Synchronous Generators Notes

LECTURE NOTES
ON
ELECTRICAL MACHINES III

(15A02504)
III B.Tech-EEE-I Sem (R15)

JNTUA
Prepared by
Saravanan T Y M.Tech., (Ph.D)

Assistant Professor
DEPT. of EEE
Narayana Engineering College
GUDUR
________________________________________________________________R15 ________________________________________________________________R15
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR UNIT IV

L T P C SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS
B. Tech III-I Sem. (EEE) Theory of Operation Phasor Diagram Power Flow Equations in Synchronous Motors-
3 1 0 3 Variation of Current and Power Factor with Excitation V and Inverted V Curves
15A02504 ELECTRICAL MACHINES III Synchronous Condensers Hunting, and Methods to Eliminate Hunting Starting Methods
Course Objectives: of Synchronous Motor Synchronous Induction Motor - Construction, Principle of operation
The objectives of the course are to make the student learn about and control of Brushless DC motor.
the construction and principle of working of synchronous machines UNIT V
different methods of predetermining the regulation of alternators SINGLE PHASE AND SPECIAL MOTORS
the concepts and computation of load sharing among alternators in parallel. Single Phase Induction Motors - Constructional Features Double Revolving Field Theory-
the performance characteristics of synchronous motors and their use as Elementary Idea of Cross Field Theory Split Phase Motors Capacitor Start and Run
synchronous condensers for power factor improvement. Motors Shaded Pole Motor. Principle and Performance of A.C Series Motor - Universal
different types of single phase motors and special motors used in house hold Motor Single Phase Synchronous Motors Reluctance Motor Hysteresis Motor
appliances and control systems. Stepper Motor.

UNIT I Course Outcomes: At the end of the course the student will be able to
SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS predetermine the regulation of synchronous generators using different methods.
Principle and Constructional Features of Salient Pole and Round Rotor Machines Determine how several alternators running in parallel share the load on the system.
Armature Windings, Concentrated and Distributed Windings, Integral Slot and Fractional Analyze the performance characteristics of synchronous motors.
Slot Windings Pitch, Distribution, and Winding Factors E.M.F Equation-Harmonics in Make necessary calculations for power factor improvement using synchronous
Generated E.M.F Space and Slot Harmonics Elimination of Harmonics- Armature condenser.
Reaction Synchronous Reactance and Impedance Load Characteristics - Phasor Choose specific 1-phase motor and/or special motors for a given application.
Diagram.
UNIT II TEXT BOOKS:
REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 1. Electrical Machinery, P.S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers, 7th Edition, 2011.
Regulation of Salient Pole Alternator Voltage Regulation Methods E.M.F Method-MMF 2. Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Stephen J Chapman, Mc Graw Hill Series in
Method ZPF Method ASA Method Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) Two Reaction Theory Electrical and Computer Engineering, 4th Edition, 2010, 10th Reprint 2015.
Determination of Xd and Xq (Slip Test) Phasor Diagrams.
UNIT III REFERENCE BOOKS:
PARALLEL OPERATION OF SYNCHRONOUS GENERATORS 1. Electric Machines 4th edition, D.P.Kothari and I.J. Nagrath, Mc Graw Hill Education
Power Flow Equation in Alternators (Cylindrical and Salient Pole Machines) Synchronizing (India) Pvt. Ltd., 4th Edition, 2010, 16th Reprint 2015.
Power and Torque Parallel Operation and Load Sharing Effect of Change of Excitation 2. Electric Machinery, A.E.Fitzgerald, C.Kingsley and S. Umans, Mc Graw Hill Education
and Mechanical Power Input Synchronizing Alternators with Infinite Bus Bars (India) Pvt. Ltd., 6th Edition, 2005.
Determination of Sub-Transient, Transient and Steady State Reactances. 3. Electrical Machines, S K Bhattacharya, Mc Graw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., 4th
Edition, 2014, 3rd Reprint 2015.
Page 15
Page 16
UNIT I
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS
Electrical Machines-III Synchronous Generators
UNIT I
1. SYNCHRONOUS GeneratoRS
1. Electrical Machine:
It is a device, which converts one form of energy into another form of energy by
utilizing the force as motion of electric charge is called known as electrical machine.
1.1.1. Synchronism:
Achieved a coincidence within a point of time is known as synchronism.
1.1.2. Introduction:
AC system has a number of advantages over dc system. Now-a-days the three phase AC
system is being used for generation, transmission and distribution of power.
The machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy at particular voltage
with a fixed frequency is called an alternator or synchronous generator or AC generator or
a machine for generating alternating currents is referred to as an alternator.
The term AC Generator is also frequently used, in place of alternator and this is often
contracted to just generator.
The frequency is an important property of AC electrical energy. Frequency is depends on
speed, therefore to achieve fixed frequency the machine must be always runs only at one
speed called synchronous speed. Thats the reason the alternator is called Synchronous
Generator.
Alternators are the primary source of till the electrical energy which we consumed. These
machines are the largest energy converters in the world.
The prime mover which is used for generation purpose is turbines. For commercial and
industrial purpose the four-stroke engines are used as prime movers to give mechanical
power to the alternators.
1.2. Operating Principle of an Alternator:

An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle
of electro-magnetic induction as a dc generator. i.e., when
the flux cuts the conductor (or) conductor cuts the flux an
emf induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of induced emf is E = Blv sin
Where, = angle between B and direction of conductor
v = velocity of conductor (m/sec)
B = flux density (wb/m2 of Tesla)
l = length of the conductor (m)
Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 1

Flemings Right Hand Rule:

The direction of induced emf or current can be finding by
applying this rule. If,
Fore finger indicates direction of flux
Thumb indicates direction of motion of conductor
Then,
Center finger indicates direction of induced emf or current.
In dc generator, the field poles are stationary and the armature conductors rotate. The
alternating induced emf in armature conductors are converted to a dc voltage at the brushes by means
of the commutator.
In alternators, there is no commutator required to supply electrical energy with an alternating
voltage. Therefore, it is not necessary that armature be the rotating one. The alternator also has an
armature winding and a field winding. But the important difference between the two is,
For an alternator, armature winding is placed or housed in a stator instead of rotor in a dc
generator. The field winding is housed in a rotor poles. It is more usually convenient, advantageous
to place the field winding on rotating part (rotor) and armature winding on stationary part (stator).
1.2.1. Differences between DC & AC Generators:
DC GENERATOR ALTERNATOR
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
Flemings right hand rule. Flemings right hand rule.
Stationary field. Rotating field.
Rotating armature. Stationary armature.
Conductors cut the flux. Flux cuts the conductor.
Large size of brushes and brush gear required Small size of brushes and brush gear
for rotor because armature current is high equal arrangement required for rotor because field
to the load. current is small.
Prime mover as IC engine or fly wheels. Prime mover as Turbines.
1.2.2. Advantages of stationary armature:

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and connected to dc supply through
the slip ring. The 3- armature winding is placed on the stator. This arrangement has the following
advantages.
1. Easier to insulate the stationary winding for high voltages because they are not subjected
to centrifugal force and extra space is available on stator.

2. Stationary 3- armature winding is directly connected to the load, so current collection is

easy without giving through large, unreliable slip-rings and brushes.
3. One (or) two slip-rings are required for dc supply to the field winding on the rotor. Since
exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction.
4. Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of rotating dc filed is
possible so that output electrical power increased.
5. Stationary armature windings can be cooled more efficiently.
6. Rigid and convenient construction because stationary armature winding is capable of
handling high voltage and current.
7. Reduced armature leakage reactance, therefore better the voltage regulation.
In addition, water cooling can be installed more conveniently on stator rather than
rotor by flexible water tube connection.
8. Lesser rotor weight because field winding requires less amount of copper. Reduces the
inertia due to low-priced bearings and also longer life because of minimum wear and tear.
The above are the major advantages of the stationary armature windings.
Note: All Alternators above 5KVA employs Stationary Armature, Rotating Field.
All synchronous generators and motors require direct current for excitation.
1.3. Construction Details:

An alternator has 3- armature winding on the stator and dc field winding on the rotor.
1.3.1. Stator:
Stator is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet steel laminations having
slots on its inner periphery. The slots are laminated and are insulated from each other by a thin
coating of oxide and enamel; it is in hollow cylindrical shape.
Stator is made with Cold Rolled Non Oriented (CRNGO) steel (have similar magnetic
properties in all directions in plan of the sheet) with 3% silicon. The addition of silicon increases the
resistivity of the magnetic material so that eddy current losses will further reduce.
Open slots are used, permitting easy installation of stator coils and easy removal in case of
repair. A 3- winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of alternator.
The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to the load because,
for star connection,
Vl
Vph =
3
Since the emf is proportional to number of turns, so that it requires less number of turns than
Delta. Neutral protects the system in case of ground faults.

1.3.2. Rotor:
The rotor carries a field winding which is supplied with direct current (dc) through two slip
rings by a separate dc source.
Depending on the construction of rotor the alternators are classified into two types.
i. Salient or projecting pole type.
ii. Non-Salient or Cylindrical or Wound type.
(i). Salient or Projecting pole type:

In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large steel (circular type) frame which
is fixed to the shaft of an alternator as shown in figure.
The poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted together and attached to a rotor by a
dovetail joint. The individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that
when a field winding is energized by the dc exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
Low and medium speed alternators (120 500rpm) such as those driven by diesel engines or
water turbines have salient pole rotors due to the following reasons:
a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high speed and
would tend to produce noise.
b) Salient-pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the mechanical
stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
Since a frequency of 50Hz is
required, we must use a large number of
poles (P) on the rotor of slow speed (N)
alternator.
120*f 1
NS = NS =
P P
Low speed rotors always posses a

large diameter to provide the necessary space
for the poles. Consequently, salient pole type
rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
The pole face is so shaped that the radial air gap length increases from the pole centre to pole
tips. This makes the flux distribution over the armature uniform to generate sinusoidal waveform of
emf. The pole shoe covers about 2/3rd of pole pitch. Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current
losses.

