on the control panel and there will be tension acting on the specimen
due to fluid pressure.
8) Before applying the pressure adjust the pencil to the graph roll.
9) Position the Extensometer on the specimen. Position Upper clamp to press upper knife on
the specimen.
10) The extensometer will now be fixed to the specimen by spring pressure. Set zero on both the
dial gauges.
11) Start loading the test specimen and take the reading Of load on the machine at required elongation
or the elongation at required load.
12) For better accuracies mean of both dial gauge readings should be taken as elongation.

13) The yield point is observed when the line needle is suddenly stops for a second and continues to
move.
14) At one stage the line needle begins to return, leaving the dummy needle there itself. At this point
the ultimate strength of the specimen is observed.
15) After some time the specimen breaks making a huge sound.
16) As the specimen breaks the graph is metallically plotted according to the behavior of specimen
under tension due to applied load.
17) Note and record the required reading and the graph plotted.
18) Remove the broken pieces of the specimen from the machine and safely switch off the machine.
19) Measure the gauge length of the test specimen and diameter of the neck.
9
 TABULAR COLUMN

S.No Load Specimen Area of the Original Extensio Stressf Strain Modulus
. (P)in Dia. as per specimen as gauge n (l) in (P/A) e(l/l) of
N applied per applied length mm N/mm2 elasticity(
load(d) in load(A) in of E)=f/e
2
mm mm specime N/ mm2
n(l) in
mm

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

1. Diameter of the specimen, d =

2. Length of the specimen, L=
3. Lower Yield point found at =
4. Upper Yield point found at=
5. Ultimate strength found at =
6. Break point found at =

Stress: The resistance offered by a body against the deformation is called stress.

Stress (f) = Load (p)/area of cross section (A)

= P/A N / mm2

Strain: The ratio of change in length to the original length is called strain

Strain (e) = Change in length ( l)

Original length (l)

Youngs modulus: The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit is called modulus of elasticity
(or) youngs modulus.

E = Stress (f)/ Strain (e)

Tensile Strength: The tensile strength or ultimate tensile strength is the maximum load obtained in a
tensile test divided by the original area of the cross-section of the specimen. It is used for the quality
control of the product. It can be co-related to other properties such as hardness and fatigue strength.

Pu= Pmax/A0

Where Pu = ultimate tensile strength in kg/mm2

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 Pmax= Maximum load obtained in tensile test in Kgs

A0 = original cross-sectional area of load specimen in mm2.

Yield Strength:

It is defined as the stress which will produce a small amount of permanent deformation.

Yield strength Py = Pe/ A0

Pe= load obtained at yield point

A0 = original area of cross-section in mm2.

Percentage Elongation:

%E = (L-L0)/ L0 100

E = percentage elongation

L = Increased length or gauge length at fracture.

L0 = original length.

Total % elongation up to fracture point is an indication of ductility (ability of a material to with stand
plastic deformation).

Reduction of Area: It is the ratio of decrease in cross-sectional area to the original area expressed in
percentage.
% RA = (A0-A)/ A0100

RA = percentage reduction in area.

A0 = original cross-sectional area

A = final cross-sectional area after fracture.

PRECAUTIONS:

Carefully switch ON the machine

1.
Hold the loads carefully, so that it doesnt fall on your feet and gets you injured.
2.
3.
Set the dial corresponding to the load applied.
4.
While operating the machine do not touch the rod column along which the piston moves
5.
Be careful while fixing the specimen between the jaws of the UTM
6.
Keep your hands away from the parts of the UTM, after the specimen is fixed between the
jaws of the machine
RESULTS:

a) Tensile strength: N/mm2

b) Yield strength: N/mm2
c) Ultimate stress: N/mm2
d) Youngs modulus: N/mm2
e) Percentage of Elongation: %
f) Percentage of reduction of area: %

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1) Loading accuracy of the machine

is? A. + 1%

2) Which type of motor used in the

UTM? A. 3
3) Define stress?
A. Force / area

4) Define strain?
A. e = change is dimensions/ original dimensions

5) What is the unit of stress?

A. N/m2
6) What is the unit of strain?
A. Dimension Less

7) Why we are using only rectangular threading in the UTM is

A. Power supply is more in rectangular threading to lift the loading platform.

8) Define youngs modulus of elasticity

A. It is the ratio of stress to strain.

9) What is the unit for youngs modulus of

elasticity A. KN/mm2

10) What is the purpose of UTM

A. The machine serves the purpose of conducting tension compression and bending tests.

11) What is the purpose of dynamometer?

A. The dynamometer measures and indicates the load on the specimen.

12) How many types of positions does load indicator system is

having? A. The loading system will be 4 positions

i.e., 0 to 40 KN

0 to 100 KN

0 to 200 KN

0 to 400 KN

13) What is the purpose of graph paper

A. The graph paper is used to draw the stress strain dig.
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14) Define tensile stress.
A. When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls and the body tends to increase its
length, the stress induced is called tensile stress.

15) Define Compressive stress

A. When a section is subjected to two equals and opposite pushes and the body tends to decrease its
length, the stress induced is called tensile stress.

16) What is the maximum pressure which generates in the power

pack 2000 kgf/cm 2

17) What is elastic limit

A. Within this limit stress is directly proportional to strain.

18) Define unit stress

A. Unit stress represents the resistance developed by a unit area of cross section

19) Define volumetric strain

A. It is a ratio between the change in volume and original volume of the body
20) Define modulus of elasticity
A. the ratio between tensile stress and tensile strain or compressive stress to compressive strain is
termed as modulus elasticity

21) What is the relation between the modulus of elasticity (E) and modulus of
rigidity A. E = 2C (1+1/m)

22) What is Poissons ratio

A. The ratio of lateral strain to linear strain is known as poisons ratio

23) What is the relation between E, K &

C A. E = 9KC/3K+C

24) What is linear strain?

A.Linear strain is the deformation of the bar per unit length in the direction of the force.

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 7. SHEARING TEST ON UTM

AIM: To determine the ultimate shear strength of the given specimen (Mild steel) subjected
for shearing under a gradually increasing load.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
i) Universal testing machine.

ii) Shear test attachment.

iii) Mild steel rod of 8 mm dia, length 140mm.

THEORY: -Place the shear test attachment on the lower table, this attachment consists of cutter.

The specimen is inserted in shear test attachment & lift the lower table so that the zero is adjusted,
then apply the load such that the specimen breaks in two or three pieces.

If the specimen breaks in two pieces then it will be in single shear & if it breaks in three pieces then
it will be in double shear.

PURPOSE:-

The purpose of the test is to find out the shear strength of steel specimen subjected
to single shear as well as to double shear. This test is useful in the design of riveted joints, as the
rivets may be either in single shear or may be in double shear.

Shear stress:- It is produced in a body when it is subjected to two equal and opposite forces spaced
at an infinite decimal distance or tangentially across the resisting section.
Shearing force
Shear stress, fs = area resisting force

PROCEDURE:

1. For performing the shear test the space between lower table and the middle cross arm is used.
Insert the specimen in position and grip one end of the attachment in the upper portion and one end
in the lower portion.

2. There are 5 sets of attachments for testing different sizes that is diameters of rods. These
diameters are 5mm, 8mm, 12mm, 16mm and 20mm.

3. The specimen M.S. rod, diameter 8mm is fixed in the attachment/fixture and the fixture is
firmly secured at the lower table.

4. Select the suitable range of loads and space the corresponding weight in the pendulum and balance
it if necessary with the help of small balancing weights.

