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Vedanta
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Vedanta (IAST, Vednta, Sanskrit: ) or Uttara

Mms is one of the six orthodox (stika)
schools of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta literally
means "end of the Vedas", reecting ideas that
emerged from the speculations and philosophies
contained in the Upanishads. It does not stand for
one comprehensive or unifying doctrine. Rather it
is an umbrella term for many sub-traditions,
ranging from dualism to non-dualism, all of which
developed on the basis of a common textual
connection called the Prasthanatrayi. The
Prasthanatrayi is a collective term for the Principal
Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad
Gita.
All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern

themselves with the following three categories but
dier in their views regarding the concept and the
relations between them: Brahman the ultimate
metaphysical reality, tman / Jivtman the
individual soul or self, and Prakriti the empirical
world, ever-changing physical universe, body and
matter.
Some of the better known sub-traditions of

Vedanta include Advaita (non-dualism),
Vishishtadvaita (qualied non-dualism), and Dvaita
(dualism). Most other Vedantic sub-traditions are
subsumed under the term Bhedabheda (dierence
and non-dierence). Over time, Vedanta adopted
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ideas from other orthodox (stika) schools like

Yoga and Nyaya, and, through this syncretism,
became the most prominent school of Hinduism.
Many extant forms of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism have been signicantly shaped and
inuenced by the doctrines of dierent schools of
Vedanta. The Vedanta school has had a historic
and central inuence on Hinduism.
Contents
1 Etymology and nomenclature
2 Prasthanatrayi, the Three Sources
3 History
3.1 Before the Brahma Sutras
3.2 Brahma Sutras
3.3 Between the Brahma Sutras and
Adi Shankara
3.4 Gaudapada, Adi Shankara and
Advaita Vedanta
3.5 Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita
Vedanta
3.6 Madhva and Dvaita
4 Overview of the schools of Vedanta
4.1 Schools propounding Non-dualism
4.2 School propounding Dualism -
Dvaita
4.3 Schools propounding Bhedabheda
5 Vedanta philosophy
5.1 Common features
5.2 Metaphysics
5.3 Epistemology
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6 Inuence
6.1 Hindu traditions
6.2 Neo-Vedanta
6.3 Inuence on Western thinkers
7 Reception
8 Similarities with Spinoza's philosophy
9 See also
10 Notes
11 References
12 Sources
12.1 Published sources
12.2 Web-sources
13 Further reading
Etymology and nomenclature

The word Vedanta literally means the end of the
Vedas and originally referred to the Upanishads.[1]
Vedanta was concerned with the jnaka or
Vedic knowledge part called the Upanishads.[2]
The denotation of Vedanta subsequently widened
to include the various philosophical traditions
based on to the Prasthanatrayi.[3]
The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of

Vedas in dierent senses:[4]
1. These were the last literary products of the

Vedic period.
2. These mark the culmination of Vedic thought.
3. These were taught and debated last, in the
Brahmacharya (student) stage.[5]
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Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (stika) schools

of Indian philosophy.[6] It is also called Uttara
Mms, the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry';
and is often contrasted with Prva Mms, the
'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Prva
Mms deals with the karmaka or rituals
part (the Samhita and Brahmanas) in the Vedas.
[7][8][note 1]
Prasthanatrayi, the Three

Sources
The Upanishads, the Bhagavadgita and the
Brahma Sutras constitute the basis of Vedanta. All
schools of Vedanta propound their philosophy by
interpreting these texts, collectively called the
Prasthanatrayi, literally, three sources.[10]
1. The Upanishads,[note 2] or ruti prasthna;

considered the Sruti (Vedic scriptures)
foundation of Vedanta.
2. The Brahma Sutras, or Nyaya prasthana /
Yukti prasthana; considered the reason-based
3. The Bhagavad Gita, or Smriti prasthna;
considered the Smriti (remembered tradition)
The Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the

teachings of the Upanishads. The diversity in the
teaching of the Upanishads necessitated the
systematization of these teachings. This was likely
done in many ways in ancient India, but the only
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surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma

Sutras of Badarayana.[12]
All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara,

Bhaskara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Vallabha and
Madhva, have composed commentaries not only on
the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on
the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, due to its
syncretism of Samkhya, Yoga, and Upanishadic
thought, has played a major role in Vedantic
thought.[13]
History
The Upanishads do not present a rigorous
philosophical inquiry in the form of identifying
various doctrines and then presenting arguments
for or against them. They form the basic texts and
Vedanta interprets them through rigorous
philosophical exegesis.[14] Varying interpretations
of the Upanishads and their synthesis, the Brahma
Sutras, led to the development of dierent schools
of Vedanta over time of which three,[15] four,[16]
ve[17] or six[18][note 3] are prominent.[note 4]
1. Advaita, many scholars of which most

prominent are Gaudapada (~500 CE)[20] and
Shankara (8th century CE)[21]
2. Vishishtadvaita, prominent scholars are
Nathamuni, Ymuna and Ramanuja
(10171137 CE)
3. Dvaita, founded by Madhvacharya
(11991278 CE)
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4. Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[17]

(14791531 CE)
5. Bhedabheda, as early as the 7th century
CE,[22] or even the 4th century CE.[23] Some
scholars are inclined to consider it as a
"tradition" rather than a school of
Vedanta.[22]
Upadhika, founded by Bhaskara in the
9th Century CE[17]
Svabhavikabhedabheda or Dvaitdvaita,
founded by Nimbarka[17] in the 13th
century CE
Achintya Bheda Abheda, founded by
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (14861534
CE)[24]
The history of Vedanta is divided into two periods:

one prior to the composition of the Brahma Sutras
and the other encompassing the schools that
developed after the Brahma Sutras were written.
Before the Brahma Sutras
Little is known[25] of schools of Vedanta existing

before the composition of the Brahma Sutras
(400450 BCE).[23][note 5] It is clear that
Badarayana, the writer of Brahma Sutras, was not
the rst person to systematize the teachings of the
Upanishads, as he quotes six Vedantic teachers
before him Ashmarathya, Badari, Audulomi,
Kashakrtsna, Karsnajini and Atreya.[27] References
to other early Vedanta teachers Brahmadatta,
Sundara, Pandaya, Tanka and Dravidacharya are
found in secondary literature of later periods.[28]
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The works of these ancient teachers have not

survived, but based on the quotes attributed to
them in later literature, Sharma postulates that
Ashmarathya and Audulomi were Bhedabheda
scholars, Kashakrtsna and Brahmadatta were
Advaita scholars, while Tanka and Dravidacharya
were either Advaita or Vishistadvaita scholars.[29]
Brahma Sutras
Badarayana summarized and interpreted

teachings of the Upanishads in the Brahma Sutras,
also called the Vedanta Sutra.[30][note 6]
Badarayana summarized the teachings of the
classical Upanishads[31][32][note 7] and refuted the
rival philosophical schools in ancient India.[23] The
Brahma Sutras laid the basis for the development
of Vedanta philosophy.[34]
Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma

Sutras were likely composed by multiple authors
over the course of hundreds of years.[23] The
estimates on when the Brahma Sutras were
complete vary,[35][36] with Nicholson in his 2013
review stating, that they were most likely compiled
in the present form around 400450 BCE.[37]
Isaeva suggests they were complete and in current
form by 200 CE,[38] while Nakamura states that
"the great part of the Sutra must have been in
existence much earlier than that."[36]
The book is composed of four chapters, each

divided into four quarters or sections.[12] These
sutras attempt to synthesize the diverse teachings
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of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of

aphorisms of the Brahma Sutras have required
exegetical commentaries.[39] These commentaries
have resulted in the formation of numerous
Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its
own way and producing its own commentary.[40]
Between the Brahma Sutras and Adi

Shankara
Little with specicity is known of the period

between the Brahma Sutras (5th century BCE) and
Adi Shankara (8th century CE).[25][21] Only two
writings of this period have survived: the
Vkyapadya, written by Bharthari (second half
5th century[41]), and the Krik written by
Gaudapada (early 6th[21] or 7th century CE).[25]
Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors of

his school in his commentaries.[42] A number of
important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed
in the Siddhitraya by Yamuncrya (c. 1050), the
Vedrthasamgraha by Rmnuja (c. 10501157),
and the Yatndramatadpik by rnivsa Dsa.[25]
At least fourteen thinkers are known to have
existed between the composition of the Brahma
Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.[25][note 8]
A noted scholar of this period was

Bhartriprapancha. Bhartriprapancha maintained
that the Brahman is one and there is unity, but
that this unity has varieties. Scholars see
Bhartriprapancha as an early philosopher in the
line who teach the tenet of Bhedabheda.[43]
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Gaudapada, Adi Shankara and Advaita

Vedanta
Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE),[44] was the

teacher or a more distant predecessor of
Govindapada,[45] the teacher of Adi Shankara.
Shankara is widely considered as the founder of
Advaita Vedanta.[16] Gaudapada's treatise, the
Krikalso known as the Mukya Krik or
the gama stra[46]is the earliest surviving
complete text on Advaita Vedanta.[note 9]
Gaudapada's Krik relied on the Mandukya,

Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishads.[50]
In the Krik, Advaita (non-dualism) is established
on rational grounds (upapatti) independent of
scriptural revelation; its arguments are devoid of
all religious, mystical or scholastic elements.
Scholars are divided on a possible inuence of
Buddhism on Gaudapada's philosophy.[note 10] The
fact that Shankara, in addition to the Brahma
Sutras, the principal Upanishads and the Bhagvad
Gita, wrote an independent commentary on the
Krik proves its importance in Vedntic
literature.[51]
Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on

Gaudapada's work and more ancient scholarship
to write detailed commentaries on the
Prasthanatrayi and the Krik. The Mandukya
Upanishad and the Krik have been described by
Shankara as containing "the epitome of the
substance of the import of Vedanta".[51] It was
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Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with

the ancient Brahma Sutras, "and give it a locus
classicus" alongside the realistic strain of the
Brahma Sutras.[52][note 11] His interpretation,
including works ascribed to him, has become the
normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.
[53][note 12]
A noted contemporary of Shankara was Mandan

Mishra, who regarded Mimamsa and Vedanta as
forming a single system and advocated their
combination known as Karma-jnana-samuchchaya-
vada.[56][note 13] The treatise on the dierences
between the Vedanta school and the Mimamsa
school was a contribution of Adi Shankara. Advaita
Vedanta rejects rituals in favor of renunciation, for
example.[57]
Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta
Rmnuja (10171137 CE) was the most

inuential philosopher in the Vishishtadvaita
tradition. As the philosophical architect of
Vishishtadvaita, he taught qualied non-
dualism.[58] Ramanuja's teacher, Yadava Prakasha,
followed the Advaita monastic tradition. Tradition
has it that Ramanuja disagreed with Yadava and
Advaita Vedanta, and instead followed Nathamuni
and Ymuna. Ramanuja reconciled the
Prasthanatrayi with the theism and philosophy of
the Vaishnava Alvars poet-saints.[59] Ramanujan
wrote a number of inuential texts, such as a
bhasya on the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad
Gita, all in Sanskrit.[60]
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Ramanuja presented the epistemological and

soteriological importance of bhakti, or the
devotion to a personal God (Vishnu in Ramanuja's
case) as a means to spiritual liberation. His
theories assert that there exists a plurality and
distinction between Atman (souls) and Brahman
(metaphysical, ultimate reality), while he also
airmed that there is unity of all souls and that the
individual soul has the potential to realize identity
with the Brahman.[61] Vishishtadvaiata provides
the philosophical basis of Sri Vaishnavism.[62]
Ramanuja was inuential in integrating Bhakti, the

devotional worship, into Vedanta premises.[63]
Madhva and Dvaita
Dvaita was propounded by Madhvacharya

(12381317 CE).[note 14] He presented the
opposite interpretation of Shankara in his Dvaita,
or dualistic system.[66] In contrast to Shankara's
non-dualism and Ramanuja's qualied non-
dualism, he championed unqualied dualism.
Madhva wrote commentaries on the chief
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma
Sutra.[67]
Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven,

joined an Advaita Vedanta monastery in Dwarka
(Gujarat),[68] studied under guru
Achyutrapreksha,[69] frequently disagreed with
him, left the Advaita monastery, and founded
Dvaita.[70] Madhva and his followers Jayatirtha
and Vyasatirtha, were critical of all competing
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Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism,[71] but

particularly intense in their criticism of Advaita
Vedanta and Adi Shankara.[72]
Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identies