(ii). Non Salient pole type or cylindrical or wound rotor:

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged steel radial cylinder of nickel, chromium
and molybdenum to increase the mechanical strength having a number of slots along the outer
periphery.
According to design 2/3rd rotor periphery is
slotted to accommodate the field winding and
1/3rd is left, i.e., un slotted is for the formation
of poles.
The field windings are embedded in these slots
and are connected in series to the sliprings
through which they are energized by the dc
exciter. It is clear that the poles formed are non-
salient i.e., they do not project out from the
rotor surface.
The air gap is uniform and flux distribution is
sinusoidal.
High-Speed alternators (1500 or 3000 rpm) are driven by steam turbines, gas turbines and use of
non-salient pole rotors due to the following reasons:
a) The type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noise less operation at
high speeds.
b) The flux distribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence a better emf
wave form is obtained rather than salient pole rotor.
Since steam turbine runs at high speed and a frequency of 50Hz is required, we need a small
number of poles i.e., 2 and 4. For a 2-pole it is 3000rpm and 4-pole it is 1500rpm.
It possesses small diameter and very long axial lengths because high speed of rotation produces
strong centrifugal forces which impose an upper limit on the diameter. Therefore, high-power &
high speed rotors have to be very long.
These machines are suitable for Steam power plants, Gas power plants and Nuclear power plant.
The special features of non-salient pole field structure are as follows.

1. Better emf waveform obtained.
2. Noiseless operation.
3. Robust construction.
4. Less windage loss.
5. Highest operating speed possible.
6. Dynamic balancing is better.

1.4. Operation of an Alternator:

The rotor winding is energized from the dc exciter and alternate N and S poles are
developed on the rotor. When the rotor is rotated in anti-clockwise direction by a prime mover, the
stator (or) armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles.
Consequently, emf is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction. The induced emf is alternating since N and S poles of rotor alternately pass the
armature conductors.
The direction of induced emf can be found by Flemings right hand rule and frequency is given by,
N*P
F =
120
Where, N = speed of rotor (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles.
The above figure shows star-connected armature winding and dc field winding. When the
rotor is rotated, a 3- voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of the
induced depends upon the speed of rotation and the dc exiting current.
The magnitude of emf in each phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they
differ in phase by 1200 electrical as shown in the phasor diagram.
1.5. Supply Frequency:

The frequency of induced emf in the armature conductors depends upon speed and number of
the poles.
Let,
N = rotor speed (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles
F = Frequency of emf (Hz)
Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by N and S poles of the rotor. If a
positive voltage is induced when a N-pole sweeps across the conductor, a similar negative voltage is
induced when a S pole sweeps by.

This means that one complete cycle of emf is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it.
i.e., one N-pole and the adjacent following S-pole. The same is true for every other armature
conductor.
We know that from graphical representation of graphical plot, the rotating field travels a distance
covered by 2-poles.
P
Number of cycles for one revolution = for P pole machine.
2
N
Number of revolution /second = (sec)
60
no. of cycles No. of revolution

No. of cycles per second =
revolutions second
P N
= *
2 60
But number of cycles / second is its emfs frequency.
PN
F = Frequency =
120
It may be noted that N is the synchronous speed. For a given alternator, the number
of rotor poles is fixed and therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give an
output of desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called synchronous
generator.
Note:-
In other words, the synchronous machines doubly excited energy-conversion devices. In
general, the generated induced emf is depends on the relative motive between the field flux lines and
armature conductors.
If it is working as a motor, the field winding is energized from a dc source and its armature
winding is connected to ac source.
Finally the synchronous machine delivers or exports ac power.
1.5.1. Mechanical degrees: the degree of physical or mechanical rotation a single conductor in an
alternator.
1.5.2. Electrical degrees: the degree or the cycle of emf induced in a single conductor in an
alternator
Consider a 2- pole Alternator, when a conductor rotates in the field, the emf induced in the
conductor will be maximum when the conductor is at the center of the pole and the emf induced will
be minimum when the conductor is in the middle of the gap between the two poles.
For one complete rotation of the conductor in the field - One complete cycle of emf is generated in
the conductor (Positive half cycle at South Pole and negative half cycle at North Pole).

The same way when we consider a 4-pole alternator a single conductor when completing one
mechanical rotation will cross the four poles there by giving the induced emf graph with two positive
half cycles and two negative half cycles which gives us two complete cycles of induced emf.
So for One Mechanical rotation (360 degrees) the induced emf completes two cycles
i.e., 360 * 2 = 720 degrees in terms of the sine wave
So, the relation between Electrical and Mechanical degrees can be written as
number of poles (P)

electrical = * mechanical
2
1.6. Differences between Salient and Non-Salient pole type rotors:
S.No SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR NON SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR
This type of rotor is having large This type of rotor is having small diameters
1.
diameters and small axial length. and long axial length.
Poles are separately projected to the large Poles are in-built to the solid forged steel
2.
cylindrical steel frame. radial cylinder.
Simple in construction, N = 150 to
3. Robust in construction, N=1500 to 3000rpm
1500rpm
Low and medium operating speed.
4. High operating speed (1500, 3000rpm)
(120 to 400rpm)
Somewhat noisy operation due to air-gap
Noiseless operation and air friction is
5. between the poles, air friction is
minimum.
maximum.
These are employed with hydraulic
6. Employed with steam turbines i.e., turbo type.
turbines and diesel engines.
The emf wave form is not a exact one, Better emf wave form will obtained, small
7.
large diameter, short axial length. diameter & large axial length.
Poles are laminated to reduce the eddy
8. Less windage (air resistance) loss.
current loss.
9. Rotor surface is not smooth. Rotor surface is smooth.
10. Dynamic balancing is less in sufficient. Dynamic balancing is better.
1.7. Basic terms related to windings:

Conductor:
A length of wire which is used for energyconversion process is called conductor.
Turn: One turn consists of two conductors. In a figure the AB and DE is a coil side or conductors
form a turn.

Coil:
One coil consists of number of turns. One coil has one turn shown in fig. (a)
One coil has two turns shown in fig. (b)
Multi turn coil has shown in fig. (c) i.e. one coil has more than two turns.
Coil side:
One coil with any number of turns having two coil sides or conductors i.e. PQ is one coil side
one turn and ST is another will side.
Pitch:
The term pitch indicates a particular method of measurement in terms of coil sides and teeth.
Pole pitch:
A pole pitch is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always 1800
electrical.
Coil span or coil-pitch:

The distance between two coil sides of coil is called coil-span or coil-Pitch. It is usually
measured in terms of teeths, slots.

Full-pitched winding:
If pole pitch is equal to coil-span or coil-pitch then that type of winding is called full-pitched
winding.
Short-pitched winding:
If the winding has pole pitch is not equal to coil span (or) coil span is less than pole-pitch is
called known as short-pitch winding.
Back-pitch (YB):
The distance measured in between two coil sides of a turn is called known as back pitch. (YB)
Front pitch (YF):
The distance between the second conductor of one coil and first conductor of second coil is
called front pitch (YF)
Resultant Pitch (YR):
The distance between the beginnings of one will and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected called resultant pitch. (YR)
1.8. Armature windings:

The armature windings of dc machines are usually closed circuit windings but alternators
winding may be either closed giving delta connections or open giving star connections. These are
classified as follows.
Distributed and concentrated windings.
Closed and opened windings.
Single layer and double layer winding.
Full-pitched and short-pitched windings.
Integral and Fractional-slot windings.
In general, the armature windings in Synchronous Machines are classified as follows.

Armature Winding
Concentrated Winding
Distributed Winding
Full Pitched Winding

Short Pitched Winding
Integral Slot Winding

Fractional Slot Winding
(i). Distributed and Concentrated type windings:

In concentrated type winding, all the winding turns are wound together in series to form one
multi turn coil. This type of windings is used as field windings in salient pole synchronous machine
as well as dc machines.
In concentrated coils, all the turns have some magnetic axis. The primary and secondary
windings of transformers are of concentrated type.
If one slot per pole (or) slots equal to number of poles are employed, then concentrated
winding in obtained.
Concentrated windings give maximum induced emfs for a given number of conductors but
the wave form of induced emf is not exactly of sinusoidal form.
If the conductors are placed in several slots under one pole, the type winding is called
distributed winding.
Otherwise, all the turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional-pitch coils. These coils
are then housed in the slots spread around the air-gap periphery to form phase or commutator
winding.
Stator and rotor of induction machines, the armatures of both synchronous and dc machines
have of distributed type windings.
Advantages of distributed windings:
a) The harmonic emf is reduced and so the wave form is improved.
b) It diminishes armature reaction and armature reactance.

c) The core is better utilized as a number of small slots evenly spaced.

d) Temperature rise is uniformly distributed.
e) Cooling is effective.
f) Armature winding is mechanically balanced well.
The disadvantage is small reduction in fundamental voltage.
(ii). Closed and Opened windings:

The closed windings are only used for commutator machines i.e., such as dc and ac
commutator machines. For this there is a closed path, if one starts from any point on the winding
and traverses it, one again reaches the starting point from one where had started.
It should be housed at outset of armature always using the double layer windings. Each coil
in double layer winding has its one coilside in top layer and its other will side on bottom
layer.
The closed type windings are two types.
a. Simplex lap winding.
b. Simplex wave winding.
The major difference between above two is depends on the manner connecting the coil ends to the
commutator segments.
For lap winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator segments.
For wave winding, the two coil-ends of a coil are bent in opposite directions and connected to
commutator segments which two pole-pitches (3600) apart.
The open-windings are used only for ac machines like synchronous machines, induction
machines, etc. open windings terminate at suitable number of slip-rings or terminals. Open windings
are always of star type connection. Close windings are of - type connection.
(iii). Single layer and Double layer windings:
If the winding of one coil-side occupies the total slot area, then it is called single layer winding.
Advantages:
The following are the advantages of single layer winding.
Higher efficiency and quite operation because of narrow slot openings.
Space factor for slots is higher due to absence of inter layer separator.