5. Operate (push) buttons for driving the motor to drive the pump.

6. Gradually move the head control level in left-hand direction till the specimen shears.

7. Down the load at which the specimen shears.

8. Stop the machine and remove the specimen

Repeat the experiment with other specimens.

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OBESERVATION:-

Diameter of the Rod, D = .. mm

Cross-section area of the Rod = /4x d2 =.. mm2

Load taken by the Specimen at the time of failure , W = N

Strength of rod against Shearing = x /4x d2

= W / 2x /4x d2 N/mm2

OBSERVATIONS:-

Sr.No. Material Dia.(d) Area(A) Load Stress=P/A

P (N) (N/mm2)
1 Mild steel

RESULT:

The Shear strength of mild steel specimen is found to be = N/mm2

PRECAUTION:-

1 The measuring range should not be changed at any stage during the test.

2. The inner diameter of the hole in the shear stress attachment should be slightly greater than that of
the specimen.

3. Measure the diameter of the specimen accurately.

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 EXPERIMENT NO: 2

Estimation of youngs modulus (E) of the different beams of Simply supported.

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 8.SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

AIM: To determine the deflection(y) of Beam specimen(M.S & Al) and correspondingly workout for
the youngs modulus (E)of the given structural material.

APPARATUS: Simply supported beam, dial gauge to measure the deflection of the

beam. TYPE OF MEASURING OF INSTRUMENT: Dial test indicator

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT:

a. Deflection of beam apparatus

b. Weights
c. Beam of different cross-sections and materials
d. Vernier calipers
e. Beam supports
f. Measuring scale
SKETCH:

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

BEAM:

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The beam, which is to be used, is of simply supported beam having width 25mm and the depth is 5 mm

SUPPORTS:

This supports or supporting device is used to place beam and weights.

THEORY: Youngs modulus is defined as linear stress required producing unit linear strain,
within the elastic limit. Youngs modulus can be found from the theory of simple bending.

The bending test apparatus consists of a long rectangular steel bar resting on stands at both the
ends. On this horizontal steel bar, two sliding supports rest vertically. A dial guage with a pointer
on its head is provided, which can be adjusted with the nut provided.

A Beam is a structural member subjected to a system of external forces at right angles to

its axis. If such member is built or fixed in at one end while its other end is free, the member is
called as cantilever beam. It is shown in fig.1

If the two ends of the beam is made to freely rest on supports the beam is called the

freely or simply supported beam as shown in the fig2. In this case the beam is resting freely on brick
masonry walls. The clear horizontal distance between the walls is called clear span of the beam.

The horizontal distance between the centers of the end bearings is called effective span of the beam.

If the intensity of the bearing reaction is not uniform the effective span is the horizontal distance
between the lines of action of the end reactions.

If the beam is fixed at both ends it is called a built-in, built-up, fixed beam is shown in

the fig3. A beam which is provided with more than two supports is called a continuous beam it is
shown in the fig4.

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 On the application of the load on the beam will bent into a circular shape. The deviation

from its initial position is called deflection. If a member is subjected to a uniform bending moment

M: the radius of curvature of the deflected form of the member is given by

M / I = E / R.

Where I= Moment of Inertia BD3/12(B=Breadth, D= Depth)

E= Youngs moduls = f/e

R= radius of curvature

If the member be subjected to a bending moment which is not same at all sections the radius of
curvature at any point of the centre line is given again by the above relation

Considering a simply supported beam carrying a point load at the middle of the span C. since the
load symmetrically applied the maximum deflection occurs the mid of the span. Then deflection
equation is given by

EIy = (Wx3/12) - (WL2x/16) ------------- (1)

The maximum deflection occurs at the middle of the span i.e at x = L / 2.

YC= (WL3/48 EI)

The deflection at a distance of L/4 can be obtained by substituting x= L/4 in eqn (1)

y = (11 WL3/ 768 EI)

ThereforeE = (11 WL3/ 768 YI)(Quarter -span deflection at point D)

Calculation of youngs modulus using this equation is called indirect method as stress and strain
is not involved in this equation.

PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the effective span width & depth of the simply supported beam by using vernier
caliper and Moment of inertia of the section is calculated.

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 2. Place the simply supported beam on the two supports properly.
3. Place the load hook at the middle of span.
4. Mark the center and quarter span for the beam.
5. Place the dial indicator in between the two supports where deflection needs to be calculated
say at length L / 4 from left support.
6. Load is applied at mid-span and deflections are measured at quarter span by using dial
indicator. Deflections are measured while loading and unloading and average value is taken as
deflection for the respective loads and youngs modulus is calculated.
7. Calculate the youngs modulus of the given beam material by using the formula.

TABULAR COLUMN

S Load Dial Indicator Reading (D) D(avg) x Deflec Stiffness Youngs

no. Applied Least tion in (w/y) modulus
(W) in(kg Count(0.10) ymm (E)

Loading Unloading Avg.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Sample calculations

Deflection at quarter span y = (11 WL3/ 768 EI)

Assume W=1Kg= 1 X 9.81 = 9.81 N, y=0.16mm

L= Length of span in mm = 1000mm

B= Breadth in mm=50mm

D= Depth in mm =10mm

I= Moment of inertia(mm4) = BD3/12 = 50 x 103/12=4166.66mm4

E = (11 WL3/ 768 YI) = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. The beam must be loaded below its ultimate load. So that it may not fail under loading.

2. Adjust the dial indicator at the excat place where deflection needs to be calculated.

3. Note down the dial indicator readings carefully

4. Be sure that the distance marked on the beam is equal.

5. Before applying load do not forget to set the dial guage pointer to the initial point.

6. Make sure there is nothing placed on the table except the apparatus a smallest pressure on the table
can spoil the experiment.

7. Make sure that the beam and load are placed in the proper position

RESULT: Youngs modulus (E) of beam material is=

GRAPH:

Draw the graph between load vs deflection

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VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define beam?

A. Beam is structural member, which is acted upon by a system of external loads at right angles to
the axis.

2. What is meant by bending?

A. Bending is defined as the deformation of a bar produced by loads acting perpendicular to its axis.

3. How many types of bending are there

A. A) plane bending,

b) Oblique bending.

4. Define plane bending

A. If the plane of loading passes through one of the principle centroidal axis of the cross section of the
beam; the bending is said to be plane or direct bending.

5. Define oblique bending?

A. If the plane of loading does not pass through one of the principle centroidal axis of the cross
section of the beam, the bending is said to be oblique.

6. Explain the types of loads

A. The loads will be divided into i) point load ii) distributed load

7. Define point load

A. A point load is one, which is considered to act at a point.

8. Define distributed load.

A. A distributed load is one which distributed or spread in some manner over the length of the beam.

9. Define UDL?

A. If load distribution is said to be uniform through out the length then that load is called uniformly
distributed load

10. Explain the types of

beams. A. a) Cantilever beam

b) Simply (or) freely supported beam

c) Over hanging beam

d) Fixed beam

e) Continuous beam
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11. Define Maxwells reciprocal theorem

A. The Maxwell reciprocal theorem states that the deflection of a beam at any intermediate point D
due to the load at the point C will be same as the deflection at point C due to load at point D

12. What is bending equation?

A. M/I = b /Y

13. What are the units of bending

moment? A. Nmm

14. What are the units of moment of

Inertia? A. mm4

15. What are the units for bending

stress? A. N/mm2

16. What is the Deflection of simply supported beam

A. = wl3/48EI

17) Define load

A. The combine effect of external forces acting on a body is called load.

18) Define cantilever beam

A. A cantilever is a beam whose one end is fixed and the other end is free.

19) Define over hanging beam

A. A over hanging beam is one in which the supports are not situated at the ends i.e., both the ends
project beyond the support.

