Metal Forming ()

Chapter 15: Large group of manufacturing processes in

which plastic deformation is used to change
Fundamentals of Metal the shape of metal workpieces
Forming Die ()

The
Th metal t l takes
t k a shape
h off the
th die
di
A force exceeding the yield stress ()
is applied

1 2

Introduction to Metal Forming Tensile Test and Compression test

Tensile test
x

Deformation processes have been designed

Uniaxial test
to exploit the plasticity of engineering Generates an engineering
materials stress-strain curve

Plasticity is the ability of a material to flow as Compression test

a solid without deterioration of properties Difficult to conduct a
compression test than
Deformation processes require a large tensile test
Si il results
Similar lt tto th
thatt off
amount of force
the tensile testing

3 4
Tensile Test () Tensile Test Sequence

In the test, a force pulls the Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load; (2)
uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area; (3)
material elongating it and
material, continued elongation, maximum load reached; (4) necking begins,
reducing its diameter load begins to decrease; and (5) fracture.

Tensile test: (a) tensile force

applied in (1) and (2) resulting
elongation of material (Source:
Groover, 2005)

(Source: Groover, 2005)

5 6

Engineering Stress-Strain
Stress Strain Curve Additional Properties from the Stress-
Stress
Strain Curve
Key features Plastic deformation- permanent change in shape
Proportional
p limit () due to a load
oad tthat
at e
exceeded
ceeded the
t e elastic
e ast c limitt
(below this limit, the strain is Yield point ()- stress value where additional
directly proportional to strain occurs without an increase in stress
stress)
Offset yield strength- the stress required to produce
Ratio of stress to strain is
Youngs Modulus ()

an allowable amount of permanent strain
Measures stiffness Toughness ()- work per unit volume to fracture
Ultimate Strength ()
a material
Stress at which the load- Total area under the stress-strain curve
bearing ability peaks

7 8
True Stress
Stress-Strain
Strain Curve Strain Hardening ()

True stress-strain Loading and unloading

x

curve g
within the elastic region
will result in cycling up
Instantaneous stress and down the linear
versus the summation portion
ti off the
th stress
t strain
t i
of the incremental curve
strain
When metals are
plastically deformed, they
become harder and
stronger (strain
hardening)g)

(Source: Groover, 2005)

9 10

Ductility Temperature Effects

Necking is a localized Ductile-brittle transition x

reduction in cross p
temperature is the
sectional area temperature at which
For ductile materials,, the response of the
necking occurs before material
t i l goes ffrom hi
high
h
fracture energy absorption to
low energy absorption
Percent elongation is Percent Reduction in Area:
Creep () is failure
the percent change of of a material due to long
a material
t i l att fracture
f t A0 A f
R. A. 100% term exposure to
A0 p
elevated temperature

11 12
Material Properties in Metal Forming Basic Types of Deformation Processes

B lk d
Bulk deformation:
f ti
Desirable material properties:
Rolling
g (():
) makes sheet metal
Low yield
L i ld strength
t th ()
Forging (): makes strong solid parts
High ductility ()
Extrusion (): makes complex cross-sections from soft
These properties are affected by temperature: metals and plastics
Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when Wire and bar drawing (): makes strong small dia
dia. wire
work temperature is raised Sheet metalworking
Oth factors:
Other f t Bending (): Bend sheet metal about single axis (2D)
Strain rate and friction Deep
p drawing:
g makes cups
p from sheet metal, for mass
production (3D)
Cutting
g (():
) cut or p
punch sheetmetal
13
Miscellaneous processes 14

Bulk deformation Forming Operations

Forging
Bending Deep drawing

Rolling

Extrusion Wire and bar drawing Shearing

(Source: Groover, 2005) 15 (Source: Groover, 2005) 16
Forming Processes: Independent Dependent Variables
Variables
Forming processes consist of independent and Dependent variables- control is entirely
dependent variables
indirect - determined by the independent
Independent variables- control is direct and
variable selection
immediate
Starting material Force or power requirements
Starting geometry of the workpiece Material properties of the product
Tool or die geometry ()
Lubrication () Exit or final temperature
Starting temperature Surface finish and precision
Speed of operation
Nature of the material flow
A
Amount t off deformation
d f ti

17 18

Independent-Dependent
Independent Dependent Relationships Process Modeling

Information on the Simulations () are created using finite

x

interdependence of element modeling
independent and
dependent variables Models can p predict how a material will
can be learned in three respond to a rolling process, fill a forging die,
ways flow through an extrusion die
Experience Heat treatments () can be simulation
E
Experiment
i
Process modeling Costly trial and error development cycles can
be eliminated

19 20
General Parameters Friction and Lubrication Under
Metalworking Conditions
Material being deformed must be High forces and pressures are required to deform a
ate a
material
characterized
For some processes, 50% of the energy is spent in
Strength or resistance for deformation overcoming friction
Conditions at different temperatures Changes in lubrication can alter material flow, create
Formability limits or eliminate defects,
defects alter surface finish ()
Reaction to lubricants and dimensional precision (), and modify
product properties
Speed of deformation and its effects
Speed sensitive materials
Speed-sensitive materials- more energy is
required to produce the same results
21 22

