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Fig. 5.1. Comparison of the low-lying empirical levels of 51V with calculations obtained by
coupling an (J/2 proton to an (f?ffl)2 two-particle configuration (right) and by coupling an f?/2 proton
to the empirical levels of 5aTi. (See deShalit, 1974.)
The beauty of this is that these matrix elements are usually easy to calculate
for a known interaction and, even when the interaction is not known, empirical
values for them can be obtained from the neighboring even-even nucleus
(with n = 2). This can then be used to calculate the energy levels of the adjacent
odd mass nucleus.
We have discussed the (7/2)3 example here because it is treated in detail in
de Shalit and Feshbach, where the low-lying (f7/2)3 energy levels of 51V are
calculated in terms of the empirically known (f7/2)2 levels of 50Ti (0+:0,2': 1.55,
4+:2.68, 6+: 3.2 MeV). The results are shown in Fig. 5.1; the agreement is
remarkably good for such a simple approach. Note once again that nowhere in
this discussion has any aspect of the interaction been specified, except to
assume that it is two-body only. We could also have calculated 51V with the
same formulas using a 5-function interaction to simulate 50Ti, that is, to define
the (f?/2)2 matrix elements. Normalising the 8-function strength to the 0'-6f
spacing in 50Ti gives calculated 50Ti energies of (M), 2+:2.68, 4+:3.0, and 6':3.2
MeV. These have a different distribution than the empirical levels and, when
applied to 51 V, give the fit on the right of Fig. 5.1. Clearly, this approach is not
Multiparticle Configurations 115
nearly as successful. The point is that the empirical 50Ti spectrum automatically
includes all relevant interactions in the (f,^)2 system. The CFP techniques
relate this directly to51V, independent of a knowledge or guess of the interac-
tion. Thus, an understanding of the makeup of an n-particle configuration in
terms of its (n-2)-particle structure can greatly simplify the treatment of
nuclear spectra in complex systems. The present results can be generalized to
n > 3, and provide comparable, and even greater, simplifications.
(f^)4 configuration. From the m-scheme and the simple formula derived
earlier, Jnm = 4j - 4(3)12 = 8. This state can only be made by maximizing the
alignment of all; = 7/2 angular momenta as allowed by the Pauli principle. The
7 = 8 state therefore has seniority 4; there are no particles coupled in pairs to
/ = 0. On the other hand, /=2,4, and 6 states can be made by first coupling one
pair of particles to/ = 0 and then using the remaining | (7/2)2/) configuration to
produce angular momenta of 2,4, or 6. Such states have seniority v = 2. Finally,
the J = 0 state of the (f7/2)4 configuration obviously has seniority 0, that is, all
particles are coupled in pairs to / = 0. (Note that there may be other J = 0,2,
4,6 states of the (f^)4 configuration, all with v = 4.) What we have shown is that
/ = 0,2,4,6 states of v = 0 or v = 2 can be constructed.
The seniority concept is important for several reasons. First, it leads to
many simple, powerful results under very general conditions. For example,
various interactions and matrix elements can be classified in terms of whether
or not they conserve seniority. As will be seen, they have very different
properties as the number of particles in a shell increases. Secondly, and
perhaps most importantly, it seems that many realistic residual interactions
conserve seniority, so this scheme gives reasonable predictions for actual
nuclei. It is impossible within the scope or philosophy of this book to derive all
the results of the seniority scheme without adding an undesirable complexity.
Such derivations are available in many detailed textbooks on the shell model.
The complexity of these derivations often tends to obscure some of the simple
ideas lying behind them. It is these ideas that we wish to emphasize here. We
will derive or motivate a few crucial results; the others can be obtained by
analogous, though more tedious, manipulations.
Perhaps the most important ingredient in understanding the results of the
seniority scheme is the following: consider the / 2 configuration and the matrix
element of any odd tensor interaction. (The introduction of the concept of
tensors and their rank here should not be intimidating. The spherical harmon-
ics of order k, Y^ simply form the 2k + 1 components of a tensor of rank k. An
example of an odd rank tensor is the magnetic dipole operator. The quad-
rupole operator is an even rank tensor. As commented eariler, the 5-function
interaction is equivalent to an odd-tensor interaction.)
For the case of a one-body odd-tensor operator acting in they 2 configuration
The proof of this is trivial. We recall that in the two-particle configuration only
even J values are allowed. Therefore, J on the left side must be even and, by
conservation of angular momentum, there is no way that 7 = 0 can be coupled
to an even J by an operator carrying odd multipolarity.
Equation 5.4 simply states that all matrix elements of one-body odd-tensor
operators vanish in the y2 configuration. This includes the 7 = 0 case. Odd
tensor operators cannot "break" a/ = 0 coupled pair, nor can they contribute
a diagonal "moment." The significance of this simple equation cannot be
overemphasized.
In many-particle systems, it has three enormously important consequences.
For such configurations, one-body operators are normally expressed in terms
Multiparticle Configurations 117
seniority scheme, but rather connect states with seniorities v and v 2. Using
arguments such as these, it is therefore clear why Ml transitions in even mass
nuclei are rarethey can only connect states of the same senioritywhile E2
transitions dominate even in near-closed shell nuclei. Therefore this domi-
nance is not necessarily a demonstration of collectivity, but a reflection of the
seniority structure of low-lying states in ff) configurations.
Thus far in our discussion of seniority, we have considered single-particle
operators representing moments or transitions. Equally important are two-
body interactions, which can be either diagonal or nondiagonal. Both are
important, although we will emphasize the former since they determine the
contribution of residual interactions to level energies. A key example is the 5-
function interaction. Clearly, interactions can be written as products of single-
particle operators. We saw an example of this earlier in discussing multipole
expansions of arbitrary interactions. We now turn to consider the properties of
various interactions in the seniority scheme.