20) Define simply supported beam

A. A simply supported beam is one whose ends freely rest on walls or columns or knife edges.

21) Define fixed beam

A. A fixed beam is one whose both ends are rigidly fixed or built into its supporting walls or columns

22) Define continuous beam

A. a continuous beam is one which has more than two supports

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EXPERIMENT NO.3

Estimation of youngs modulus (E) of the different beams of Cantilever

24
 9.CANTILEVER BEAM

AIM: To determine the deflection(y) of M.S & Al Beam specimen and correspondingly workout for
the youngs modulus (E)of the given structural material.

APPARATUS: the deflection of a beam apparatus consists of the following items:

1. Cantilever beam

2. Loading yoke-1 No.

3. Slotted weight hanger- 1 No.

4. Slotted weights

5. Dial gauge-10mm x 0.1mm 1 No.

6. Dial gauge stand

7. Measuring scale

8. Vernier caliper

Theory: Youngs modulus is defined as linear stress required producing unit linear strain, within the
elastic limit. Youngs modulus can be found from the theory of simple bending.

Consider a cantilever beam carrying a point load at the free end C. Then deflection

equation is given by

EIy = (Wx2/6) (3L-x) ------------- (1)

The maximum deflection occurs at the free end of the beam i.e at x = L.
Yc= (WL3/ 3EI)

The deflection at the middle of the beam can be obtained by substituting x= L/2 in eqn (1)

y = (5 WL3/ 48EI)

Therefore E = (5 WL3/ 48 yI)

Calculation of youngs modulus using this equation is called indirect method as stress and strain is
not involved in this equation.

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PROCEDURE:

1. Measure the effective span width & depth of the cantilever beam.
2. Place the cantilever beam on the support properly.
3. Place the load hook at the free end of the beam.
4. L and L/2 marked on the beam, load is applied at L/2 and deflection is measured at L using
dial indicator. Deflections are measured while loading and unloading and their avg is taken
as deflection for the respective load .
5. Place the dial indicator in between the two ends where deflection needs to be calculated say
at length L / 2 from left support.
6. Calculate the youngs modulus of the given beam material by using the formula.
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The beam must be loaded below its ultimate load. So that it may not fail under loading.

2. Adjust the dial indicator at the exact place where deflection needs to be calculated.

3. Note down the dial indicator readings carefully

RESULT: Youngs modulus (E) of beam material is=

GRAPH:

Draw the graph between load vs deflection

S Load Dial Indicator Reading D(avg) x Deflec Stiffness Youngs

no. Applied Least tion in (w/y) modulus
(W) in(kg Count(0.10) mm (E)

Loading Unloading Avg.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

26
 EXPERIMENT NO:4

Determine the Brinell & Rockwell Hardness number of the given specimen

27
 1. BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

AIM: To determine the Hardness number of the given specimen by using Brinell hardness test

APPARATUS: Brinells hardness machine, test specimen and Microscope

SPECIFICATIONS:

Make : Associated scientific corporation

Type of test done : Brinellss hardness test

Indents used : 2.5 mm steel

Load selection : 10kgf, 60kgf 100 kgf, 150 kgf

SKETCH:

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DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

LOADING HANDLE:

It is used to apply the load. If we move this handle towards us we are releasing the load,
where as if we put the loading handle in perpendicular direction we apply the load on the specimen.

LOAD SELECTOR:

It is used to select the required load.

SPECIFICATION PLATE:

In this specification plate we are having three types of scales:

29
 STANDARD SCALE: In this A, B & C types of scales are available. A & C consist of a diamond
cone penetrator having the angle 1200. .B consists of a steel ball having the dimensions of 1/16 =
1.588 mm.

INDENTER HOLDER:

It is used to hold the indenter. The Indenter is useful to create the impression.

ELEVATING SCREW: It helps us to create impression by rotating it into the upward direction.

HARD WHEEL: It is used to move the elevating screw upwards.

KNURLING THUMB SCREW: It is used to select the required load. It is having 3 positions i.e.,
100, 150 & 187.5

THEORY:

1. HARDNESS: It is defined as the ability of a material to resist abrasion, scratching (or)

indentation. This is the desirable property for the parts subjected to wear.

2. BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER:

Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by
penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending, scratching,
abrasion or cutting.
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms of
fundamental units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined
measurement procedure.
Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to scratching or cutting. An
example would be material B scratches material C, but not material A. Alternatively, material A
scratches material B slightly and scratches material C heavily. Relative hardness of materials can be
assessed by reference to the Mohrs scale that ranks the ability of materials to resist scratching by
another material. Similar methods of relative hardness assessment are still commonly used today.

The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an
indentation left by an indenter of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time.
There are three principal standard test methods for expressing the relationship between hardness and
the size of the impression, these being Brinell, Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration
reasons, each of these methods is divided into a range of scales, defined by a combination of applied
load and indenter geometry.

30
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened
steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg
or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case
of iron and steel and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left
in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness number is calculated
by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.

BHN=2P/ D (D- (D 2 -d 2 )

Where p = applied load in N

D = Diameter of ball in mm

d= dia of indentation in mm

The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a
Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well
structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB
10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was obtained using a 10mm diameter
hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On tests of
extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other
hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test
averages the hardness over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for
multiple grain structures and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is
the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with
heterogeneous
Structures.

The standard combinations ofP (Total load applied) and diameter D of the ball that may be
used indicated below.

S.No. Approximate B.H.N P/D2 ratio Material

1 Above 160 30 Steel, Cast iron
2 160-60 10 Copper alloy
3 60-20 5 Copper, Aluminum
4 Lessthan 20 1 Lead, Tin and their
alloys

Example:
1) Let the specimen be made of steel
If D= 10mm desirable values of P= 3000Kg (30 X 102)
If D=2.5mm desirable values of P= 187.5Kg (30 X 2.52)

2) Let the specimen be made of Copper

If D= 5mm desirable values of P= 250Kg (10 X5 2)

PROCEDURE:
1. Select in advance the diameter of the ball and total load to be applied.
2. Fix the proper ball indenter and clamp the indenter to the machine.
3. Clean the test specimen to be free from dirt, oil and scales.
4. The given specimen is placed in the Brinell hardness test machine
31
 5. Using the align keys; the indent is placed in a position perpendicular to the M.S piece placed
in the apparatus.
6. Place the specimen on the platform and rotate the wheel until the specimen touches the
indenter and minor load scale reading is 3(set)
7. Apply the load by rotating the lever clock wise. Wait for a few seconds. After the lever comes
to rest, rotate the lever anticlockwise.
8. Lower the platform by rotating the wheel and remove the specimen.
9. Mark the indentation by ink or pencil to identify it.
10.Measure the diameter d by using microscope.

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No 1 2 3 4

Material

Trial Tria Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial Trial

1 l 1 2 1 2 1 2
2
Diameter of ball indenter
(D)

Load applied (P)

Diameter of the indentation

made (d )

Brinells Hardness

Number(BHN)

PRECAUTIONS:

i) The given specimen material must be kept tangentially to the indent in the apparatus.
ii) Make sure that, when the load is applied, the apparatus should not be disturbed by
any external means.
iii) Be careful while checking the indentations diameter.

