An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles

UNIVERSITY OF LA VERNE
La Verne, California
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP STYLES

AMONG WOMEN COMMUNITY COLLEGE PRESIDENTS:
A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Education
in
Organizational Leadership
Frederick R. Board, Sr.
College of Education and Organizational Leadership
Organizational Leadership Department
June 2015
ProQuest Number: 3731251
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ABSTRACT
An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles Among

Women Community College Presidents:
A Qualitative Approach
By Frederick R. Board, Sr., EdD
Purpose. The first purpose of this study was to identify and describe both the barriers and
facilitating conditions of participatory decision making among women community
college presidents in Southern California. The second purpose of this study was to
identify and describe how women community college presidents validate or demonstrate
the literature-based characteristics of feminine leadership.
Methodology. Twelve women community college presidents within the California

Community Colleges system were interviewed. Responses from the interviews provided
qualitative data. The interview questions were designed specifically to address the
literature-based variables described in the findings.
Findings. Findings from this study revealed that women are now a majority of college
graduates and a growing share of the talent available for leadership. Findings further
supported that the presence of feminine characteristics and style of leadership have
brought significant knowledge and influence to institutions of higher learning. The
prevailing factors of a participative leadership style are consistent with the following
literature-based variables: direct communication, low control, consensus building,
collaboration, information and skill sharing, and being team oriented in a nonhierarchical
work environment.
Conclusions. For women to change the historically male-only pattern of leadership in

education, the following major contributing factors must be present: (a) a high value
placed on the quality of relationships based on cooperation, sharing and caring, nurturing,
and intimacy; (b) empathy and equality; (c) valuing and including diversity;
(d) participative decision making; (e) low control with open communication and analytic
listening; (f) empowerment and authority to others; (g) innovativeness, with the
introduction of something newan idea, method, or device; and (h) mentorship.
Recommendations. Future studies should include (a) a replication of this study with a
larger sample of women community college presidents, (b) continued research on
feminine leadership styles and characteristics within community colleges and other
workplaces, (c) the different behaviors of women and men when communicating, and
(d) barriers that women face when seeking promotions to the presidency within the
community college sector.
iv
CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... iv
TABLES .................................................................................................................... x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... xi
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... xiii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
Background of the Study........................................................................... 1
Women as Leaders .................................................................................... 5
Women as Community College Presidents ............................................... 6
Roles of Women in the Culture ................................................................. 8
Gender and Leadership ............................................................................. 10
Leadership Styles ...................................................................................... 12
Women and the Demand for Participative Leadership ............................. 14
Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 15
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 16
Research Questions ................................................................................... 17
Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 17
Relevance of the Study.............................................................................. 18
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitation ............................................ 19
Definitions of Terms ................................................................................. 20
v
Organization of the Study ......................................................................... 23
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 25
Historical Content ..................................................................................... 26
Women as Leaders .................................................................................... 29
Feminine Leadership (Womens Ways of Leading) ................................. 32
Autocratic Leadership ............................................................................... 36
Democratic Leadership ............................................................................. 38
Collaborative Leadership .......................................................................... 39
Transformational Leadership .................................................................... 40
Participative Leadership ............................................................................ 41
Decision-Making Practices ....................................................................... 43
Other Leaders Perceptions of Women Community College Presidents .. 47
Women in Educational Leadership ........................................................... 49
Community College Leadership ............................................................... 52
Gender Equity and Differences ................................................................. 56
Diversity and Multiculturalism ................................................................. 58
Barriers/Obstacles for Women in Their Journey to the Presidency .......... 64
Mentorship ................................................................................................ 68
Equality and Empathy ............................................................................... 73
Summary ................................................................................................... 76
III. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 78
vi
Research Design and Selection ................................................................. 80
Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Design..................................... 81
Population and Sample .............................................................................. 83
Instrumentation ......................................................................................... 84
Field Test for Instrument Validation ......................................................... 86
Data Collection Process ............................................................................ 87
Procedures for Data Analysis .................................................................... 89
Limitations ................................................................................................ 90
Summary ................................................................................................... 91
IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA.................................................................................. 92
Telephone, E-mail, and Face-to-Face Interview Process .......................... 94
Analysis of the Interview Data .................................................................. 94
Findings Reported by Research Question ................................................. 96
Research Question 1 .......................................................................... 96
Summary of Findings ................................................................................ 114
vii
Summary ................................................................................................... 118
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 120
Review of the Study .................................................................................. 120
Problem Statement ............................................................................. 120
Purpose of the Study .......................................................................... 121
Research Questions ............................................................................ 121
Methodology ...................................................................................... 122
Summary and Discussion of the Results ................................................... 123
Finding 1 ............................................................................................ 123
Finding 2 ............................................................................................ 124
Finding 3 ............................................................................................ 124
Finding 4 ............................................................................................ 124
Finding 5 ............................................................................................ 125
Finding 6 ............................................................................................ 125
Finding 7 ............................................................................................ 125
Finding 8 ............................................................................................ 126
Finding 9 ............................................................................................ 126
Finding 10 .......................................................................................... 126
Finding 11 .......................................................................................... 127
Conclusions ............................................................................................... 127
Limitations of the Study ............................................................................ 128
viii
Recommendations for Further Research ................................................... 128
Closing Comments .................................................................................... 129
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 133
APPENDICES ........................................................................................................... 144
A. IRB APPROVAL LETTER ........................................................................... 145
B. FOLLOW-UP LETTER................................................................................. 147
C. INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE ............................................................... 149
D. MATRIX OF PARTICIPATORY AND FEMININE LEADERSHIP

STYLES .................................................................................................... 155
E. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS .......................................................................... 158
F. CODING RESPONSES ................................................................................. 161
G. INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS ...................................................................... 166
ix
TABLES
Table Page
1. Women as CEOs of Higher Education Schools/Campuses, 1995 ....................... 28
2. Feminist Leadership Characteristics in Southern California Universities and

Colleges................................................................................................................ 33
3. Models of Masculine and Feminine Leadership .................................................. 37
4. Comparison of Leadership Models ...................................................................... 42
5. Research on Participative Leadership Styles ....................................................... 44
6. Decision-Making Practices: Comparison of Men and Women ........................... 46
7. Characteristics of Presidents at Associate Degree Colleges, 2011 and 2006 ...... 55
8. Presidential Profile: Institutional Type, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity .................. 59
9. Career Barriers for Women in Executive Leadership Roles at Community

Colleges................................................................................................................ 68
10. Barriers and Facilitating Conditions to Participatory Decision Making .............. 97
11. Participants Perceptions of Leadership/Norms Within Their Institutions .......... 101
12. Participatory Decision Making as the First Method of Choice............................ 106
13. Decision Making and Relationship Building Through Teams for Desired
Outcomes ............................................................................................................. 108
14. Validation or Demonstration of Feminine Leadership ........................................ 110
15. Commitment to Diversity .................................................................................... 112
16. Perceptions of Mentorship as a Career Pathway for Women Seeking to

Become Community College Presidents ............................................................. 113
x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am filled with thankfulness that I was raised by a praying mother and father who
introduced me to my Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. I am thankful that He blessed me
with an inquisitive and active mind and with a spirit of wisdom, knowledge, and
understanding that enabled me to stay focused; the work that has been achieved
throughout the dissertation process will be used for the access and opportunity of
education toward helping others.
As this journey comes to an end, I would like to thank everyone who has helped
me make this journey a success. First and foremost, I would like to express my
appreciation and thanks to the members of my dissertation committeeDr. Barbara
Poling (chair) for your patience, expertise, support, and advice throughout this journey.
Dr. Shari Magee and Dr. Kenneth Johnston, thank you for your tireless effort in
reviewing my work and for your guidance, patience, and believing in me throughout my
doctoral career and dissertation process. Thank each of you for your unwavering support,
countless hours of reviewing drafts, and the wonderful encouragement you have given
me these past 4 years. Your willingness to serve as advisors and mentors made this
dissertation immeasurable.
To those who have encouraged me throughout the journey, especially my family:
Ann M. Board (motherdeceased); brothers Levi Board, Jr., Alfred (deceased), Charlie
xi
(deceased), Cleophus, Howard, Barry, and Alaric; sisters Gloria and Rosie. To my sons,
Geremy, Gerard, Fred Jr., and Terrell, your love made this journey a success. To my
nieces and nephews, I am indebted to you for your support and generosity throughout this
process and the hardships we faced as a family during this journey.
To the many colleagues who have supported me in this work over the last several
years, I am grateful for your kindness, compassion, and relentless support. I want to
specifically acknowledge the persistent prompts/support of the following: Dr. Peter
Williams, Dr. Cheryl Magee, Dr. Liza Ford, Dr. Ken Johnston, Dr. Reginald Clemons,
Dr. Joseph Morris, JoNell Baker, Jason Balog, Geri Geissler, Catherine Van der Linden,
Deborah Flynn, Pastor Mack Martin, Deacon Sam McDaniel, Linda McDaniel, Judy
Solis, Lacy Gillespie, Patty Buck, Pearl Bandringa, Pamela James, Eileen Ailsina, Carole
Stump, and Justin Gate Wood.
To my many mentors, thank you for instilling time and treasure to my talents
throughout the years; I will continue to move forward. I greatly appreciate your
endurance, support, understanding, and most of all believing in me throughout this
journey has made this process so much easier.
xii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my father, Levi Board, Sr., and mother, Ann M.
Board, who believed in education and inspired me throughout my life to achieve any task
set forth and who set the example by continuing her education at the age of 50 and
obtained her BA from the University of La Vernethe same college at which this
dissertation was completed.
To my sons, Geremy, Gerard, Fred Jr., and Terrell, let this dissertation (EdD) be
an inspiration, encouragement, and guidance to you and your children. I send special
thanks to all my family and friends who have prayed for me, supported me, and have
been the instrument of influence throughout this journey.
May the Lord Bless You and Continue to Keep You.
Sincerely,
Dr. Frederick R. Board, Sr.

Doctorate of Education in Organizational Leadership (EdD)
University of La Verne
xiii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Research conducted by Bass and Avolio (1990) reinforced findings that
leadership and leadership styles are in relation or proportion to the characteristics of the
leader. Scholars and theorists of leadership agree that effective leadership is directly
related to the characteristics of ones leadership style (Bass & Avolio, 1990).
Most leadership theories are based on the models developed by men from studies
of men. These studies omitted women, but the results were generalized to include
women. Feminist scholars advocate that the omission of women distorts the portrayal of
the female experience (Banks, 1981; Farganis, 1986; Griggs, 1989; Hooks, 1984;
Kellerman, 1984; Stivers, 1992, 1993, 1995).
Karin Klenke (1996), in her work on leadership, pointed out that in traditional,
hierarchical organizational structures, leadership is defined on the basis of the position of
power of the chief executive officer (CEO), top-down communications, and status
differentiation between the CEO and the rest of the employees. In comparison, in the flat
networked organizations that are beginning to replace the bureaucratic pyramid in many
industries, leadership may be defined on the basis of leader-follower relations, which are
structured around collaboration, teamwork, and empowerment (Klenke, 1996).
1
2
Careful observations reveal that a rapidly increasing number of countries and
organizations are moving away from the historically male-only pattern of leadership.
Research conducted by Gorman (2006), in Work Uncertainty and the Promotion of
Professional Women: The Case of Law Firm Partnership, illustrated that professional
work involves three forms of uncertainty: problem variability, strategic indeterminacy,
and dependence on autonomous actors. Findings from the research showed that
(a) promotions are less likely to go to women when work involves greater problem
variability and strategic indeterminacy, and (b) the negative effects of strategic
indeterminacy become stronger as the proportion of male partners increases (Gorman,
2006).
The work of Kloot (2004), in Women and Leadership in Universities: A Case
Study of Women Academic Managers, revealed that gender is a pervasive factor in
organizational leadership. The study illustrated that sex role expectations are that women
have limited abilities and therefore are not capable of being leaders (Kloot, 2004).
Chin (2004), during her research on Feminist Leadership: Feminist Visions and
Diverse Voices, made clear the degree to which gender still shapes the current
workplace. Findings from the research indicated that women often come in second to
men, are more harshly evaluated, and hold less than 3% of most senior positions in the
United States. Chin stated that community colleges and organizations from around the
world would be able to adapt practices and policies from the research to create effective
leadership training with gender as a major component.

3
Recent studies have shown that participative leadership styles are most valued in
todays workforce arenas to mentor and foster effective relationships with teams (Itzen &
Newman, 1996). For example, Helgesen (2008) found that women preferred leading
from the center rather than the top and structured their organizations to reflect this. They
were willing to ask the big-picture questions about the work they were doing and its
value for the world (Helgesen, 2008).
Newport (2001), in his summary of results from a poll on how Americans see
women as leaders, revealed that todays workforce increasingly demands participation
and open communication. Also, women leaders demonstrating inclusion, empathy and
equality, valuing and including diversity, beliefs in others competencies, empowerment,
and creating nurturing environments have the characteristics and skills best suited for
leaders in todays workplace (Newport, 2001).
Often, authors refer to transformational leadership as a feminine leadership
characteristic (e.g., Carless, 1998; Helgesen, 1990; Loden, 1985; Yammarino, Dubinsky,
Comer, & Jolson, 1997). Research by Hackman, Furniss, Hills, and Paterson (1992),
however, showed that transformational leadership is associated with both feminine and
masculine characteristics, which suggests that transformational leadership is a
stereotypically gender-balanced style.
Researchers debate whether as gender and leadership styles become more of a
challenge for organizations worldwide, male and females will continue to work side by
side in leadership positions (Rosener, 1990). As global competition intensifies,
corporations can no longer afford to ignore the potential talent of female leaders in favor
4
of the traditional patterns of male-dominated leadership. Most leaders know their
companies cannot ignore talent simply because it wears a skirt or holds a different
passport (Chin, 2004, pp. 4-5).
More succinctly, in their meta-analysis, Eagly and Karau (2002) found that
women emerged more often as social leaders who facilitated interpersonal relations and
contributed to good morale. A follow-up meta-analysis by Eagly and Karau (2002)
examined leader effectiveness, indicating that women were more effective than men in
roles that were defined in less masculine terms. In retrospect, half of the human race has
been excluded from positions of leadership for most of human history, restricted from
reaching positions of real authority and influence in organizational leadership (Helgesen,
2008).
With the emerging educational workforce becoming more diversified leading into
the 21st century, the need to have management skills that demonstrate caring, nurturing
people skills has given women an opportunity to make a direct impact in the workplace
(Tarver, 1992). Leading business schools and community colleges are starting to pay
attention to the large proportion of women being sidelinedfor example, challenging the
ideal administrator in the educational arena. As the world seeks collaboration,
participation, and inclusion from leadership, the role of women in leadership becomes a
compelling priority (Tully, 2007).