Consider an arbitrary odd-tensor two-body interaction V12. This can be
taken as a product of one-body operators, Stodd fj*f2*. As with one-body
operators, it is extremely useful to be able to relate the two-body interaction
matrix elements of seniority v states in the f configuration (n even) to the
matrix elements in a f configuration. Deriving this desired result is trivial.
Consider the matrix element (a subscripted k labels particles, not rank)
where the sum is over the n-particles, and where a and </ denote any addi-
tional quantum numbers needed. Since the states have seniority v (even),
there are (n - v) particles paired off to / = 0. By the same reasoning that led to
Eq. 5.4, the terms in "I. _, kVa, that act on these particles cannot change their
coupling. All that this part of the sum can do is contribute a diagonal matrix
element of the form Q2J = 01 V.J // = 0). But this is just the lowering of the 0+
energy in a;2 two-particle configuration. We define this energy lowering by V0.
The sum contributes this for each such (J - 0)-coupled pair, of which there are
(n - v)/2. Having thus separated off these particles, we are left with a sum over
v particles of the same interaction. Thus, we obtain,
This interaction matrix element may be either diagonal or nondiagonal (in a),
but it cannot change v since it is of odd tensor character. In either case, it is of
absolutely central importance in nuclear spectroscopy. As with the case of
one-body odd-tensor operators, we have an equation relating matrix elements
of a two-body interaction in they" configuration to those in the/" configuration.
Here, however, these matrix elements are not constant across a shell, but linear
in (n - v)/2, the number of nucleons paired off to J = 0. Such matrix elements
peak at midshell. This feature is sometimes known as the pairing properly.
To understand other important implications of this, let us first consider
Multiparticle Configurations 119
diagonal matrix elements where a = '. The second term on the right in Eq. 5.6
is simply the number of pairs of particles coupled to / = 0 multiplied by the
interaction energy, V0, for each pair. Recalling that we are dealing with
attractive residual interactions (larger matrix elements imply lower-lying
states), then states with lower seniority v will lie lower in energy. The v = 0
states, which must have /* = 0+, will lie lowest. Immediately, this accounts for
the well-known empirical property that the ground states of (spherical)
even-even nuclei all have /* = 0+.
Similarly for odd mass spherical nuclei, the ground state will usually be a
v - 1, J=j state in which all but one nucleon is paired off in \fj = 0) combina-
tions.
It is worthwhile to explicitly write Eq. 5.6 for a/" configuration in the v = 0,
7 = 0, and v = 1, J = j states. For both situations the first term vanishes since
there cannot be a two-body interaction in a ;v=0 (no particle) or ;'v=1 (one
particle) system. Therefore, the energies are given by the second term:
These equations simply state that the ground state energies in the respective
systems depend solely on the numbers of pairs of particles coupled to J = 0. In
the odd particle case, the unpaired nucleon is, from this point of view, just a
spectator. Indeed, as de Shalit and Feshbach emphasize, the nuclear force
effectively measures the number of pairs of particles coupled to J = 0, at least
insofar as it can be approximated by odd tensor interactions.
One of the most crucial uses of Eqs. 5.6 and 5.7 concerns the energies of
seniority v = 2 states (the following argument applies to higher seniority states
as well, but these are less often identified experimentally). Let us consider the
energy difference E(J"v = 2,7) - E(j"v - 0, / = 0). Simplifying the notation by
denoting the interaction by V, Eq. 5.6 and 5.7 give
Once again, the power of the seniority scheme allows us to link matrix
helements in the configuration/" to those in the configuration;". The square of
Eq. 5.13 gives the behavior of the transition rates induced by the operator
throughout a shell. For large/ and n (/', n v), this transition probability goes
as (f(l - /)) where / = nl(2j + 1) is the fractional filling of the shell. This
expression at first increases as/, then flattens out, peaking at midshell. More-
over, it is clearly symmetric about the midshell point. Probably the most
common and important application of this concerns E2 transition rates in-
duced by the operator Q = r2Y2. The important quantity (2 + I Q I IO^) 2 is
proportional to the E2 transition rate from the first 2+ state to the ground state
in an even-even nucleus, and can be written for the /" configuration as
[assuming the 2 +(0 +) state has v = 2(v = 0)]:
For shells that are not too filled, so that (2/ 1) n, this becomes
is just proportional to the number of particles n in the shell, for small n. For
large n,n-> 2j + 1, it falls off, vanishing, as it must, at the closed shell. For
/, n 2, we see that, as given in the general case above,
This behavior is commonly observed in real nuclei, with B(E2:21+ -> 0^)
values rising to midshell and falling thereafter. Data beautifully illustrating
this are shown for the Z = 50 to 82, N = 82 to 126 region in Fig. 5.3. (The peak
regions of the B(E2) values in Fig. 2.16 are additional examples of this in
condensed form.) In part, this behavior is due to coherent effects involving
single-particle configuration mixing of different/ values in the wave functions
122 Shell Model and Residual Interactions
Fig. 5.3. Saturation of empirical B(E2) values in the rare earth region that illustrates Eqs. 5.13 and
5.16. The numbers on each line give the neutron number.
for each particle, but the overall behavior still reflects a generalization of this
simple result for the seniority scheme.
For transitions induced by even-tensor operators of rank k > 0 that do not
change seniority, the expression corresponding to Eq. 5.13 is