RESULTS:

The Brinells hardness number of the given M.S specimen material is_________

32
2. ROCKWELLS HARDNESS TEST

AIM:To determine the hardness of the given specimen material (mild steel - MS) using the
Rockwells hardness testing machine.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Rockwells hardness testing machine, the given specimen material, indenter, Ellen key.

THEORY:

HARDNESS: The resistance of a material to plastic deformation against indentation

scratching, abrasion or cutting.

The hardness of a material by Rockwell hardness test method is measured by the depth of penetration
of the indenter. The depth of penetration is proportional to the hardness. Both ball and diamond cone
type indenters are used in this test.

There are three scales on machine for taking hardness readings.

Scale A: With load 60 kgf or 588.4 N and diamond indenter is used for performing tests on this
steel and shallow care hardend steel.

Scale B:With load 100 kgf or 980.7 N and ball indenter is used for performing tests on soft
steel, malleable iron, copper is aluminum alloys.

Scale C:With load of 150 kgf or 1471 N and diamond indenter is used for hard steel, hard cast
steel, deep case hardened steel and other metals which are harder.

First minor load is applied to overcome the film thickness on the metal surface. Minor loads also
eliminate errors in the depth of the measurements due to spring of the machine or setting down of the
specimen and table attachments.

The Rockwell hardness is derived from the measurement of the depth of the impression.

Ep: depth of penetration due to minor load of 98.07 N

Ea: increase in depth of penetration due to major load

E: Permanent increase of depth of indentation under minor load at 98.07N even after
the removal of major load.

This method is suitable for finished or machined parts of simple shapes.

33
The types of indenters used are:1) 1/16 or 1.587mm diameter steel ball.2) Diamond tipped
indenter with 1200 cone angle.
The total load to be applied differs with the indenter. In all the tests the initial or minor load is 10kg. This
can applied by raising the platform by raising the hand wheel, so that the specimen gets passed by the
indenter and causes a deflection of the dial gauge pointer(small) up to the point indicated as red dot.

The major load to be applied for various indenters is given below:

Indenter Scale Minor load Major load Total load

Rockwell- B 10kg 90kg 100kg

/16

Rockwell- C 10Kg 140 kg 150kg

0
120
PROCEDURE:

1.
Select the load rotating the knob and fix the suitable indenter
2.
Clean the test piece and place on the special anvil or work table of the machine
3.
Turn the capstan wheel to elevate test specimen into contact with the indenter point.
4.
Further the turn the wheel for three rotations forcing the test specimen against the
indenter. This will ensure that the minor load of 98.07 N has been applied.
5. Set the pointer on the dial at the appropriate positions
6. Push the lever to apply the major load
7. As soon as the pointer comes to rest pull the handle in reverse direction slowly this releases the
major load but not the minor load. The pointer will however rotate in the reverse direction.
8. The Rockwell hardness can be read from the dial on the appropriate scale after the
pointer comes to rest
OBSERVATIONS:

1).Test piece material

2) Thickness of test specimen

3) Hardness scale used

4) Minor load

5) Major load

6) Hardness number from the scale

34
 TABLE COLUMN:

Name of the material :

Diameter of Indenter :

Load applied :

Minor Load:

Major Load:

Hardness value

Standarad piece Trail 1 Trail 2 Trail 3

Materials

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Select the specimen as per the Rockwell scale

2. The specimen should be indentation free
3. Do not forget to change the units of load before calculations
4. Apply little mobile oil once a weeks on the elevating screw
5. Neglect first one or two readings whenever indentor or anvil is changed
6. The surface of the specimen must be flat and clean
7. Install the machine in a room which is free from vibrations, dust /smoke.
8. Do not test too close to the edge of specimen or near to earlier indentation.

RESULTS:

Rockwell hardness number of the given M.S material is

35
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define hardness

A. It is defined as ability of material to resist abrasion, scratching or indentation.

2. How many positions does knurling thumbscrew

have? A. Three positions

3. What are the positions of knurling thumbscrew?

A. 100, 150 & 187.5kgm

4. Which type of indenter is used for Rockwell hardness testing

machine? A. 1/16 ball Indenter

5. Which is the type of indenter used for Brinell hardness testing

machine A. 2.5 ball Indenter

6. Which type of indenter is used for hard materials?

A. Diamond Indenter

7. Write down equation for calculating hardness number using Brinell hardness

test A. BHN=2P/ D (D- (D 2 -d 2 )

8. Define toughness

A. Toughness is the strength with which the material opposes rupture

9. Define malleability

A. This is the property by virtue of which material may be rolled in thin sheets with out

rupture. 10. What are the different types of ferrous materials we have

A Cast iron, steel & alloys, silicon steel, high speed steel, spring steel.

11. What are the different types of non-ferrous materials?

A. Cu, Al, Zn, lead and alloys brass bronze & dura Al

12. Define mechanical properties.

A. The microscopic properties of materials under applied force (or) loads are called
mechanical properties

36
5.Comparison of compressive strength of clay brick
& Reinforced cement concrete cube

AIM: -To conduct a compression test on clay brick& Reinforced cement concrete cube
and determine the compressive strength.

APPARATUS: Bricks, Vernier Caliper, Steel Rule, Etc.

FORMULA: -
Max. Load at failure
Compressive Strength (Final cracking) = ---------------------------
-- Loaded Area of brick

THEORY : - Bricks are used in construction of either load bearing walls or in portion walls in
case of frame structure. In bad bearing walls total weight from slab and upper floor comes
directly through brick and then it is transverse to the foundation. In case the bricks are loaded
with compressive nature of force on other hand in case of frame structure bricks are used only
for construction of portion walls, layers comes directly on the lower layers or wall. In this case
bricks are loaded with compressive nature of force. Hence for safely measures before using the
bricks in actual practice they have to be tested in laboratory for their compressive strength

37
PROCEDURE: -

1. Select some brick with uniform shape and size. Measure its all dimensions. (LXBXH)
2. Place the brick on the lower platform of compression testing machine, with the oil delivery
valve in close condition and pressure release valve in open condition, lead screw is adjusted so
that the middle crosshead platen is just in contact with the specimen.
3. To apply load close the pressure release valve( left) and open the oil delivery valve(Right)
4. Note the load at initial crack and up to final crack.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S.No LXB Area Initial Cracking Final cracking AvgCompre

XH LXB( ssive
(mm 3) mm 2) Strength
Load Compressive Load (N) Compressive P/A(N/mm2)
(N) Strength (P) Strength
(P) P/A(N/mm2) P/A(N/mm2)
Clay
brick
Reinforc
ed
concrete
cube

PRECAUTION: - 1) Measure the dimensions of specimens accurately.

2) Specimen should be placed as for as possible in the of lower plate.

3) The range of the gauge fitted on the machine should not be more than
double the breaking load of specimen for reliable results.

RESULT : -1. The average compressive strength of brick sample is

found to be . (N/mm2)

2. The average compressive strength of concrete cube sample

is found to be . (N/mm2

38
EXPERIMENT NO:4

Determination of spring properties (stiffness & Rigidity Modulus) under tensile

& compressive loads.

39
 4. TEST ON SPRINGS

1. COMPRESSION TEST ON SPRING

AIM: To determine the Stiffness of the spring while Compression loads are applied and modulus
of rigidity of wire material.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Spring test machine, Springs for testing, Vernier Caliper.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Make : Tech track, Haryana, India.