5
Women as Leaders
According to Pagon (2003), organizations in the United States and worldwide are
deprived of billions of dollars each year because they fail to recognize that gender and
leadership styles can influence, transform, and strengthen followers commitment to the
organization. Significant evidence has been presented in both feminist and management
literature that supports that women as leaders are fundamentally different than men in the
attributes they bring to a leadership position (Pagon, 2003).
Eagly and Carli (2003), in The Female Leadership Advantage: An Evaluation of
the Evidence, stated that the presence of women in key positions within organizations
has shown a consistent return on equity (pp. 574-575). Courage and decisisiveness
were attributes found as often in female leaders as in male leaders, and traditionally
female attributes such as communication were increasingly valued (Eagly & Carli, 2003).
The emergence of networked technologies and the evolution of a sustainable
knowledge economy, along with the demographics of globalization, all support that
drawing from both gender groups increases the pool of potential talent (Carli, 1999). To
effect change, the workforce increasingly demands participation and open
communication; female leaders demonstrating these characteristics or skills are best
suited for leadership in todays workplace (Newport, 2001).
Women have brought to the workplace a comfort with direct communication,
relationship building, diversity, equality, empathy, believing in people, nurturance,
innovativeness, and being driven by values, and they demonstrate feminine attributes that
inspire self-confidence (Helgesen, 2008). Over the last decade, women have fractured
6
the glass ceiling that once separated them from leadership roles. Many female leaders
say more effort will be needed to truly break the gender barrier. In fact, women in
academia have had to battle that antiquated idea for generations, and none of them feel
the battle is over (Lane, 2002).
Women as Community College Presidents
Considered the peoples college, community colleges report a rich and diverse
student population and have a reputation of being more welcoming of womenas
students, faculty, and administrators (Eddy, 2008, p. 52). Community colleges are the
institutions of higher learning in which Americans are enrolling for second careers, first-
generation college students are attending in record numbers, and new worlds of
technology are being created in all vocations. It is here that leadership representation can
bring the vision of hope in real, everyday events (J. S. White, 2005).
Women make up 57% of all students enrolled in and attending community
colleges (Eddy, 2008). However, women hold approximately 20% of all CEO or
president positions at community colleges. This raises the question as to why such
disparity being openly witnessed is not being physically addressed (Eddy, 2008).
While women achieved significant gains as community college presidents from
1991-2001, there has been little or no progress in the last several years. About 29% of
todays college presidents are female, compared to 28% in 2001 (Ashburn, 2006).
The number of women in the community college presidential office has grown by
only 2% since 2001. In fact, recent study findings of community colleges in Arizona and
7
California revealed that barriers to advance womens leadership roles will not be
removed at community colleges unless key institutions within the colleges are willing to
examine critically the colleges culture (American Association of Community Colleges
[AACC], 2006).
Despite the increase in numbers of women community colleges presidents, the
percentage is disproportionately low. Significant evidence from research of community
college leaders revealed that their organizational structures were still based on male
norms, a traditional conception of leaders such as community college presidents invoking
the images of men. Women had to ultimately embrace the male norms of academics in
order to secure career advancements (Eddy, 2008).
A barrier for women entering upper level positions within the community colleges
is the need to mirror the practices currently expected, which are based on the
disembodied worker. Not only are women judged by the male norms of organizations,
but they are also measured against what other women prior to them did in the position,
which makes it difficult to be authentic in their leadership (Eddy, 2008).
Stephenson (2001) stated, As women leaders entering a new century, we are at a
difficult crossroads . . . where public expectations, the demands of diverse populations,
governmental scrutiny, and hard financial realities intersect (p. 193). Some of these
issues are internal, some external, and some particularly endemic to the community
college sector of higher education (Stephenson, 2001).

8
Roles of Women in the Culture
The criticisms of American universities that emerged from the feminist movement
of the late 1960s and 1970s were directed at (a) the structure of educational institutions;
(b) the conduct of scholarly research; and (c) hierarchical university administrations,
faculties, and student bodies. These areas were increasingly recognized as places that
excluded women, and as part of their struggle for equal opportunity, women demanded
an end to overt and covert discriminatory practices (Astin & Leland, 1991; Chamberlain,
1988; Glazer & Slater, 1986).
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, women began to receive more systematic
attention from institutions with appointments being made to positions as deans; however,
women were not as highly valued as their male counterparts and, consequently, women
deans did not have much authority. Because of this reality, soon after their appointment
to the positions, the women deans established the National Association for Deans of
Women (NADW) in 1992 (Allyn, 1992).
A study of two Australian community college presidents in 2009 revealed the
following findings: The position of authority appeared to be a two-edged sword for
both presidents; being female left them vulnerable to prejudice and sexism, while
simultaneously, diversity was used to appoint each of them into executive management
roles, but once appointed they were not so welcomed (Wilkinson, 2009, p. 42).
Winship and Amey (1992) found that women presidents described their
leadership styles as participatory yet used different language to elaborate. . . . Female
presidents described their leadership/management skills in terms of inclusion,

9
empowering, shared [vision], process oriented, and goal driven (p. 23). Research on
gender provides insight into what it means to be a woman within the community college;
however, the voice of experience adds insight into what it means to live as a woman
leader within these institutions (Gonzalez, 2011).
Velvie Green, an African American female, mother of two adult daughters, and
wife of 32 years, outlined key areas of consideration to support womens advancement
within the college system. In her autobiography, Reflections From One Community
College Leader, Green described how she faced double challenges based on her race and
gender. She stated that staff questioned her leadership abilities to cut it as an African
American woman raising two teenagers and being the caretaker for her parents (Green,
2008). Green followed the traditional path to the presidency, rising from the faculty
ranks, working in a variety of midlevel administrative roles, and finally working as the
provost. In order to establish credibility among her peers and her male counterparts, it
became apparent that to be an effective leader she had to model, coach, inspire, engage,
and influence others (Green, 2008).
E. White (2007) asserted, during her research on female leaders developing a
leadership style, that female leaders face a double-bind: If they assert themselves
forcefully, people may perceive them as not acting feminine enough, triggering a
backlash. But if they act in a stereotypically feminine way, they arent seen as strong
leaders (p. B5). Taking an authoritative stance is one of the most difficult things for
women leaders, while receiving the negative feedback is one of their biggest hurdles
(E. White, 2007).

10
Despite this correlation, organizations continue to promote male leaders at a
higher rate than their female counterparts (Fisher & Edwards, 1988). A study conducted
by Laff (2007), through his Four Stages of Contribution (p. 18) to examine leadership
in organizations, revealed that women continue to lag behind men in the amount of
coaching they receive, a crucial element needed to advance on the leadership track.
Gender and Leadership
Certain organizational policies, such as the presence or absence of clear selection
criteria or accountability requirements, may preclude or permit intentional discrimination
on the basis of gender (Reskin, 2001). One related study where women were measured
by standards separate from men examined performance evaluations of corporate CEOs;
the evaluations showed that women scored higher than men in 42 of 52 skills measured,
including motivating others, fostering communication, producing high-quality work, and
listening to others (Curtis, 2002).
Gorman (2006) examined the effects of law firm characteristics such as gender-
stereotypical hiring process, client relationships, and previous experience of firm
founders. The study revealed that firm partners, when assessing candidates abilities to
perform well in the partner role, used work uncertainty restrictions to reduce the weight
given to past performance and increase the weight given to gender, regardless of the
gender of existing partners. Gorman recommended that future studies could usefully
explore the issue by investigating the impact of work uncertainty on gender disparities in
11
upward mobility in various industrial and occupational settings and at various levels of
organizational hierarchies.
The work of McSorley and Truesdell (2009), Leading From the Middle: The
Special Education Advantage, can be used as a general framework for understanding
womens participative leadership styles and behaviors. Functioning in the middle
(McSorley & Truesdell, 2009, pp. 76-77) describes the importance of direct
communication; building relationships, empathy, and empowerment; valuing and
including diversity; and creating nurturing environments for working toward attaining
goals.
Both McSorley and Truesdell (2009) experienced challenges and opportunities in
their roles as presidents at their respective community colleges. From the onset it was
clear that they had a particular status position and were truly in the middle of similar
college cultures whose members were in awe of women administrators. Relationship
building was a challenge due to the steady stream of new faculty members, directors/
deans, and employees in organizational cultures that were already fragmented by the
hierarchy structuretop to bottomof the past presidencies (McSorley & Truesdell,
2009).
Through dialogue, McSorley and Truesdell (2009) centered their energy on
understanding rather than on decision making and best arguments, using their
communication skills so that each person within their colleges had the opportunity to
openly express her or his thoughts and feelings without being subject to argument or
judgment. Findings indicated the necessity of hearing the concerns of each individual
12
dean, faculty member, and employee to understand them first as individuals and to allow
their voices to reveal aspects of their organizational cultures. Both McSorley and
Truesdell discussed the need to pursue further research to challenge the reality that
women leaders lead from the middle and understand the process and sense of
belonging in organizational cultures within the community college environment.
Leadership Styles
For the past 20 years, researchers have studied the topic of leadership and what
particular styles create a dynamic organizational culture and its effectiveness on the
success of an organization (Avolio & Yammarino, 2002; Dansereau & Yammarino,
1998). Leadership theories discussed by researchers include the following:
Charismatic leadership: The extraordinary characteristics of a leader who inspires and
directs his or her followers by building their commitment to a shared vision and values
(Avolio & Yammarino, 2002).
Transformational leadership: The contemporary coach or teacher who encourages
leader and follower participation, is open to change, and shares power and information
within an organization. The transformational leader infuses participation from all
areas within an organization to instill a positive campus climate (Bass & Avolio,
1998). The leader inspires followers with a shared vision, empowering them to
achieve the vision, and provides the necessary resources for developing their personal
potential (Bass & Avolio, 1998).

13
Transactional leadership: The process of social exchange between followers and
leaders that involves a number of reward-based transactions (Dansereau &
Yammarino, 1998).
Servant leadership: The leader assumes a nonfocal position within a group, providing
resources and support without an expectation of acknowledgement (Bass & Avolio,
1998).
Feminine leadership: A leadership style that is composed of many qualities and
characteristics that are different from those used by men. Yet, taken together, these
qualities seem to work extremely well for women in generalbetter, in fact, than the
more traditional approach. These extraordinary characteristics include being
cooperative and collaborative, and consensus building with effective communication
that reflects sharing/caring toward building relationships in a team-oriented and
nonhierarchical environment (Chavez, 2003).
Establishing lower control with an emphasis on being empathetic toward
others while instituting high performance standards is a vital leadership characteristic
of women. Another characteristic is being rational in thought process to ensure a
participatory and collective style of leadership is instilled in the decision-making
process, with all meetings or sessions being informal and the atmosphere one of a
neighborhood setting. The feminine leadership style supports commitment to diversity
in the workplace and providing a supportive work environment in which information
and skills sharing among staff, faculty, classified, and all are aware of the desired
14
outcomes to meet the colleges needs (Feyerherm & Vick, 2005; Gilligan, 1982;
Helgesen, 1990; Irby & Brown, 1998; Loden, 1985; Rosener, 1990).
Participatory leadership: A 21st-century phenomenon that is similar to
transformational leadership but focuses on diversity and multiculturalism; it involves
leading from the middle instead of the traditional way of leading from top to bottom.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines participative as of, relating to, or
being a style of [leadership] in which subordinates participate in decision making
(Participative, n.d., para. 1). Characteristics of participatory leadership in the
literature are inclusion, openness and involvement, building relationships,
empowerment, belief in others competencies, collaboration, consensus building,
establishing a nonhierarchical environment in which leaders participate in teams and
groups, and creating an ambience in which people work with seal an inspiration
(Feyerherm & Vick, 2005).
Women and the Demand for Participative Leadership
Empirical research has established that women lead in a more participative
leadership style than their male counterparts that provides the middle way for closing
the gap in leadership positions (Hackman et al., 1992). Women are now a majority of
college graduates and a growing share of the talent available for leadership. As more
women do assume leadership positions in community collegessome 10% of
community college presidents are femalethis sparks a lively and ongoing discussion
about womens unique leadership skills (Walden, 1989).

15
Helgesen (2008) found that women preferred leading from the middle rather
than the top and structured their organizations to reflect this. Women placed a high value
on the quality of relationships within their organizations and brought to the workplace a
comfort of direct communication, relationship building, diversity, nurturance, and
feminine attributes that inspired self-confidence (Helgesen, 2008). Women strive for
relationships based on cooperation, nurturing, and intimacy. They work to stay
connected to others, while on the other hand men learn to be fair and just, and they must
apply ethical rules without being swayed by feelings (Walden, 1989).
Leadership roles and behaviors are changing toward the model of a good coach or
teacher. Female leaders tend to remain humble no matter what. They spend a lot of time
energizing and walking their campuses, acknowledging each person as part of the team
while understanding he or she is one person among many (Valdata et al., 2008).
Helgesen (1995) suggested that womens leadership qualities will help reconcile
the split between the ideals of being efficient and being humane (as cited in Jones, n.d.,
para. 2). During a 2008 meta-analysis, she identified specific areas for which women
have particular aptitudes, including long-term negotiating, analytic listening, and
creating an ambience in which people work with zest and spirit (Helgesen, 1995, as
cited in Jones, n.d., para. 2).
Statement of the Problem
There is a need to explore the perspectives of long-term women community
college presidents to gain a deeper, more grounded understanding of factors influencing

