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Laboratory 8
Stratigraphy and
Lithologic Correlation
Pamela J. W. Gore
Clarkston, GA 30021
In this lab you will learn about sequences of sedimentary rocks and how they may be
correlated , or traced between outcrops. Ideally, the rocks may be correlated
directly by walking along the contacts between adjacent rock units, across the
countryside. This is seldom the case, however, particularly where vegetation and soil
cover make rock exposures poor (as in humid areas, such as the eastern United
States). In other situations, geologists are interested in beds deep below the Earth's
surface, and they must use drill hole and core data to correlate the rocks.
The smallest lithostratigraphic rock unit is the bed. A formation is a set of similar
beds, and formations are the fundamental units of stratigraphy. By definition,
formations are:
Chattanooga
Rome Formation Knox Group Conasauga Group
Shale
Subdivisions within formations are called members. Members also have names. A
formation, however, does not have to contain members. Members may be
designated to single out units of special interest or economic value, such as coal
beds or volcanic ash layers.
Boundaries of lithostratigraphic units are placed where the lithology (or rock type)
changes. They may be placed at a distinct contact, or may be set arbitrarily within a
zone of gradation.
In this lab, we are primarily concerned with sequences of sedimentary rocks and
occasional lava flows, so we will be using lithostratigraphic terminology.
STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS
Geologists study sequences of sedimentary rocks on a bed-by-bed basis. They
measure the thickness of each bed, record the physical, chemical, and
biological characteristics of the rock, and note the nature of the contacts (or
bedding planes) between beds. Using these data, the geologist draws up a
stratigraphic section for a particular sequence of rock. A stratigraphic section is
a graphical or pictorial representation of the sequence of rock units.
Standard symbols (called lithologic symbols) are used to refer to each rock type:
LITHOLOGIC CORRELATION
Geologists can draw stratigraphic sections for several outcrops (or cores) in an
area, and then trace beds from one section to another. This is called lithologic
correlation . Basically, correlation demonstrates the equivalency of rock units
across an area. The sections being correlated are commonly miles apart. Basically, a
correlation is a hypothesis that units in two widely separated sequences are
equivalent. Clearly, the more unique characteristics that two sections share, the
greater the probability that the correlation is correct.
Correlation may be performed in several ways. Distinctive beds (called key beds or
marker beds), distinctive sequences of beds, bed thicknesses, and unconformities
may be traced between sections.
Key beds or marker beds tend to have some unusual, distinguishing feature which
allows them to be readily identified, such as a bed of volcanic ash in a sedimentary
sequence, or a bed of conglomerate in a sandstone sequence, or a bed of fossil
shells or bones, or a bed of limestone in a shale sequence. Key beds or marker beds
should also be laterally extensive, to aid in correlation over a large area.
Distinctive sequences of beds are also useful in correlation. For example, the
sequence "limestone - dolostone - limestone" may be found within a thick unit of
shales and siltstones, and correlated between sections.
In some cases, beds can be correlated between sections based on their thicknesses.
One of the best examples of this is the correlation of laminations in cores from the
evaporites of the Castile Formation in the Permian of western Texas and New Mexico.
Cores were drilled about 9 miles apart, and the thickness of the laminations matches
almost exactly.
Sometimes, one or more rock units are missing from the middle of a sequence.
Close examination of the outcrop shows a sharp or irregular contact where the
missing rocks should be. This contact is called an unconformity. Unconformities
are surfaces which represents a gap in the geologic record, because of either erosion
or nondeposition. Unconformities can be traced between stratigraphic sequences
miles apart. Although unconformities may truncate rocks of many different ages, the
sediments directly overlying the unconformity are roughly the same age.
1. Angular unconformities
2. Nonconformities
3. Disconformities
4. Paraconformities
1. ANGULAR UNCONFORMITIES
2. NONCONFORMITIES
Nonconformities
3. DISCONFORMITIES
Disconformities
4. PARACONFORMITIES
Paraconformity
SEDIMENTARY FACIES
A facies is a unit of sedimentary rock deposited in a particular sedimentary
environment. A facies has distinctive physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
which serve as clues that help the geologist to interpret the environment in which
the rock was deposited. (Examples of sedimentary environments include beaches,
rivers, lakes, deserts, alluvial fans, deltas, reefs, lagoons, tidal flats, etc.) You might
refer to a red sandstone facies, or a mudcracked limestone facies, or a fossiliferous
black shale facies.
In some cases, a bed thins progressively in one direction until it pinches out. A
pinchout may or may not be accompanied by the increase in thickness of an
adjacent unit. In some case, the entire sedimentary section thins in a certain
direction.
Illustration of pinchout of a limestone bed and a sandstone bed, with three sections
drawn to show the different facies that would be present in each.
Lateral changes in facies are relatively easy to understand. Vertical facies changes
may initially be somewhat puzzling. How does one layer of sedimentary rock come to
overlie another? The vertical relationships between facies are explained by changes
in sea level, or changes in subsidence and sedimentation rates.
At any one time, sediment of different types is being deposited in different places.
Sand is deposited on the beach, silt is deposited offshore, clay is deposited in deeper
water, and carbonate sediment is deposited far from shore (or where there is little or
no input of terrigenous sediment). Sedimentary environments (and facies) move as
sea level changes, or as a basin fills with sediment.