The number of coils, the number of turns per coil, the coil pitch, the number of circuits and the
connection of the phases are give the desired emf wave form.
In case the slot contains even number of coil sides in two or double layers, than the winding
is called as double layer winding.
The winding may be arranged to be connected either Y or , with leads brought out from both
ends of each phase to make this possible.
Advantages:
Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding.
Less number of coils is required as spare in the case of winding repairs.
Fractional slot windings, pitch coils are employed.
Lower leakage reactance and therefore better performance and more economical.
Modern practice all over the world favors use of double layer windings. Single layer winding is
only employed for small rating ac machines and where as double layer windings are more common
above 5KW machines.
(iv). Full-pitch and short-pitch or chorded windings:
If the coil-span or coil-pitch is equal to the pole-pitch then the winding is termed as full-
pitch winding shown in figure.
If the coil-span or coil-pitch is less than the pole-
pitch (1800) then the winding is termed as short-pitch
/ chorded winding as shown in fig.
If there are S slots (or teeths) and P poles, then
S
pole pitch = P slots per pole = 1800 electrical
= Short-Pitch angle
S
If Coil-Pitch = P , it results in full-pitch winding
S
If Coil-Pitch < P , then it results in Short-pitch winding

Advantages of short-pitch or Fractional-pitch or Chorded winding:

The ends of the coils are shorter, which means less copper loss due to less total length.
The end coils can be formed more compactly. The end belts will need less winding space
resulting in a shorter unit.
Improved emf wave form due to reduction of harmonics.
Fractional number of slots per pole in a turn reduces the tooth/teeth ripples.
Mechanical strength of the coil is increased.
Iron losses are reduced, efficiency will increase.
Self inductance of coil is reduced. Therefore inductive reactance drop is less, Regulation is
good.
Since all ac equipments are designed to operate on a pure sine wave, the generation of
harmonics is to be avoided. This is especially so when the factor that achieves it is otherwise
desirable.
The major disadvantage of short-pitch coils are, the total voltage around the coil is somewhat
reduced. Because the voltages induced in the two sides of the short-pitched coil are slightly out of
phase, their resultant vectorial sum is less than their arithmetic sum.
(v). Integral slot windings: (m = integer value)
To maintain uniform magnetic reaction throughout the surface of armature, the armature
conductors should be properly distributed.
Integral means forming a whole. If the number of slots/phase/pole (m) is a while or integer
number then that type of winding is said to be integral slot winding.
The number of slots in an ac machine should always be integral multiples of three. However,
the number of slots per pole per phase may be integer or a fraction. The winding may be
single layer or double layer.

Assure that the full-pitch or pole-pitch of a winding is 6 slots per pole.

If the coil-pitch is taken to be equal to pole-pitch, then the upper coil-side in slot-1 should be
connected to bottom coil side in slot 7(=1+6).
1800
Since there are 6 slots per pole of 1800, the slot angular pitch = = = 300
6
Upper coil-side in slot-2 must be connected to bottom coil-side in slot-8 (2+6 = 8). The
winding is further completed for phase-R only shown in figure.
For a 3- machine, from the above figure the slots 7, 8, 13, 14 contain coil sides belonging to
the same phase-R. In general, it can be stated that for full-pitch integral slot winding, each
slot contains coil-sides belonging to the same phase.
Fractional slot winding: (m = fractional value)

The number of slots per phase per pole is a fractional then it is known as fractional-slot
winding. But the total number of slots must be multiples three (3). This helps to maintain
symmetrical winding.
The advantages of these windings are,

Reduces the high-frequency harmonics in the emf and mmf wave forms.
This winding permits the use of already existing slotting nos. for the armature
laminations.
Allows choice of coil-pitch.
The restrictions of this winding are,

It can be used only with double-layer windings.
The number of parallel circuits is limited .
Let S be the total number of slots and P be the number of poles. Then slot
per pole per phase, for a 3- winding are (S/3)/P. If K is highest common factor between S/3 and
P the slots / pole/ phase can be,
S/3 K * SK SK
=
P K * PK PK
S/3
Where, SK = K
P
PK = K
The ratio of Sk / Pk is called the characteristic ratio of the fractional slot winding.

1.9. Difference between Fractional and Integral Slot winding:
S. No INTEGRAL SLOT WINDING FRACTIONAL SLOT WINDING
Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should be an

1.
whole / integral number. fractional number.
Number of slots is integral multiples of
2. Number of slots is integral multiples of three.
three.
Applicable for both single and double Practicable only with double layer
3.
layer winding. arrangement.
Integral slot winding may not appear to be
4. It may appear to be little complicated.
complicated.
5. Manufacturing in little complicated. Easier to manufacture and the cost is low.
Obtained lesser power density compared

6. It is obtained higher power density.
to fractional slot winding.
7. Longer non-over-lapping emf turns. Shorter non over-lapping emf turns.
1.10. Pitch factor or Chording factor: (KP or KC)

Pitch factor is defined as the ratio of emf with short-pitch coil to the emf with full-pitch
coil.
Already we know that, pole-pitch is the distance between the centre lines of adjacent N and
S pole measured along the circumference of armature
surface. When two sides of a coil are full pole pitch
apart, it is called full-pitched coil. The emf in coil
side of a full-pitched coil is in phase.
In practice, coil pitch is less than pole pitch and hence
emfs in the coil sides have a phase difference. The
resultant emf in the coil will be less than that of full-
pitched coil. Therefore, for full-pitch coil,
KP = 1 while for short-pitch coil, KP<1.
Let us consider the coil sides are housed in slots 1 and 7 gives the full-pitched coil. If the
coil-sides are placed in slots 1 and 6 gives short/fractional pitched winding because coil span less
than pole-pitch (<1800 ) or equal to 5/6th pole-pitch.
1800
It falls short by pole-pitch or by = 300 (or) 5/6 one pole pitch
6
5/6 1800 = 1500 (coil span)
Short pitch angle = Pole pitch coil span = 1800 - 1500 = 300

The advantages and disadvantages are already discussed in previous section.

Therefore,
Vector sum of the induced emfs per coil
KP or KC =
arithmatic sum of the induced emfs per coil
It is always less than unity.
Let Es be the induced emf in each side of the coil. If the coil were full-pitched i.e., its two
coil sides were one-pole pitch (1800 ) apart.
Then total induced emf of arithmetic sum is 2Es . (1)
If it is short pitched by 300 (), their resultant Er which is the vector sum of two
voltages with 300 electrical (ES)

From the Vector diagram,

OQR = 1800 - 300
1
OQS = [OQR]
2
1
= (1800 - 300 ) = 750 .
2
or
OQS = 900 - 150 = 750
Er = OR = OS + SR
300 300
= OQ cos + QR cos
2 2
= Es cos 150 + Es cos 150
Er = 2Es cos 150 ..(2)
emf with short-pitched coil

KP or KC =
emf with full-pitched coil
2Es cos 150
=
2Es
KP = cos 150 = 0.966
In general, if the coil span falls short of full pitch by angle i.e., short-pitch angle is denoted
(electrical).

KP or KC = cos
2

1.11. Distribution / Breadth / Belt / Spread factor: (Kd)

Distribution factor is defined as the ratio of emf with distributed winding to the emf with
concentrated winding denoted by Kd.
R, Y, B, R1, Y1, B1 are three-phase windings displaced by 1200 electrical.
From the diagram we can say that it is having 36 slots,
3- winding with distributed winding because coils
are not concentrated or bunched in one slot, but are
distributed in a no. of slots to form a polar groups
under each pole.
Obviously it is having 3 slots/pole/phase because it is

3- winding, single layer winding, 4-pole machine.
Now, these three coils which regress one polar group
are not bunched in one slot but in three different slots.
36
9 = no. of slots per pole =9
4

1800
Angular displacement between any two adjacent slots= = 200
9
If the 3-coils are bunched in one slot (concentrated winding), then the total induced emf
induced in the three coil sides of the coil is arithmetic sum of three emfs. Let ES be magnitude of
each coil side.
i.e., 3ES .. (1)
For distributed winding the three coils are displaced
200 in three different slots. Then the vector sum is,
OC = Er = OE cos 200 + ED + DC cos 200
= Es cos 200 + Es + Es cos 200
= 2Es cos 200 + Es
= 2Es 0.9397 + Es
Er = 2.88Es (2)

(2) emf with distributed winding

Kd = =
(1) emf with concentrated winding
2.88 Es
=
3Es
Kd = 0.96 1
General case:
Let be angular displacement between the slots.
Its value,
1800 1800
= =
no. of slots / pole n
m = no. of slots/pole/phase.
m = spread angle.
Then the resultant emf in one polar group is
mES
(i.e., m AE)
ES = voltage induced in one coil side.
The method for finding the vector sum of m voltages each of value Es and having mutual
phase difference of . (If m is large, then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle of radius
r)

AB = ES = 2r sin
2

Arithmetic sum = mES = m 2r sin .(1)
2
m
Vector sum = AE = Er = 2r sin ..(2)
2
Vector sum of emfs in a coil

Kd =
arithmatic sum of emfs in a coil
m
(2) 2r sin 2
= =
(1) m 2r sin
2
m
sin 2
Kd =
m sin 2

1.12. Induced emf equation of a 3-Alternator:

Let,
= flux per pole (wb)
N = rotor speed (rpm)
F = frequency of induced emf (Hz)
P = no. of poles
Z = no. of conductors/coil sides in series / phase
= 2T
T = no. of turns [one turn = 2coil sides or conductors]
m
sin 2
Kd =Distribution factor=
m sin 2

KP = Pitch factor = cos 2
Kf = form factor = 1.11 for sinusoidal

60
For one revolution of the rotor it takes a time of N sec
Each stator conductor cut by flux of .

Change in flux / pole = d = p
60
Change in time = dt = N
d P NP
= = = Average induced emf / conductor (1)
dt 60 60
N
Now,
PN 120 f
we know that, f = N= (2)
120 P
(2) in (1) as
NP
Avg. emf per conductor =
60
P 120 f
= .
60 P
= 2f (volts)
If there are z conductors in series / phase,
Then average induced emf/conductor = 2fz = 2f(2T) = 4fT
We know,
rms
Form factor = Kf = = 1.11
avg
Then,
RMS value of emf/ph = 1.11 avg.