16
them in their climb to the community college presidency, the nature of that climb in a
male-dominated culture, and how that experience has shaped and prepared them as
leaders. Their experiences are unique to women; women presidents will pose different
questions than their male counterparts. When women leaders work with male and female
students, faculty, faculty senates, deans and directors, union leaders, and administrators,
those individuals are likely to have different positive transformational and participatory
experiences they could not have under a male gender-homogeneous leadership style
(Madsen, 2012).
Since the late 1970s and early 1980s, there have been significant changes in
colleges and universities. For example, women now make up the majority of faculty
members and are immersed in learning institutional culture, leadership development, and
research methodology; they are nonhierarchical, democratic, and more participatory in
the organizational structure and decision-making processes. This study identified the
feminine leadership characteristics that demonstrate how women lead compared to men
community college presidents and the facilitating conditions that evolved with their
participatory leadership styles in higher education.
Purpose of the Study
The first purpose of this study was to identify and describe both the barriers and
17
Research Questions
The following research questions were developed to examine how women
community college presidents illustrate their feminine leadership characteristics in the
framework of participatory decision making:
1. What do women community college presidents consider as barriers and facilitating
conditions to participatory decision making in selected community colleges in
Southern California?
2. In what situations do women community college presidents in Southern California
consider participatory decision making to be the first method of choice?
3. In what ways do women community college presidents in Southern California validate
or demonstrate the research-based characteristics of feminine leadership as viable in
their own experience?
Significance of the Study
Researchers have argued that the importance of promoting women is indisputable
in terms of institutional ethics and the precepts of equal opportunity; it is also critical to
providing education and services appropriate to the needs of students and the workplace
in the next decade (Stephenson, 2001).
The feminine characteristics and style of leadership have brought significant
knowledge and influence to institutions of higher learning. Research on this topic can
18
significantly add to the increasing knowledge on women and leadership, and increase
understanding of the contributions of feminism. Womens emphasis on collaboration,
low control, commitment to diversity, supportive work environment, information and
skill sharing, and participation in decision making gives credence to the importance of
understanding womens entry into leadership positions (Chavez, 2003).
Helgesen (2008), in her work on leadership, pointed out,
The progress women have made as leaders may not have been as rapid or smooth
as some of us had hoped or expected, [but] the impact women have had on what
we perceive to be desirable in our leaders continues to grow. (para. 3)
Feminine leadership characteristics that just [20] years ago seemed far outside the
mainstream are now seen as desirable (Helgesen, 2008, para. 29).
Relevance of the Study
Women are now a majority of college graduates and a growing share of the talent
available for leadership. At community colleges, 21% of deans of instruction are women,
while women constitute only 7.6% of all college presidents. If women are qualified and
aspire to higher positions at an equal level with men, then this could be instrumental in
positioning some leaders for promotion and not others (Vaughn, 1989).
The authoritarian approach to leadership is in dispute these days. To effect
change, the workforce increasingly demands participation and open communication;
therefore, leaders demonstrating these characteristics and skills are best suited for
leadership in todays workplace (Newport, 2001). Women leaders have demonstrated the
19
ability to relate to others individually and within groups, which is considered a key
component of the participative leadership style (J. S. White, 2005).
Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitation
The following assumptions were made in this study:
1. The women community college presidents interviewed in the study reflected their
personal opinions as viable in their own experience.
2. The women community college presidents within this study provided accurate and
reliable information in response to the interview questions.
The following are limitations of the study:
1. This study was limited to women community college presidents in the state of
California.
2. The study was restricted to 12 women community college presidents in the state of
California, and the findings may not be generalized to other samples or situations.
3. Responses received from the participating women community college presidents
validated or demonstrated their professional opinions.
The delimitation of the study was that women with the title of president in community
colleges within the state of California were included in the interview questionnaire
sample.
20
Definitions of Terms
Charismatic. Viewed as the foundation of leadership styles. The charismatic
leader demonstrates three core leadership components: envisioning, empathy, and
empowerment (Choi, 2006).
Collaborative leadership style. A leadership style that is shared among
participants in which all are involved in the decision-making process in accordance with
their values and beliefs (Chavez, 2003).
Community college. A public institution of higher education. Community
colleges are characterized by a two-year curriculum that leads to either the associate
degree or transfer to a four-year college (Community College, n.d., para. 2).
Diversity. Representation among presidents of community colleges; members of
minority groups have made no progress in the last 5 years, and women have made only
slight gains (Ashburn, 2006).
Empathy. Creating nurturing environments of understanding and being sensitive
to and aware of others feelings are characteristics/skills best suited for leaders in todays
workplace (Newport, 2001).
Empowerment. Followers/workers are empowered to make spot decisions
concerning quality, with their skill and labor seen as an investment rather than a cost
(Stephenson, 2001).
Equality. Barriers to womens advancement compromise fundamental principles
of equal opportunity and social justice (Tully, 2007).

21
Feminine. A term used as both noun and adjective that refers to the
characteristics of women (Astin & Leland, 1991; Helgesen, 1990).
Feminine attributes. Qualities associated with the female gender associated with
people who are creative risk takers, make their decisions based on their values, and
nurture others (Hautala, 2006).
Feminism. The policy, practice, or advocacy of political, economic, and social
equality for women (Donovan, 1992; Evans, 1995; Hooks, 1984).
Feminist. A person who advocates feminism (Misciagno, 1997).
Gender. Identified as male or female; gender has a great deal to do with how
individuals are perceived generally within organizations (Schachter, 2007).
Innovativeness. The personality characteristics of transformational leaders that
include creativity, proneness to risk, novelty, value driven, and lifelong learners (Hautala,
2006).
Institutions of higher education. Universities and colleges.
Involvement. Being a part of, a participant in empowering others to achieve their
highest abilities (Choi, 2006).
Leadership. Women in leadership positions are often evaluated more harshly
than their male counterparts (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
Leadership styles. People often learn leadership styles by observing others, but
there are very few female executives to observe. Women can watch male leaders, but
men cannot illustrate how to navigate female stereotypes (E. White, 2007).
22
Leading from the middle. The critical role that communication and relationships
play in building bridges, forging connections, and creating learning communities
(McSorley & Truesdell, 2009).
Mentorship. More women are emerging in visible leadership roles in politics and
business; public gains overshadow the slow rate of leadership training (Laff, 2007).
Minority. A part of a population differing from others in some characteristics and
often subjected to differential treatment (Minority, 2006).
Multiculturalism. A combined measure of individuals within a workplace with
diverse backgrounds and experiences (Tully, 2007).
Nonhierarchical environment. An environment based on building relationships
that are team oriented and informative, and creating an atmosphere that resembles a
neighborhood setting (Feyerherm & Vick, 2005; Helgesen, 1990; Rosener, 1990).
Nurturing environment. To promote a caring environment for others;
stereotypically a feminine way of leadership (E. White, 2007).
Openness. Being accessible and not hidden, being receptive to inquiry and
criticism, revealing and communicating feelings and intentions together with being more
sympathetic and enlightened.
Overcoming barriers. Disempowering encounters, being excluded from the
good ole boy social network, being the only one, and needing validation (Byrd, 2009).
Participative leadership. Inclusion, openness and involvement, empowerment,
and leaders participating in teams and groups (Feyerherm & Vick, 2005).
23
Relationships. A particular aptitude for long-term negotiating, analytic listening,
and an ambience for building relationships (Helgesen, 2008).
Servant. Views leadership not as a position or status but as an opportunity to
serve others and assist them in developing their full potential. Leader who places the
interest of followers before self (Bass & Avolio, 1998).
Shared vision. Leaders enhance followers to clear role expectations, improved
task performance, collective identity, and group cohesiveness with a desired purpose or
vision (Choi, 2006).
Transactional. Based on contingent reward; leader provides rewards for
satisfactory performance of followers within a static work environment (Dansereau &
Yammarino, 1998).
Transformational. The contemporary coach or teacher leadership style that
encourages leader and follower participation, is open to change, and shares power and
information within an organization (Bass & Avolio, 1998).
Valuing and including diversity. Acknowledging, understanding, and accepting
differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, race, and physical or
mental status (Diversity, 2006).
Organization of the Study
This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter I included an introduction; a
problem statement; the purpose statement; research questions; significance of the study;
assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the study; and definitions of key terms.
24
Chapter II includes a review of the literature. Chapter III outlines the
methodology of the study and includes a description of the research. The chapter is
organized in the following sections: (a) purpose of the study, (b) research questions,
(c) description of research methodology, (d) population and sampling,
(e) instrumentation, (e) institutional review board (IRB) approval, (f) data collection
procedures, (g) data analysis procedures, and (h) limitations of the study. Chapter IV
focuses on the interview process and how the data were acquired, and presents an
analysis of the study findings as they relate to each research question and a summary of
those findings. Chapter V contains the findings related to the literature, a summary of the
findings, conclusions, implications for action, and recommendations for further research.
The study concludes with references and appendices.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Women comprised fifty-eight percent of community college enrollees, sadly;

however, the face of community college administration does not reflect this
image. (American Association of Community Colleges, as cited in Schuster &
Finkelstein, 2006, pp. 25-27)
Generally, in qualitative research, the literature review flows from the information
found during the data collection process and provides further description for the concepts
used to develop the phenomenological approach. Comparisons and evaluations are not
usually developed before the study but rather flow from the data for the purpose of
developing literature-based concepts (Schwartz & Sudman, 1996).
Given the nature of this study, which contained a descriptive and comparative
component utilizing the qualitative research method, a more traditional review of the
literature was conducted. Prior to data collection, the literature review first focused on
the literature-based concepts inherent to the statement of the problem, purpose statement,
development of the research questions, significance of the study, and relevance of the
study. Studies focusing on women community college presidents were reviewed to
provide background material needed to understand the population.
Chapter II provides an overview of the literature and experiences pertaining to the
effect of the advancement of women community college presidents in the state of
California. This chapter reveals the contributions of women community college
25
26
presidents through the use of their participatory leadership style during the decision-
making process, the greatest barriers and facilitating conditions they face, and how their
feminine characteristics within the work environment have inspired a growing canon of
empirical research.
The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of related literature relevant to
the study. This chapter is organized chronologically to provide a perspective of trends in
the formal evaluation of women community college presidents. The chapter is divided
into the following sections: (a) historical content, (b) women as leaders, (c) feminine
leadership, (d) autocratic leadership, (e) democratic leadership, (f) collaborative
leadership, (g) transformational leadership, (h) participative leadership, (i) decision-
making practices, (j) other leaders perceptions of women community college presidents,
(k) women in educational leadership, (l) community college leadership, (m) gender and
equity differences, (n) diversity and multiculturalism, (o) barriers/obstacles women
leaders face in their journey to the presidency, (p) mentorship, (q) equality and empathy,
and (r) the summary.
The presidency is the top leadership role in education, including in community
colleges; therefore, this study examined how women illustrate a more participative
leadership style and explained their roles as community college presidents.
Historical Content
According to Hackney (1998),
When Title VII of the Educational Amendments of Public Law 92-318 was
passed by Congress in 1972, women applauded it as a definitive step toward
27
removing sexual discrimination in all federal assistance programs and activities.

The passing of the Equal Educational Opportunity Act, in 1974, amended the law
to further its coverage to employees in educational institutions. These pieces of
legislation became milestones in the growing movement for womens rights in
education and the workplace (Random & Strasburg, 1982). So, as the decade of
the seventies ushered in growing awareness and sensitivity to issues affecting
women, this legislation gave women the hope for equal treatment and opportunity
under the law. Progress was made; women were entering fields which had
historically been closed to them; women were enjoying greater choice in
determining the directions their lives would take; women were in greater control
of their minds, their bodies, and their lifestyles. But, as the decade began to wane
and the political climate began to shift toward the right, the political activism
which had spurred the feminist movement quieted into a false complacency.
Moreover, societal constructions of perceived gender differences biased
the treatment of women in the educational setting. . . . At the time when our
nations educational system needs people of high ability and high motivation, it
continues to minimizes [sic] the contributions of women and advances
disproportionately small numbers of women to administrative positions. Though
promotion and hiring practices of women in school administration have gradually
loosened so that more women hold positions at higher levels of power and
decision-making, the field remains predominantly male. (para. 1-2)
Hackney (1998) further stated, Many have sought to explain why so few women
are represented in the higher levels of school administration (Womens Development,
para. 1; see Table 1). The author noted,
The organizational culture profoundly affects the individuals sense of self and in
turn the individual affects the nature of the organizational culture. Yet, changing
the status quo, altering attitudes, and shaping the behaviors of individuals present
obstacles which may at times be insurmountable. Because the present cultural
reality reinforces the notion that acknowledging and accepting the voices and
values of others represent the loss and surrender of power, for change to be
realized organizations of the future must be forged in an alternative paradigm.
(Hackney, 1998, Womens Development, para. 1)
Hackney (1998), in her article titled Voices of Women at Entry Level Positions
of Educational Administration, stated that for women to stand on equal professional
footing with males in educational administration, . . . [a]lternative voices, experiences,

28
Table 1
Women as CEOs of Higher Education Schools/Campuses, 1995
Number of women
Type of school Total CEOs % of total
Independent 1442 237 16%
4-year 1299 199 15%
2-year 143 38 27%
Public 1461 216 15%
4-year 556 78 14%
2-year 905 138 15%
Total 2903 453 16%
Note. Adapted from Women as CEOs of Higher Education Schools/Campuses, 1995, n.d.,
Women in Higher Education, retrieved from http://wihe.com/women-ceos-higher-education-
schoolscampuses-1995/.
backgrounds, and histories must be acknowledged [by women and men] as valid
(Implications, para. 2). She believed that every individual must be considered
valuable to a community college no matter what (Hackney, 1998, Implications,
para. 2). Her 1998 study found that for all people, self-confirmation and a supportive
community are requisites for growth and development [that result in] success, and
professional progress (Hackney, 1998, Conclusion, para. 2).
The number of women in higher education has increased over the years, but quite
slowly. Of all levels of higher education in the United States, it is the community
colleges, which are now entering their fifth generation, that have the greatest reputation
for representing women in administrative positions. However, their representation as
senior administrators and community college presidents in general, and in higher
education in particular, is not parallel to the available talent pool (McGowan, 2003).
29
In the new competitive, fast-moving global economy, institutions must be
innovative, consensus building, committed to diversity, establishing low control with
high participation, nimble, and flexible while involving everyone in the decision-making
process and creating a supportive work environment that builds relationships with desired
outcomes. These characteristics depend on participative, collaborative, and cooperative
leadership styles, qualities that women bring to the table (McGowan, 2003).
Women as Leaders
Clearly, the most effective way to prevent people from advancing is to block their
advancement with overt, absolute barriers. For most of human history, barriers to
womens leadership consisted of explicit rules and clear-cut norms (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Even in the 20th century, women lacked legal and political equality and were not even
allowed to vote, let alone hold political office. In some cases, women could not even
gain the same credentials as men because educational opportunities were closed to them.
Until the 1960s, women were denied access to many of the most selective universities in
the United States (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Womens rarity in powerful roles has most often been ascribed to the glass
ceiling, but this explanation no longer fits. The glass-ceiling metaphor conveys a rigid,
impenetrable barrier, but barriers to womens advancement are now more permeable.
Eagly and Carli (2007) used the term labyrinth to describe the path for women to senior
leadership roles. They stated, For women who aspire to top leadership, routes exists but
are full of twists and turns, both unexpected and expected. Because all labyrinths have a
30
viable route to the center, it is understood that goals are attainable (Eagly & Carli, 2007,
p. 37). Although men have long monopolized leadership, especially in the more powerful
roles, this is changing. In the United States and many other nations, women have gained
access to a wide range of leadership roles (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Appointing women as leaders continues to be an area of development in the
educational and corporate environments. People are often still resistant to women in
leadership roles; study after study has affirmed that people associate women and men
with different traits and link men with more of the traits that connote leadership
(Schachter, 2007). The sense often is that women are less skilled or less innately able to
lead than men. That is misinformation for which women need to take responsibility. If
women do not share their brand and identity, they will be judged by prevailing
stereotypical thinking (Schachter, 2007).
Schachter (2007) explained, in her article titled If a Company Has Women
Executives, All Female Employees Can Benefit, that there has been a great deal of
change in roles and the perception of roles of women in education and business over our
lifetime (p. 40). Her research indicated that the presence of women in positions at
executive levels of organizations shows a return on equity. Yet despite this correlation,
companies do not seem to be doing enough to promote greater gender diversity at the
executive level; in fact, progress in this area has been essentially ground to a halt
(Schachter, 2007).
E. White (2007) asserted, in her meta-analysis on female leaders, that female
leaders face
31
a double-bind: If they assert themselves forcefully, people may perceive them