Brahman with Narayana, or more specically
Vishnu, in a manner similar to Ramanuja's
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta. But it is more explicitly
pluralistic.[73] Madhva's emphasis for dierence
between soul and Brahman was so pronounced
that he taught there were dierences (1) between
material things; (2) between material things and
souls; (3) between material things and God; (4)
between souls; and (5) between souls and God.[74]
He also advocated for a dierence in degrees in
the possession of knowledge. He also advocated
for dierences in the enjoyment of bliss even in
the case of liberated souls, a doctrine found in no
other system of Indian philosophy. [73]
Overview of the schools of

Vedanta
Schools propounding Non-dualism
Advaita
Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit:

) espouses non-dualism and monism.
Brahman is held to be the sole unchanging
metaphysical reality and identical to Atman.[75]
The physical world, on the other hand, is always-
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changing empirical
Maya.[76][note 15] The
absolute and innite
Atman-Brahman is realized
by a process of negating
everything relative, nite,
empirical and changing.[77]
The school accepts no
duality, no limited
individual souls (Atman /
Jivatman), and no separate
unlimited cosmic soul. All
souls and existence across Shankaracharya
space and time is
considered as the same
oneness (i.e. monism).[78] Spiritual liberation in
Advaita is the full comprehension and realization
of oneness, that one's unchanging Atman (soul) is
the same as the Atman in everyone else, as well as
being identical to the nirguna Brahman.[79]
Vishishtadvaita
Vishishtadvaita asserts that Jivatman (human

souls) and Brahman (as Vishnu) are dierent, a
dierence that is never transcended.[80] With this
qualication, Ramanuja also airmed monism by
saying that there is unity of all souls and that the
individual soul has the potential to realize identity
with the Brahman.[61] Vishishtadvaita, like
Advaita, is a non-dualistic school of Vedanta in a
qualied way, and both begin by assuming that all
souls can hope for and achieve the state of blissful
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liberation.[81] On the
relation between the
Brahman and the world of
matter (Prakriti),
Vishishtadvaita states both
are two dierent
absolutes, both
metaphysically true and
real, neither is false or
illusive, and that saguna Ramanujacharya
Brahman with attributes is depicted with
also real.[82] Ramanuja Vaishnava Tilaka
states that God, like man, and Vishnu statue.
has both soul and body,
and the world of matter is
the glory of God's body.[83] The path to Brahman
(Vishnu), according to Ramanuja, is devotion to
godliness and constant remembrance of the
beauty and love of the personal god (bhakti of
saguna Brahman).[84]
Shuddhdvaita
Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) states that the

entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman only
in the form of Krishna.[85] Vallabhacharya, the
propounder of this philosophy, agreed with Advaita
Vedanta's ontology, but emphasized that prakriti
(empirical world, body) is not separate from the
Brahman, but just another manifestation of the
latter.[85] Everything, everyone, everywheresoul
and body, living and non-living, jiva and matteris
the eternal Krishna.[86] The way to Krishna, in this
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school, is bhakti. Vallabha

opposed renunciation of
monistic sannyasa as
ineective and advocates
the path of devotion
(bhakti) rather than
knowledge (jnana). The
goal of bhakti is to turn
away from ego, self-
centered-ness and
deception, and to turn
towards the eternal Krishna
in everything continually
Vallabhacharya
oering freedom from
samsara.[85]
School propounding Dualism - Dvaita
This school is based on the

premise of dualism. Atman
(soul) and Brahman (as
Vishnu) are understood as
two completely dierent
entities.[87] Brahman is the
creator of the universe,
perfect in knowledge,
perfect in knowing, perfect
in its power, and distinct
from souls, distinct from
Madhvacharya
matter.[88] [note 16] In
Dvaita Vedanta, an
individual soul must feel attraction, love,
attachment and complete devotional surrender to
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Vishnu for salvation, and it is only His grace that

leads to redemption and salvation.[91] Madhva
believed that some souls are eternally doomed and
damned, a view not found in Advaita and
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta.[92] While the
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta asserted "qualitative
monism and quantitative pluralism of souls",
Madhva asserted both "qualitative and
quantitative pluralism of souls".[93]
Schools propounding Bhedabheda
Bhedbheda means "dierence and non

dierence" and is more a tradition than a school of
Vedanta. The schools of this tradition emphasize
that the individual self (Jvatman) is both dierent
and not dierent from Brahman.[22] Notable
gures in this school are Bhartriprapancha,
Bhskara (8th9th century), Ramanuja's teacher
Ydavapraka, Nimbrka (13th century) who
founded the Dvaitadvaita school, Caitanya
(14861534) who founded the Achintya Bheda
Abheda school and Vijnabhiku (16th
century).[94] [note 17]
Upadhika
Bhaskara, in postulating Upadhika, considers both

identity and dierence to be equally real. As the
causal principle, Brahman is considered non-dual
and formless pure being and intelligence.[95] The
same Brahman, manifest as events, becomes the
world of plurality. Jva is Brahman limited by the
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mind. Matter and its limitations are considered

real, not a manifestation of ignorance. Bhaskara
advocated bhakti as dhyana (meditation) directed
toward the transcendental Brahman. He refuted
the idea of Maya and denied the possibility of
liberation in bodily existence.[96]
Dvaitdvaita
Nimbrka propounded
Dvaitdvaita, based upon
Bhedbheda as was taught
by Bhskara. Brahman
(God), souls (chit) and
matter or the universe
(achit) are considered as
three equally real and co- Nimbarkacharya's
eternal realities. Brahman icon at Ukhra, West
is the controller (niyantr), Bengal
the soul is the enjoyer
(bhoktr), and the material
universe is the object enjoyed (bhogya). The
Brahman is Krishna, the ultimate cause who is
omniscient, omnipotent, all-pervading Being. He is
the eicient cause of the universe because, as
Lord of Karma and internal ruler of souls, He
brings about creation so that the souls can reap
the consequences of their karma. God is
considered to be the material cause of the
universe because creation was a manifestation of
His powers of soul (chit) and matter (achit);
creation is a transformation (parinama) of God's
powers. He can be realized only through a
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constant eort to merge oneself with His nature

through meditation and devotion. [97]
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was