= 1.11 4fT
Eg(rms) = 4.44fT volts.
But the above equation is not being so, the actual available voltage is reduced in the ratio of
two factors i.e., KP and Kd.
Actual available voltage/ph = 4.44 Kp Kd f T (volts)

If alternator is star connected, then emf is 3 times of phase emf.
Winding factor (Kw):-

It is the product of the distribution and pitch factors.
i.e., Kw = KP Kd
It is denoted by Kw

1.13. Harmonics:
The distortion in an output or input Voltage or Current wave form is called known as
harmonics.
The ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and a tooths which are
causing them. Thus the harmonics which is generated in the emf is due tom slotting called slot
harmonics.
The air-gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path, if made to vary sinusoidal around the
machine the field form and would be sinusoidal
Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether
the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical type rotor construction.
1.14. Harmonics in generated emf wave form:

The major sources of harmonics in an alternator in the output voltage wave form are as
follows:
i. The non-sinusoidal wave form of the field flux.
ii. Variation in reluctance of the air-gap due to the slotting of the stator core.
These are explained by the methodology of wave

shaping as follows.
The flux distribution curve in the air-gap of
an alternator shown in figure is not usually as
rectangular as in a dc machine, but it is not a
perfectly sinusoidal unless the machine has a salient
pole rotor with specially shaped pole shoes, or a
cylindrical rotor with sinusoidal distributed field
winding.
The induced emf wave per conductor is
similar to flux wave since induced emf per
conductor is directly proportional to flux density at
constant speed.

i.e., e=Blv volts

Where, l = length of conductor is constant and
v = velocity or speed is constant
If the winding is full-pitched one, the emfs, induced in two coil sides of each coil will be in
phase and of the same magnitude because at any instant both the sides of the coil lie under
corresponding positions of opposite poles. Hence for full-pitched winding, the induced emf wave
in early coil will have same shape as the emf induced in each coil side.
If concentrated winding is employed, the resulting emf wave will be of the same shape as the
flux density curve (B) as above which is flat-topped.
Let us consider, a phase belt consisting of 3-coils of a 3- alternator having 3 slots per pole per
phase is shown in figure.
The shape of emf wave for each of the 3-full-pitch coils giving one phase of the winding will be
of the shape, as shown in figure by curves I, II and III respectively below.
The slot displacement angle between
the adjacent slots is 20 electrical apart.
1800 1800
i.e., = = = 200
n 9

The resultant emf per phase would be the
phasor sum of the induced emfs in the three
coils which may be obtained by adding the
ordinates of three emfs waves.
The resultant emf per phase (Ep) wave is

not flat topped but is almost sine wave.
Hence the distributed winding is
employed to give emf wave nearly sinusoidal. By using

distributed winding, breadth factor for harmonics is very
much less than for fundamental. So that harmonics are
reduced in the resultant emf wave.
For a fractional pitch winding, the emf in each
coil may be obtained first by adding the emfs of each
coil side graphically and then resultant emf per phase
may be obtained by adding the coil emfs.

The resultant emf per phase for a fractional or short-pitch winding will be more nearly sinusoidal
than for full-pitch winding.
1.14.1. Slot Harmonics:

As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are induced into the emf
which is called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap reluctance at the
surface of the stator non uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a
relative motion between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any point in the
air gap. Due to this the reluctance or the air gap will be continuously varying. Due to this variation of
reluctance ripples will be formed in the air gap between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This
ripple formed in the air gap will induce ripple emf called slot harmonics.
Another kind of harmonic generated in machines called space harmonic. The space
harmonics, are a result of non-sinusoidal distribution of the coils in the machine and slotting. In
practical machine air-gap mmf and flux are non sinusoidally distributed in space.
1.15. Suppression of harmonics in generated emf:

In general for synchronous generators, non-sinusoidal field flux wave form is the major cause
of harmonics in the emf waveform. If field flux waveform is a sinusoidal then there should be no
harmonics in the synchronous generator emf waveform.
In case of salient pole machines, if the air-gap is made to vary sinusoidal around the machine, the
field produced is sinusoidal. An approximate of sinusoidal field form is obtained by skewing the
pole faces.
Skew Pole Face
Pole (Normal) Skewed Face Pole
In cylindrical rotor machines, the length of air-gap is uniform throughout, therefore the
sinusoidal field wave form is obtained, and the mmf of the field winding is made to vary as
nearly sinusoidal as possible.

Now if we consider that an amount of saturation in iron parts, the sinusoidal field form cannot be
obtained in salient pole machines even if the air-gap length is varied sinusoidal.
In cylindrical rotor machines even if the mmf distribution in air-gap is made sinusoidal because
air-gap around the outer periphery should be uniform. An ideal sinusoidal wave form is very
difficult to achieve, and therefore harmonics developed in induced emf.
The harmonics can be easily eliminated from the alternator generated induced emf wave form by
properly designing the windings. The various methods for elimination of harmonics from the
output voltage are,
1) Distributing the armature winding properly.
2) Short-chording or fractionally pitched the armature winding by making the coil-span or
coil-pitch less than a full pole-pitch. (i.e., short-pitch winding)
3) Skewing the pole faces usually through one slot-pitch.
4) In case of salient pole, if we maintain small air-gap at the pole centre and large air-gap
towards the pole ends tends to make the field flux sinusoidal as shown in above figure.
5) Skewing the armature slots, only tooth or slot harmonics can be eliminated.
6) Fractional slot winding: Higher order harmonics can be drastically reduced by using
fractional slot winding. The flux pulsations can be reduced by having number of slots per
pole arc as an integer plus 1/2.
7) Larger air-gap length causes the increases in reluctance which will reduce the harmonics.
8) By making the alternator connections i.e., star or delta connections of alternators suppress
triplen harmonics (multiples of three) from appearing across lines.
1.16. Rating of Alternators:

All power equipments or apparatus whether it is steam engine or gas engine or electric
machine have power ratings defined as the power which can be safely and efficiently delivered by a
machine under some specific conditions or the rating of AC machinery such as alternators,
transformers and cables are determined by their heating and hence by losses them.
Electrical apparatus or machine is usually rated at the load, which it can carry without over-
heating and damage to insulation i.e., rating of electric machine is governed by the temperature
rise caused by the internal losses of the machine. The copper loss in the armature (I2R) depends
upon the strength of the armature current and core loss on voltage and these losses are
independent of power factor.
The output in KW is proportional to power factor for the alternator of a given KVA. For
example output of 1000 KVA alternator will be of full load is 200, 500, 800 and 1000 KW at
power factor of 0.2, 0.5,0.8 and unity respectively, but copper losses in armature will remain
same regardless of power factor.

The prime mover which drives the alternator, have a rating independent of power factor and it
depends on kW output.
Finally we can say that the alternators are rated in kVA or kW at specified power factor.
Other name plate details include:
1. Voltage 2. Current
3. Frequency 4. Speed
5. Number of Poles 6. Field current & Voltage
7. Maximum Temperature rise 8. Number of Phases
1.17. Leakage Reactance or armature leakage reactance (XL):
Leakage reactance is an inductive reactance formed due to air-gap in between armature
conductors and field poles
In an a.c. machine, any flux set up by the
load current which does not contribute to
the useful flux or main flux of the machine
is a leakage flux.
This leakage fluxes may be classified as
1. Slot leakage
2. Tooth head leakage
3. Coil-end or overhang leakage
When a current flow through the armature
conductors or stator conductors, the flux is set up a
portion of this flux does not cross the air-gap, but
completes its path in stator as shown in figure.
Such a flux is known as leakage flux.
This effect gives the armature a reactance which is numerically equal to 2 f L. L, in henries, is
the leakage inductance of winding
This leakage flux is proportional to stator or armature current, since the magnetic path it covers is
not normally saturated. It also depends on the phase angle between the stator current and voltage
applied across the stator.

The leakage flux sets up an emf of self inductance leading the load current I by and
2
proportional to load current I in magnitude. Hence armature winding is assumed to possess

leakage reactance (XL) such that the voltage drop due to it, I XL is equal to an emf set by leakage
flux. A part of the generated emf is used up to overcome this leakage reactance drop in addition to
armature drop.
i.e., Generated emf = phasor sum of terminal voltage, armature resistance drop.

1.18. Armature Reaction:

The action of armature flux on main flux is called known as Armature Reaction.
In dc machine, the armature mmf (ampere-turns) acts on the magnetic circuit of the machine in
such a way as to distort the air-gap flux and to charge its magnitude. For a given armature
current, the direction and magnitude of armature reaction depends on the position of brushes.
In an alternator, somewhat similar conditions exist. For a given armature current, the magnitude
and direction of the armature reaction cannot depends on the brush position as in case of dc
machine, but depends on phase displacement of stator current I with respect to emf E induced
in the stator winding by the field winding flux.
i.e., for,
DC Machine Armature Reaction depends on position of brushes.
Alternator Armature Reaction depends on phase angle displacement of load current I and
induced emf E.
In an alternator the phase displacement or phase angle - between current I and emf E can
be within the limits of,

2 2
We will consider three cases,
i.e.,
i. When = 0 i.e., when the power factor of load is unity.

ii. When = +2 i.e., when the power factor is zero and lagging.

iii. When = -2 i.e., when the power factor of load is zero and leading.
1.19.1. At unity power factor:

The distribution of the stator currents and fluxes of an alternator with zero phase displacement
between current I and emf E (i.e., when pf is unity) Assuming the rotation of the poles to be
clockwise is shown in above figure.
The crosses (+) and dots (.) appeasing in the conductor cross sections indicate the
instantaneous direction of the emfs induced and currents flowing.
Cross indicating the inward direction and dot indicating the outward direction. The maximum of
the fundamental wave of the field will be opposite to the pole centers and at the same points the
conductors have their maximum induced emf.
With =0 the conductors carrying the maximum current will also be at the same points, as shown
in the figure. The armature reaction mmf is perpendicular to the main field mmf, as in case of a
dc machine with brushes on the neutral axis.