as not acting feminine enough, triggering a backlash. But if they act in a
stereotypically feminine way, they arent seen as strong leaders. This is a
particularly challenging process for women early in their careers. (p. B5)
Taking an authoritative stance is one of the most difficult things for women leaders,
while receiving the negative feedback is one of their biggest hurdles. Therefore,
organizations continue to promote male leaders at a higher rate than their female
counterparts (E. White, 2007).
Further research was conducted by J. S. White (2012), in her article titled
Curriculum for Advancing Women Leaders in Higher Education. J. S. White stated,
Because the impact of the current economic crisis will be with the higher education
sector for the next decade and beyond, it is crucial for academic institutions to have the
best leadership possible for steering the changes required (p. 14).
Progress has been made over the last 20-plus years, but it has occurred very
slowly and very minimally (J. S. White, 2012). The community colleges have shown
greater progress than other institutions of higher learning in the representation of women
in administrative positions. More than 50% of community college students are women,
close to half of community college faculty are women, and over 10% of leaders in
community colleges are female. The decade ahead will be a critical period to promote
women of all backgrounds to the highest level executive positions and to strengthen the
entire pool of women holding institutional leadership positions (J. S. White, 2012).
32
Feminine Leadership (Womens Ways of Leading)
A supportive work environment is a key component of feminine leadership.
Flexibility in accommodating staff, faculty, and student needs along with inclusion in the
feedback process are factors that contribute to a supportive and flexible work
environment. The feminine approach to leadership means that each staff member is
viewed as a whole person, not just a worker, and involves fostering effective
relationships and being empathetic to others voices and opinions (Chavez, 2003).
Feminine leadership qualities ensure everyone is involved in the decision-making
process. Information is gathered in a team-oriented style in which open communication
allows for a lot of talking in meetings that are formal, creating an atmosphere that
resembles a neighborhood setting (Chavez, 2003). Theory and practice that emerged
from the 1960s womens movement continued to evolve in the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s,
and leaped forward in the 20th century. In the 21st century, feminine leadership is
characterized as less hierarchical, more cooperative and therefore more democratic, more
collaborative, and more committed to diversitycommitment to all cultures within an
organizational structure (Chavez, 2003).
Table 2 summarizes the data regarding the characteristics and quality of feminist
leadership, which illustrates that their approach to leadership is very different than that of
males. Female leaders share the responsibility of involving everyone in the organization,
from setting the agendas to chairing meetings; being team oriented with low control,
supportive, and flexible are all indicators of nonhierarchical participatory organizational
structures. These results of feminist leadership characteristics confirm that the majority
33
of women leaders provide a forum for sharing information in the universities and colleges
in which they lead (Chavez, 2003).
Table 2
Feminist Leadership Characteristics in Southern California Universities and Colleges
Characteristic Type of institution Work environment Diversity

Relationship oriented Independent Supportive/flexible Multiculturalism
Open communication 4-year Feminism Ethnicity of respondent
Empathetic
Formal 2-year Openness Culture of evidence
Lots of talking
Cooperative Public Team oriented Flexibility in
accommodating staff
Less hierarchical 2-year Low control Inclusion in decision-
making process
Note. Adapted from A Study of Feminist Leadership Characteristics in Southern California
Universities and Colleges (Doctoral dissertation), by M. G. Chavez, 2003, p. 40, available from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3075264).
Helgesen (2008), in her article titled Female Leadership: Changing Business for
the Better, held that womens leadership qualities will help reconcile the split between
the ideals of being efficient and being humane. She further maintained that women
placed a high value on relationships and judged the success of their organizations based
on the quality of relationships within them (Helgesen, 2008, para. 13). According to
Helgesen, women were comfortable with diversity, having been outsiders themselves
and knowing in their bones what kind of value fresh eyes could bring (para. 15). She
explained, The impact women have had on what we perceive to be desirable in our
34
leaders continues to grow. The real story, it seems, is about influence rather than
numbers (Helgesen, 2008, para. 3-4). According to Helgesen, They preferred direct
communication to communication up and down a chain of command[,] . . . leading from
the center rather than the top and structured their organizations to reflect this (para. 14,
18).
A common thread among women community college presidents is an
awareness of their own leadership styles and a perception that a womans leadership style
is different from that of a man (Valdata, 2006, What the Research Shows, para. 1).
Most successful women presidents are more likely to upset the status quo and are
more inclined to take risks and more inclined to think out the box, to use a stale
metaphor (Valdata, 2006, What the Research Shows, para. 3-4). Women leaders
possess a passion for continuous learning and a passion for creating and understanding
the culture of evidence. They have learned to accept people for what they bring to the
table. Valdata (2006) quoted Dr. Ding-Jo Hsia Currie as stating,
Men and women are two wings of the bird. . . . You cant put the right wing on
the left wing; were different. But if you have one wing not as strong, think how
that bird will fly. The bird is not going to achieve its highest flight until the two
wings are equally strong. (Leadership Training, para. 6)
Women are more open to individuals who do not necessarily agree with them and
individuals who are culturally different. However, both male and female community
college presidents visualize themselves as consensus-building, value-driven
transformational leaders. Education is a business of knowledge; the priorities are
academics and student needs. Educators are there to educate students and to help them
35
learn. According to Valdata (2006), The reality . . . is that action is different from
rhetoric. Most college presidents talk about taking risks but not so many of them actually
do it (What the Research Shows, para. 5).
For that reason, community college presidents of the 21st century must have skills
that build trust, inspire a shared vision, and ensure that others have the same vision of
where they want the college to go. The belief system must be aligned with the actions so
diverse groups are involved every step of the way (Graf, 2010).
Graf (2010), in her research of cultures, corporations, community colleges, and
families, pointed to the lack of leadership, flexibility, imagination, and unwillingness to
adapt to community college cultures (p. 1). The 21st century requires a new kind of
leaderone who can think, create, imagine, and act with flexibility and adaptability in an
extremely complex society.
According to Switzer (2006), the community college
presidency is a complex position that requires an exceptional combination of

expertise, life balance, and leadership. Women face a distinctive set of challenges
as they blend the responsibilities of leadership with responsibilities, both real and
perceived, for themselves and their families. (Summary, para. 1)
Switzer added,
Organizations require leaders with strong relational abilities and team-oriented

management, skills that have traditionally been associated with women. These
people skills are as valuable in the new corporate environment as the more
traditional masculine approaches were to more hierarchical [educational]
organizations, yet a new irony emerges (Acebo, 1994). The new paradox is that
women are still not being selected for top leadership positions to the degree that
the current organizational needs would appear to require. (Leadership, para. 2)
36
Community colleges are just one subset of society and the same factors that prevent
women from making more progress to the top of corporations or government are also at
work in education (Glazer-Raymo, 1999, as cited in Switzer, 2006, para. 3).
Budworth and Mann (2010) found,
While the number of women [community college presidents] has been increasing,
the gender composition of top [leadership positions] is skewed. . . . [T]endencies
toward modesty and lack of self-promotion are hypothesized to perpetuate the
lack of female involvement in top [leadership] positions. . . . There are barriers
and obstacles in place that limit the movement of women into [top] leadership
roles. (p. 177)
Qualities and leadership style behaviors that is successful for males in the workplace are
not successful for females. The good news is that women do not need to adopt male
ways of being in order to succeed (Budworth & Mann, 2010, p. 177).
In Table 3, masculine and feminine leadership models relay that the feminine
leadership style is composed of many qualities and characteristics that are different from
those used by men in general. Yet taken together, these qualities represent a leadership
style that seems to work extremely well for women in generalbetter, in fact, than the
more traditional approach. The feminine leadership model actively promotes positive
interactions by encouraging the participation of staff, sharing information and power, and
stimulating excitement about work (Chavez, 2003).
Autocratic Leadership
Leaders employing an autocratic leadership style can provide efficient decisions
during the decision-making process (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Such a style can be desirable
37
Table 3
Models of Masculine and Feminine Leadership
Masculine leadership Feminine leadership

Organizational structure Hierarchy Low control, nonhierarchical, team
oriented
Operating style Competitive Cooperative, collaborative
Basic objective Winning Innovativeness, quality output
Problem-solving style Rational Intuitive, rational
Decision-making style Autocratic Participative, open involvement
Key characteristics High control, strategic, Empathetic, low control, high
unemotional, analytic performance standards
Role Contest, win-lose Collaboration, shared vision
Universities and Colleges (Doctoral dissertation), by M. G. Chavez, 2003, p. 40, available from
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3075264).
when a very quick decision is needed or when subordinates lack relevant competence or
interest in helping to make decisions. In such situations, leaders who fail to be directive
would be at a disadvantage. On the other hand, autocratic leaders can make subordinates
dissatisfied, damage their morale, and even cause them to exit a group or organization
(Eagly & Carli, 2007).
For example, a female manager with a highly directive style in a male-dominated
organization was head of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA),
and she directed the ill-fated Columbia space shuttle, which self-destructed during reentry
in 2003 (Eagly & Carli, 2007). This female manager had a particularly directive and
autocratic leadership style and was an intimidating figure who had a no-nonsense
38
approach to the lower ranks. She was a woman struggling in a mans world. Her
autocratic leadership style at NASA may have contributed to this and other shuttle
mission disasters (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Democratic Leadership
Leaders employing a democratic leadership style take others opinions into
account in making decisions, whereas autocratic or directive leaders seldom do (Eagly &
Carli, 2007). The democratic approach may seem inherently superior because of its
consistency with American values; however, the effectiveness of this style depends on
the circumstances. A leader behaving in a way that is characteristic of the democratic
leadership style leads with a more collaborative approach, one of consulting, discussing,
encouraging, and negotiating that varies depending on the circumstances (Eagly & Carli,
2007).
Democratic leaders facilitate inclusion, create mechanisms that get people to
participate, and use a conversational style that sends signals inviting people to get
involved (Eagly & Carli, 2007). Female leaders are often associated with this type of
leadership style as they encourage participation, share power and information, and allow
others to have a say in almost every aspect of their work. Female leaders have cultivated
this style to overcome the hazards they encounter in the labyrinth (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Although a democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other
members of the team to contribute to the decision-making process (Bhatti, Maitlo,
Shaikh, Hashmi, & Shaikh, 2012). This not only increases job satisfaction by involving
39
employees or team members in what is going on, but it also helps to develop peoples
skills. Employees and team members feel in control of their own destiny and are
motivated to work hard by more than just a financial reward. As participation takes time,
this approach can lead to things happening more slowly, but it often leads to better end
results (Bhatti et al., 2012).
Collaborative Leadership
The ability to work collaboratively has become increasingly important in
education and in the workforce. According to Barkley, Cross, and Major (2005), To
collaborate is to work with another or others (p. 206). In practice, collaboration has
come to mean people working in small pairs or small groups to achieve shared learning
goals. It is learning through group work rather than learning by working alone.
Although collaborative leadership may take many forms, it is defined in this dissertation
to mean collaboration as a leadership style in higher education. Matthews (1996, as cited
in Barkley et al., 2005) stated, It is a pedagogy that has at its center the assumption that
people make meaning together and that the process enriches and enlarges them (p. 9).
Another way to look at collaboration is to view it as a system of people who
bring to the experience an individualized genetic make-up, a personal life history, varying
combinations of personality traits, differing values and attitudes and a singular view of
the world (Hirokawa, Cathcart, Samovar, & Henman, 2003, as cited in Bond, 2008,
p. 3). Current research supports collaborative leadership styles in higher education and
suggests willingness and readiness to engage in productive teamwork [is] a requirement

40
for success (Barkley et al., 2005, as cited in Bond, 2008, p. 3). According to Bond
(2008), While educators often speak of how group or team work will serve students well
in the real world, Vella (1994) writes that Teams are the real world (p. 3). Bond
further stated,
In adult education, collaborative leadership has gained a strong foothold, . . . [and]

the importance of the learners experience has helped shaped techniques of
collaborative learning as a sharing of information in relationships of equality that
promotes new growth in each participant (p. 249). . . . The learning part of the
term happens when two or more [individuals] are laboring together and sharing
the workload equitably as they progress toward learning outcomes. (p. 4).
Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders are considered a derivative of participative leaders who
transform and motivate followers by making them more aware of the importance of task
outcomes, including them to transcend their own self-interest for the sake of the
organization and activating their higher-order needs (Bass, 1994, p. 18), thereby tapping
into Maslows hierarchy of needs theory. The theory is concerned with values, ethics,
standards, long-term goals, and followers motives, satisfying their needs and treating
them as full human beings (Northouse, 1997). The leadership of a community college
president is difficult, demanding, and relentless, and being a transformational leader
requires the community college president to work closely with faculty, faculty senate,
adjunct faculty, classified staff, union leaders, and other stakeholders to make them aware
of the desired outcomes and to meet the colleges needs.
With the continuous change in workforce diversity, transformational leadership
provides the middle way for women because it has culturally feminine aspects, especially
41
in its individualized consideration behaviors (Hackman et al., 1992). Women have
been characterized as possessing the necessary values and qualities for organizations
seeking to adopt the transformational style of leadership. Their values include open
communication, believing in people, creativity, and innovativeness (Itzen & Newman,
1996; Kark, 2004). Table 4 demonstrates that the feminine approach to leadership is very
different than that of males.
Participative Leadership
A 21st-century phenomenon that is similar to transformational leadership but
focuses on diversity and multiculturalism involves leading from the middle instead of the
traditional way of leading from top to bottom. The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
defines participative as of, relating to, or being a style of management in which
subordinates participate in decision making (Participative, n.d., para. 1). The key
drivers of participative leadership are valuing people, developing people, building
community, displaying authenticity, and sharing leadership (Feyerherm & Vick, 2005).
The result of these drivers are leaders who are ethical people, are better communicators,
have strong interpersonal skills, and are creators of shared visions with clear and
attainable goals.
Hautala (2006), in her research article The Relationship Between Personality and
Transformational Leadership, explained the personality characteristics of participative
leaders. The characteristics include innovativeness, proneness to risk, empowerment,