the prime exponent of
Achintya-Bheda-Bheda.[98]
In Sanskrit achintya means
'inconceivable'.[99]
Achintya-Bheda-Abheda
represents the philosophy
of "inconceivable dierence
in non-dierence",[100] in
relation to the non-dual
reality of Brahman-Atman
which it calls (Krishna), Chaitanya
svayam bhagavan.[101] The Mahaprabhu
notion of "inconceivability"
(acintyatva) is used to
reconcile apparently contradictory notions in
Upanishadic teachings. This school asserts that
Krishna is Bhagavan of the bhakti yogins, the
Brahman of the jnana yogins, and has a divine
potency that is inconceivable. He is all-pervading
and thus in all parts of the universe (non-
dierence), yet he is inconceivably more
(dierence). This school is at the foundation of the
Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition.[100]
Vedanta philosophy
The important approaches followed by the most
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noted proponents of dierent schools of Vedanta

are summarized below:
1. To theorize that the soul (tman / Jivtman)

and the physical universe (Prakriti) are both
identical with and dierent from Brahman.
This view is held by Bhartriprapancha.[12]
2. To place non-dualistic ideas in the most
important place, relegating dualistic ideas to
an interim position. This approach is followed
by Shankara.[102]
3. To theorize that non-dualism is qualied by
dierence. This is Ramanuja's approach.[103]
4. To emphasize dualism, discrediting and
oering an alternative explanation of non-
dualistic ideas. This is from Madhva.[104]
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
Madhva said, "Man is the servant of

God," and established his Dvaita
philosophy. Ramanuja said, "Man is a ray
or spark of God," and established his
Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said,
"Man is identical with Brahman or the
Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala
Advaita philosophy.[19]
Common features
Despite their dierences, all schools of Vedanta

share some common features:
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1. Brahman exists as the unchanging material

cause and instrumental cause of the
world.[105]
2. The Upanishads are a reliable source of
knowledge (Sruti abda in Pramana);[106]
Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the
Brahman and the tman.[107]
3. Belief in rebirth and the desirability of release
from the cycle of rebirths, (moka).[108]
4. The self (tman / Jivtman) is the agent of its
own acts (karma) and the recipient of the
consequences of these actions.[108]
5. Rejection of Buddhism and Jainism and
conclusions of the other Vedic schools
(Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, and, to
some extent, the Purva Mimamsa.[108]
Metaphysics
Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental

metaphysical categories and the relations between
the three.[109]
1. Brahman or Ishvara: the ultimate reality[110]

2. tman or Jivtman: the individual soul,
self[111]
3. Prakriti/Jagat:[17] the empirical world, ever
changing physical universe, body and
matter[112]
Brahman / Ishvara - Conceptions of the

Supreme Reality
Shankara, in formulating Advaita, talks of two
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conceptions of Brahman: the higher Brahman as

undierentiated Being, and a lower Brahman
endowed with qualities as the creator of the
universe.[113]
1. Par or Higher Brahman: the

undierentiated, absolute, innite,
transcendental, supra-relational Brahman
beyond all thought and speech is dened as
par Brahman, nirviea Brahman or nirgua
Brahman and is the Absolute of metaphysics.
2. Apar or Lower Brahman: the Brahman with
qualities dened as apar Brahman or sagua
Brahman. The sagua Brahman is endowed
with attributes and represents the personal
God of religion.
Ramanuja, in formulating Vishishtadvaita Vedanta,

rejects nirguathat the undierentiated Absolute
is inconceivableand adopts a theistic
interpretation of the Upanishads, accepts
Brahman as Ishvara, the personal God who is the
seat of all auspicious attributes, as the One reality.
The God of Vishishtadvaita is accessible to the
devotee, yet remains the Absolute, with
dierentiated attributes.[114]
Madhva, in expounding Dvaita philosophy,

maintains that Vishnu is the supreme God, thus
identifying the Brahman, or absolute reality, of the
Upanishads with a personal god, as Ramanuja had
done before him.[115] Nimbarka, in his dvaitadvata
philosophy, accepted the Brahman both as nirgua
and as sagua. Vallabha, in his shuddhadvaita
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philosophy, not only accepts the triple ontological

essence of the Brahman, but also His
manifestation as personal God (Ishvara), as matter
and as individual souls.[116]
Relation between Brahman and Jiva / Atman
The schools of Vedanta dier in their conception of

the relation they see between tman / Jivtman
and Brahman / Ishvara:[16]
According to Advaita Vedanta, tman is

identical with Brahman and there is no
dierence.[117]
According to Vishishtadvaita, Jvtman is
dierent from Ishvara, though eternally
connected with Him as His mode.[118] The
oneness of the Supreme Reality is understood
in the sense of an organic unity (vishistaikya).
Brahman / Ishvara alone, as organically
related to all Jvtman and the material
universe is the one Ultimate Reality.[119]
According to Dvaita, the Jvtman is totally
and always dierent from Brahman /
Ishvara.[120]
According to Shuddhadvaita (pure monism),
the Jvtman and Brahman are identical; both,
along with the changing empirically-observed
universe being Krishna.[85]
Epistemology
Pramana
22 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
Prama (Sanskrit:
) literally means
"proof", "that which is
the means of valid
knowledge".[121] It
refers to epistemology in
Indian philosophies, and
encompasses the study
of reliable and valid
means by which human
beings gain accurate,
true knowledge.[122] The
focus of Pramana is the
manner in which correct
knowledge can be
acquired, how one
knows or does not know, Epistemology in Dvaita
and to what extent and Vishishtadvaita
knowledge pertinent Vedanta.
about someone or
something can be
acquired.[123] Ancient and medieval Indian texts
identify six[note 18] pramanas as correct means of
accurate knowledge and truths:[124]
1. Pratyaka (perception)
2. Anuma (inference)
3. Upama (comparison and analogy)
4. Arthpatti (postulation, derivation from
circumstances)
5. Anupalabdi (non-perception,
negative/cognitive proof)
6. abda (scriptural testimony/ verbal testimony
of past or present reliable experts).
23 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
The dierent schools of Vedanta have historically

disagreed as to which of the six are
epistemologically valid. For example, while
Advaita Vedanta accepts all six pramanas,[125]
Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita accept only three
pramanas (perception, inference and
testimony).[126]
Advaita considers Pratyaka (perception) as the

most reliable source of knowledge, and abda, the
scriptural evidence, is considered secondary
except for matters related to Brahman, where it is
the only evidence.[127][note 19] In Vishistadvaita
and Dvaita, abda, the scriptural testimony, is
considered the most authentic means of
knowledge instead.[128]
Theories of cause and eect
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of

