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The specific essential work of fracture, we , has been measured for a relatively thick walled
uPVC pipe as a function of position through the wall of the pipe. we was highest at the
surface of the pipe and decreased significantly at the centre of the pipe wall. The variation
in we through the wall of the pipe correlated with the processing level of the uPVC material
as measured by the critical temperature, Tc . The variability in the measured values of we
was substantially higher in the centre of the pipe where the processing levels were lower.
This was likely to be a result of the variability in the microstructure of the material where
poor processing had introduced regions of poor fusion of primary PVC particles.
C 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers
1. Introduction wf = we + wp L (1)
Measurement of the fracture toughness of unplasticised
polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) pipe poses difficulties for where L is the remaining ligament depth for a speci-
a number of reasons. Firstly the size requirement for men of width W and notch depth a and is a plastic
plane strain conditions implies that valid plane strain zone shape factor. When wf is plotted against L, a linear
fracture toughness values can only be obtained in thick relationship should result. If this straight line is extrapo-
walled pipes of large diameter. Lowering the tempera- lated to a zero ligament length, then we can be obtained
ture or increasing the strain rate can decrease the wall from the intercept with the wf axis.
thicknesses for which valid plane strain fracture tough- This approach measures a plane stress work of frac-
ness can be obtained but this approach is limited and ture and a number of restrictions on specimen size have
often takes the pipe thickness outside the normal range been suggested to establish the stress state and appro-
of operating conditions. The second difficulty is that the priate yielding conditions in the ligament [68]. The
fracture toughness varies with the level of processing in restrictions usually applied are for
uPVC pipe and this can vary through the wall for thick
walled pipes. One measure of processing is the temper- W/3, 2rp L 3B to 5B (2)
ature reached by the melt during the extrusion process.
This can be measured by DSC as the critical temper- where B is the thickness of the sample and rp is the
ature, Tc , between the two melting endotherms [1]. A plastic zone size.
number of workers have shown that Tc varies through This technique has been applied to uPVC films by
the wall of a uPVC pipe [2, 3]. Consequently, it would Arkhireyeva et al. [9] and has recently been shown to
be expected that the measured fracture toughness of a be useful in characterising the fracture toughness of ori-
pipe would also vary depending on the position of the ented uPVC pipes [10, 11]. This paper describes work
pre-notch in the specimens cut from the pipe. This has where the essential work of fracture has been measured
been recognised in some quality standards that attempt through the wall of a uPVC pipe. It was undertaken to
to locate the region of poorest quality before placing a assess the suitability of the technique to characterise
notch for fracture toughness testing. fracture toughness of uPVC pipes and to establish the
Recently the essential work of fracture approach, as resolution of the technique in differentiating between
suggested by Broberg [4], has been applied to polymers pipes having different thermo-mechanical processing
by Mai and Cotterell [5]. This approach partitions the histories.
specific total work of fracture, wf into two parts. The
first is the specific essential work of fracture, we , which
is a material constant, and the second is the specific 2. Experimental
non-essential work of fracture, wp , which is related to A nominal 150 mm class 18 extruded uPVC pipe
work done on the specimen outside the fracture process (AS1477 : 1996) made to series 2cast iron outside di-
zone and is therefore geometry dependent. For notched mensions [12] was studied in this work. The pipe had an
specimens, these quantities are related by outside diameter of 177.4 mm and a wall thickness of
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C 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers 1115
TABLE I
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the wall of the pipe. No significant trend was found in 6. B . C O T T E R E L L and J . K . R E D D E L , ibid. 13 (1977) 267.
the value of wp as a function of position through the 7. Y . - W . M A I and B . C O T T E R E L L , J. Mater. Sci. 15 (1980)
2296.
wall of the pipe. The variability in the measured values
8. Idem., Eng. Frct. Mech. 37 (1997) 912.
of we was substantially higher in the centre of the pipe 9. A . A R K H I R E Y E V A , S . H A S H E M I and M . O B R I E N ,
where the processing levels were lower. This is likely to J. Mater. Sci. 34 (1999) 5961.
be a result of the variability in the microstructure of the 10. J . A . K W O N and R . W . T R U S S , in International Workshop on
material where poor processing has introduced regions Fracture Mechanics and Advanced Engineering Materials, edited by
L. Yee and Y.-W. Mai (The University of Sydney, 1999) p. 411.
of poor fusion of primary PVC particles.
11. Idem., Eng. Fract. Mech., in press.
12. Standards Australia AS/NZ 1477 : 1996 PVC pipes and fittings for
References pressure applications.
1. J . W . T E H , A . A . C O O P E R , A . R U D I N and J . L . H . 13. S . H A S H E M I , Polym. Engng. Sci. 37 (1997) 912.
B A T I S T E , J. Vinyl Tech. 11 (1989) 33. 14. J . K A R G E R - K O C S I S , T . C Z I G A N Y and E . J . M O S K A L A ,
2. P . C H O I , M . L Y N C H , A . R U D I N , J . W . T E H and Polymer 39 (1988) 3939.
J . B A T I S T E , ibid. 14 (1992) 156. 15. R . W . T R U S S , Pure Appl. Chem. 57 (1985) 993.
3. D . J . M . C L A R K , Ph.D. Thesis, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, 1995.
4. K . B . B R O B E R G , Intern J. Fracture 4 (1968) 11. Received 9 April
5. Y .- W . M A I and B . C O T T E R E L L , ibid. 32 (1986) 105. and accepted 22 October 2001
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