Table 4
Comparison of Leadership Models
Autocratic Democratic Collaborative Transformational Participative Feminine

Hierarchy, highly American values Small pairs or Motivate followers Shared involvement Nonhieracharchial,
directive groups low control
Subordinate Inclusion of Teamwork, values, Satisfaction of employee Supportive work Open communication,
dissatisfaction others and ethics needs environment participation
Low morale Job satisfaction High morale, Desired outcomes to All inclusive, High performance
sharing of meet needs nurturing standards
information
Quick decisions Negotiating and Willingness and Workforce diversity Greater gender Empathy and equality
discussing readiness sensitivity
Exit of group or Employee People involvement Transformational; Nontraditional Shared vision with
organization control individualized full involvement
consideration
Note. Adapted from The Transformational Leader: A Feminist Perspective, by R. Kark, 2004, Journal of Organizational Change Management,
17(2), pp. 160-176.
42
43
believing in people, creating a nurturing environment that inspires self-confidence, and
acting as a good coach or good teacher rather than a traditional command-and-control
boss (Hautala, 2006).
Stereotypically, women are more participative and collaborative than men, and
there is, in fact, some empirical evidence that groups containing more women tend to be
more egalitarian than groups with fewer women (Eagly & Carli, 2007). A preference on
the part of women for participative leadership makes sense, given that people are
particularly discontented with autocratic leaders, some of whom are women and some of
whom are men. Women and men who lead in a more collaborative way, take others
opinions into account, share power, and illustrate a supportive style of leadership are the
leaders who will lead organizations throughout the 21st century (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
Table 5 draws from a theory of participative leadership and community college
literature of 15 women community college presidents in the community college system in
rural, suburban, urban, and inner-city settings. The subjects and results in the table
demonstrate a significant relationship between the leadership patterns and behaviors of
female community college presidents whose colleges were members of the American
Association of Community Colleges (AACC; Liu, 2007).
Decision-Making Practices
Decision making is
the ability to bring people together at all levels to accomplish [institutional] goals
in a professional and collegial manner. . . . [It] includes shaping and defining a
vision, inspiring people to buy into that vision, and helping them secure the tools
they need to turn the vision into reality. (Dukes, 2009, Journey to Leadership,
para. 4)
44
Table 5
Research on Participative Leadership Styles
Subjects Results
Fifteen community college presidents who Very effective at sharing power and
illustrated valuing people, shared vision, inspiring self-confidence that creates a
authenticity, empowerment, interpersonal skills, nurturing environment
innovativeness, good coach, and good teacher
Note. From Women Community College Presidents, by A. Liu, 2007, Community College
Journal of Research and Practice, 31, p. 833.
Women community college presidents have acknowledged that decision making is not
just about the leadership position a person holds, for we are all leaders in some way
(Dukes, 2009, Journey to Leadership, para. 4). They view the position as a means to
develop and implement new ideas, realizing that inclusion is essential and it is necessary
to take risks to pursue opportunities that lead to success (Dukes, 2009, Journey to
Leadership, para. 4).
According to Chun and Evans (2008), New 21st-century strategies are needed to
foster genuine inclusion in the higher education workplace (p. 32). They explained,
These strategies must address the reality of second-generation barriers and subtle,
cumulative forms of . . . discrimination. Micro-incursions or small, recurring acts
of exclusion and marginalization have replaced overt, egregious acts of
discrimination. Forms of marginalization now take place through failure to allow
female and minority faculty and staff to have voice, to participate in decision-
making and to have access to needed resources and support. (Chun & Evans,
2008, p. 32)
Women presidents have taken on the task to ensure inclusion from all areas of the college
during the decision-making process (Chun & Evans, 2008).

45
Chun and Evans (2008) suggested, An important framework for fostering an
inclusive culture is reciprocal empowerment, a values-based approach . . . [of]
recognition that derives from respect . . . [and] is two-way and empowers those who are
empowering others (p. 32). Inclusion not only assists women and minority faculty and
staff to overcome barriers, but it also helps them to surmount criticism, build
confidence and be successful (Chun & Evans, 2008, p. 32). According to Chun and
Evans, Today, individuals may be present, but silent; visible, but not heard; at the table
but not empowered to make meaningful decisions (p. 32).
In a study by Chavez (2003), women community college presidents illustrated
that their use of a shared and open decision-making process enhanced institutional
integrity and quality. The participation and involvement of multiple campus constituent
groups is essential to shared governance and helps minimize misunderstandings about the
meaning of and process for decision making. Communication lapses will arise from an
institutional culture that discourages the expression of diverse or dissenting views. The
women presidents in Chavezs study viewed their organizational structures as collective
rather than hierarchical, with a participatory decision-making approach within their
institutions rather than a directive approach (Chavez, 2003).
In an effort to explain that women, along with men, are a very valuable resource
to mankind, Franklin Delano Roosevelt wrote, No [community college,] college or
university can afford the waste of its human resources. The nobility of purpose of our
great democracy is the impetus for continued progress toward attaining reciprocal
46
empowerment in the higher education workplace (as cited in Chun & Evans, 2008,
p. 32).
Table 6 summarizes the results and comparisons of women and men community
college presidents in Southern California universities and colleges. Chun and Evans
(2008) stated, The question remains as to how the results of these findings will be used
to drive change in institutional practices. Have they really been translated into inclusive
practices or have they simply created the illusion of progress? (p. 33). The authors
added, When women . . . have attained leadership and decision-making roles that
incorporate their voices and views, when . . . merit and other processes support their
participative leadership style as being successful in the higher education community,
progress will be achieved (Chun & Evans, 2008, p. 33).
Table 6
Decision-Making Practices: Comparison of Men and Women
Women Men
Type of institution Community college Community college
Decision making Participatory, informal Hierarchical, formal settings
setting; neighborhood and organization
Status Lower Higher
Work environment Shared and open Unsupportive
Orientation Collaboration Directive, controlling
Commitment to diversity Greater gender sensitivity Advocate
Universities and Colleges (Doctoral dissertation), by M. G. Chavez, 2003, pp. 73-75, available
from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database (UMI No. 3075264).
47
Other Leaders Perceptions of Women

Community College Presidents
In a study by Minor (2005), faculty leaders were overwhelmingly supportive of
women community college presidents in their views of shared governance where all
constituent groups were involved in the process. The participation of faculty is essential
to shared governance, as Minor (2005) stated, Findings show that . . . faculty have
significant authority over academic matters such as undergraduate curriculum (73
percent) and policies related to . . . nonacademic matters, such as athletics, setting of
budget priorities, and selection of the president (p. 3). Faculty leaders expressed that
women presidents often shared their needs, with most having been faculty members
before becoming community college presidents (Minor, 2005).
It is critical that a community college president understand the roles of both full-
time faculty and adjunct faculty in the classroom, in their individual disciplines, and in
the larger academic body (Minor, 2005). To be part of this larger community, a president
must be open and responsive to new ideas, somewhat suspicious of departmental politics
and loyalties, and adaptable to interdisciplinary initiatives and community instructional
modes; women presidents have been open to new ideas and more optimistic concerning
issues of trust, communication, and the importance of the faculty senate (Minor, 2005).
Adjunct faculty leaders supported their faculty brothers and sisters by arguing that
inclusion should be intentional, with social inclusion [being] a basic means of [forming]
a connectiona sense of organizational belongingbetween adjuncts and the colleges
that depend upon them (Spaniel & Scott, 2013, p. 10). During recruitment and hiring
48
efforts, administrators should take into account adjuncts reasons for teaching part time
because these factors may influence their commitment to the institution (Spaniel &
Scott, 2013, p. 10). According to Spaniel and Scott (2013), With more time on campus,
. . . adjuncts may have . . . more opportunities to interact with colleagues [and the
president], thereby strengthening their inclusion in campus networks (p. 10). The
authors suggested offering adjunct faculty passes to athletic and fine arts events,
inviting them to participate in community service projects, faculty convocation, and to
attend graduation as faculty (Spaniel & Scott, 2013, p. 10). Women community college
presidents have played a huge role in supporting adjunct faculty as teaching professionals
and welcoming them to communicate their ideas and to participate in the decision
making processes (Spaniel & Scott, 2013, p. 10).
Friesen (2002) found that classified employees acknowledged that they were able
to communicate more effectively with female community college presidents than with the
traditional male presidents. Male presidents rarely interacted with classified employees
and at times referred to them as the other group. Many felt alienated and not part of the
team, and they were often humiliated in front of other classified employees, including
faculty and adjunct staff. The lack of consistency in supervisory support for participation
in campus-wide activities was another factor that classified employees saw in male
presidents and not in female presidents (Friesen, 2002).
In response to a clear strategic vision that recognized the changing workplace,
women community college presidents often took a bold step toward including classified
employees in the institutions professional development programsmore so than their

49
male counterparts (Friesen, 2002). Women presidents ensured that the idea of shared
governance included the involvement of campus constituent groups in the decision-
making process to enhance institutional integrity and equality. The participation of
classified employees is essential to shared governance because it represents the moral and
intellectual guides of the academia enterprise; certainly the often-forgotten classified staff
can benefit greatly from the change (Friesen, 2002).
In a study by Holmes (2007), faculty, adjunct faculty, and classified staff all
agreed that in the community college sector of higher learning, inclusion,
communication, and participation in decision making were very important to the
institutions effectiveness. Institutional support services and resources for all groups
were necessary; professional development, evaluations, interactions with students, and
recognition must be mutually exclusive. Inclusion in one area contributes to inclusion
in another; exclusion in one area contributes to the exclusion in another. The
participation in shared governance within community colleges is essential to the basic
means to change, which is essential in the 21st century (Holmes, 2007).
Women in Educational Leadership
Walker (2007), in her article titled Women Increasingly Likely to Be Leaders in
U.S. Higher Education, indicated that more women than ever attend universities, and
slating women for leadership positions in higher education is a natural outgrowth of this
pattern (para. 2). That same year, Bornstein (2007) wrote a piece on the historic
appointment of Harvards first woman president. She stated,

50
[It] reflects a sea of change in the nature of higher education and its leadership.
. . . In the new competitive, fast-moving, global economy, institutions must be
innovative, entrepreneurial, nimble, and flexible. These characteristics depend on
collaborative and consultative leadership, qualities that women bring to the table.
(Bornstein, 2007, p. 21)
Women leaders in community colleges face the challenging, exciting, and positive
prospect of helping their communities young people and adults overcome the inevitable
difficulties of the 21st century and live satisfying, productive lives. This is truly an
exhilarating prospect and the reason most women are working in community colleges.
Every turf battle, every appropriations session, every faculty discussion, every applicant
screening, every board meeting, and every departmental meetingpainful as it can be
is well worth it (Stephenson, 2001).
Nobody likes change but a wet baby, and even the baby cries (Stephenson, 2001).
Transitions are unsettling to people who have become accustomed to another style and
doing things a certain way. Women leaders have learned to accept people for what they
bring to the table. Women are empowered to make spot decisions concerning equality,
with labor seen as an investment rather than a cost. The reality is that adults face the
prospect of retraining for as many as five careers in a lifetime (Stephenson, 2001).
In their study of community college presidents, Winship and Amey (1992) found,
[Women] presidents noted the reward for leading was accomplishing goals,
seeing diverse students succeed, and observing the positive impact college had on
students lives. Leadership by walking around was a key component in each
presidents style, and they indicated that learning to appreciate process and
involve others in decisions had been important lessons in effective leadership.
[They] described their leadership styles as participatory yet used different
language to elaborate. (p. 23)
They added that in community colleges,

51
women have been functioning in an organizational structure developed by men

and it could be concluded that when they do not behave similarly to men, they
may be seen as breaking rules or making new rules in contradiction to The
Organization. [These] organizations . . . often are weighted in ways that do not
reflect womens values, including what may be considered appropriate behaviors
or ways of communicating. (Winship & Amey, 1992, p. 23)
Nidiffer (2010) reviewed the history of women as leaders in academia in the
reference handbook Gender and Womens Leadership and noted that although progress
has been made in some areas, women still lag behind male colleagues in moving into
leadership roles throughout educational institutions. This starts at the college and
university faculty level, as women faculty members at the assistant professor level equal
men in several disciplines, but lack representation as full-time professors (Nidiffer,
2010, p. 555).
According to Humphrey (2012),
The traditional path to college presidencies, inclusive of community college

presidencies, has been first through having held a previous position as president.
The second most prevalent pathway was through the academic route such as the
chief academic officer or provost (ACE, 2012). Similarly to men, women
presidents overall in higher education have obtained a presidency by a traditional
path. The third pathway to the presidency was from other senior leadership
positions at the executive levels within the institution such as chief financial
officer or administrative positions (ACE, 2012). African-American women tend
to work in higher-level student affairs positions (ASHE Report, 2009). Non-
traditional pathways are one way to recruit minorities, particularly African-
American women. Like women, minorities need to prove themselves in all the
traditional ways; which means a faculty or scholar route is the most frequent
(ACE, 2012; ASHE Report, 2009). Minorities have had little success with
obtaining faculty appointments through the academic route . . . [with] women who
[have] earned doctorates . . . still less likely than their male colleagues to have
junior faculty ranking [as found by Wolverton, Bower, and Hyde (2009)]. (pp. 12-
13)
52
African American women and Hispanics women leaders are more likely to hold senior
leadership positions in student affairs and are more likely to become presidents through
this pathway than their White male counterparts (Humphrey, 2012, p. 13). Humphrey
added,
African-American women [and Hispanic women] student affairs professionals