This causes the distortion of the flux due to main field and asymmetrical distribution of the flux
density under the pole shoe. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat,
while under the leading pole lips it decreases.
The axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction mmf in a
direction opposite to that of rotation of the rotor.
Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect.
1.19.2. At lagging zero power factor:

The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle = +2 radians i.e., for a purely
inductive load is shown above. The current maximum will be shifted in space by an angle 900 from
the emf maximum, which coincides with the centre of the poles. This shift will be opposite to
direction of rotation, because the fundamental armature reaction wave rotates in step with the field
poles.


While when = +2, current wave lags behind the emf wave by an angle 900. The field created by the
armature reaction mmf will be in opposite to main field flux and will,
Therefore, have a wholly de-magnetizing effect.
1.19.3. At leading zero power factor:

The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle -2 i.e., for a purely capacitive load is
shown below.
The maximum current will be shifted to the right from the maximum emf, which remains as before
under the pole centres and the armature reaction will,
Therefore have a wholly magnetizing effect on the main field.

For any power factor cos of load, the armature reaction has cross-magnetizing component
proportional I cos and demagnetizing component proportional to I sin, and is taken +ve for
lagging power and ve for leading power factor.
The phasor sum of the fundamental armature winding and field winding mmf waves constitutes,
in a synchronous machine, the mmf creating the resultant magnetic flux.
1.20. Nature of Armature Reaction:

The nature of the armature reaction is dependent on the power factor at which the machine is
operating and upon the operating mode of synchronous machine. For simplicity of explanation, it will
be assumed that the armature resistance (Ra) and leakage reactance (XL) are negligible so that,
Vt = Eg
The below phasor diagrams, with component fluxes indicated therein for an alternator for
zero power factor lagging, zero power factor leading, unity power factor. The following observations
are immediately made from the phasor diagrams.

Where, ar = armature flux component

f = field flux component
r = resultant flux component
Armature reaction is demagnetizing (ar opposes f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
lagging current.
Armature reaction is magnetizing (ar aids f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
leading current.
Armature reaction is mostly cross-magnetizing (i.e., at 900 to f) though it has a small
demagnetizing component shown when an alternator supplies a unity power factor current.
From the above discussion, we conclude that for an alternator,
It supplies a lagging power factor current; the armature reaction has both demagnetizing and
cross-magnetizing components.
It supplies leading power factor current, the armature reaction has both magnetizing and cross-
magnetizing components.
Power Factor Armature Reaction
Unity Purely Cross Magnetization or Distortion
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Lagging Purely Demagnetization
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Leading Purely Magnetization
0.8, Lagging Partly demagnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization
0.8, Leading Partly Magnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization
1.21. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE:

1.21.1. Synchronous Reactance: (XS) [XS = XL + Xa]
The armature reactance is the reactance which is due to armature reaction.

The emf set up due to armature reaction mmf is always quadrature with load current IL and is
proportional to it. Thus it is equivalent to an emf induced in an inductive coil and the effect of
armature reaction can, therefore, be considered equivalent to reactance drop IXa. Where Xa
which takes care of the armature reaction effect.
The armature winding possess a certain leakage reactance (XL) already discussed. The sum of
XL and Xa is called the synchronous reactance.
XS = XL + Xa
1.21.2. Effective Resistance: (Re)

The effective resistance of the armature winding is somewhat greater than the conductor
resistance called the dc resistance. This is due to additional loss, over the purely I2R loss, inside and
sometimes outside the conductor due to alternating current (AC). The main sources of this additional
loss are,
i. Eddy current in the outer periphery.
ii. Magnetic hysteresis in the surrounding material.
iii. Eddy currents or unequal current distribution in the conductor itself.
In many cases it is sufficiently accurate to measure armature resistance by dc called the effective
resistance (Re) which is large enough to take care of these additional losses. Re can vary widely
from 1.25 to 1.75 or more times to dc resistance depending upon design.
1.21.3. Synchronous impedance: (ZS)

When the synchronous reactance (XS) is combined with the armature resistance (Re), then the
quantity obtained is called the Synchronous impedance (ZS).
i.e., ZS = Re + jXS
Armature winding effective resistance (Re) in alternators usually very small in comparison to
synchronous reactance (XS) and therefore ZS may be assumed to XS.
1.22. Alternator ON-LOAD:

If the excitation of an alternator adjusted to give normal voltage at no-load and then a load is
applied, the terminal voltage of an alternator changes, even though the speed is kept constant. The
voltage usually falls, but in certain circumstances it may rise even.
The change in terminal voltage of an alternator with the change in load supplied by it is due to
the following reasons.
i. Voltage drop account of armature effective resistance (Re).

ii. Voltage drop on account of leakage reactance (XL).

iii. Voltage drop on account of armature reaction.
D
E0
Ia Xa
From the Phasor diagram of
lagging power factor,
Ia XS
Ia is taken as reference vector
Ia Xl
OD2 = OB2 + BD2
V E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2

Ia Re C
V sin
E0 = (V cos + IaRe )2 +(V sin + Ia Xs )2

O Ia A B
V cos Ia Re
Lagging Power Factor
Ia
D
From the Phasor diagram of leading power
factor,
E0 C
V is taken as reference vector E
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2
B

2 V
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re )2 + V sin - Ia Xs
O A
Leading Power Factor
D
E0 From the Phasor diagram of unity
Ia Xa
power factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
Ia XS
E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2

Ia Xl
Ia V Ia Re
O E0 = ( V +Ia Re)2 +(Ia Xs )2
A B C
Unity Power Factor

1.23. Equivalent Circuit:

When the alternator is operating at no-load (i.e., rotor is rotating and energized and stator is
open-circuited) its circuit diagram is shown below.
Each phase generates an emf E0 per phase as shown. The equivalent circuit of an alternator for
one phase is shown.
At no-load, the terminal voltage V per phase is equal to excitation (or) generated emf E0 per phase
i.e., V = E0
1.24. Load characteristics:
Already we know that if the exciting current and speed remain constant, the terminal voltage
of an alternator changes with the change in the load (or) armature current.
The relation-ship between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I) of an alternator is known as
its Load characteristics.
The curves showing the variation of terminal voltage V with load current I for constant
excitation for different power factor loads are given. The curves are plotted in terms of percentage
values general operating conditions can be marked better in this way.

0.8 Leading PF
100
(Percent Terminal Voltage) Unity PF
0.8 Lagging PF
Vt (Volts)
0 220
Isc (Amps)
(Percent Load Current)
Normally the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current, but when the power factor is
leading one, the load characteristic may rise at first due to armature reaction effect (i.e.,
magnetization). Each curve is nearly straight line at the beginning but trends to droop because,
with the increase in load current, the angle of lag between current and emf, owing to the original
field increases.
The highest current is obtained when the alternator terminals are short-circuited, the value being
given as
E0
Isc = (A)
Zs
where, E0 is non-load terminal voltage and Zs is the synchronous impedance.
1.25. Experimental determination of Zs:

1.25.1. Open circuit test:
The connection for open circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. The armature
winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or synchronous
speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat and an
ammeter.
By adjusting the field rheostat to maximum to minimum the field current If is taken from
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Eg0 is also minimum to maximum
taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.

Draw the open circuit characteristic curve (OCC curve) from the above readings. i.e., If on x-
axis and Eg on y-axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star Ego/ph = ].
3
1.25.2. Short circuit test:

The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the below circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover.
All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value
is inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.
Now the field current If is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.

1.25.3. OC & SC Characteristic curves:
The synchronous impedance Zs can be obtained by above graphical representation of occ

and scc curve.
Open circuit induced emf
i.e., ZS =
Short circuit current
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
1.26. Determination of effective armature resistance: (Re)
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Voltmeter (A-V method) or by using Wheatstone bridge.
The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeters to parallel.
Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives Re. i.e. Ra = .
Ia
The Re value which we obtained is dc by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to skin
effect.
i.e., RAC = 1.5 RDC

Finally, we obtained the synchronous impedance Zs from OC and SC test, Re obtained by A-V
method then Xs as,
Synchronous Reactance =XS = Z2S - R2e
1.27. Winding factor: (Harmonics Consideration)

The product of distribution factor (Kd) and the pitch factor (Kp) is referred as the winding
factor (Kw).
Kw = Kd *Kp
3- alternators are invariably star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th harmonics (i.e. multiples of 3,
called triplen) from line emfs through 5th and 7th harmonic emfs of reduced magnitude are present
in the lines.
Already we know the emf equation of 3- alternator,
E
i.e. = 4.44 Kp Kd f T volts.
ph
From the above equation, the fundamental emf per phase is,
Ep1 = 4.44 * Kw1 * 1 * (1f) * T .. (1)
For 3rd harmonic, emf per phase is
Ep3 = 4.44 * Kw3 * 3 * (3f) * T .. (2)
In general, for hth harmonic, emf per phase is
Eph = 4.44 * Kwh * h * (hf) * T .. (3)
Here subscripts 1, 3 and h denotes fundamental, third and hth harmonics respectively.
From Eph and Ep1 expressions, the hth harmonic and fundamental rms phase emfs are related

(3) Eph Kwh h h

= = * ..(3a)
(1) Ep1 Kw1 1
Also,
1= total value of fundamental flux per pole
= (Avg. Flux density) . (Area under pole)
2 DL
= B1 *
P
2DL
= .B1 ..(4)
P
Where,
B1 = peak value of fundamental component of flux density.
D = Air-gap diameter of armature.
L = Core Length of armature.
Similarly, 3 from equ, (4) as

2DL
3 = B
3P 3
In general,
2DL
h = B
hP h
From the above,

h 1 Bh Bh hh
= . =
1 h B1 B1 1
From equation 3a
Eph Kwh hh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 1
Eph Kwh 1 Bh
= .h. .
Ep1 Kw1 h B1
Eph Kwh Bh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 B1
The rms phase emf is,

Eph =[Ep1 2 +Ep3 2 + ---+Eph 2 ]1/2

1.28. Fictitious Poles:

In case of a magnets dipole it is not possible to identify any two particular points as poles of
the magnet. So, every magnetic dipole is supposed to be made up of two imaginary poles called
fictitious poles of equal strength but opposite polarity.
The fictitious poles can be obtained by extending the magnetic lines of forces inside the magnet.
Thus, the actual distance between the fictitious poles is less than the distance between the ends of the
magnet. The distance between the fictitious poles of a magnet is called the magnetic length of the
magnet. It is represented by 21, where / is the distance of each pole of the magnet from its centre. So,
the actual magnetic length of a magnet is slightly less than its geometrical length. The relation
between these lengths is as follows. Magnetic length = 5/6 geometrical length.