Mode of operation : Hand operator, Hydraulic pump.

Dia of spring coil : 35 mm

Number of turns of spring coil : 10

Dia of loading platform : 150 mm

Max. Load capacity : 2000 kg

SKETCH:

40
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

PUMPING HANDLE: It is used to pump the hydraulic oil.

LOADING UNIT:It consists of a panel. The main hydraulic cylinder is fitted in the center of the panel
and the piston slides in the cylinder. Special material is used for the cylinder and piston. The careful
precision machining, and individual lapping have increase the accuracy of the machine to great extent.

The pump is a positive displacement type pump. This assures a continuous pressure, non
pulsating oil current for the smooth application of load on the specimen. The pump is fitted to the
tank cover from bottom, which makes it easily assessable. Belt tightening or loosing can be achieved
very easily and the motor can be looped at the desired position by check nuts.

VALVES:

Two valves on the control panel, one at the right side and the other at the bottom side.

The right side valve is a return valve. This valve allows the oil from the cylinder to go back to
tank, there by reducing the pressure guage in the cylinder and then the working piston comes down.
If the return valve is closed, oil delivered by the pump passes through the central value to the cylinder
and the piston goes up.

41
PRESSURE GUAGE:

Pressure guage is a unit which measures the load on the specimen. The overall accuracy of
the machine depends mainly on the accuracy of the unit which depends on pressure gauge. This
pressure represents the measurements of the load on the specimen.

The bottom valve is provided for the flow/pressure of oil for slow/fast. Adjust the
value according to the equipment.

MEASURING SCALE:

The scale is used to measure the deflection and it is vertically fitted along the rod.

THEORY:

STIFFNESS: The resistance of a material to elastic deformation is called stiffness. A material

which suffers light deformation under load has high degree of stiffness.

It is denoted by K

Thus stiffness K = Load (P)/ Unit deflection ( l)

Where, load (p) is kg

Deflection ( l) in mm.

42
The change in length is given by kg/mm

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect or distort under
the action of applied load; it recovers its original shape when load is released or springs are energy
absorbing units whose function is to store energy and to restore it slowly or rapidly depending on
the particular application.

Important types of springs are: There are various types of springs such as

(i) Helical spring: They are made of wire coiled into a helical form, the load being applied along the
axis of the helix. In these type of springs the major stresses is torsional shear stress due to twisting.
They are both used in tension and

compression.

(ii) Spiral springs: They are made of flat strip of metal wound in the form of spiral and loaded
in torsion. In this the major stresses are tensile and compression due to bending.

(iii) Leaf springs: They are composed of flat bars of varying lengths clamped together so as to
obtain greater efficiency. Leaf springs may be full elliptic, semi elliptic or cantilever types, in these
types of springs the major stresses which come into picture are tensile & compressive. This type of
springs are used in the automobile suspension system

Uses of springs:

(a) To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.

(b) To measure forces as in spring balance.

(c) To store energy as in clock springs.

(d) To reduce the effect of shock or impact loading as in carriage springs

(e) To change the vibrating characteristics of a member as inflexible mounting of motors.

This test is conducted to find the material properties of the spring like modulus of rigidity. This can be
obtained by observing the values of deflections of the spring with the application of different amounts
of the load applied along the axis of the spring. The observed Values of deflections are compared with
the theoretical value for the deflection of the spring under the load and shear modulus is to be obtained.

In a closely coiled helical spring the angle of the helix is so small that the bending effects can be
neglected and it is subjected to only torsional shear stresses. In an open helical spring the angle of
helix is large due to which bending stresses are introduced in addition to torsional shear stresses.

FORMULAE:

1. We have T/J = C/L (Torsion Equation)

Where,

W=Load applied in Newtons

J= Polar moment of inertia mm4 = d4/32

Rm=Mean radius of spring coil = (D-d) / 2

D= Outer dia of wire in mm

43
d=Dia of spring wire in mm

Dm = D-d
1. T= Torque in N-mm = W x Rm
2. L=Length of spring in mm = 2 x Rm xn

3. = 64 x W x Rm2 xn (TL/CJ)
4
Cd

Where, n= No of Coils

4. =Deflection of spring in mm = Rm x

= 64 x W x (Rm)3 xn C
d4

5. C=Modulus of rigidity of spring Material = C= 64 x W x (Rm)3 xn

d4

C =8W (DM)3x n
d4

6. Maximum energy stores = 0.5 x Wmax x d

max Where,
Wmax=Maximum load applied
max=Maximum deflection

PROCEDURE:

1. Insert the pumping rod into the rod holder of the hand-pumping unit.
2. Now create pressure, inside the unit by pumping air by moving the rod up and down till
the deflection starts.
3. Tight the release valve so that the pressure inside the machine is locked.
4. Note down the dial guage reading and the deflection on the scale in mm
5. Now change the load and note down the deflection.
6. Like wise take atleast 3 readings.
7. After testing the spring for tension, change the spring to test for compression.
8. After changing the spring set up using the spanner apply load and measure the deflection
by using following the equation.

K = W/ N/mm

Where K = stiffness of spring n/mm

W = applied load, n

= deflection of length mm

9. After taking the reading for bottom tension and compression calculate the deflection and
change in length and tabulate it.

44
TABULAR COLUMN:

S Axial Load applied Deflection Stiffness of Modulus of Rigidity

no. W kgfx9.8 (in in mm spring k= W/ - C= 8W (D M )3 x n
Newtons) N/mm d4

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Properly handle the pumping rod and prevent slipping from hand.
2. See that the release valve is fully tightened.
3. Carefully change the spring as the spring used for compression is too heavy and little slippery
4. Before starting cleaning of any arrangement the main should be put off.
5. The load when applied must be kept constant by tightening the knob provided for this purpose.

RESULT:

Under compression test on open coil helical spring

a. Rigidity Modulus (N) =

b. Stiffness of spring (K)=

c. Maximum Energy stored(U) =

45
 2. TENSIONTEST ONSPRING

AIM: Todeterminethemodulus ofrigidityofthematerialofgivenhelical spring.

APPARATUS:Springtestingmachine,verniercalipers,screwgaugeclosecoiledhelical spring.

THEORY:Aspringmaybedefinedas anelasticmemberwhoseprimary functionis todeflector

distortundertheactionofappliedload;itrecovers its originalshapewhenloadis
releasedorsprings areenergyabsorbingunits whosefunctionis
tostoreenergyandtorestoreitslowlyorrapidly dependingontheparticularapplication.

Importanttypes ofsprings are:

Therearevarious types ofsprings suchas

(iv) Helical spring:Theyaremadeofwirecoiledintoahelicalform,theloadbeing

appliedalongtheaxis ofthehelix.Inthesetypeofsprings themajorstressesis
torsionalshearstress duetotwisting.Theyarebothusedintensionand compression.
(v) Spiral springs:Theyaremadeofflatstripofmetalwoundintheformofspiral
andloadedintorsion.Inthis themajorstresses aretensileandcompressiondueto bending.
(vi) Leafsprings:Theyarecomposedofflatbars ofvaryinglengths clamped
togethersoastoobtaingreater efficiency.Leafspringsmaybefullelliptic,semi
ellipticor cantilevertypes,inthesetypes ofsprings themajorstresses which
comeintopicturearetensile&compressive.This typeofsprings areusedinthe
automobilesuspensionsystem

Uses ofsprings:

(a)Toapplyforces andtocontrolmotions asinbrakes andclutches.