outnumber their African-American [and Hispanic] male counterparts as leaders
within higher education. . . . This means there is a greater chance for African-
American [and Hispanic] women to obtain higher-level leadership positions at
[community colleges] through non-traditional routes such as business and student
services (U.S. Department of Commerce, 2007). (p. 13)
Community College Leadership
Although the importance of promoting women is indisputable in terms of
institutional ethics and the precepts of equal opportunity, it is also critical to providing
education appropriate to the needs of students and the workplace into the next decade.
Stephenson (2001) stated, As women leaders entering a new century, we are at a
difficult crossroads, a crossroads where public expectations, the demands of diverse
populations, governmental scrutiny, and hard financial times intersect (p. 193).
Critical issues are moving toward women community college leaders, hitting
them, and sometimes sliding right past them from all directions (Stephenson, 2001).
Some of these issues are internal, some external, and some particularly endemic to the
community college sector of higher education. They fall into broad categoriesstaff,
funding, students, and the workforcebut they are of course all intertwined. Not only
will increasing numbers of women leaders have to deal directly with these issues, but the
53
inclusion of women in leadership groups will enhance the resolution of these issues
(Stephenson, 2001).
According to the article Portrait of a President (2012),
At the community college level, the percentage of female presidents has grown
significantly, from 29 percent in 2006 to 33 percent in 2011. . . . Across all of
higher education, the percentage of women who are college presidents rose from
23 percent in 2006 to 26 percent in 2011.
Despite significant progress toward gender equality, researchers say little
headway has been made to improve racial and ethnic diversity in the presidents
office. . . . The same is true across all sectors of higher education, with the
percentage of college presidents who are racial or ethnic minorities having
decreased from 14 percent in 2006 to 13 percent in 2011. (p. 64)
The president of the American Council on Education (ACE) was quoted as saying,
Leadership that is not only effective but reflective of the world around it will be key to
managing the challenges today and unknown challenges of tomorrow (Portrait of a
President, 2012, p. 64).
The average age of community college presidents is 59, and most are White males
who have been in their position for an average of 8.5 years. Fifty-six percent of
presidents plan to retire in the next 6 years, and 84% plan to do so within 10 years,
bolstering the belief that community colleges may see a shortage of leaders in the coming
years and opening the door for more women to apply. This mass exodus of presidential
leadership will open the door for women and minorities to have more of a presence in
community college leadership (Ashburn, 2006).
As students, faculty, and staff become increasingly diverse, stakeholders within
community colleges say leadership ranks must change to reflect the students they serve.
According to ACE President Molly Corbett Broad (as cited in American Council on
54
Education [ACE], 2012), We are reminded yet again about the importance of developing
a more diverse pool of senior leaders (para. 4). The percentage of college presidents
who are 61 years or older grew from 49% in 2006 to 58% in 2011 (ACE, 2012).
A projected wave of impending retirements may soon present an opportunity for
changes in leadership. According to De Los Santos (2013), More than 140 community
college CEOs retired in 2012, and a relatively staggering number will follow suit over the
next five years (para. 3). This massive turnover will not only be in the administrative
leadership arena but in the instructional arena as well. De Los Santos added, Clearly, to
better reflect and serve our increasingly diverse students and communities, preparing the
next generation of diverse community college leaders, both inside and outside the
classroom, is mission critical (para. 3).
Table 7 illustrates characteristics of women community college presidents at
associate degree colleges.
Community colleges are gendered organizations despite espoused values of being
democratic institutions (Eddy & Cox, 2008). Reliance on hierarchy and positional power
is still evident in the top-level position, as in the creation of a new campus that still used a
traditional reporting structure and the move by several presidents to add to the
organizational hierarchy. The portrait of community colleges with more than a majority
of women as students but less than a third led by women illustrates that of gendered
organizations. According to Eddy and Cox (2008), Frame-breaking changes to these
norms are required to create a gender-neutral institution (p. 77).

55
Table 7
Characteristics of Presidents at Associate Degree Colleges, 2011 and 2006
Public 2011 Private 2011 Total 2011 Total 2006

Women 32.3% 40.7% 33.0% 28.8%
Minority 12.9% 7.4% 12.9% 13.9%
Currently 87.2% 84.6% 86.8% 83.2%
married
Education
PhD or EdD 85.5% 55.6% 81.1% 78.7%
Has formal NA NA NA NA
religious
training
Presidents top Education or Education or Education or Education or
three fields of higher education higher education higher education higher education
study (66.5%) (40.7%) (63.4%) (70.0%)
Computer Humanities and Computer Humanities/fine
science fine arts science arts
(7.8%) (18.5%) (7.9%) (9.5%)
Humanities and Business Humanities and Social sciences
fine arts (14.8%) fine arts (5.9%)
(7.0%) (7.8%)
Note. Adapted from Leading Demographic Portrait of College Presidents Reveals Ongoing
Challenges in Diversity, Aging, by American Council on Education, 2012, retrieved from
http://www.acenet.edu/news-room/Pages/ACPS-Release-2012.aspx.
Clearly, more needs to be happening for women along the route to the presidents
office. Currently, less than two thirds of 2-year college presidents are women, and this
representation has not changed significantly in the past 5 years (Lester, 2009).
Collaboration may provide the basis for a way of rethinking power and leadership roles.
Collaboration between community college presidents and boards of trustees needs to
occur on a consistent basis in a variety of ways. The future of the U.S. community
56
college system depends on the development of leadership opportunities and on the
infusion of leadership (Lester, 2009).
Gender Equity and Differences
As cited by Humphrey (2012),
Eddy and Cox (2008), in their study of six community college presidents, found
male norms still govern the organizational structure of community colleges.
Males continue to be in the community college presidency position more often
than women and minorities. In 2006, the average community college president
was Caucasian, male, and 58 years old. . . . In 2007, the Chronicle of Higher
Education described the typical college president profile as being white, married,
gray-haired and male. By 2011, women had made some gains, but males
continued to lead the majority of community colleges (ACE), 2012) [sic]. (p. 12)
Lester (2009) explained,
Gender norms exist throughout campus cultures, but they are dynamic and often
vary across campuses and departments. Gender norms are subtle; they are
communicated during interpersonal interactions, in representations of men and
women, and through the gender of people in positions of power, like campus
administrators. Despite changing over time and from one campus to the next,
institutional gender norms generally correspond to and are influenced by societal
notions of femininity and masculinity. (Evidence and Implications, para. 1)
Lester continued,
Despite their numerical equity, female [administrators,] faculty and students at

community colleges are expected to perform what is commonly called womens
work. This [involves] maintaining a caring, compassionate, and helpful
demeanor; performing departments service work; and [leading and] teaching in a
maternal way. (Evidence and Implications, para. 2)
One behavior associated with female administrators is listening to female faculty
and students and assisting them with personal problems (Lester, 2009, Evidence and
Implications, para. 2). Students often describe female administrators as persons who
display their maternal traits favorably (Lester, 2009). According to Lester (2009),
57
Women are constantly managing their gender identities and considering ways to
change their performances to prevent backlash. In the process, they construct
gender performances that often conflict with their gender identities. [Women]
spend much time and energy behaving in ways that conform to gender norms and
altering their behavior in response to positive and negative feedback. (Evidence
and Implications, para. 6)
Benjamin, Pollard, and Seabrooks (2012) found that gender-based obstacles
remained firmly in place as women sought advancement to the highest positions in higher
education leadership. Women leaders often reported how hard it was for the board of
trustees to accept a womans authority on finances and strategy. One woman leader
reported that the board of trustees gave employees at her college an opportunity to tell
them what characteristics and skills they felt the chief executive officer (CEO) should
possess; instead, they talked about what they thought were the deficiencies in her
qualifications and why she should not be the next CEO (Benjamin et al., 2012).
Despite opposition related to racism, sexism, and unsupportive and unwelcoming
work environments, women must possess certain leadership traits to be successful in their
work environments (Benjamin et al., 2012). Regardless of gender, successful leaders
must set realistic goals, but they must also push themselves beyond their comfort zones.
There has to be a level of self-awareness and soul searching to know ones own
convictions and values (Benjamin et al., 2012).
Eagly and Carli (2007) noted,
It is unlikely that the future will bring continuous, even progress toward gender
equality, with women steadily rising into leadership positions in a more or less
linear progression. Yet it is a common perception that women will steadily gain
greater access to leadership, including to elite positions of power. Polls have
shown that most Americans expect a woman to be elected president or vice
president within their lifetimes. Also, [community college and] university
58
students queried about the future power of men and women indicate that womens
power will increase. . . . These students extend womens gains in power and
authority into the future, as if our society is on an expressway to gender equality.
...
Social change does not proceed easily or without struggle and conflict. As
women gain greater equality, a portion of people react against these changes,
thereby producing some backlash. . . . Women may be merely catching their
breath before pressing for more change, or . . . starting to retreat somewhat.
However, we believe that retreat is unlikely. The forces that have maintained
gender inequality will continue to be subverted by womens resistance to their
subordination and by the inspiration that flows from media images of competent
female leaders. (p. 198)
According to Lester (2009),
Community colleges are uniquely positioned in todays political and economic

landscape, as civic leaders cast attention on this sector as a place where anyone
can access postsecondary education. As more students enter community colleges
seeking certificates, associate and baccalaureate degrees, and transfer options,
community colleges can serve as role models of gender equity for large portions
of the population. In order to model gender equity effectively, community
colleges will need to become more intentional and less accidental in the ways they
approach gender. (Conclusion, para. 1)
Table 8 illustrates the presidential profile by institutional type (2001 and 2009),
gender, and race/ethnicity.
Diversity and Multiculturalism
In general, womens observational style tends to be broad and wide ranging, while
men tend to focus more narrowly on what they perceive as relevant to the task at hand
(Helgesen & Johnson, 2010). Women are continually scanning their environment for
information, whereas men are more apt to restrict their observations to what a specific set
of actions requires. These complementary capabilities should be a source of strength and

59
Table 8
Presidential Profile: Institutional Type, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity
Doctorate
granting Masters Baccalaureate 2-year Specialized
Category 2001 2009 2001 2009 2001 2009 2001 2009 2001 2009
Gender
Men 86.7% 96.2% 79.7% 90.0% 81.3% 83.9% 73.2% 92.1% 85.2% 93.4%
Women 13.3% 3.8% 20.3% 10.0% 18.7% 16.1% 26.8% 7.9% 14.8% 6.6%
Race and
ethnicity
White 91.4% 97.6% 87.1% 87.2% 87.9% 93.6% 86.1% 91.4% 88.4% 94.9%
Black 5.9% 1.9% 7.4% 9.3% 7.4% 5.2% 6.5% 3.9% 3.9% 1.8%
Hispanic 1.1% 0.5% 3.0% 2.6% 3.2% 0.8% 5.1% 3.1% 3.3% 2.6%
Asian 0.5% 0.0% 1.7% 0.5% 4.0% 0.2% 0.9% 0.6% 0.6% 0.0%
Other 1.1% 0.0% 0.7% 0.2% 1.1% 0.2% 1.4% 1.0% 3.9% 0.7%
Note. Adapted from Talking About Race, Learning About Racism: The Application of Racial
Identity Development Theory, by B. D. Tatum, Spring 1992, Harvard Educational Review,
62(1), p. 1.
offer a perfect demonstration of the benefits that diversity can bring to organizations
(Helgesen & Johnson, 2010).
According to Helgesen and Johnson (2010),
Because diversity is often viewed as a numbers gameWe will increase our

percentage of women at CEO, director, and presidents level by 30 percent over
the next five years[community colleges and] companies often end up missing
the larger picture. Diversity does not result simply from creating a richer
demographic mix. (p. 8)
The authors explained that true diversity and true representation from all ethnicities is
the diversity of values, respected and accepted throughout the community college sector
nationwide (Helgesen & Johnson, 2010, p. 8).

60
Community colleges are the most diverse and inclusive institutions of higher
education in the United States. Community colleges serve larger percentages of African
Americans, Asians/Pacific Islanders, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and
students with disabilities than any other segment of higher education, with well over half
of community college students being women (AACC, 2002). Most of the women and
minority higher education presidents are found in the ranks of American community
colleges. However, progress has been slow in identifying and employing presidents who
are representative of the student bodies and the communities served by the colleges
(AACC, 2002).
Senior leaders, presidents, and board trustees should mirror the populations on
college campuses and be committed to the participation and success of all groups; this is
where the next wave of academy should be aimed (AACC, 2002). The AACC and the
Association of Community College Trustees (ACCT) together represent the leadership of
more than 1,200 community, junior, and technical colleges throughout the United States.
Both associations have long supported programs and initiatives supporting equity,
diversity, and inclusion that foster successful leadership at both the board and presidential
levels (AACC, 2002).
In 2011, the percentage of community college presidents who were minorities
actually decreased to 12.9%, compared to 13.9% in 2006 (ACE, 2012). The same is true
across all sectors of higher education, with the percentage of college presidents who are
racial or ethnic minorities having decreased from 14% in 2006 to 13% in 2011. As
campuses become increasingly diverse, stakeholders say leadership ranks must change to
61
reflect the students they serve. A projected wave of impending retirements may soon
present such an opportunity (ACE, 2012).
Female candidates and leaders generally are expected to meet every criterion to
perfection, are forgiven less for their mistakes, and are not taken seriously as forceful
leaders (Ebbers, Gallisath, Rockel, & Coyan, 2000). Change could occur if more
assertive women and minorities served as members of community college boards. It is at
the board level that attitudes and hiring policies regarding women and minorities can be
changed. Boards of trustees are also in the position of setting an example to the
community college administration that they too need to take steps to improve
opportunities for diverse leadership at all levels of the college (Ebbers et al., 2000).
Garcia (2007) stated,
As [leaders and] educators, we have failed to teach about unity within diversity.
The demographic shift in this country is occurring without discussion of the
consequences or, even worse, with people in leadership positions ignoring it. . . .
As leaders, we must model and encourage debates and difficult dialogues. We
must engage in civil conversations. We must admit when we are wrong, learn the
arguments of those with whom we disagree, and at times, we must agree to
disagree and walk away with grace. As leaders, we must insist on educating
about and for diversity.
Times have changed, and diversity in this country has become
increasingly complex. Diversity is no longer black and white. It is not only about
the traditional census groupsblack, white, Asian, Hispanic, [and] American
Indian . . . [with an] increasing number of individuals now classify[ing]
themselves as multiracial. . . . Diversity is multifaceted and intersecting, and
there are complexes within groups as well. . . . How often have we heard leaders
say that todays students are different, or that they wish they were recruiting more
traditional students? How many of us who participate in those conversations
have actually responded by pointing out that these are the students of today and
tomorrow. (pp. 25, 26)
62
Students who populate U.S. universities, community colleges, cities, and the country will
become the leaders of tomorrow (Garcia, 2007).
Chun and Evans (2008) asked,
Why has it taken so long for institutions of higher education to move beyond lip
service to genuine inclusion for minority and female [presidents,] faculty and
staff? The business case for diversity has never been more compelling, and,
while a number of [community colleges] have developed strategic diversity plans,
explicitly recognizing this as an important institutional goal, the actual attainment
of diversity outcomes is still extremely rare. (p. 32)
The authors found that very few community colleges have moved beyond addressing
structural representation through affirmative action efforts to adopting institutional
strategies that promote the empowerment and inclusion of female and minority faculty
and staff (Chun & Evans, 2008, p. 32). Chun and Evans continued,
Are the Walls Really Down? . . . our research indicates that . . . the attainment of
concrete outcomes was slow at best. While the sweeping forces of globalization
and the growing demographic diversity of our student populations create a
mandate for change, institutional mission statements, in fact, rarely reference the
value of a work environment that supports diversity. (p. 32)
Women community college presidents are an important form of symbolic capital
that leaves a major and lasting impact on community colleges and their staffing patterns
(De Los Santos, 2013). In 1989, the Expanding Leadership Diversity in Community
Colleges (ELDCC) program launched the support and advancement of diverse senior
leadership positions. Women and minorities who participated in the program used their
skills to reflect on their candidacy for the presidencies based on educational, experiential,
and community leadership backgrounds. Forty-seven of the participants were women,