UNIT II
REGULATION OF
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS
Electrical Machines-III Regulation of Synchronous Generator
UNIT II
2. REGULATION OF SYNCHRONOUS Generator
2.1. Voltage Regulation:

The variation in the voltage between no-load and full-load is called the voltage regulation.
As we know that the voltage regulation of dc generator should depends on,
i. the resistance the main or armature circuit
ii. the magnitude of the armature current
iii. the armature reaction (i.e., the effect of the armature flux on main flux)
In case of the synchronous generator or alternator, in addition to above 3 factors in dc generator,
the voltage regulation depends upon the power factor and armature leakage reactance also.
Voltage Regulation of an alternator is defined as the ratio of rise in voltage (E0-V) when full-
load is suddenly removed (field excitation and speed remaining the same) to the rated terminal voltage.
Rise in voltage = E0-V is the arithmetic difference not the vector difference.
E0 = Maximum no-load induced emf magnitude
V = Terminal voltage of an alternator.
Voltage regulation depends on power factor cos
E0 - V
% Regulation 'up' = 100
V
If we can change the load of an alternator, there is a change in terminal voltage (V). The
magnitude of terminal voltage change depends on,
i. load can changes, the terminal voltage magnitude changes and the power factor (cos )
also. [ since V = E - Ia (Re + j Xs) ]
ii. excitation can changes, the magnitude of terminal voltage changes (V).
In case of leading load power factor, terminal voltage (V) will fall on removing full-load. At
lower leading load power factor v rises with the increase of load, and hence the regulation is
-ve.
For unity and lagging power factors, there is always a voltage drop with increase of load.
The rise in voltage when full-load is removed is not same when full-load is applied.
Note:
1) V < E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is POSITIVE for LAGGING & UNITY power factor
loads.
2) V > E0, i.e., the voltage regulation is NEGATIVE for LEADING power factor loads.
Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D) NECGUDUR 43

3) A normal alternator has a regulation of about 8-10% at unity power factor (UPF), but the
voltage rise is considerably increased at lagging power factors. The regulation is about 23-
35%, or even more
2.2. Determination of voltage regulation:

The following methods which are used to determine the voltage regulation i.e.,
I. Direct loading method (small rating machines i.e., 5 KVA)
II. Indirect loading method ( >5 KVA )
2.2.1. Direct loading method:

This method is applicable only for the alternators, which their rating is 5 KVA. Because for
medium and large rating alternators, it requires more power and more losses were occurred.
In this, the alternator is runs at synchronous speed (Ns) and its terminal voltage is adjusted to its
rated value (V). The load is varied until the ammeter, wattmeter indicates the rated values at
given power factor.
Then the load removed, the speed and excitation at kept at constant. The open circuit or no-load
induced emf recorded E0.
E0 - V
% Voltage Regulation = 100
V
2.2.2. Indirect loading method:

For large and medium rating (> 5 KVA) alternators, the regulation which can be determine by
using indirect loading method. Here the load is not applied directly but rated values are given to
alternator. There are various methods to determine the voltage regulation. Some of them ignore the
effect of saturation and some do consider. The following methods are used to obtain the voltage
regulation.
They are,
1. EMF or Synchronous Impedance or Pessimistic or Unsaturated Synchronous Impedance method
2. MMF or Ampere-Turns or ROTHERTS Ampere-Turns or Optimistic method
3. Zero Power Factor or ZPF or Potier Triangle method
4. ASA (American Standards Association) method

All the above methods require,
a) Open Circuit or No-Load Characteristic Curve (OCC Curve)
b) Short Circuit Characteristic Curve (SCC Curve)
c) Armature effective resistance or Stator resistance (Re)

2.2.3. Open Circuit or No-Load Test: (To obtain OCC Curve)
The connection for Open Circuit test or No-Load test is shown in above circuit diagram. The
armature winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or
synchronous speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat
and an ammeter.
By adjusting the field rheostat from maximum to minimum, the field current If is taken through
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Ego or no-load generated emf is also
reads minimum to maximum taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.
Draw the Open Circuit Characteristic Curve (OCC Curve) from the above readings. i.e., If on
x-axis and Ego on y-axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star connected armature, Ego/ph = ].
3
2.2.4. Short Circuit Test: (To obtain SCC Curve)

The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover.
All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value is
inserted in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.
Now the field current If is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC Curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.
The OCC Curve and SCC Curve can be plotted with the common field current axis as shown
below. From these, the value of Synchronous Impedance (Zs) will be calculated.
The Synchronous Impedance Zs can be obtained by above graphical representation of OCC and
SCC Curve.

i.e., Zs = at constant excitation or same field current axis
Eoc
Zs =
Isc

2.2.5. Ammeter Voltmeter Method: (To obtain the value of Re)
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Voltmeter method (AV-method) or by using Wheatstone bridge.
The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeter to parallel.
Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives Ra. i.e., Ra = .
Ia
The Ra value which we obtained is DC so by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to

skin effect and the other losses.
i.e., RAC = 1.5* RDC
Re = RAC
Finally, we obtained the Synchronous Impedance Zs from OC and SC test, Re obtained by A-
V method then Xs as,
Synchronous Reactance = Xs = Zs2 - Re 2

2.3. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method:

This method is also called as Pessimistic or unsaturated synchronous impedance method.
Assumptions:
In this method the assumptions are,
The drop due to armature reaction is considered as drop due to additional leakage reactance
means the entire drop assumed as drop due to leakage reactance (XL). IXL which depends on
voltage so that it can be represented as Voltage Vectors or EMF Vectors. Thats the reason
why this method is called as EMF method.
The flux under test conditions is the same as that under load conditions.
The synchronous impedance (Zs) is constant. The Zs is determined by the OCC & SCC. At all
times, the Zs is the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current. When the OCC
curve & SCC curve are linear, the synchronous impedance is constant. Above the knee of the
OCC when the saturation starts, the Zs decreases due to fact that both OCC & SCC approaches
to each other. The Zs obtained test condition is below saturation is larger than the normal (when
the magnetic circuit becomes saturated). Thus we do not take the effect of saturation. This is the
greatest source of error in the synchronous impedance method.
The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is constant regardless of the power factor. For a
cylindrical rotor machine this assumption is true because of the uniform air-gap. In salient-pole
machines, the position of the armature flux relative to the field poles varies with the power
factor.
There is no saturation effect.
Steps to find the regulation:

i. OCC curve is plotted from the OC test. (refer OC test)
ii. SCC curve is drawn from the short-circuit test data (refer SC test). It is a straight line
passing through the origin.
Both these curve are drawn on a common field current (If) axis.
iii. Consider a field current (If) with respective to the short circuit current or full load current
Isc and draw a dotted line to that If which cuts occ at Eoc, the terminal voltage zero when
it is in short-circuit.
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
iv. Armature effective resistance can be obtained by A-V method (refer A-V method).
v. The synchronous reactance can be determined by,
Xs = Zs 2 - Re 2

This emf method is not accurate, because the value of Zs is always more than its actual value
under normal voltage and saturation condition.
From the above, the If is same for both OC and SC test. It is observed from the graph it cannot
cross the saturation of OCC curve. So that the Zs is also called as Unsaturated synchronous
impedance.
Eoc
i.e., Zs(unsaturated) = (If is at Isc or Ifl)
Isc
Zs(un sat) > Zs(sat) (or) Zs(un sat) > Zs(actual)
So that this method is also called as Unsaturated synchronous impedance method. Hence, the
value of regulation obtained is more than its actual value.
i.e., Reg(emf) > Reg(act)
Thats the reason why it is called Pessimistic method.