Satkryavda,[22] which means that the eect is
pre-existent in the cause. But there are two
dierent views on the status of the "eect", that is,
the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as
Samkhya, support Parinamavada, the idea that the
world is a real transformation (parinama) of
Brahman.[129] According to Nicholson (2010,
p.27), "the Brahma Sutras espouse the realist
Parinamavada position, which appears to have
been the view most common among early
Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi
Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a dierent
view, Vivartavada, which says that the eect, the
24 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) transformation

of its cause, Brahman.[note 20]
Inuence
Hindu traditions
Vedanta, adopting ideas from other orthodox

(stika) schools, became the most prominent
school of Hinduism.[130] Vedanta traditions led to
the development of many traditions in
Hinduism.[131] Sri Vaishnavism of south and
southeastern India is based on Ramanuja's
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta.[132] Ramananda led to
the Vaishnav Bhakti Movement in north, east,
central and west India. This movement draws its
philosophical and theistic basis from
Vishishtadvaita. A large number of devotional
Vaishnavism traditions of east India, north India
(particularly the Braj region), west and central
India are based on various sub-schools of
Bhedabheda Vedanta.[22] Advaita Vedanta
inuenced Krishna Vaishnavism in the
northeastern state of Assam.[133] The Madhva
school of Vaishnavism found in coastal Karnataka
is based on Dvaita Vedanta.[72]
gamas, the classical literature of Shaivism,

though independent in origin, show Vedanta
association and premises.[134] Of the 92 gamas,
ten are (dvaita) texts, eighteen (bhedabheda), and
sixty-four (advaita) texts.[135] While the Bhairava
Shastras are monistic, Shiva Shastras are
25 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
dualistic.[136] Isaeva (1995, pp.134135) nds the

link between Gaudapada's Advaita Vedanta and
Kashmir Shaivism evident and natural. Tirumular,
the Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta scholar, credited with
creating "VedantaSiddhanta" (Advaita Vedanta
and Shaiva Siddhanta synthesis), stated,
"becoming Shiva is the goal of Vedanta and
Siddhanta; all other goals are secondary to it and
are vain."[137]
Shaktism, or traditions where a goddess is

considered identical to Brahman, has similarly
owered from a syncretism of the monist premises
of Advaita Vedanta and dualism premises of
SamkhyaYoga school of Hindu philosophy,
sometimes referred to as Shaktadavaitavada
(literally, the path of nondualistic Shakti).[138]
Neo-Vedanta
Neo-Vedanta, variously called as "Hindu

modernism", "neo-Hinduism", and "neo-Advaita", is
a term that denotes some novel interpretations of
Hinduism that developed in the 19th century,[139]
presumably as a reaction to the colonial British
rule.[140] King (2002, pp.129135) writes that
these notions accorded the Hindu nationalists an
opportunity to attempt the construction of a
nationalist ideology to help unite the Hindus to
ght colonial oppression. Western orientalists, in
their search for its "essence", attempted to
formulate a notion of "Hinduism" based on a single
interpretation of Vedanta as a unied body of
religious praxis.[141] This was contra-factual as,
26 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
historically, Hinduism and Vedanta had always

accepted a diversity of traditions. King (1999,
pp.133136) asserts that the neo-Vedantic theory
of "overarching tolerance and acceptance" was
used by the Hindu reformers, together with the
ideas of Universalism and Perennialism, to
challenge the polemic dogmatism of Judaeo-
Christian-Islamic missionaries against the Hindus.
The neo-Vedantins argued that the six orthodox

schools of Hindu philosophy were perspectives on
a single truth, all valid and complementary to each
other.[142] Halbfass (2007, p.307) sees these
interpretations as incorporating western ideas[143]
into traditional systems, especially Advaita
Vedanta.[144] It is the modern form of Advaita
Vedanta, states King (1999, p.135), the neo-
Vedantists subsumed the Buddhist philosophies as
part of the Vedanta tradition[note 21] and then
argued that all the world religions are same "non-
dualistic position as the philosophia perennis",
ignoring the dierences within and outside of
Hinduism.[146] According to Gier (2000, p.140),
neo-Vedanta is Advaita Vedanta which accepts
universal realism:
Ramakrishna, Vivekananda and

Aurobindo have been labeled neo-
Vedantists (the latter called it realistic
Advaita), a view of Vedanta that rejects
the Advaitins' idea that the world is
illusory. As Aurobindo phrased it,
philosophers need to move from
27 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
'universal illusionism' to 'universal

realism', in the strict philosophical sense
of assuming the world to be fully real.
A major proponent in the popularization of this

Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of
Advaita Vedanta was Vivekananda,[147] who played
a major role in the revival of Hinduism.[148] He
was also instrumental in the spread of Advaita
Vedanta to the West via the Vedanta Society, the
international arm of the Ramakrishna Order.[149]
Criticism of Neo-Vedanta label
Nicholson (2010, p.2) writes that the attempts at

integration which came to be known as neo-
Vedanta were evident as early as between the 12th
and the 16th century
...certain thinkers began to treat as a

single whole the diverse philosophical
teachings of the Upanishads, epics,
Puranas, and the schools known
retrospectively as the "six systems"
(saddarsana) of mainstream Hindu
philosophy.[note 22]
Matilal criticizes Neo-Hinduism as an oddity

developed by West-inspired Western Indologists
and attributes it to the awed Western perception
of Hinduism in modern India. In his scathing
28 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
criticism of this school of reasoning, Matilal (2002,

pp.403404) says:
The so-called 'traditional' outlook is in

fact a construction. Indian history shows
that the tradition itself was self-
conscious and critical of itself,
sometimes overtly and sometimes
covertly. It was never free from internal
tensions due to the inequalities that
persisted in a hierarchical society, nor
was it without confrontation and
challenge throughout its history. Hence
Gandhi, Vivekananda and Tagore were
not simply 'transplants from Western
culture, products arising solely from
confrontation with the west.
...It is rather odd that, although the early