Regressive Sequence
We can easily see how transgressive and regressive sequences form. First, start with
this basic situation:
Now notice how the facies have migrated to keep their proper position relative to sea
level.
Now begin again with the same basic situation.
Assume that sea level rises and the beach moves landward.
Three "time lines" are shown. (In the geologic record, a "time line" could be
represented by a thin volcanic ash bed, representing one particular eruption event.)
Note that the lithologic units cut across the time lines; the facies are time-
transgressive or diachronous . Note that the line marked "Time 2" bisects the V
shape of the transgressive-regressive sequence. The point of maximum
transgression (or regression) in a transgressive-regressive sequence is always a
time line, marking the time of maximum transgression (or regression).
Transgressive-regressive sequence
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Laboratory 8
Stratigraphy and
Lithologic Correlation
Exercises
Pamela J. W. Gore
Clarkston, GA 30021
In the lab exercise today, you will practice lithologic correlation and will construct
stratigraphic sections from geologic data. To correlate the sections, you will draw
lines connecting correlative contacts as illustrated earlier in this lab. Please use a
ruler and be as neat as possible. On the last question where you construct and
correlate two stratigraphic sections, you will need to use graph paper, and you may
also wish to use colored pencils. Alternatively, the last question may be answered by
preparing a drawing using the computer, instead of drawing by hand. You must be
certain that the thicknesses of all of the units are to scale.
Read the questions carefully to be sure whether they are asking about a stratigraphic
section (or column of rocks) or whether they are asking about a particular bed or
layer of rock.
This exercise may be done during the lab period, or the instructor may assign it to be
done as homework.
1.
a. Draw lines between the three stratigraphic sections below to connect
the geologic contacts between similar lithologies. (USE A RULER!!.)
Note that each vertical column is a stratigraphic section. Each
lithologic unit can be regarded as a bed.
b. How many beds can be correlated across all three sections?
_________
c. How thick is the thickest stratigraphic section (or column of rocks)?
(Note: We are not asking about this thickest BED. We are asking about
the thickest SECTION.
Also note that the scale goes from 0 to 70 meters.)
d. A bed of coal is present in sections B and C. How deep would you have
to drill in section A (starting at the top of the section, up near the
letter A) to reach the buried coal seam? ________
2.
a. Draw lines to correlate the two sections below. (USE A RULER!!.)
b. Which section (A or B) contains an unconformity? __________
c. Which units are missing from that section because of the
unconformity? (Give rock types).
_______________________________
d. Label the position of the unconformity with an arrow and the word
"unconformity".
e. What type of unconformity is it? ________________________
3.
a. Draw correlation lines between the three sections below. Note that the
units vary in thickness in each section.
b. What happens to the conglomerate in section C? Why is it not present
in section A or B?
c. Why does the thickness of the sandstone change from section A to
section B?
d. In which direction (west or east?) was the land?
e. In which direction (west or east?) was deeper water?
f. Label the right side of section C with arrows to illustrate transgresion
(T) and regression (R).
4.
a. Correlate the three sections below. (Note that the limestone unit is
present only in sections A and B, and that it is much thinner in section
B. It has thinned to the point where it is not present at all in section
C.) This is called a pinchout.
_______________________________________________________
c. Label the column on the left with up-pointing arrows to indicate the
part of the sequence which represents a transgression (T), and the
part which represents a regression (R). Label the arrows T or R.
d. These sediments were deposited in an ancient sea. Based on the rock
types, which facies (not section) was deposited nearest to the
mainland?
_________________________________________________
e. Which facies (not section) was deposited farthest from the land?
______________________
f. In which direction (west or east) was the land?
__________________________
g. Explain your reasoning for your answer to question f.
________________________________________________________
__________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________________________
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14. Using the data below from the western and eastern sections in the boxes
below, do the following:
a. Using a pencil and a ruler, draw two stratigraphic sections on graph
paper using the rock type and thickness data provided below. (You
may instead use the computer to draw your sections if you wish.)
Draw a horizontal line across the top of your paper to represent the
ground surface. You will draw the sections below this line, as if they
were drill core data (plotting each unit below the ground surface). The
first unit listed in each section should be drawn at the top of that
section, with all of the other units in order below.
Draw the western section on the left and the eastern section on
the right. Draw the sections about 4 inches apart with the tops on the
same line.
b. Locate the positions of all unconformities in the two sections (look for
abrupt or erosional contacts in the section descriptions). Mark the
positions of the unconformities on your sections by using a wavy line,
and then, correlate the unconformities by extending the wavy line
between the two sections. Label your wavy lines "UNCONFORMITY",
for clarity.
c. Correlate the two sections by drawing lines to connect the contacts
between equivalent units. Remember that some beds may change in
thickness laterally, whereas others may "pinch out", or be eroded
away in one of the sections.
d. Draw arrows labelled "T" and "R" along the outer side of both sections
to indicate the part of the cycle which represents a transgression, and
the part which represents a regression. (You will have to think about
the sedimentary environments to answer this question.)
Western section
100 ft Siltstone (brown to green) with rare coal beds; plant fossils
and some bivalves.
________
690 ft TOTAL
Eastern section
50 ft Siltstone (brown, green, and gray), with rare coal beds; plant
fossils present.
________
675 ft TOTAL
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This page created by Pamela J. W. Gore, pgore@gpc.edu
Georgia Perimeter College
July 16, 1998
Modified April 2, 1999
Modified December 12, 2003
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