The value of Zs is not constant; it can be varied with saturation. At low saturation or un
saturation its value is larger because then the effect of a given ampere-turns is more than that
high saturation.
Under short circuit condition, saturation is very low, because armature mmf is directly
demagnetizing.
In this method, the value of Zs is usually obtained from full-load current in the short-circuit
test. Here, armature reactance Xa has not been treated separately but taken along with leakage
reactance XL.
Value of E0 (for lagging load)

Considering load current (Ia) as a
reference, lagging load current Ia is lags behind
the voltage (V) by an angle .
From the Phasor diagram of lagging power

factor,
OD2 = OB2 + BD2
E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2
E0 = (V cos + IaRe )2 +(V sin + Ia Xs )2
For leading load:

Consider terminal voltage (V) as a
reference, load current (Ia) leads terminal voltage
V by an angle .
From the Phasor diagram of leading power factor,
OC2 = OD2 + DC2

E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2
2
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 + V sin - Ia Xs

For Unity Power factor load:

Consider terminal voltage (V) and load
current (Ia) both are in phase i.e., = 00.
From the Phasor diagram of unity power

factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2
E0 = (V+ Ia Re)2 + (Ia Xs )2
E0 - V
% Voltage regulation = 100 about 30%
V
Where, V = terminal voltage obtained by rating of an alternator.
2.4. MMF method or Ampere-Turn method:

This method is also called as ROTHERTS MMF or Optimistic method.
Assumptions:
The drop due to leakage reactance is considered as drop due to additional armature reaction
means entire drop is assumed to be drop due to armature reaction (IXa).
Since armature reaction is flux phenomena, so drop due to armature reaction is represented with a
field current vectors (or) mmf vectors. That is the reason why it is called as MMF method.

i. OCC curve is obtained by conduction of OC test.
ii. SCC curve is obtained by conducting SC test i.e., field excitation is adjusted to full-load
current or short circuit current flows through short circuit path of an alternator load
terminals.
From the below,
Ifm is the main field current required to generate rated induced emf under Open-Circuit condition
Ifr is the main field current required to produce the armature or full load current under Short-
Circuit Condition

Ift is the main field current which gives the maximum open circuit induced EMF
Ift , Ifm and Ifr are also represented in terms of fm , fr and ft respectively.
Ift = Ifm + Ifr
Ifm is required to compensate the armature reaction under various load conditions.
For Lagging power factor load:

Here Ifm and E are taken as reference vectors
Ifr lags behind E by
Ifr1 and Ift1 are actual values i.e., obtained by

direct load method
For lagging, Ift angle 900 +

For Leading power factor load:
Ifr leads E by
= Load power factor angle
For leading, Ift angle 900 -
For Unity power factor load:
Ifr and E are reference vectors

Ifr and E both are in phase, because = 0
cos = 1
For unity, Ift angle 900
Ifm which gives the induced EMF at rated value. (i.e., E)

Ift which gives the maximum no-load or open-circuit induced emf (i.e., E0) measure E0 value
corresponding to Ift from OCC curve.
Ifr is not sufficient to give the required field flux lines, because the field poles are saturated. So
more field current required.
E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100
V
In this method, the field current is to overcome the armature reaction is measured from short
circuit condition where the field poles are active.
But under running condition or actual load condition more field current (Ifr1) required. Since
the field poles are little saturated. Therefore E0 is more.
So that actual regulation is less than mmf regulation. Thats why it is also named as
Optimistic method
i.e., Reg(mmf) < Reg(actual) about 15%
This method is also not an accurate method.

2.5. Zero Power Factor (ZPF) or Potier Triangle or Power Triangle method:
It makes use of the first two methods to some extent.
Assumptions:
In this method the assumptions taken are as follows i.e.,
Here the drop due to armature reactance (Xa) and leakage reactance (XL) are taken as
separately. Hence it gives the more accurate results.
The effective armature resistance (Re) is neglected.
The leakage reactance drop IaXL is independent of excitation.
The armature reaction mmf is constant.
The OCC taken on no-load accurately represents the relation between mmf and voltage on
load.
1. No-Load or Open Circuit Characteristic curve (OCC curve) obtained by OC test.
2. Full-Load zero power factor curve (not the SCC curve) also called the wattless load
characteristic. It is the curve of terminal voltage against excitation when armature is
delivering full-load current at zero power factor.
In this method, the drop due to armature reactance and leakage reactance combinely gives the
maximum open circuit induced emf (E0). It should be noted that if we vectorially add to V, the
drop due to leakage reactance (XL) and effective resistance (Re) we get E. if further added the
drop due to Xa gives the E0.

The zero power factor full-load lagging curve can be obtained from,
a. If a similar machine is available, which may be driven at no-load as a synchronous motor
at practically zero power factor
b. Loading the alternators with pure reactors.
c. Connecting the alternators to a 3- line with ammeters and wattmeters connected for
measuring current and power, by so adjusting the field current that we get full-load
armature current with zero wattmeter reading.
P point was obtained when wattmeter was reading zero.

A point was obtained from a short-circuit test field current with a full-load armature current.
(i.e., Ifr)
OA represents field current which is equal and opposite to the demagnetizing armature
reaction and balancing leakage reactance drop at full-load.
By knowing P and A points, the full-load curve at zero power factor A P is drawn.
From P, PQ is drawn equal to and parallel to OA. From point Q, QR is drawn parallel to
OE i.e., tangential or air-gap line. Hence we get R point on No-Load or OCC curve, which
corresponds to point P on full-load zero power factor curve. The triangle PRS called
known as potier triangle. This triangle is constant for a given armature current.
Draw RS perpendicular to PQ. The length RS represents the drop in voltage due to armature
leakage reactance XL.
i.e., RS = IXL & PT = Ia(Xa + X L)
PS = field current necessary to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction at full-load.
SQ = the field current required to balance the armature leakage reactance drop RS.
Vector diagram for lagging load:
D
Ifr
Ift
900+
B
Ifm
E0 T
IaXa
900 E
R
0
90
S IaXL
O
V
IaRe
Ia

The OBD which is obtained from the graphical representation. For that,
Ift D

Ifr
900
O Ifm B C
OD2 = (OB+BC)2 + CD2
Ift = (Ifm + Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2
E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 20%
V
Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as mentioned in
MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift for voltage regulation.
2.6. ASA (American Standards Association) method:

It is the combination of MMF and ZPF method and is a most accurate method. The drop
due to saturation also considered. In the EMF, MMF, ZPF methods the saturation is not considered.
1. No-Load or Open Circuit Characteristic curve (OCC curve) obtained by OC test.
2. Full-Load zero power factor curve (not the SCC curve) also called the wattless load
characteristic considering saturation. It is the curve of terminal voltage against excitation
when armature is delivering current at zero power factor (Ia or IL = Constant).
In this method, the drop due to armature reactance and leakage reactance combinely gives the
maximum open circuit induced emf (E0). It should be noted that if we vectorially add to V,
the drop due to leakage reactance (XL) and effective resistance (Re) we get E. if further added
the drop due to Xa gives the E0.
P point was obtained when wattmeter was reading zero.

A point was obtained from a short-circuit test field current with a full-load armature current.
(i.e., Ifr)

OA represents field current which is equal and opposite to the demagnetizing armature
reaction and balancing leakage reactance drop at full-load.
By knowing P and A points, the full-load curve at zero power factor A P is drawn.
From P, PQ is drawn equal to and parallel to OA. From point Q, QR is drawn parallel to
OE i.e., tangential or air-gap line. Hence we get R point on No-Load or OCC curve, which
corresponds to point P on full-load zero power factor curve. The triangle PRS called
known as potier triangle. This triangle is constant for a given armature current.
Draw RS perpendicular to PQ. The length RS represents the drop in voltage due to armature
leakage reactance XL.
i.e., RS = IXL & PT = Ia(Xa + X L)

PS = field current necessary to overcome demagnetizing effect of armature reaction at full-load.
SQ = balancing the armature leakage reactance drop RS.

Vector diagram for lagging load:
Ift1 = field current to compensate drop due to saturation and is added in phase with Ift
Measure E0 corresponding to Ift1 .
E0 -V
% Voltage regulation = *100 about 25% to 28%
V
Similarly the vector or phasor diagrams for leading and unity power factor loads as
mentioned in MMF method. The value of E0 can be obtained with respective to Ift1 for voltage
regulation.
Note: Finally the Voltage Regulation of an Alternator as,
EMF method > ASA method > ZPF method > MMF method
i.e., we concluded that among the four methods the ASA & ZPF method will gives accurate
regulation compared to EMF & MMF
2.7. Two Reaction or BLONDEL Two Reaction theory:

Already we know that armature reaction is directly proportional to armature reactance
(Xa) and inversely proportional to air gap.
1 1
i.e., Air-Gap Length
armature reaction Xa
In cylindrical type synchronous machine, the air-gap length is uniform. So the armature reaction
is same in between stator conductors and field poles. So Xa is same i.e. single reactance is
sufficient for modeling the armature reaction.
In salient-pole type synchronous machine, air-gap is minimum in d-axis or direct-axis and
maximum in q-axis or quadrature or inter polar axis. So it requires both reactances i.e. Xd and Xq
for modeling the armature reaction.

In cylindrical rotor synchronous machine, the air-gap is uniform around the entire air-gap
periphery. So armature reaction is same along the d-axis and q-axis. So finally we concluded
that a single reactance is sufficient for modeling the armature reactance because Xd = Xq.
But in salient pole synchronous machine, the armature reaction is maximum in d-axis and
1
air-gap
armature reaction
the armature reaction is minimum in q-axis.
1
air-gap
armature reaction
So single reactance is not sufficient to modeling the armature reaction, it requires Xad and Xaq
i.e., Xd and Xq.
Xad > Xaq
Leakage reactance (XL) is same along d-axis and q-axis because it is independent of air-gap
length and dependent applied voltage and flux leakage. Therefore,
Xd = Xad + XL
Xq = Xaq + XL
Where,
Xd = direct axis synchronous reactance.
Xq = quadrature axis or interpolar axis synchronous reactance.
Xad = direct axis armature reactance.
Xaq = quadrature axis armature reactance.
XL = leakage reactance.
In general, Xd > Xq. i.e., Xd (1.5 to 2) times of Xq.
Xd -

Xq = saliency. So that it is called as Salient pole synchronous machine.

For cylindrical type synchronous machine,
Xd - Xq = Zero saliency or non-saliency.
Because Xd = Xq due to uniform air gap.
Thats the reason why it is also called as Non-Salient pole type alternator.
2.8. Determination of Xd and Xq of a Salient pole synchronous machine:

The direct axis synchronous reactance (Xd) can be determined from OC and SC tests and
quadrature or interpolar axis synchronous reactance can be obtained from following three methods.
i.e., 1. Slip-test
2. Maximum lagging current test
3. Reluctance motor.
2.8.1. Slip Test:

From the slip-test, the values of Xq and Xd can be determined. The synchronous machine is
driven by a separate prime-mover at a speed slightly different from synchronous speed (Ns).
The field winding is left open and +ve sequence balanced voltages of reduced magnitude
(around 25% of rated value) and if rated frequency are impressed across the armature
terminals.
Under these conditions, the relative velocity between the field poles and the rotating armature
mmf wave is equal to the difference between synchronous speed and the rotor speed, i.e., slip
speed.