(b)Tomeasureforces asinspringbalance.

(c)Tostoreenergyasinclocksprings.

(d)Toreducetheeffectofshockorimpactloadingasincarriagesprings.

46
 (e)Tochangethevibratingcharacteristics ofamemberasinflexiblemountingofmotors.

This testis conductedtofindthematerialproperties ofthespringlikemodulus ofrigidity.

This canbeobtainedbyobservingthevalues ofdeflections ofthespringwiththeapplicationof
differentamountsoftheloadappliedalongtheaxis ofthespring.TheobservedValues of
deflections arecomparedwiththetheoreticalvalueforthedeflectionofthespringundertheload
and shearmodulusis tobeobtained.

Inacloselycoiledhelical springtheangleofthehelixissosmallthatthebendingeffects can

beneglectedanditis subjectedtoonlytorsionalshearstresses.Inanopenhelical springtheangleof
helixislargeduetowhichbendingstresses areintroducedinadditiontotorsionalshearstresses.

FORMULAE:
3 4
Modulus ofrigidity,N=64WR n/d
Where,
W=LoadinN
R m=Meanradius ofthespringinmm(Dd/2)
Dm = Dd
d=Diameterofthespringcoilinmm
=Deflection ofthe springinmm
D=Outerdiameterofthespringinmm.

47
OBSERVATION
Diameterofspringcoil(D)=
Diameterofspringwire (d)=
Numberofturnsinspring(n)=

S Axial Load applied Deflection Stiffness of Modulus of Rigidity

no. W kgfx9.8 (in in mm spring k= W/ - C= 8W (D M)3 x n
Newtons) N/mm d4

PROCEDURE:
1. ByusingVerniercalipermeasurethediameterofthewireofthespringandalsothe
diameterofspringcoil.
2.Countthenumberofturns.
3.Insertthespringinthespringtestingmachineandloadthespringbyasuitableweightand
notethecorrespondingaxialdeflectionintension.
4.Increasetheloadandtakethecorrespondingaxialdeflectionreadings.
5.Plotacurvebetweenloadanddeflection.Theslopeofthecurvegives thestiffness
ofthe Spring

RESULT:
UnderTensiletestonopencoilhelicalspring

a.RigidityModulus (N)=
b.Stiffness ofspring(K)=

48
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by stiffness:

A. The resistant of a material to elastic deformation is called stiffness

2. If deformation is decrease stiffness is_______________

A. Increase

3. The stiffness is denoted by_____________

A. K

4. Units of stiffness_______________
A. Kg/mm

5. Define stiffness
A. It is defined as ratio of load and unit deflection
Stiffness (k) = load (p)/ unit deflection

6. Define spring
A. The springs are resilient members and extensively used to absorb shocks.

7. How many types of springs are there?

A. i) helical spring,

ii) Leaf (or) laminated spring

7. Define helical spring

A. Coiling the wire in the form of helix forms the helical spring.

9. Define load
A. The combined effect of external forces acting on a body is called load.

10. Define stress

A.Stress is defined as Force/area

11. Define tensile stress.

A. When a section is subjected to two equals and opposite pulls and the body tends to increase its
length, the stress induced is called tensile stress.

49
12. Define compressive stress

A. When a section is subjected to two equals and opposite pushes and the body tends to decrease its
length, the stress induced is called tensile stress.

13. What is elastic limit

A. within this limit stress is directly proportional to strain.

14. Define unit stress

A. Unit stress represents the resistance developed by a unit area of cross section

15. Define volumetric strain

A. It is a ratio between the change in volume and original volume of the body

16. Define elastic limit

A. There is always limiting value of a load up to which the strain totally on the removal of the load,
the stress corresponding to this load is called elastic limit
17. What is the total stiffness when the springs are in series?

A. 1/K = 1/K1 + 1/K2

18. What is the total stiffness when the springs are in parallel?

A. K = K1 + K2

19. What are the different types of springs

A. Helical, Leaf, Torsion, Circular, Beveling & Flat

20. What is the strain energy stored in the springs

A. U = x W x ,

Where = deflection of the spring

21. How many types of helical springs are there?

A.4 types

22. What are they?

A. i) Closed coiled helical springs,

ii) Open coil helical springs,

iii) Tensile coiled helical springs,

iv) Compression helical springs

22. How many types of leaf springs are

there? A.3 types

24. What are they?

A. i) Full elliptic,

ii) Semi elliptic, iii) Cantilever

50
 EXPERIMENT NO:6
Determine the impact strength of the M.S specimen by performing the Izod & Charpy
impact test.Izod impact test.

51
 1. IZOD TEST.

AIM: To determine the impact strength of the given specimen of material by performing the pendulum test.

APPARATUS: Izod testing machine, specimen of given material, Vernier calipers, steels rule.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Make : tech track, haryana, India

Type of test carried out : Izod test

Angle of drop : 900

Striking energy : 165f +3.4 J

Dimensions of specimen used : (75x10x10) mm With V notch at 28 mm

Depth is < 45 0

Maximum Impact Energy : 165J

Angle between top face of grips holding the specimen vertical is: 900 + 10

Angle of tip hammer : 100 + 10

SPECIMEN MATERIALS: The given specimen is a rectangular cross section piece of metal with
V notch on it.

SKETCH:

52
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:The machine consists of

I. PENDULUM TYPE HAMMER: A swinging pendulum that has an arm and head. This is used to
strike the specimen. This pendulum gives the required impact to the specimen. The hammer is used along
with the striker. The striker is of 2 types.

i. for Charpy
ii. for Izod

HAMMER HOLDER:

This is a spring-loaded and hand operated by means of a lever. It is having 2 positions one is at 1400 for
Charpy and other is at 900 for Izod. It is removed with the help of align key by removing the bolts.
53
HAND BREAK: It is used to stop the swinging hammer care must be taken while stopping the
swinging hammer to avoid hand injury.

VICE:It is used to grip the Izod specimen and suppore for the charpy specimen.

DIAL GUAGE:The pointer of the dial guage moves along with the swinging hammer till the speed of the
hammer is restricted by any obstruction i.e., specimen.

It is having 2 types of graduations

For Izod test 0 to 164 other

For Charpy test 0 to 300

54
 The striking hammer is fixed to rod, which is positioned according to the test i.e., 140 0 for charpy
test and 900 horizontal for Izod test.
THEORY:

The pendulum is mounted on antifriction bearings. It has two starting positions, the upper one for
Charpy and the lower one for Izod testing. On release the pendulum swings down to break the specimen
and the energy absorbed in doing so is measured as the difference between the height of drop before
rupture and the height of rise after rupture of the test specimen and is read from the maximum pointer
position on the dial scale.

There are two strikers and one combined support available for lifting into the pendulum and on to
the base of the machine for Izod, Charpy test changing from one striker to another is achieved simply by
fixing the new striker into its position.

Impact strength: The high resistance of material to fracture under suddenly applied loads.

Related formulae I = K / A

Where I = impact strength

K = impact energy

A = area of cross section of the specimen.

