The plays the thing (Shakespeare)

A framework for talking intelligently about plays

In all ages the drama, through its portrayal of the acting

and suffering spirit of man, has been more closely allied
than any other art to his deeper thoughts concerning
his nature and destiny. (Ludwig Lewisohn)

According to Horace, the purpose of a play is

to delight and instrut.

Some comments about the role of the playwright

The playwright is in control and the product will be based on many factors. A
playwright may be interested in the human condition or the nature of truth. He or she may also
simply write to entertain. This is the substance of the play. The script is the heart of the
theatrical event. The script is what you, as a reader, work with in order to understand and relate to
the play.
It is also imperative that the playwright understands the established artistic and theatrical
conventions of the theatre. It is necessary to note that a playwright may break these
conventions; however, in order to do so, one must know that convention.

Furthermore, working procedures, materials, and technical aspects of a production must

be understood in order to allow the playwright to showcase her/his intent and to help the audience
(or reader) to make the necessary connections.

A passion for the dramatic art is inherent in the nature of men.

(Edwin Forrest)

Elements of Drama
One can analyze a play in the framework of that which was established by Aristotle. This
is the subject of a further handout. You should be familiar with this framework.

Genres
There are four basic categories. These are tragedy, comedy, melodrama, and
tragicomedy. There are, as well, subdivisions within these genres. Your handouts on comedy and
tragedy deal with these subdivisions.

1. Tragedy. See the separate handout.

2. Comedy. See the separate handout.
 3. Melodrama is a drama of disaster in which forces outside of the protagonist cause
all the important elements of the plot. The protagonist is usually simply a victim
of circumstances and is acted upon by events and/or the anti-hero. The
protagonist may suffer but does not have to accept responsibility or the
inevitability of fate. There are clearly defined, stereotypical, character types
(good guys and bad guys). Good is rewarded and evil is punished in a way that
fits the crime.
4. Tragicomedy is a mixture of tragedy and comedy much like life itself. There
are few absolutes.

Dramatic structure

The dramatic structure is the overall method which the playwright uses to organize the
dramatic material and action. It is a challenge in plays as there is the need to arrange incidents in
a pattern which makes sense to the viewer/reader. The techniques of exposition and flashback,
which are freely available to the writer of prose, are not as readily available to the playwright.
Basically, everything that is of importance must be seen rather than stated (or stated while
being seen).

The most common arrangement of events is cause to effect. The steps in this process,
which are like the steps in the classic novel or short story <but which are much more difficult to
translate onto the stage> are:
1. clear exposition of the situation
2. careful preparation for future events
3. unexpected but logical reversals
4. continuous mounting suspense
5. resolution

Plot structure

Plots can be generally subdivided into two (nearly) distinct types - climatic and episodic.

Climatic
1. plot usually begins late in the story, near to the end
2. covers a short period of timefrom a few hours to a few days
3. tends to be divided into two or three distinct acts without internal scene
changes
4. generally takes place in a restricted locale ( a room, etc.)
5. the number of characters is small, generally no more than six
6. plot is linear; there are few or no subplots or counter plots
7. the action tends to rely on cause and effect; characters and events are
closely linked in a sequence of logical (almost inevitable) development.

Episodic
1. plot begins relatively early in the story and moves through a series of
episodes
2. covers a longer period of timeweeks, months, and even years
3. may use many scenes in each act in order to develop the threads of action
4. the locale may be wide ranging, with several distinct settings
5. the number of characters vary but there are often a large number
 6. there are often subplots, counter plots, and scenes of comic relief in a
serious play
7. the action may be intertwined; action is often determined by the collision
of diverse circumstances.

What is drama but life with the dull bits cut out?
(Alfred Hitchcock)

Dominant Elements

It is helpful to be able to establish, in your own mind, the dominant element in a dramatic
work. You must understand, though, that skilled playwrights will use most of the following
elements; establishing the dominant one can be an academic exercise. Never neglect the other
elements that you observe when you are analyzing a dramatic work. Needless to say, many plays,
especially those which entrance us, will use most elements rather than concentrating on one
dominant element. Often, brilliant playwrights, such as Shakespeare, combine all elements
seamlessly and their plays tell a story through the interaction of characters who express their
thoughts and emotions through language in a particular visual setting.

Theme
Some plays work to present a strong theme which is the organizing element. These plays
are often designed to prove something and can be, roughly, compared to pieces of propaganda.
Other elements, such as character development, setting, and complexity of interaction, tend to be
secondary. Examples include A Dolls House and Major Barbara.

Plot
Some plays are plot driven; they are action and more action. The theme is usually evident
at the beginning of the play but is not central to the play itself. Characters are often stereotypical
rather than complex. No example is given. Plays which we study tend to be complex and able to
stand the test of time are generally not plot driven. You can think of an action movie..enough
said!

Character
Plays of character focus on the characters! They are developed with panache and the
viewer comes to know their complexity as the play progresses. Plot may be subservient as may
language. Theme is often important but it arises out of the interaction of the characters and is
often difficult for the viewer to pin down with ease. Hamlet, although it is also thematically
strong and its language is amazing, is often considered to rely on the exploration of the character
of Hamlet for its greatness.

Language
There are plays which are simply an expression of delight in language. Often, not much
happens. Characters are often static. The viewer/reader is struck by the beauty of the language
and the clarity of the ideas which are expressed. Plays which are classed as comedies of manner,
such as The Importance of Being Earnest, can be considered to fall into this category.
 Spectacle
These plays are all about giving the viewer interesting eye candy. There is a great deal
to be seen on the stage. Characters are not important per se and theme is either stated or does not
exist. There are often holes in the plot (i.e., relies a little too much on the willing suspension of
disbelief). Musicals, although not serious plays, are good examples of spectacle.

Drama criticism[is] a self-knowing account

of the way in which ones consciousness
has been modified during an evening in the theatre
(Kenneth Tynan)

Questions which you should be able to answer after viewing/reading a play

1. Why does this piece deserve to be witnessed or read?

2. What are the elements of the plot? Can you identify the conflicts? Is there rising
action to a climax? Is there falling action? What techniques are used to move the
action along?
3. What can you say about the characters? Who are the central characters? How are
they developed (through interaction? through soliloquies?) What are their
distinctive traits? What are their strengths and weaknesses? What is it about them
that allows this particular play to happen? Can you identify the supporting
characters? What is the ratio between round and flat characters? How do the
characters interact with one another?
4. How is language used in this play? What does the dialogue reveal about
emotions, opinions and motivations? Is the language poetic? Are there lines that
you will remember because of the beauty of the language?
5. How is the staging handled? What techniques are used to convey a sense of time
and place to the audience?
6. (If reading) What is the importance of the stage directions? What information do
you gain? Do they include directions about lighting, props, and sound?
7. What are the themes that you can identify? Is there a dominant theme and one (or
more) secondary theme(s)?
8. Are there symbolic elements evident in the play? If so, how do the symbols
enhance the theme(s)? If so, how do the symbols add texture to the play?

the prime business of a play is to arouse the passions of its

audience so that by the route of passion may be opened up new relationship
between a man and men, and between men and Man.
(Arthur Miller)