Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 2
Fundamental Concepts
 Main Topics
Fluid as a Continuum
Velocity Field
Properties
Description and Classification of
Fluid Motions
Fluid as a Continuum
 The Continuum Model
Ignores the molecular nature of the fluid and
assumes it is continuous
Describes the fluid in terms of properties which
represent an average of the characteristics of the
molecular structure
Examples: density as the volume average
molecular mass
The smallest volume, V*, for which the
continuum assumption is correct is ~10-9 mm3 for
gases and liquids and contains >3 x 107
molecules.
 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow
Descriptions
LAGRANGIAN
Focuses on an individual particle, the
particle motion is observed as f(t)
EULERIAN
Focuses on a point in space and
observes the velocity of particles
passing the point
Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow
Descriptions
 The Velocity Field

V ( x, y, z , t ) = u ( x, y, z , t )i + v( x, y, z , t ) j + w( x, y, z , t )k
 Velocity Field

1D, 2D, and 3D Flows depending on the

number of space coordinates

Each component is a function of x, y and z

Kinematic Properties
Displacement
Vector

Acceleration
Vector

Volumetric Flow
 Velocity Field: Spatial
dependence
Flows may be 1D, 2D or 3D
 Incompressible and
Compressible flows

Incompressible flow

V
M= M < 0.3 Incompressible
c
M > 0.3 Compressible
 Time-dependence of velocity
field
Steady flow
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=j6yB90vno1E

Flow field does

not change with
time
Unsteady flow
http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=2ghBUcQG1lQ

Flow field
changes with
time INGE 4010: Fluid Mechanics
 Streamlines, Streaklines,
Pathlines and Streamtubes
PATHLINE
Locus of points transversed by a given particle
as it travels in a field of flow
STREAKLINE
Particles in a flow that have previously passed
through a common point
STREAMLINE
Lines tangent to the velocity flow
STREAMTUBE
Tube whose walls are streamlines
 Pathlines
Locus of points transversed by a given
particle as it travels in a field of flow

x = udt y = vdt z = wdt

Displacement of a particle is defined by

integration of the velocity components
 Streamlines, Streaklines,
Pathlines and Streamtubes

Streamlines Streamtubes
 Streamlines
Lines tangent to the velocity flow
dx dy
=
u v

dy dz
=
v w

dz dr
=
w V
 Properties
Extensive:
Related (proportional) to the total
mass of the system. Examples: mass
(duh!), weight, total energy,
momentum
Intensive:
Independent of the quantity of fluid
in the system: Examples: density,
pressure, temperature, viscosity,
surface tension
 Intensive Properties
Density ()
Specific volume (v)
Specific weight ( )
Specific gravity (SG)
Pressure (P)
Temperature (T)
Internal energy, potential energy, and kinetic
energy (e)
Viscosity ()
Surface tension ()
Vapor pressure (Pv)
 Mass per unit
volume
The density of
gases is affected by
pressure and
temperature (Ideal
Gas Law)

UNITS
BG [slug/ft3]
SI [kg/m3]
 Specific Volume

1 UNITS
v= BG [ft3/slug]
SI [m3/kg]

Specific weight
UNITS
BG [lb/ft3]
SI [N/m3]
Specific Gravity (SG)

UNITS
Dimensionless
 Pressure (P)
Compression stress at a point in a static
fluid
Differences in pressure (pressure gradients)
induce flow in a fluid

UNITS
BG [psi = lb/in2]
SI [Pa = N/m2]
Measure of the internal energy in the
fluid
Absolute Temperature Scale:
Rankine (R ) & Kelvin (K )

R = F + 459.69
Relative Temperature Scale:
Fahrenheit (F ) & Celsius (C )
Internal, Potential, and Kinetic
Energy

UNITS
BG [ lb.ft/slug]
SI [J/kg = N.m/kg]
 Viscosity
It is a key property of fluids.
For example, it determines
the amount of fluid which
may be transported through
a pipe
In the absence of a shearing
stress there is no
deformation (flow) in a fluid
Viscosity induces energy
losses (it is a dissipative
mechanism)
 Newtons Law of Viscosity
Perform this experiment for many
fluids, at various spacing, and
U velocities and plot:

F

F/A
Experimental setup to discover
the viscosity
U/H
F U F duy
= ; xy = =
A H A dx
 Fluid element between plates
Isaac Newton postulated that, for straight, parallel and
uniform flow, the shear stress, , between layers is
proportional to the velocity gradient, u/y, in the
direction perpendicular to the layers.

du
=
dy
Viscosity
 Fluid element between plates
Isaac Newton postulated that, for straight, parallel and
uniform flow, the shear stress, , between layers is
proportional to the velocity gradient, u/y, in the
direction perpendicular to the layers.

du
=
dy
 Viscosity: Newtonian Fluids
Newtonian Fluids
Most of the common
fluids (water, air, oil,
etc.)
Linear fluids
UNITS of dynamic
viscosity:
BG [lb sec/ft2]
SI [N sec/m2]
CGS [dyne sec/cm2 ] = absolute viscosity
poise, P dynamic viscosity
viscosity coefficient
 Variacin de (T)
Ecuacin de Sutherland para gases