PROCEDURE:

1. For conducting the Izod test, a proper striker is to be fitted firmly to the bottom of the hammer
with the help of the clamping piece.
2. The latching take for Izod test is to be firmly fitted to the bearing housing at side of the columns.
3. Adjust the reading pointer along with pointer carries on 168 J reading on the dial when the
pendulum is hanging free vertically
4. The frictional test can be determined from the free fall test. Raise the hammer by hands and latch
in. Release the hammer by operating lever, the pointer will then indicate the energy loss due to
friction. From this reading confirm that the friction loss is not exceeding 0.5 % of the initial
potential energy. Other wise friction loss has to be added to the final reading.
5. Now raise the pendulum by hands and latch in with latch.
6. The specimen for Izod tests is firmly fitted in the specimen support with the help of clamping screw
and align key care is to be taken that the notch on the specimen should face the pendulum striker.
7. After ascertaining that there is no person in the range of swing pendulum release the pendulum
to smash the specimen.
8. Carefully operate the pendulum break when returning after one swing to stop the oscillations.
9. Read off position of reading pointer on dial and note indicated value.
The notch impact strength depends largely on the shape of the specimen and the notch. The
value determined with other specimens therefore may not be compare with each other.

55
OBSERVATIONS:

K = impact energy KJ

A= Area of cross-section of the specimen mm2

Calculate value of I = K/A

TABULAR COLUMN:

S NO. Area of cross- Impact energy Impact strength

section A, m2 factor (k) joules (I=K/A)kJ /m2

PRECAUTIONS:

Theimpacttesteris dangerous withthe potentialforbodilyinjury. Payattentionatalltimes

andobserve thesesafetyconsiderations.
1. Safety glasses shall be worn by all participants.
2. Prior to performing any operations, such as changing striking bits or placement of specimens, pull
the pendulum arm back and engage the safety latch, prohibiting movement of the pendulum arm.
3. Avoid placing fingers in pinch areas.
4. All participants shall remain behind the caution tape during the actual test.
5. Make sure the safety latch is in the clear when raising the pendulum arm into the test position.
6. The test operator shall apply brake upon breakage of the test specimen. All other participants
shall remain clear until the brake has brought the pendulum to a complete stop.

RESULT: The impact strength of the given specimen found by:

56
 2. CHARPY TEST

AIM: To conduct Charpy test on the giv en specimen and to determine its impact strength

APPARATUS: Impact testing machine, specimen of given material, Vernier calipers, steels

rule. SPECIFICATIONS:

Make : T ech track, Haryana, India

Type of test carried out : 120D and charpy test

Angle of drop : 1400

Max. Impact energy : 300J

Dimensions of specimen used : ( 55x10x10) mm with U notch at 27.5 mm,2mm

Depth and 450

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

Test specimen, vernier calipers, steel rule,

SKETCH:
THEORY:

The pendulum is mounted on antifriction bearings. It has two starting positions, the upper one for
charpy and the lower one for izod testing. On release the pendulum swings down to break the specimen
and the energy absorbed in doing so is measured as the difference between the height of drop before
rupture and the height of rise after rupture of the test specimen and is read from the maximum pointer
position on the dial scale.

There are two strikers and one combined support available for lifting into the pendulum and on to
the base of the machine for Izod, charpy test changing from one striker to another is achieved simply by
fixed the new striker into its position.

Impact strength: the high resistance of material to fracture under suddenly applied loads.

Related formulae I = k / A

Where I = impact strength

K = impact energy

A = area of cross section of the specimen.

Advantages of Charpy Test:-

It is more convenient and useful for the tests at high as well as low temperatures as the
specimen do not have to be clamped and can be placed in position quickly without significant
change of temperature. It takes comparatively more time to fix the specimen in the Izod test
than in Charpy test.

58
PROCEDURE:

1. For conducting charpy test a proper striker is to be fitted firmly to the bottom of the hammer with
the help of the clamping piece.
2. The latching taken for charpy test is to be firmly fitted to the bearing housing at the side of the
column.
3. Adjust the reading pointer along the pointer carrier on 168 J on the dial when the pendulum is
hanging vertically.
4. The frictional test can be determined from the free fall test. Raise the hammer by hands and latch
and release the hammer by opening lever, the pointer will then indicate the energy loss due to
friction. From this reading confirm that the friction loss is not exceeding 0.5 % of the initial
potential energy. Otherwise friction loss has to be added to the final reading.
5. Now raise the pendulum by hands and latch.
6. The specimen for the Charpy test is fitted firmly in the specimen support provided with the help of
the clamping screw & align key. Care should be taken that the notch on the specimen should face
the pendulum strokes.
7. After checking that there is no person in the range of the swing of the pendulum, release the
pendulum to smash the specimen.
8. Carefully operate the pendulum brake while returning after performing one swing to stop the
oscillations.
9. Read off position of reading pointer on the dial gauge and note the indicated value.
10. Remove the broken specimen by loosening the clamping screw.

Note: The notch impact strength depends largely on the shape of the specimen and notch. The values
determined with other specimens therefore do not match with each other.

OBSERVATIONS:

Area of cross section of specimen A =

Impact energy k=

Impact strength of the specimen I = K/A

TABULAR COLUMN:

S NO. Area of the Impact energy (k) Impact strength

2
specimen (A), m joules (I=K/A)Kj /m2

59
PRECAUTIONS:

Theimpacttesteris dangerous withthe potentialforbodilyinjury. Payattentionatalltimes

andobserve thesesafetyconsiderations.
1. Safetyglasses shallbewornbyallparticipants.
2. Priortoperforminganyoperations,suchas changingstrikingbits orplacementof
specimens,pullthependulumarmbackandengagethesafetylatch,prohibitingmovement ofthependulumarm.
3. Avoidplacingfingersinpinchareas.
4. Allparticipants shallremainbehindthecautiontapeduringtheactualtest.
5. Makesurethesafetylatchisintheclear whenraisingthependulumarmintothetest position.
6. Thetestoperatorshallapplybrakeuponbreakageofthetestspecimen. Allother
participants shallremainclearuntilthebrakehasbroughtthependulumtoacompletestop.

RESULT: The impact strength of the given specimen is

60
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1). Define load.

A. The combined effect of external forces acting on a body is called load

2) Define impact strength

A. The high resistance of material to fracture under suddenly applied loads.

3) Define impact load

A. The load which fall from a height or strike the body with certain momentum is called impact load.

4) Define suddenly applied load

A. When the load is applied all of sudden and not step wise is called as suddenly applied load.
5) Define gradually applied load
A. A body is said to be acted upon by a gradually applied load if the load increases from zero and it
reaches its final value stepwise is called gradually applied load.

6) How many types of hardness machines we

have A. Charpy & Izod

7). Hammer holder is kept for charpy test at what angle. A.1400

8) Hammer holder is kept for Izod test at what angle______900

9) What is the purpose of hand break?

A. Hand break is used to stop the swinging hammer

10) What is the range of dial gauge for the Izod test?

A. 0 to 164

11) What is the range of dial gauge for the charpy

test? A.0 to 300

12) Write down the formula for impact strength

A. I = K/A

Where I = impact strength

K = impact energy

A = area of cross section of spring

13) What is the purpose for conducting impact test

A. An impact test signifies turning of the material i.e., ability of material to absorb energy during
plastic deformation.

14) What is the unit of impact energy_ KJ

61
 EXPERIMENT No.7

Determinetherigiditymodulus ofmildsteelspecimen by performing Torsion Test

62
 2.TORSIONTEST

AIM: To determine the shear strength and rigidity modulus of mild steel specimen.

APPARATUS: Torsion testing Machine, steel rule, vernier calipers, mild steel specimen.