Indologists' romantic dream of
discovering a pure (and probably
primitive, according to some) form of
Hinduism (or Buddhism as the case may
be) now stands discredited in many
quarters; concepts like neo-Hinduism are
still bandied about as substantial ideas
or faultless explanation tools by the
Western 'analytic' historians as well as
the West-inspired historians of India.
Inuence on Western thinkers
29 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
An exchange of ideas has been taking place

between the western world and Asia since the late
18th century as a result of colonization of parts of
Asia by Western powers. This also inuenced
western religiosity. The rst translation of
Upanishads, published in two parts in 1801 and
1802, signicantly inuenced Arthur
Schopenhauer, who called them the consolation of
his life.[154] He drew explicit parallels between his
philosophy, as set out in The World as Will and
Representation,[155] and that of the Vedanta
philosophy as described in the work of Sir William
Jones.[156] Early translations also appeared in
other European languages.[157] Inuenced by
akara's concepts of Brahman (God) and my
(illusion), Lucian Blaga often used the concepts
marele anonim (the Great Anonymous) and
cenzura transcendent (the transcendental
censorship) in his philosophy.[158]
Reception
According to Nakamura (1950, p.3), the Vedanta
school has had a historic and central inuence on
Hinduism:
The prevalence of Vedanta thought is

found not only in philosophical writings
but also in various forms of (Hindu)
literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry,
drama and so forth. ...the Hindu
religious sects, the common faith of the
30 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
Indian populace, looked to Vedanta

philosophy for the theoretical
foundations for their theology. The
inuence of Vedanta is prominent in the
sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as
the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas
and Tantras...[25]
Frithjof Schuon summarizes the inuence of

Vedanta on Hinduism as follows:
The Vedanta contained in the

Upanishads, then formulated in the
Brahma Sutra, and nally commented
and explained by Shankara, is an
invaluable key for discovering the
deepest meaning of all the religious
doctrines and for realizing that the
Sanatana Dharma secretly penetrates all
the forms of traditional spirituality.[159]
Flood (1996, pp.231232, 238) states,
..the most inuential school of theology

in India has been Vedanta, exerting
enormous inuence on all religious
traditions and becoming the central
ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the
nineteenth century. It has become the
philosophical paradigm of Hinduism "par
excellence".
31 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
Similarities with Spinoza's

philosophy
German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstcker was
among the early scholars to notice similarities
between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta
and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch
Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
...so exact a representation of the ideas

of the Vedanta, that we might have
suspected its founder to have borrowed
the fundamental principles of his system
from the Hindus, did his biography not
satisfy us that he was wholly
unacquainted with their doctrines [...]
comparing the fundamental ideas of both
we should have no diiculty in proving
that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his
system would in all probability mark a
last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.[160]
Max Mller noted the striking similarities between

Vedanta and the system of Spinoza, saying,
The Brahman, as conceived in the

Upanishads and dened by Sankara, is
clearly the same as Spinoza's
'Substantia'."[161]
32 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
Helena Blavatsky, a founder of the Theosophical

Society, also compared Spinoza's religious thought
to Vedanta, writing in an unnished essay,
As to Spinoza's Deitynatura naturans

conceived in his attributes simply and
alone; and the same Deityas natura
naturata or as conceived in the endless
series of modications or correlations,
the direct outowing results from the
properties of these attributes, it is the
Vedantic Deity pure and simple.[162]
See also
Monistic idealism
List of teachers of Vedanta
Self-consciousness (Vedanta)
Notes
1. Historically, Vedanta has been called by
various names. The early names were the
Upanishadic ones (Aupanisada), the doctrine
of the end of the Vedas (Vedanta-vada), the
doctrine of Brahman (Brahma-vada), and the
doctrine that Brahman is the cause (Brahma-
karana-vada).[9]
33 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
2. The Upanishads were many in number and

developed in the dierent schools at dierent
times and places, some in the Vedic period
and others in the medieval or modern era (the
names of up to 112 Upanishads have been
recorded).[11] All major commentators have
considered twelve to thirteen oldest of these
texts as the Principal Upanishads and as the
3. Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the
Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy.[19]
4. Proponents of other Vedantic schools
continue to write and develop their ideas as
well, although their works are not widely
known outside of smaller circles of followers
in India.
5. Nicholson (2010, p.26) considers the Brahma
Sutras as a group of sutras composed by
multiple authors over the course of hundreds
of years. The precise date is disputed.[26]
Nicholson (2010, p.26) estimates that the
book was composed in its current form
between 400 and 450 BCE.
6. The Vedantastra are known by a variety of
names, including (1) Brahmastra, (2)
rrakasutra, (3) Bdaryaastra and (4)
Uttaramms.
7. Estimates of the date of Bdaryana's lifetime
dier. [33]
34 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
8. Bharthari (c. 450500), Upavarsa (c.

450500), Bodhyana (c. 500), Tanka
(Brahmnandin) (c. 500550), Dravida (c.
550), Bhartprapaca (c. 550), abarasvmin
(c. 550), Bhartmitra (c. 550600),
rivatsnka (c. 600), Sundarapndya (c. 600),
Brahmadatta (c. 600700), Gaudapada (c.
640690), Govinda (c. 670720),
Mandanamira (c. 670750).[25]
9. There is ample evidence, however, to suggest
that Advaita was a thriving tradition by the
start of the common era or even before that.
Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors
of his Sampradaya.[42] Scholarship since
1950 suggests that almost all Sannyasa
Upanishads have a strong Advaita Vedanta
outlook.[47] Six Sannyasa Upanishads Aruni,
Kundika, Kathashruti, Paramahamsa, Jabala
and Brahma were composed before the 3rd
Century CE, likely in the centuries before or
after the start of the common era; the Asrama
Upanishad is dated to the 3rd Century.[48]
The strong Advaita Vedanta views in these
ancient Sannyasa Upanishads may be, states
Patrick Olivelle, because major Hindu
monasteries of this period belonged to the
Advaita Vedanta tradition.[49]
35 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
10. Scholars like Raju (1972, p.177), following