A small ac voltage across the open field winding indicates that the field poles and rotating
mmf wave is revolving in the same direction then that should be required for slip test.
If field poles revolve in a direction opposite to the rotating mmf wave ve sequence reactance
would be measured.
At one instant, the peak of armature mmf wave is in line with the filed pole or direct axis, the
reluctance offered by the small air gap is minimum as shown in above figure. At this instant,
the terminal voltage per phase divided by the corresponding armature current per phase gives
d-axis synchronous reactance. (Xd).
Vmax
Xd = because air-gap is minimum
Imin
After one quarter (1/4) of slip cycle, the peak of armature mmf wave acts on the inter polar
or q-axis of the magnetic circuit, and reluctance offered by long air-gap is maximum. At this
instant,
Vmin
Xq = because reluctance in air-gap is maximum
Imax
During this test, the induced emf in open field winding is AC Sinusoidal at Slip-frequency.
Rotating field is driven at less than Ns because when the rotor is driven at Ns, the flux linkages
are maximum, so Ia is minimum always. So we want to get maximum values of Ia i.e., field is in
locking with the stator poles.
Oscillograms of armature current and terminal voltage and the emf induced in open circuit field
winding is shown below.
When performing this test, the slip should by small as possible, otherwise the currents induced
in the magnetic
circuits
would cause large
errors in the

measurement of Xd and Xq. The advantages of oscillographic method over Voltmeter

Ammeter method are,
i. elimination of the inertia effects of voltmeter and ammeter.

ii. the possibility of large slip-speed.
2.9. Phasor diagram of Salient Pole Synchronous Machine:

For a generator, the voltages are generated and the currents are opposite currents. For a
synchronous motor, the voltages are applied and the currents are input currents.
Let us consider Eg as a reference vector.
= load angle or torque angle between Eg and V
For Lagging Load:
= phase angle between V and Ia. (Ia lags behind V by )

= + (lagging, angle between Eg and Ia)
Id = direct axis armature current = Ia sin
Iq = quadrature or inter polar axis armature current
= Ia cos = Ia cos (+)
Eg = OB = OE + ED + DB
Eg = Vcos + Iq Ra + Id Xd (1) lagging power factor load.

From the above phasor diagram tan can be obtained as, (one part of an above vector diagram).
Base QA QD + DA
tan = = =
opposite side QO OP + PQ
V sin + Ia Xq
tan = (2) lagging power factor.
V cos + Ia Ra

For leading power factor load:

Let us consider, Eg as reference vector,
= angle between Eg and Ia
The vector diagram as follows:
Leading power factor load means V leads Eg by load angle of
Eg = V cos - Id Xd - Iq Ra
Eg 1 = V cos +Iq Ra - Id Xd (3) considering Ef
V sin - Ia Xq
tan = (4)
V cos + Ia Ra
For a synchronous generator, finally we concluded from (1), (2), (3) and (4) equations.
Eg = V cos +Iq Ra Id Xd

+ve for lagging load

-ve for leading power factor load
V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos + Ia Ra
=+ for lagging load +ve

=- for leading load -ve
Thus, for the synchronous motor -Ia is substituted for the above equations instead of Ia.
Therefore,
For salient pole synchronous motor,
Id = Ia sin
Iq = Ia cos
= -ve for lagging power factor load

+ve for lagging power factor load
E = V cos -Iq Ra Id Xd -ve for lagging power factor load

+ve for leading power factor load
V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos - IaRa
2.10. Short Circuit Ratio (SCR):

The Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine is defined as the ratio of the field
current required to generate rated voltage on an open circuit to the field current required to circulate
rated armature current on short circuit. The Short Circuit Ratio can be calculated from the Open
Circuit Characteristic (OCC) at rated speed and the Short Circuit Characteristic (SCC) of a three-
phase synchronous machine.
main field current required to generate rated voltage under OC condition (Ifm )
SCR=
main field current required to produce rated armature current (Ifr )
SCR Ranges
For cylindrical rotor type synchronous machine - 0.6 to 0.9
For salient pole rotor type synchronous machine - 0.9 to 1.5

Formulaes
1. % age voltage Regulation

E0 - V
% Regulation = 100
V
where,
Rise in voltage = E0-V is the arithmetic difference not the vector difference.
E0 = Maximum no-load induced emf magnitude
V = Terminal voltage of an alternator.
2. Terminal Voltage of an alternator

V = E - Ia (Re + j Xs)
where,
E = induced emf of an alternator (volts)
Ia = load or armature current (Amps)
Re = effective armature resistance [i.e., Re = RAC = 1.5 * RDC] ()
Xs = Synchronous Reactance [Xs = Xa + XL] () or
Xs = Zs 2 - Re2
Zs = Synchronous impedance ()
i.e., Zs = at constant excitation or same field current axis
Eoc
Zs =
Isc
3. EMF method (30% regulation)

Value of E0 for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 +(V sin + Ia Xs )2
Value of E0 for leading power factor, from phasor diagram
E0 = (V cos + Ia Re)2 +(V sin - IaXs )2
Value of E0 for unity power factor, from phasor diagram
E0 = (V+ Ia Re)2 + (IaXs )2

4. MMF method (15% regulation)

Value of Ift for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 + )
Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 - )
Ift = (Ifm - Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2
Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900)
Ift = (Ifm )2 + (Ifr )2

Where,
Ifm = field current at rated induced emf (E)
Ifr = field current at rated or Full Load or short circuit current (Irated or IFL or Isc)
Ift = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0)
5. ZPF method (20% regulation)

Value of Ift for lagging power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 + )
Value of Ift for leading power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900 - )
Ift = (Ifm - Ifr sin )2 + (Ifr cos )2
Value of Ift for unity power factor, from phasor diagram (Ift angle 900)
Ift = (Ifm )2 + (Ifr )2

Where,
Ifm = field current at rated induced emf (E)
Ifr = field current at rated or Full Load or short circuit current (Irated or IFL or Isc)
Ift = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0)
PRS = Potier triangle
RS = IaXL drop
E = V + Ia (Re + j XL) = rated induced emf
E0 = V + Ia [Re + j (XL+ Xa)] = maximum open circuit induced emf
Angle between Ifm and E is 900
Angle between Ift and E0 is 900

6. ASA method (25% regulation)

All calculations same as ZPF method but saturation of current is considered .
Ift1 = field current at maximum open circuit induced emf (E0) when saturation considered.
7. from two reaction analysis

Xd = Xad + XL
Xq = Xaq + XL
Xd = direct or pole axis reactance ()
Xq = quadrature or interpole axis reactance ()
XL = Leakage reactance ()
Xad = direct or pole axis armature reactance ()
Xaq = quadrature or interpole axis armature reactance ()
8. from slip test

Vmax
Xd = because air-gap is minimum
Imin
Vmin
Xq = because reluctance in air-gap is maximum
Imax
1 1
i.e., Air-Gap Length
armature reaction Xa
9. from Salient pole alternator
Eg = V cos +Iq Ra Id Xd
+ve for lagging load

-ve for leading power factor load

V sin Ia Xq
tan =
V cos + Ia Ra
=+ for lagging load +ve

=- for leading load -ve
Where,
Id = direct axis armature current = Ia sin
Iq = quadrature or inter polar axis armature current
= Ia cos = Ia cos (+)
= power factor angle between V and I
= load or torque angle between E and V

Synchronous Generators Notes

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LECTURE NOTES

ELECTRICAL MACHINES III

III B.Tech-EEE-I Sem (R15)

Saravanan T Y M.Tech., (Ph.D)

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR UNIT IV

1.2. Operating Principle of an Alternator:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 1

Flemings Right Hand Rule:

1.2.1. Differences between DC & AC Generators:

Flemings right hand rule. Flemings right hand rule.

Stationary field. Rotating field.

Rotating armature. Stationary armature.

Conductors cut the flux. Flux cuts the conductor.

1.2.2. Advantages of stationary armature:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 2

2. Stationary 3- armature winding is directly connected to the load, so current collection is

1.3. Construction Details:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 3

(i). Salient or Projecting pole type:

Low speed rotors always posses a

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 4

(ii). Non Salient pole type or cylindrical or wound rotor:

The special features of non-salient pole field structure are as follows.

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 5

1.4. Operation of an Alternator:

1.5. Supply Frequency:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 6

no. of cycles No. of revolution

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 7

number of poles (P)

1.6. Differences between Salient and Non-Salient pole type rotors:

9. Rotor surface is not smooth. Rotor surface is smooth.

10. Dynamic balancing is less in sufficient. Dynamic balancing is better.

1.7. Basic terms related to windings:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 8

Coil span or coil-pitch:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 9

1.8. Armature windings:

In general, the armature windings in Synchronous Machines are classified as follows.

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 10

Full Pitched Winding

Integral Slot Winding

(i). Distributed and Concentrated type windings:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 11

c) The core is better utilized as a number of small slots evenly spaced.

(ii). Closed and Opened windings:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 12

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 13

Advantages of short-pitch or Fractional-pitch or Chorded winding:

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 14

Assure that the full-pitch or pole-pitch of a winding is 6 slots per pole.

Fractional slot winding: (m = fractional value)

The advantages of these windings are,

The restrictions of this winding are,

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 15

1.9. Difference between Fractional and Integral Slot winding:

S. No INTEGRAL SLOT WINDING FRACTIONAL SLOT WINDING

Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should be an

5. Manufacturing in little complicated. Easier to manufacture and the cost is low.

Obtained lesser power density compared

7. Longer non-over-lapping emf turns. Shorter non over-lapping emf turns.

1.10. Pitch factor or Chording factor: (KP or KC)

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NECGUDUR 16

The advantages and disadvantages are already discussed in previous section.