THEORY: In many areas of engineering applications, materials are sometimes subjected to torsion in
services, for example, drive shafts, axles and twisted drills. Moreover, structural applications such as
bridges, springs, car bodies, airplane fuselages and boat hulls are randomly subjected to torsion. The
materials used in this case should require not only adequate strength but also be able to withstand torque
in operation.
Generally, torsion occurs when the twisting moment or torque is applied to a member.The
torque is the product of tangential force multiplied by the radial distance from the twisting axis and
the tangent, measured in a unit of N.m. In torsion testing, the relationship between torque and degree
of rotation is graphically presented and parameters such as ultimate torsional shearing strength
(modulus of rupture), shear strength at proportional limit and shear modulus (modulus of rigidity) are
generally investigated.
In order to study the response of materials under a torsional force, the torsion test is performed
by mounting the specimen onto a torsion testing machine as shown in fig and then applying the
twisting moment till failure. It can be seen that higher torsional force is required at the higher degrees
of rotation. Normally, the test specimens used are of a cylindrical rod type since the stress distribution
across the section of the rod is the simplest geometry, which is easy for the calculation of the stresses.
Both ends of the cylindrical specimen are tightened to hexagonal sockets in which one is fitted to a
torque shaft and another is fitted to an input shaft. The twisting moment is applied by turning the input
wheel to produce torque until the specimen fails.
To test the material in torsion the proper test procedure is needed. It involves mounting a shaft
into the testing machine, applying torque incrementally and measuring both the applied torque and the
corresponding angle of twist. Using the appropriate formulae, relationships and the measured
dimensions, we can determine the shear stress and shear strain on the shaft. Then, one can plot the
torque vs. angle of twist, and shear stress vs. shear strain from which one can find the material
properties previously mentioned.

Torsion TEST:
A shaft of circular section is said to be in pure torsion when it is subjected to equal and opposite couples
whose axis coincides with the axis of the shaft.

A torsion test measures the strength of any material against maximum twisting forces. It is an extremely
common test used in material mechanics to measure how much of a twist a certain material can withstand

63
before cracking or breaking. This applied pressure is referred to as torque. Materials typically used in
the manufacturing industry, such as metal fasteners and beams, are often subject to torsion testing to
determine their strength under duress.

Even though torsion test is not as universal as tension test and do not have anystandardized testing procedure,
the significance lies on particular engineering applications and for the study of plastic flow in materials.

Torsion test is applicable for testing brittle materials such astool steels and the test has also been used to
determinethe forge ability of the materials by means of torsion testing at elevated temperatures.

IMPORATNACE:
Without performing a torsion test, materials would not be properly vetted before being released for
industrial use. It is of paramount importance that the ability for a material to bear a certain amount of
twisting is accurately measured. Otherwise, structures and machines that depend on such materials could
break down causing instability, work flow interruption or even significant damage and injury

Fig 1.TorsiontestingMachine.

64
 Fig 2 Torsionappliedoncircularrod

Overall Length=250mm

Length of Reduced section =140mm

Distance between shoulders =150mm

Diameter of reduced section= 8mm

Width or dia of grip section =15mm

65
Considering a cylindrical bar with one end being twisted as shown in fig1 , the twisting momentT is resisted by
the shear stress existing across the specimen section. This shear stress iszero at the center of the bar,
increases linearly with its radius and finally reaches its maximum value at the peripheral of the bar. If the
cylindrical bar with a length of L, the twisting moment can berelated to the shear stress as follows

Where,

T/ J = C /L

T = Applied Torque; (Nm)

J = Polar Second Moment of Area; (mm2) G = Modulus of Rigidity; (N / mm2)

= Angle of Twist (over length l); (radians)

l = Gauge Length. (mm)

The assumptions made in the experiment include but are not limited to the following:

1. The Torque is applied along the centre of the axis of the shaft.
2. The material is tested at steady state (absence of strain rate effects).
3. The plane sections remain same after twisting.

DESCRIPTION OF THE MACHINE:

The machine consists of two units that are loading unit and the measuring unit. A driving chuck and
angle measuring scale is mounted on a lever spindle and lever spindle assembly is connected to a
pendulum dynamometer.

One end of the specimen is held in the driving chuck and other end is in driven chuck with suitable grips
so that when machine is put in operation one end is rotated and the specimen is subjected to torsion. For
measurement of twist angle, angle-measuring dial is provided on the gear box. A big size torque
indication dial is fitted with a glass cover and is mounted at the front side of panel.

66
PROCEDURE:

1. Measure initial diameter, initial length and initial gauge length of the specimen. Record
theseparameters on the table provided. Measure the diameter of the test specimen using the
caliper (take an average of 5 readings).
2. Draw a line down the length of the test section of the specimen with a pencil; this serves as a
visual aid to the degree of twist being put on the specimen during loading.
3. Grip the test specimen on to the torsion testing machine using square sockets and make sure
the specimens are firmly mounted. Fit both ends of the specimen to input and torque shafts
and set reading on the torque meter to zero.
4. Start twisting the specimen at strain increment of 0.5ountil failure occurs. Record the received
data rotation in the table provided for the construction of torque and degree relationship.
5. Apply torque; record the angle of twist and torque at regular intervals till the specimen breaks.
6. Construct the relationship between shear stress and shear strain. Determine maximum shear
stress, shear stress at proportional limit and modulus of rigidity.
7. Plot the graph between torque vs. angle of twist and find the rigidity modulus using the
above formulae.

Types of failure in torsion

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Before starting the machine ensure that the specimen is firmly fixed between the jaws.

2. Dont touch the specimen when the machine is running.

3. Wash your hands with soap after removing the specimen.

4. Take all the readings carefully.

OBSERVATIONS:

1.Initialdiameterofthespecimen=
2.Initiallengthofthespecimen=
3.PolarMomentofInertia=
67
 TorqueT Angleof Twist Modulus of
(Kg-cm x9.81 x 10) N-
S.No mm RigidityG
Degrees () Radians( x
/180)

CALUCULATIONS:
Modulus ofRigidity(G)=TL/J

RESULT:
2
RigidityModulus ofthematerial=_N/mm

68
 VIVA Questions:
1. Define torsion?
Ans: In solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. It is expressed in newton
metres (Nm) or foot-pound force (ftlbf). In sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in
this section is perpendicular to the radius
2. What is the formula torsion equation for circular shafts.
Ans: T/ J = C /L

3. Write assumptions for torsion on shafts.

Ans: (i) The materiel is homogenous i.e of uniform elastic properties exists throughout the material.

(ii) The material is elastic, follows Hook's law, with shear stress proportional to shear strain.

(iii) The stress does not exceed the elastic limit

4. What are the effects of torsion?

Ans: Effects of Torsion: The effects of a torsional load applied to a bar are

(i) To impart an angular displacement of one end cross section with respect to the other end.

(ii) To setup shear stresses on any cross section of the bar perpendicular to its axis.

5. Define modulus of rigidity?

Ans: Modulus of Elasticity in shear: The ratio of the shear stress to the shear strain is called the

modulus of elasticity in shear OR Modulus of Rigidity and in represented by the symbol

6. Define angle of twist.

Ans: Angle of Twist: If a shaft of length L is subjected to a constant twisting moment T along its
length, than the angle q through which one end of the bar will twist relative to the other is known is the
angle of twist.

7. Define shaft.

Ans: The shafts are the machine elements which are used to transmit power in machines.

8. What are the torque carrying engineering members?

Ans: Many torque carrying engineering members are cylindrical in shape. Examples are
drive shafts, bolts and screw drivers.

9. Write formula to calaculate polar moment of inertia(J)?

10. [ D = Outside diameter ; d = inside diameter ]

69