Ecuacin de Andrade para Lquidos

C,S, D y B son constantes empricas

Dynamic Viscosity
Kinematic Viscosity

v=

UNITS
BG [ft2/sec]
SI [m2/sec]
stoke [cm2/sec ]
Kinematic Viscosity
Variation of (T) and v(T)
 Viscosity
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Special fluids (e.g., most biological fluids,
toothpaste, some paints, etc.)
Non-linear fluids
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2XQ97XHjVw
 Viscosity
Non-Newtonian Fluids
 No-slip condition
All fluids satisfying the
continuum assumption must
have zero relative velocity at a
solid surface
The no-slip condition dictates
that the speed of the fluid at the
boundary (relative to the
boundary) is zero, but at some
height from the boundary the
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cUTkqZeiMow
flow speed must equal that of
the free stream where viscous
forces are negligible.
The region between these two u
points is aptly named the w = y= 0 =
boundary layer. y y= 0
Any real fluid moving along
solid boundary will incur a wall
shear stress, w,on that
boundary.
A 10 kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface. Determine the
terminal velocity of the block if the 0.1 mm gap between the block
and the surface contains SAE 30 oil at 60F. Assume the velocity
distribution in the gap is linear, and the area of the block in contact
with the oil is 0.2 m2.
 Problem 2.50/56
y
What is the force V, h1+h2
F necessary to 0.15 Ns/m2
= 0.5 mm
Vi, h1
move the upper 0.1 Ns/m2

plate at V=1 m/s = 0.3 mm

and A = 1 m2? 0

What is the
velocity at the
interface between Linear
Velocity
both fluids? Profile
 Surface Tension
Results from the intermolecular
attraction forces
Acts at the interphase between two
fluids
Highly dependent on the temperature
Its responsible for the surface
deformation
Typical examples: capillary rise, bubble
and drops
Surface tension force depends on the
contact length between the liquid
surfaces. The general expression is:
= Surface Tension Coefficient
= Contact Length
Surface Tension: contact angle

Capillarity: Capillary rise (drop) occurs when the

adhesion to the walls is stronger (weaker) than the
cohesive forces between the liquid molecules.
How can an insect walk on
water?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-
E6SqrH4_Y
Surface Tension Example
 Surface Tension

!
L L 2R
!

!
!

(c)
 Compressibility of Fluids
Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (Ev)
" Characterizes the compressibility of a fluid
" Its the fraction of change in volume caused by a
change in pressure
" Volume and pressure have an inverse relationship;
therefore, it has a negative sign
" It has units of pressure

dp dp
Ev = Ev =
dV / V d /
 Vapor Pressure
" Pressure at which a liquid is in equilibrium with its
own vapor. It corresponds to the boiling point
" Is a function of the temperature and the pressure,
Pv(T,P)
" When a liquid reaches its VAPOR PRESSURE,
bubbles are formed due to a pressure reduction
 Problems
" Estimate the minimum absolute pressure (in pascals) that can be
developed at the inlet of a pump to avoid cavitation if the fluid is water at
20C.
Description and Classification
of Fluid Motions
Physical Properties of Common
Liquids
Physical Properties of Water
Physical properties of Air at Standard
Atmospheric pressure
Physical Properties of Water
 Problems
" Surface tension forces can be strong enough to allow a double-edge steel
razor blade to float on water, but a single-edge blade will sink. Assume
that the surface tension forces act at an angle relative to the water surface
as shown. (a) The mass of the doubleedge blade is 0.64x10-3 kg, and the total
length of its sides is 206 mm. Determine the value of required to maintain
equilibrium between the blade weight and the resultant surface tension force.
(b) The mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61x10-3 kg, and the total length of
its sides is 154 mm. Explain why this blade sinks. Support your answer with
the necessary calculations
Stress Field
 Problems
" A Newtonian fluid having a specific gravity of 0.92 and a kinematic
viscosity of 4x10-4 m2/s flows past a fixed surface. Due to the no-slip
condition, the velocity at the fixed surface is zero, and the velocity profile
near the surface is shown. Determine the magnitude and direction of the
shearing stress developed on the plate. Express your answer in terms of U
and , with U and expressed in units of meters per second and meters,
respectively.
 Surface Tension
" Arises due to intermolecular attraction differences in
the bulk and at a free surface
" It is manifest in interfaces between two fluids
" Responsible for the deformation of free surfaces
Surface Tension
Surface Tension

F y =0
Surface Tension

 Problems
" Estimate the minimum absolute pressure (in pascals) that can be
developed at the inlet of a pump to avoid cavitation if the fluid is ethyl
alcohol at 20C.
" What is the difference between the pressure inside a soap bubble and
atmospheric pressure for a 3 in. Diameter bubble? Assume the surface
tension of the soap film to be 70% of that of water at 80F.