63
and more than 24% of the participants were of color (De Los Santos, 2013). According
to De Los Santos (2013),
To best prepare our students, staff and community leaders, we must take a
moment to reflect on the cornerstones that are the cultures and values of
community colleges. . . . Given this, diversity and inclusion of students and staff
grow increasingly important toward our collective goal of producing a pluralistic,
educated citizenry. . . . Innovation, diversity and inclusion must be imbued in the
preparation of the next generation of leaders in order to have the best chance of
helping those we serve meet their student success and completion goals. (para. 2,
10)
As stated by Eke (2009),
Diversity is an important goal for any [community] college. A healthy mix of

men, women, and people of different races and ethnic and religious backgrounds
breeds interaction and readies students for life and work. But it takes more than
just students to achieve the right mix on campus. The most progressive
[community] colleges also strive for diversity from within and at the highest
echelons of leadership . . . [to analyze] . . . how much farther they must goto
realize the true value of diversity. (p. 14)
The bright spot, for those interested in improving leadership diversity in
Californias community college system, is that nearly half (49%) of community college
presidents are 61 years of age or older (Eke, 2009). If half of these individuals were to
retire in the next 5 years, one quarter of community college presidencies would be vacant.
Unfortunately, recent hiring trends for new presidents suggest that optimism for increased
diversity is unwarranted. Women and minorities are still being hired at slightly lower
rates than their total representation in the community college presidency (Eke, 2009).
64
Barriers/Obstacles for Women in Their

Journey to the Presidency
According to Persyn (2005),
An unwritten rule in academe is that women, who can manage it, give birth
between May and August. The timing of childbirth is one of the many barriers
women face on the path to a community college presidency, but none are as
complicated as balancing family and work issues. Women must factor the needs
of their children when making career decisions. Balancing motherhood, family,
and academic obligations complicates the pursuit of a presidency because society
still expects women to care for their children and balance a professional career.
(p. vii)
Persyn added,
Equally crucial for [the success of many] women presidents in community

colleges is an understanding and supportive family. Community college
leadership positions often require a woman to move several times from one state
to another and her hours extend well beyond the [normal] 9-5 realm. Having a
family that not only understands these demands, but that is willing to alter its
lifestyle to accommodate the professions demands has helped [many] women
succeed (Lane, 2002). (p. 33)
Lane (2002) maintained, in her article Community College Presidents: Women
in Education, that without the understanding of a husband and children, many women
would not have succeeded. In her interview of Dr. Susan Salvador, vice president at
Monroe Community College, Dr. Salvador stated that her husbands flexible work
schedule has made a world of difference. He is able to spend more time with the
children, taking them to school and picking them up from school while attending their
after-school events. Dr. Salvador stated, It makes a big difference on my psyche
knowing my husband is there with my children rather than a caretaker (as cited in Lane,
2002, pp. 5-6). Due to the long hours her job requires, Dr. Salvador goes days and
sometimes weeks without spending time with her family (Lane, 2002).
65
A majority of the women who hold leadership positions at community colleges
are either single or divorced. According to 2002 statistical data released by the ACE, for
all higher education institutions, 57% of women presidents were married, while 90% of
male presidents were married (Lane, 2002). Women continue to be labeled with the term
bitch and considered overly emotional and highly hysterical when making decisions. If a
woman quits or is fired from a presidency, it is often blamed on her being a woman. If
men quit or fail, they are not described in those terms. They are described as overtaken
by their circumstances (Lane, 2002).
Switzer (2006), in her journal article Women Community College Presidents:
Interviews About Journeys and Adaptations, noted that women have to adapt
the pace and locations of their careers to their spouses jobs. None reported that
this adaptation was debilitating, but nearly all reported that it took hard work to
negotiate the needs in two-career households. One woman [president] and her
spouse had a commuter marriage for 16 of their 33 years of marriage. This
intense negotiation and problem-solving is in direct contrast to the example which
was shared about two unnamed men who accepted presidencies and then went
home and told their wives about it. (The Journey, para. 12)
Switzer stated, Many [women community college] presidents believed their constituents
expected them to be warm, nurturing, and sensitive; and . . . able to handle severe
pressure and make hard decisions (The Expectations, para. 5). She added,
One woman [president] said that having children gave her a good yardstick with
which to measure priorities and [make] hard decisions . . . but a few [did] not.
. . . Most described themselves as being good listeners, good people-persons,
and humanistic, [and] . . . able to make tough decisions. . . . Another said that
as she makes hard decisions, she tries to look at what happens to people between
the present time and the end result. (Switzer, 2006, The Expectations, para. 4,
5)
66
Boards of trustees have posed another challenge for women, according to several
higher education leaders (ACE, 2012). ACEs Van Ummersen said women who are
appointed to the top jobs at colleges may have to confront unsympathetic boards in salary
negotiations. Some boards expect a woman to be less assertive than a man and might not
offer a woman the same salary and benefits they give a man. Boards of trustees whose
members are mostly men are comfortable picking a man because people have a tendency
to hire people like themselves. Van Ummersen urged all newly appointed women
presidents to work with a financial adviser before agreeing to salary and benefits (ACE,
2012).
It is difficult to get men in the higher echelon of education and other top fields to
accept women seriously, and sometimes they are unwilling to work with women at all
(ACE, 2012). It is important to remember that the obstacles women grapple with are
often very subtle and therefore difficult to directly confront. Men in some colleges and
organizations simply devalue women and keep them out of the loop. In a meeting, when
a woman speaks, not as much attention is paid as when a man says the same thing; others
are not ignoring women, but they are not giving them the same credibility (ACE, 2012).
Womens unequal representation in leadership positions poses multiple concerns.
Most obviously, the barriers to womens advancement compromise fundamental
principles of equal opportunity and social justice (Tully, 2007). These barriers impose
organizational costs as well. Researchers consistently find a positive correlation between
the representation of women in leadership positions and business preference, using
measures such as market share and return on investment. Correlation does not always
67
involve causation; there are strong reasons to believe that diversity in leadership has
tangible payoffs. The most obvious reason is demographic. Women are now a majority
of college graduates and a growing share of the talent available for leadership.
Organizations that create a culture of equal opportunity are better able to attract, retain,
and motivate the most qualified individuals. They perform effectively in an increasingly
competitive and multicultural environment, where individuals with diverse backgrounds
and experiences tend to blend agency with communion that addresses both sides of their
leadership style (Tully, 2007).
According to Switzer (2006), the California Community College system and
presidency is a complex position that requires an exceptional combination of

expertise, life balance, and leadership. Women face a distinctive set of challenges
as they blend the responsibilities of leadership with responsibilities, both real and
perceived, for themselves and their families. . . . There is no question that family
issues present complications more for women presidents than for their male
colleagues. (Summary, para. 1, and Family, para. 1)
Switzer quoted multiple presidents, who gave advice for women, some inspirational and
some practical:
There are more opportunities [for people] to lead than there are people capable
of doing a good job at it. For women considering a presidency [within the
community college system] but unsure about their abilities or the demands of the
job, the big step is finding the courage of action to apply . . . the rest you can
learn. . . . youre a woman and dont try to do anything different. . . . Every
day, you make big and little decisions that can chip away at your moral and
spiritual being if youre not clear where your values are. (Summary, para. 1-2,
and Advice to Women, para. 1)
In her research, Back (2007) found,
Women leaders in community colleges faced many of the same career roadblocks
and detours encountered by women in the corporate world. What distinguished
women in community college leadership was their optimism that they would be
68
successful even though it might take longer to reach their career goals than they
originally planned. Their optimism was based on support from family and
colleagues, emotional intelligence and endurance, experience and wisdom that
come with age, the accepting environment of community colleges, and a resilient
inner strength. (Abstract)
Table 9 illustrates career barriers women in executive leadership roles faced in
community colleges in comparison to men in the same leadership roles.
Table 9
Career Barriers for Women in Executive Leadership Roles at Community Colleges
Support Emotional Board of Married or

Gender groups intelligence Barriers trustees divorced
Men Wife &family, External Very little, full Full support, Married
mentors, relationship representation. male dominated
colleagues management
Women Family issues, Internal Demographics Little or no Single,
more relationship unequal representation divorced
complications management representation with
& challenges children
Men Board of Adaptable Very little, full Experience, 90% or
trustees representation wisdom more
Women Other women Very Devalue women Unsympathetic 57% or
presidents emotional, in meetings in salary less
hysterical negotiations
Note. Adapted from Perceptions and Reactions to Career Barriers Among Women in Executive
Leadership Roles at Community Colleges (Doctoral dissertation), by D. P. Back, 2007, pp. 35-38,
retrieved from http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/umi-uncg-1290.pdf.
Mentorship
More women are emerging in visible leadership roles within the community
college sector, but the public gains often overshadow the slow rate of leadership training
they receive in the workforce (Laff, 2007). Women continue to lag behind men in the
69
amount of coaching they receive, a crucial element needed to advance on the leadership
track. The traditional or stereotypical traits of a leader are assertive behavior,
competitiveness, willingness to take risks, and often expected to ask questions when
navigating the leadership pipeline (Laff, 2007).
Women exhibit different behaviors that can get in the way of being successful;
some need help building confidence, developing a visible track record, and taking risks
(Laff, 2007). A lot of women try to figure out everything; they do not want to be seen as
a poor choice for the position or as someone who is not meeting expectations. Women
need to be coached to understand that it is perfectly acceptable and often expected to ask
questions when navigating the leadership pipeline. While the gap between coaching
provided to men and women appears to be narrowing, the number of women who are
ascending to senior leadership posts remains small (Laff, 2007).
One major problem is a shortage of female role models (E. White, 2007). People
often learn leadership styles by observing others, but there are very few female
community college presidents, CEOs, provosts, or interim presidents to observe. Women
can watch male leaders too, of course, but men cannot illustrate how to navigate female
stereotypes. Women should realize that male mentors may not be aware of the unique
challenges women face when asserting leadership. At community colleges, where there
are not many female leaders, experts suggest women should join professional
associations or community organizations to find role models. These nonwork settings
also offer women of all ages a chance to try out new leadership styles outside their
normal office settings (E. White, 2007).

70
Women should seek out other women leaders within their organizations or outside
their organizations to back them up when others second-guess them (E. White, 2007).
Women should ask what skills they need to bring to the position and how to maintain
these skills, and women should ask for this support. Trinda Best, former vice president of
human resources at Barstow Community College, asked another female vice president
about her leadership style and observed how she led others. She noticed the woman led
by example, was willing to work extra hours when needed, and threw herself into
additional projects (E. White, 2007).
Women mentors are excellent role models for other women, serve as good
listening sources, and provide unbiased feedback. Moore (1992) noted that many
mentors do not teach directly but instead often awaken, challenge, or engage the
protges talents. Women mentors increase self-confidence and self-worth in other
women, contribute to their personal and professional growth, increase their focus on
career goals and objectives, and provide a vision backed by encouragement to pursue the
presidency position at community colleges (Ebbers et al., 2000).
In 2003, the ACE created the ACE Fellows mentorship program for community
college presidents, interim presidents, chief financial officers, school superintendents,
continuing education administrators, and counselors. According to Switzer (2006), One
third of the women, mostly from the community colleges, had not completed their
doctorates when the . . . administrative doors began to open, so they completed their
graduate studies, often at the same time they had children at home (The Journey, para.
8). Women were also involved in week-long tailored opportunities in which they
71
shadowed chief financial officers and presidents from larger campuses (Switzer, 2006).
Switzer stated,
One woman said that her mentors opened [up to] . . . the joys and the things that
are not so joyful about a presidency, and what the trade-offs are. This enabled
her to seek the presidency with her eyes wide open. (The Journey, para. 9)
Another mentee, who was plucked . . . out of the role of being a radical faculty union
advocate into administration said her mentor just modeled good people skills, and I
learned a lot from how she works with people (Switzer, 2006, The Journey, para. 9).
Her mentors were both males and redirected her leadership effectiveness which had
been strongly anti-administration into a role that broadened her perspective and lessened
her constant lobbying for unionization (Switzer, 2006, The Journey, para. 9).
Despite the reputation as institutions of access, community colleges still have not
provided an even playing field for women to advance, especially when they are measured
against male norms (Eddy, 2008). The ability to move within the organization is critical
for women who may have less flexibility to move. Mentors have a critical role in the
advancement of women in the community college system. Support via advice,
opportunities to acquire diverse experiences, and access to leadership development
provide critical career skills (Eddy, 2008).
Some women may not consider upper level positions on their own, adding
increased importance to the well-placed suggestions by mentors (Eddy, 2008). The role
of mentoring is a two-way street. Senior administrators should look to selecting
individuals to encourage, and individual women should seek out a variety of mentors to
72
provide a range of advice on skills, both a push and approach is necessary. Women
should continuously and consciously reflect on their pathways (Eddy, 2008).
Support from mentors and other experienced administrators is important to the
successful socialization of novice administrators (Benjamin et al., 2012). Women
aspiring to administrative positions and current administrators should attend professional
development workshops and conferences in order to connect with other female
administrators and develop mentoring relationships. These connections and networks
serve as a means to hear about other opportunities in the field, share ideas, collaborate on
projects, teach about appropriate professional behavior and protocol, and offer greater
professional visibility (Benjamin et al., 2012).
There is a dire need for female administrators to accept, support, and promote
other women (Benjamin et al., 2012). A network of sympathetic and supportive mentors
could share techniques on how to handle tough situations. Individuals cannot work in
isolation. Many aspiring academic administrators have tried and, without an
understanding of the unwritten policies of advancement, failed miserably. The literature
supports said experiences, noting that women are not always prepared for leadership due
to a lack of role models or mentors in the field (Benjamin et al., 2012).
Blackwood (2010), in his study The Influence of Mentoring on Female
Administrators and Leaders in California Community Colleges, reported that mentoring
has a positive and significant influence on female administrators and leaders in the
California Community College system. Data were collected through face-to-face

73
interviews with 11 female administrators in senior-level positions from vice president to
chancellor (Blackwood, 2010).
The interviews conducted by Blackwood (2010) reflected a range of
demographics, and participants were located in Northern, Central, and Southern
California. Important and common themes emerged indicating participants in the
research study were influenced by family dynamics, mobility and retention strategies,
interim positions, mentors, faith, gender and racial issues, and participants willingness to
mentor others (Blackwood, 2010).
Mentoring is a critical topic within discussions of career paths, especially for
women, in terms of development as leaders, context or place, and other related issues. In
a study by Madsen (2012), data were collected from high-achieving women in higher
education and public services to identify the kinds of support, input, or advantages that
have affected their leadership development. Mentoring surfaced as a critical element and
a critical experience, with women describing the presence of mentors as both a help and a
hindrance, and the absence of mentors also as both a benefit and deficit (Madsen, 2012).
Equality and Empathy
Most organizations understand that the development of women leaders is
desirable, and they know they must get better at attracting and retaining talented women.
They recognize that women constitute a business/educational imperative but rarely
consider that women might constitute a strategic imperative or provide a source of vision
as well as a source of talent (Helgesen & Johnson, 2010).