Friction Conditions Friction

x

Metalforming friction differs Friction is resistance to sliding along an

from the friction
encountered in mechanical interface
devices Resistance can be attributed to:
For light, elastic loads,
friction is proportional to the
Abrasion
applied
li d pressure Adh i
Adhesion
is the coefficient of friction

Resistance is p
proportional
p to the strength
g of
At hi
A high
h pressures, ffriction
i i iis
related to the strength of the The effect of contact pressure on the the weaker material and the contact area
frictional resistance between two surfaces.
weaker material

23 24
Surface Deterioration Lubrication

Surface wear () is related to friction Key to success in many metalforming

Tooling wear is economically costly and can operations
impact
p dimensional pprecision Primarilyy selected to reduce friction and tool
Tolerance control can be lost wear, but may be used as a thermal barrier,
Tool wear can impact the surface finish coolant or corrosion retardant
coolant,
Other factors
Ease of removal, lack of toxicity, odor,
flammability reactivity,
flammability, reactivity temperature,
temperature velocity
velocity,
wetting characteristics

25 26

Temperature Concerns Hot Working

Workpiece temperature can be one of the Plastic deformation of metals at a

most important process variables temperature above the recrystallization
In general, an increase in temperature is temperature
related
l t d tto a decrease
d iin strength,
t th increase
i iin Recrystallization temperature = about 0.6Tm
ductility, and decrease in the rate of strain
hardening T
Temperature
t varies
i greatly
tl with
ith material
t i l
Hot working Recrystallization removes the effects of strain
Cold working hardening
Warm working H t working
Hot ki may produce
d undesirable
d i bl
reactions from the metal and its surroundings
g
27 28
Advantages of Hot Working Disadvantages of Hot Working

Large plastic deformation Lower dimensional accuracy

Lower forces and power required Higher total energy required
Reduce fracture in cold working Due to the thermal energy
gy to heat the workpiece
p

Strength properties of product are generally Work surface oxidation (scale)

isotropic () P
Poorer surface
f finish
fi i h
No work hardening Shorter tool life
Advantageous in cases when part is to be
s bseq entl processed b
subsequently by cold forming

29 30

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress Hot Working

Effect of temperature on flow Engineering properties

stress for a typical metal. can be improved
through reorienting
Yf = C m inclusion or impurities
Cross section of a 4
4-in.-diameter
in diameter case
copper bar polished and etched to show

where C = strength constant (similar During plastic the as-cast grain structure.

but not equal to strength coefficient

ff d f
deformation,
ti impurities
i iti
in flow curve equation), and m =
strain-rate sensitivity exponent tend to flow along with
the base metal or
fraction into rows of
Flow structure of a hot
hot-forged
forged gear blank.
blank
fragments Note how flow is parallel to all critical
surfaces. (Courtesy of Bethlehem Steel
((Source: Groover, 2005)) Corporation, Bethlehem, PA.)

31 32
Temperature Variations in Hot Cold Working
Working
Success or failure of a hot deformation process Performed at room temperature or slightly
often depends on the ability to control above
temperatures
Advantages
g as compared
p to hot workingg
Over 90% of the energy imparted to a deforming
workpiece is converted to heat No heating required
Better surface finish
N
Nonuniform
if ttemperatures
t may be
b produced
d d and
d
may result in cracking Superior dimensional control
Thin sections cool faster than thick sections Better reproducibility
Strength, fatigue, and wear are improved
Directional properties can be imparted
Contamination is minimized
33 34

Disadvantages of Cold Working Metal Properties and Cold Working

Two features that are significant in selecting a material for
cold working are
Higher forces are required to initiate and complete Magnitude of the yield-point stress
the deformation Extent of the strain region from yield stress to fracture
Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger Springback () should also be considered when selecting
a material
t li are required
tooling i d x

Less ductility is available

Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
Intermediate anneals may be required
Imparted directional properties can be detrimental
Undesirable residual stresses () may be
Figure 15-6 Use of true stress-true strain diagram to assess
produced the suitability of two metals for cold working.

35 36
Additional Effects of Cold Working

Annealing heat treatments

x

may y be performed
p p
prior or
at intermediate intervals to
cold working
Heat treatments allows
additional cold working and
d f
deformation
ti processes
Cold working produces a
structure
t t where
h properties
ti
vary with direction,
Mechanical properties of pure copper as a function
anisotropy of the amount of cold work (expressed in percent).

HR = Hot Rolled; ((Source: Budynas

y and Nisbett, 2008))
CD = Cold Drawn
37 38

Warm Forming Isothermal Forming ()

x

Deformations produced at temperatures Deformation that occurs

intermediate to cold and hot working (0
(0.3T
3Tm p
under constant temperature
0.6Tm) Dies and tooling are heated
p
to the same temperature as
Ad
Advantages
t the workpiece
Reduced loads on the tooling and equipment Eliminates cracking from
Increased material ductility nonuniform surface
Possible reduction in the number of anneals temperatures
Yield strength
g of various materials ((as indicated by
y

Less scaling and decarburization Inert atmospheres may be pressure required to forge a standard specimen) as
a function of temperature. Materials with steep
used
Better dimensional pprecision and smoother surfaces curves may require isothermal forming. (From A
Study of Forging Variables, ML-TDR-64-95, March
than hot working 1964; courtesy of Battelle Columbus Laboratories,
Columbus, OH.)
Used for p
processes such as forging
g g and extrusion
39 40