the lead of earlier scholars like Sengupta,[51]
believe that Gaudapada co-opted the
Buddhist doctrine that ultimate reality is pure
consciousness (vijapti-mtra). Raju (1972,
pp.177178) states, "Gaudapada wove [both
doctrines] into a philosophy of the
Mandukaya Upanisad, which was further
developed by Shankara." Nikhilananda (2008,
pp.203206) states that the whole purpose of
Gaudapada was to present and demonstrate
the ultimate reality of Atman, an idea denied
by Buddhism. According to Murti (1955,
pp.114115), Gaudapada's doctrines are
unlike Buddhism. Gaudapada's inuential text
consists of four chapters; Chapter One, Two
and Three of which are entirely Vedantin and
founded on the Upanishads, with little
Buddhist avor. Chapter Four uses Buddhist
terminology and incorporates Buddhist
doctrines but Vedanta scholars who followed
Gaudapada through the 17th century, state
both Murti and Richard King, never
referenced nor used Chapter Four, they only
quote from the rst three.[20] While there is
shared terminology, the doctrines of
Gaudapada and Buddhism are fundamentally
dierent, states Murti (1955, pp.114115)
11. Nicholson (2010, p.27) writes: "The
Brahmasutras themselves espouse the realist
Parinamavada position, which appears to
have been the view most common among
early Vedantins."
36 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
12. Shankara synthesized the Advaitavda which

had previously existed before him,[54] and, in
this synthesis, became the restorer &
defender of an ancient learning.[55] He was
an unequaled commentator,[55] due to whose
eorts and contributions,[54] Advaita Vedanta
assumed a dominant position within Indian
philosophy.[55]
13. According to Mishra, the sutras, beginning
with the rst sutra of Jaimini and ending with
the last sutra of Badarayana, form one
compact shastra.[56]
14. Many sources date him to 12381317
period,[64] but some place him over
11991278 CE.[65]
15. Doniger (1986, p.119) says "that to say that
the universe is an illusion (my) is not to say
that it is unreal; it is to say, instead, that it is
not what it seems to be, that it is something
constantly being made. Maya not only
deceives people about the things they think
they know; more basically, it limits their
knowledge."
16. The concept of Brahman in Dvaita Vedanta is
so similar to the monotheistic eternal God,
that some early colonialera Indologists such
as George Abraham Grierson suggested
Madhva was inuenced by early Christians
who migrated to India, [89] but later
scholarship has rejected this theory.[90]
37 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
17. According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the

Brahmasutras reect a Bhedabheda point of
view,[23] the most inuential tradition of
Vedanta before Shankara. Numerous
Indologists, including Surendranath
Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura,
and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described
Bhedabheda as the most inuential school of
Vedanta before Shankara.[23]
18. A few Indian scholars such as Vedvyasa
discuss ten, Krtakoti discusses eight, but six
is most widely accepted; see Nicholson (2010,
pp.149150)
38 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
19. Anantanand Rambachan (1991, pp.xiixiii)

states, "According to these [widely
represented contemporary] studies, Shankara
only accorded a provisional validity to the
knowledge gained by inquiry into the words
of the ruti (Vedas) and did not see the latter
as the unique source (pramana) of
Brahmajnana. The airmations of the ruti, it
is argued, need to be veried and conrmed
by the knowledge gained through direct
experience (anubhava) and the authority of
the ruti, therefore, is only secondary."
Sengaku Mayeda (2006, pp.4647) concurs,
adding Shankara maintained the need for
objectivity in the process of gaining
knowledge (vastutantra), and considered
subjective opinions (purushatantra) and
injunctions in ruti (codanatantra) as
secondary. Mayeda cites Shankara's explicit
statements emphasizing epistemology
(pramanajanya) in section 1.18.133 of
Upadesasahasri and section 1.1.4 of
Brahmasutrabhasya.
20. Nicholson (2010, p.27) writes of Advaita
Vedantin position of cause and eect -
Although Brahman seems to undergo a
transformation, in fact no real change takes
place. The myriad of beings are essentially
unreal, as the only real being is Brahman,
that ultimate reality which is unborn,
unchanging, and entirely without parts.
39 of 69 7/31/17, 6:31 PM
21. Vivekananda, claries Richard King, stated, "I

am not a Buddhist, as you have heard, and yet
I am"; but thereafter Vivekananda explained
that "he cannot accept the Buddhist rejection
of a self, but nevertheless honors the
Buddha's compassion and attitude towards
others".[145]
22. The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical
distinctions" has also been noted by
Burley.[150] Lorenzen locates the origins of a
distinct Hindu identity in the interaction
between Muslims and Hindus,[151] and a
process of "mutual self-denition with a
contrasting Muslim other",[152] which started
well before 1800.[153]
References
1. Chatterjee & Dutta 1939, pp.317318; Flood
1996, p.231,232,238
2. Koller 2013, pp.100106; Sharma 1960,
p.211; Hiriyanna 1948,
pp.19,2125,150152
3. Chatterjee & Dutta 1939, pp.317318; Raju
1972, pp.176177; Isaeva 1992, p.35 with
footnote 30
4. Raju 1972, pp.176177.
5. Chatterjee & Dutta 1939, pp.317318;
Scharfe 2002, pp.5859,115120,282283
6. Flood 1996, p.231,232,238.
7. Clooney 2000, pp.147158.
8. Mohan Lal Sandal 1925, p.16, Sutra 30.
9. King 1995, p.268 with note 2.
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10. Ranganathan; Hiriyanna 1948,

pp.19,2125,150152; Grimes 1990, pp.67
11. Dasgupta 1922, pp.28.
12. Hiriyanna 1948, pp.19,2125,150152.
13. Pasricha 2008, p.95.
14. Balasubramanian 2000, p.xxxxxxiiii;
Deutsch & Dalvi 2004, pp.9596
15. Chatterjee & Dutta 1939, pp.317318.
16. Raju 1972, p.177.
17. Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and
Literature, University of Washington,
Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse
Schools (http://faculty.washington.edu
/prem/Colloquium03DiVedantas.pdf)
18. Sivananda 1993, p.216.
19. Sivananda 1993, p.217.
20. Jagannathan 2011.
21. Michael Comans 2000, p.163.
22. Nicholson.
23. Nicholson 2010, p.26.
24. Sivananda 1993, p.248.
25. Nakamura 1950, p.3.
26. Lochtefeld 2000, p.746; Nakamura 1949,
p.436
27. Balasubramanian 2000, p.xxxiii; Sharma
1996, pp.124125
28. Nakamura 1950, p.3; Sharma 1996,
pp.124125
29. Sharma 1996, pp.124125.
30. Hiriyanna 1948, pp.19,2125,151152;
Sharma 1960, pp.239241; Nicholson 2010,
p.26
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31. Satischandra Chatterjee, Dhirendramohan

