1 Introduction to open channel flows

1.1 Introduction
An open channel is a conduit in which a liquid flows with a free surface. The free surface is actually
an interface between the moving liquid and an overlaying fluid medium and will have constant
pressure. The prime motivating force for open channel flow is due to gravity.
In engineering practice, activities for utilization of water resources involve open channels of
varying magnitudes in one way or another. Flows in natural rives, streams, artificial canals for
transmitting water from source to a place of need, such as irrigation, water supply and hydropower
generation; sewers that carry domestic or industrial waste water; navigation canals --are all
examples of open channel in their diverse roles.

1.

Figure 1.1 Comparison between pipe flow and open channel flow.

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 1/8

1.2 Classification of flows
Open-channel flows can be classified into many types and described in different ways.
Steady and unsteady flows
A steady flow occurs when the flow properties, such as the depth or discharge at a section do not
change with time. As corollary, if the depth or discharge changes with time the flow is termed
unsteady.
In practical applications due to turbulent nature of flow and also due to the interaction of various
forces, such as wind, surface tension, etc. at the surface there will always be some fluctuations of
the flow properties with respect to time. To account for these the definition of steady flow is some
what generalized and the classification is done on the basis of gross characteristics of the flow.

Example

If there are ripples (a small wave or series of waves) resulting in small felicitations of depth
in a canal due to wind blowing over the free surface, the flow is not termed unsteady. In this
case, a time average of depth taken over a sufficiently long time interval would indicate a
constant depth

Similarly, a depth or discharge slowly varying with respect to time may be approximated for
certain calculation to be steady over short time interval.

Flood flows in rivers and rapidly-varying surges in canals are some examples of unsteady flows.

V Q
= = 0 Steady flow
t t
V Q
0 Unsteady flow
t t
Uniform and Non-uniform flows
If the flow properties, say the depth of the flow, in an open channel remain constant along the
length of the channel, the flow is said to be uniform. As a corollary of this, a flow in which the flow
properties vary along the channel is termed as non-uniform flow or varied flow.

The depth of the flow is the same at every section of the channel.

A uniform flow may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes
with time.

The depth of flow will be constant along the channel length and hence the free surface will
be parallel to the bed.

Unsteady uniform flow is practically impossible. Uniform flow is used to mean steady
uniform flow.
Non-uniform flows can be further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied flows. The flow is
rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively shorter distance, a hydraulic jump
occurring below a spillway or sluice gate is an example of RVF; otherwise, it is gradually varied
flow, the backing up of water in streams due to dam or or dropping of the water surface due to
sudden drop in canal bed are examples of GVF.

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 2/8

Figure 1.2 various types of open channel flows.
1.3 Geometric properties of channel sections

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 3/8

Section factor (Z) is the product of the water area and the square root of the hydraulic depth.
Z=A D=A A
T

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 4/8

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 5/8
1.4 Velocity distribution
Velocity distribution in a canal section usually varies from one point to another, this is due to shear
stress at the bottom and at the sides and due to the presence of the free surface. The presence of
corners and boundaries in open channel causes velocity vector of flow to have components not only
in the longitudinal direction (direction of flow) but also lateral as well as normal direction to the
flow. We are concerned only with the major component namely VX. The other components being
small are ignored and VX is designated as V.
The velocity V is zero at the solid boundaries and gradually increases with distance from thee
boundary. The maximum velocity of the cross-section occurs at a certain distance below the free
surface.

1.5 Continuity Equation /self reading/

The derivation of the continuity equation is based on the concept that over a given time the
difference between inflows to outflow from a control volume along a channel balances the change
in volume in this control volume over this same time.

U h
U+ dX, h+ dX
U, h X X

dX

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-1 Representation of the Continuity

equation
Inflow = Uh, where U and h are continuous functions of X.

(Uh)dX
Outflow = Uh + X
Storage per unit time is expressed in terms of change in water level as: -

(hdX )
Storage = t
Based on the concept that for a continuous water level change with initial depth ho, the depth h1
after a step in time dt equals; -
h
h1 = ho + dt
t
Balancing the terms gives the continuity equation in the form: -
h
+ (Uh) = 0
t X
Differentiating out the second term leads; -
h h U
+u +h =0
t X X

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 6/8

1.6 Energy and momentum coefficients
Energy coefficient or Kinetic energy correction factor ( )
The velocity distribution in a canal section usually varies from one point to another therefore the
velocity head in unit weight ( V 2 2 g ) is not the same as velocity head ( U 2 2 g ) averaged over the
cross-section area. This difference may be taken in to consideration by introducing an energy
coefficient .

In reality, the velocity distributions are not uniform over the cross section.

The velocity head and momentum flux of open channel flow are generally greater than the
value computed by average velocity.

These values may be corrected by introducing a correction coefficient ( and ) which are
slightly greater than one.
Considering a channel of area A in which U is the velocity over an elementary area dA the
longitudinal velocity VM:
1 1
V = UdA For a unit width V = UdA
A h
V Velocity at the cross-section
For an elementary area dA the flux of kinetic energy through it is equal to:
mass K .E m * U 2
* = m=Vol =dA*L*
time mass 2*t
dAU 2 L dAU 3
= =
2t 2
U 3dA
For the total area K.E flux= [Eqn .1]
A 2
The ratio between the KE calculated using equation 1 above and the KE calculated by assuming
average velocity V over a cross-section is denoted by called energy correction factor.

The flux of kinetic energy on the basis of an average velocity over the cross section is: -
KE = 1 / 2 V 3 A
From which

= 3 U 3dA
= 3
U 3 dA
V A V dA

For a discrete values of U, =

U 3
A
3
V A
)
Momentum coefficient (
For momentums transfer through a channel section to account for non-uniform velocity distribution
a coefficient also called Boussinesq coefficient is used.
Considering an elemental area dA the flux of momentum in the longitudinal direction through the
elemental area:
* velocity = (dAU )U
mass
time
For the total area the momentum flux
U dA
2

The total momentum on the basis of an average velocity over the cross section is: -
KE = V 2 A

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 7/8

From which

=
U 2 dA
= 2
U 2 dA
V 2A V dA
Values of and

The coefficients and are both unity in case of uniform velocity distribution.

For any other variation > > 1.0.

The higher the non-uniformity of velocity distribution, the greater will be the values of the
coefficients.

1.7 Pressure distribution in open channel

The intensity of pressure for a liquid at its free surface is equal to that of the surrounding
atmospheric pressure is commonly taken as a reference and of value equal to zero, the free surface
of the liquid is thus a surface of zero pressure.
Hydrostatic pressure distribution
The normal acceleration will be zero
U=0 there is no motion
Since there is no in the direction of the flow, the component of the resultant force in the flow
direction is zero that is:
FY = 0 PdA=W=dA*y*
P=y
Pressure distribution in sloping channels
There is no acceleration in the direction of the flow and flow velocity is uniform at a channel cross-
section and is parallel to the channel section.
FY = 0 PdA = WCos = dA hCos
P = hCos
P = yCos 2

Exercise:
1. The velocity distribution in a channel section may be approximated by the equation
n
y
U = U 0 in which U is the velocity at a depth y, and U0 is the flow velocity at a depth y0
y0
and n is a constant number. Determine the expression for energy and momentum coefficients.
2. The velocity distribution in a very wide river 3m deep can be approximately as:
1
y 2
U = 1 + 2 calculate and .
h
3. The velocity distribution along a vertical in a channel can be expressed as U Vmax = ( y / y 0 )1 2
Where y0 depth of flow, U velocity at any height y above the bed and n constant. Find the
values of and .

Open channel hydraulics Chapter 1 By A. W. 8/8