Dutta (1939). AN INTRODUCTION TO
INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. Rupa Publications
India Pvt. Limited (2007 Reprint). p.317.
ISBN 978-81-291-1195-1.
32. Sharma, Chandramohan (2009). A Critical
Summary of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass. pp.239241.
ISBN 978-81-208-0365-7.
33. Pandey 2000, p.4.
34. "Indian Philosophy - Historical Development
of Indian Philosophy | Britannica.com"
(https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-
philosophy/Historical-development-of-Indian-
philosophy#ref314631).
35. James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated
Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: AM, Rosen
Publishing, ISBN 978-0823931798, page 746
36. Nakamura 1949, p.436.
37. Nicholson 2013, p.26, Quote: "From a
historical perspective, the Brahmasutras are
best understood as a group of sutras
composed by multiple authors over the course
of hundreds of years, most likely composed in
its current form between 400 and 450 BCE.".
38. NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian
Philosophy, State University of New York
Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 36
39. Hiriyanna 1948, pp.151152.
40. Nicholson 2010, pp.2627; Mohanty &
Wharton 2011
41. Nakamura 1950, p.426.
42. Roodurmum 2002.
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43. Hiriyanna, M. (1948). The Essentials of Indian

Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (2008
Reprint). pp.19, 2125, 150152.
ISBN 978-81-208-1330-4.
44. Michael Comans 2000, p.163; Jagannathan
2011
45. Michael Comans (2000, pp.2,163)
46. Sharma 1960, p.239.
47. Olivelle 1992, pp.1718; Rigopoulos 1998,
pp.6263; Phillips 1995, p.332 with note 68
48. Olivelle 1992, pp.xxi,818; Sprockho 1976,
pp.277294,319377
49. Olivelle 1992, pp.1718.
50. Sharma 1960, p.239; Nikhilananda 2008,
pp.203206; Nakamura 1950, p.308; Sharma
1960, p.239
51. Nikhilananda 2008, pp.203206.
52. Sharma 2000, p.64.
53. Nakamura 1950; Sharma 2000, p.64
54. Nakamura 1950, p.678.
55. Nakamura 1950, p.679.
56. Sharma 1960, pp.239241,372375.
57. Raju 1972, p.175-176.
58. Sullivan 2001, p.239; Schultz 1981,
pp.8184; Bartley 2013, pp.12; Carman
1974, p.24
59. Olivelle 1992, pp.1011,1718; Bartley 2013,
pp.14,5253,79
60. Carman 1994, pp.8287 with footnotes.
61. Bartley 2013, pp.12,910,7679,8798;
Sullivan 2001, p.239; Doyle 2006, pp.5962
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Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities
(http://www.vedantaworld.org/) by Swami
Parthasarathy
The System of Vedanta by Paul Deussen.
1912. Reprint 2007.
Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition by
Huston Smith
Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies and
"Vedanta Sutras of Nryana Guru" by Karl
Potter and Sibajiban Bhattachrya
The Upanishads (https://web.archive.org
/web/20070104061813/http:
//www.sriaurobindoashram.info:80
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Content/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-
Library
/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo
/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12) by Sri
Aurobindo, Sri Aurobindo Ashram,
Pondicherry, 1972.
Choice Upanishads by Swami Parthasarathy
Vedanta: A Simple Introduction
(http://www.vedanta.com/) by Pravrajika
Vrajaprana
Vedanta Hub (http://vedantahub.org) -
Resources to help with the Study and Practice
of Vedanta
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org

/w/index.php?title=Vedanta&oldid=792952887"
This page was last edited on 29 July 2017, at

20:07.
Text is available under the Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional
terms may apply. By using this site, you agree
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Vedanta - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V...

Vedanta (IAST, Vednta, Sanskrit: ) or Uttara

All Vedanta schools, in their deliberations, concern

Some of the better known sub-traditions of

ideas from other orthodox (stika) schools like

Etymology and nomenclature

The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of

1. These were the last literary products of the

Vedanta is one of the six orthodox (stika) schools

Prasthanatrayi, the Three

1. The Upanishads,[note 2] or ruti prasthna;

The Brahma Sutras attempted to synthesize the

surviving version of this synthesis is the Brahma

All major Vedantic teachers, including Shankara,

1. Advaita, many scholars of which most

4. Suddhadvaita, founded by Vallabha[17]

The history of Vedanta is divided into two periods:

Before the Brahma Sutras

Little is known[25] of schools of Vedanta existing

The works of these ancient teachers have not

Badarayana summarized and interpreted

Though attributed to Badarayana, the Brahma

The book is composed of four chapters, each

of the Upanishads. However, the cryptic nature of

Between the Brahma Sutras and Adi

Little with specicity is known of the period

Shankara mentions 99 dierent predecessors of

A noted scholar of this period was

Gaudapada, Adi Shankara and Advaita

Gaudapada (c. 6th century CE),[44] was the

Gaudapada's Krik relied on the Mandukya,

Adi Shankara (788820), elaborated on

Shankara who integrated Gaudapada work with

A noted contemporary of Shankara was Mandan

Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Rmnuja (10171137 CE) was the most

Ramanuja presented the epistemological and

Ramanuja was inuential in integrating Bhakti, the

Madhva and Dvaita

Dvaita was propounded by Madhvacharya

Madhva started his Vedic studies at age seven,

Hindu philosophies, Jainism and Buddhism,[71] but

Dvaita Vedanta is theistic and it identies

Overview of the schools of

Advaita Vedanta (IAST Advaita Vednta; Sanskrit:

Vishishtadvaita asserts that Jivatman (human

Shuddhadvaita (pure non-dualism) states that the

school, is bhakti. Vallabha

School propounding Dualism - Dvaita

This school is based on the

Vishnu for salvation, and it is only His grace that

Schools propounding Bhedabheda

Bhedbheda means "dierence and non

Bhaskara, in postulating Upadhika, considers both

mind. Matter and its limitations are considered

constant eort to merge oneself with His nature

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was

noted proponents of dierent schools of Vedanta

1. To theorize that the soul (tman / Jivtman)

Sivananda gives the following explanation:

Madhva said, "Man is the servant of

Despite their dierences, all schools of Vedanta

1. Brahman exists as the unchanging material

Vedanta philosophies discuss three fundamental