74
In A Whole New Mind, author Daniel Pink described that the changing nature of
work has made relationships more important (as cited in Helgesen & Johnson, 2010). He
noted that the industrial and information ages valued analytic skills and the ability to
follow predefined rules enshrined in procedural manuals and software codes. Pink
showed that the present conceptual age locates value in creativity, which is enhanced
when empathy and collaboration are present (as cited in Helgesen & Johnson, 2010).
Pink predicted that an ability to read and interpret the subtleties of human interaction
will emerge as the key leadership competency in the years ahead (as cited in Helgesen &
Johnson, 2010). Recognizing this shall give women greater confidence in the value of
their capacity for broad-spectrum notice and serve them well in the years ahead
(Helgesen & Johnson, 2010).
Empathy, the ability to put oneself in anothers shoes and know what that person
is thinking and feeling, moves leaders beyond superficial perception of what is going on
in others heads or what messages are being communicated (Dickmann & Stanford-Blair,
2005). There is a social instinct associated with women that enables them to identify
with the perceptions and experiences of others at a deeper level; women are better at this
than their male counterparts (Dickmann & Stanford-Blair, 2005).
Women present themselves as empathetic, a leadership trait that benefits others
(Dickmann & Stanford-Blair, 2005). This experience reinforces their appreciation for the
importance of empathy as a means to connect with other people. Whether through
personal conversation, observation, or just intuitive disposition to pay attention to the

75
details, women are characteristically perceptive about people, a trait they prize highly
and worked overtly to develop (Dickmann & Stanford-Blair, 2005, pp. 65-70).
Michael Fullan (2011) explained in his book, The Moral Imperative Realized, that
community college leadership takes a combination of clear personal values,
persistence against a lot of odds, emotional intelligence, thick skin, and
resilience as well as focusing on doing the right thing (pp. 3-4). He further maintained
that leaders need to support, activate, extract, and galvanize the moral commitment of
their colleges. According to Fullan, most community college presidents want to make a
difference and appreciate leaders who help them and their colleagues obtain success
under terrible circumstances.
Effective community colleges need to have several elements to be successful:
Institutions must be innovative, consensus building, committed to diversity, establishing
low control with high participation, nimble, and flexible while involving everyone in the
decision-making process and creating a supportive work environment that builds
relationships with desired outcomes. As a result, presidents of community colleges must
work collaboratively within their institutions in developing and implementing these
elements (Fullan, 2011).
According to Eddy and Cox (2008),
Community colleges are regarded as democratic institutions, admitting anyone

through open access and bringing educational opportunity to those not welcomed
at many other institutions. Among the individuals welcomed at community
colleges are those considered of low socioeconomic status, the unemployed,
minority group members, and new immigrants to the United States. Yet those
who occupy the leadership roles of the peoples colleges do not mirror the
diversity that is represented in community college enrollments. Women fill only
76
29 percent of all community college presidencies (American Council on

Education, 2007), whereas they comprise 57 percent of students at these
institutions (National Center for Education Statistics, 2004). Thus, the bulk of
current community college leaders are members of the dominant class, race, and
sex. (p. 69)
Summary
The review of the literature relevant to women community college presidents and
their participative leadership styles supported that woman as leaders are fundamentally
different from men in the attributes they bring to a leadership position. The subject
matter addressed in this chapter included (a) women as leaders, (b) leadership styles,
(c) autocratic leadership, (d) democratic leadership, (e) transformational leadership,
(f) participative leadership, (g) decision-making practices, (h) other leaders perceptions
of women community college presidents, (i) women in educational leadership,
(j) community college leadership, (k) leadership and gender, (l) diversity and
multiculturalism, (m) barriers/obstacles women leaders face in the journey to the
presidency, (n) mentorship, and lastly, (o) equality and empathy. This chapter provided
an analysis of the literature available on the history, theories, methods, and resources for
women who are interested in the community college presidency.
The discussion of the methodology used in this study is presented in Chapter III.
This chapter also includes a restatement of the purpose of the study and research
questions, research design selection, population and sampling, instrumentation, field test,
data collection process used for the study, procedures used for data analysis, and
limitations. Chapter IV presents the analysis and discussion of the findings of the study.
77
Chapter V provides the key findings, conclusions, implications for action, and
recommendations for future research.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter describes the methodology used to address the purpose and research
questions of this study. This chapter also includes a description of the research type and
design, strength and weakness of the case study design, population and sampling,
procedures used to validate the research instrumentation, description of the field-test
process, data collection procedures, method of data analysis, limitations of the study, and
a chapter summary.
The indicators utilized for this study were (a) nonhierarchical, democratic, and
participatory organizational structures with shared decision making in community
colleges; (b) internal procedures for handling conflict in a participative leadership style;
(c) collaboration and consensus building among staff and employees; (d) nonhierarchical
78
79
and supportive work environment; and (e) commitment to inclusion, empowerment, and
diversity in the workplace.
Research Questions
Three research questions were developed to collect information regarding the
participative leadership styles used by women community college presidents that
substantially support participatory decision making, a key component of participative
leadership styles. Similarly, the information collected supported the research-based
characteristics of feminine leadership that gives credence to the importance of promoting
women in terms of institutional ethics and the precepts of equal opportunity, providing
education and meeting the needs of students and the workplace in the next decade
(Stephenson, 2001).
1 What do women community college presidents consider as barriers and facilitating
2 In what situations do women community college presidents in Southern California
3 In what ways do women community college presidents in Southern California validate

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Research Design and Selection
The research methodology selected for this study was qualitative and descriptive,
specifically a case study. The following sections address the population, sample,
instrumentation, collection of data, and strengths and limitations of this study. Potential
participants were contacted via e-mail to set up phone interviews, which were audiotaped
upon agreement of participants. Transcriptions of the interviews were analyzed to gather
and report the data and findings.
Creswell (2008) defined a case study as an exploration of a bounded system
based on in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in
context (p. 439). Roberts (2004) supported the use of case study research to focus on
peoples experience from their own perspectiveand organizational processes (p. 111).
Roberts further concluded that the approach is a naturalistic approach and conducted in
real world settings with no attempt to manipulate the environment (p. 111).
According to Stake (1995), a qualitative case study is a study of the particularity
and complexity of the study, coming to understand its activity within important
circumstances (p. xii). However, Krathwohl (1998) suggested a qualitative case study
describes phenomena in words, picturing not only what happened, but also qualifying
the description, to portray it more clearly (p. 26).
Furthermore, case studies are recommended for studying new innovative ideas
where little research has been done previously (Barkley, 2006). Case studies highlight
the innovative idea(s) being studied because of the interactions required between the
researcher and the subject (Isaac & Michael, 1997). In this case study, interviews were
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used to describe peoples knowledge, opinions, perceptions, and feelings; as well as
detailed descriptions of peoples actions, behaviors, activities, and interpersonal
interactions (Roberts, 2004, p. 111).
Descriptive research is used to describe systematically the facts and
characteristics of a given population or area of interests, both factually and accurately; to
collect detailed factual information that describes the existing phenomena; and to
determine what others are doing with similar problems or situations and benefit from
their experience in making future plans and decisions (Isaac & Michael, 1997, p. 50).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Design
When discussing the most salient advantages or strengths of case study research,
Isaac and Michael (1997) described the following:
1. Case studies are intensive and bring light the important variables, processes, and
interactions that deserve extensive attention.
2. Case studies pioneer new ground and often are the source of dynamic hypotheses for
further study.
3. Findings in a case study are based solely on the data collected by the researcher and
interaction with the research project.
4. Case studies provide useful anecdotes or examples to illustrate more generalized
statistical findings.
When discussing the most salient disadvantages or weaknesses of case study
research, Isaac and Michael (1997) described the following:

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1. Case studies are limited in their representatives and do not allow valid
generalizations to the population from which their units came until follow-up
research is accomplished.
2. Case studies are particularly vulnerable to subjective biases.
3. The case study may be selected because of its dramatic, rather than typical,
attributes or because it fits the researchers preconceptions.
4. Selected judgment or data may rule the case study in or out, or assign a high
or low value to its significance or context; subjective biases or interpretation
may influence the outcome. (p. 33)
While data from case study research have some weaknesses, a case study design
is selected because the desired results include a description and interpretation of the case
study. Interviews permit a greater depth than questionnaires and provide the opportunity
to obtain more complex data. Furthermore, document analysis adds depth and knowledge
to the data collection (Stake, 1995).
The information gathered in this case study can be used to initiate further research
and assist in understanding the phenomenon of participatory leadership styles among
women community college presidents. Because this research study focused on women
community college presidents, their participation in the study may reveal projects that
changed the structure and culture of their institutions.
The interviews were kept confidential to ensure participants anonymity; codes
were used to develop trust and recognize the participants contributions to their particular
institutions. Said codes were referenced in the following manner: C1-C12 for community
colleges, P1-P10 for superintendents or presidents, and I1-I10 for interim presidents.
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Population and Sample
In order to set realistic boundaries for the project, this study focused on women
community college presidents in Southern California institutions of higher education.
Purposive sampling was used to determine the sample for this study. According to Isaac
and Michael (1997), Purposive sampling is a series of sampling strategies designed to
understand certain select cases in their own right rather than to generalize results to
population (p. 223). Purposive sampling limited the size of the population, which
limited the generalizability or transferability of the findings in this study (Creswell, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2004; Roberts, 2004).
Creswell (2008) contended, A purposive selection of participants represents a
key decision point in a case study (p. 118). Purposive sampling allows for the selection
of an information-rich case study. Information-rich cases are those in which one can
learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research
(Patton, 2002). As Krathwohl (2004) stated, Purposive sampling is most often used in
qualitative research to select individuals or behaviors that will better inform the
researcher regarding the current focus of the investigation (p. 172).
To distinguish potential women presidents for this study, the researcher identified
12 community colleges in which women held the title of interim president, president/
superintendent, provost, or chief executive officer (CEO). The initial participants were
asked to identify the indicators utilized in this study in reference to their participatory
leadership styles.
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After reviewing the profiles of the 12 community colleges, it was determined that
four colleges were located in the Los Angeles County region, four colleges within the
San Bernardino County region, and four colleges were located in Californias central
region, with all colleges meeting the criteria for inclusion in the study. Once identified,
the president from each college was contacted individually to establish a credible
selection from which to draw. All 12 of the women community college presidents who
were contacted agreed to participate.
For the purpose of this study, 12 women presidents of community colleges in
Southern California with similar demographics, populations, and environments were
chosen. The community colleges selected for this study were chosen using purposive
sampling to select individuals or behaviors that [would] better inform the researcher
regarding the current focus of the investigation (Krathwohl, 2004, p. 172).
The interviews were kept confidential. No names of participants were used.
Instead, codes were used for community colleges (C1-C12), presidents/superintendents
(P1-P10), and interim presidents (I1-I10).
Instrumentation
The instrumentation chosen for this study was aligned with the research questions
to ensure that all research variables were adequately covered in the instrument. This
allowed the respondents an opportunity to ensure their comments were accurately
reflected for each question. The participants were identified by codes to protect their
identities. This researcher recognized that the participants were affected by their
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previous experiences, abilities, and levels of trust experienced within their respective
communities (Creswell, 2008; Krathwohl, 2004; Roberts, 2004).
Isaac and Michael (1997) described, in their Handbook in Research and
Evaluation, that the interview illustrates a core of structured questions from which the
interviewer branches off to explore depth (p. 145). Gay (2000) stated that the interview
may also result in more accurate and honest responses (pp. 23-24). The interviewer
can follow-up on incomplete or unclear responses by asking additional probing questions.
Cox and Cox (2008) noted, Furthermore, the interview process is useful in order to
provide in-depth inquiry a richness of information and not just a characteristic of the
questionnaires (p. 71).
Stake (1995) illustrated that two principal uses of a case study are to obtain the
descriptions and interpretations of others (p. 2). Qualitative researchers take pride in
discovering and portraying the multiple views of the case. The interview is the main road
to multiple realities. A qualitative case study rarely proceeds as a case study with the
same questions asked of each respondent; rather, each respondent is expected to have his
or her own unique experiences and special stories (Stake, 1995).
Questions for this study were developed to ensure the research-based
characteristics were adequately addressed with experiences from the women community
college presidents reflecting their own perspectives within their organizational structures.
Second, to ensure the indicators and variables within the research-based characteristics
were utilized effectively, a matrix from the participative and feminine leadership style
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matrices displayed the characteristics, work environment, and possible themes associated
with the research questions in this study.
Finally, as questions were reviewed, considered, and modified for inclusion in the
interview process, special attention was paid to content, format, and ease of data
collection. Placement of appropriate questions within the instruments was carefully
scrutinized. To test content validity, the interview questions were distributed to all 12
women community college presidents. Questions were reviewed and revised based on
input from the presidents.
Field Test for Instrument Validation
The interview instrument was field-tested for validation and to ensure no bias was
present. Field-testing is recommended to determine whether the resulting data can be
qualified and analyzed in the manner intended (Gay, 2000, p. 205). The interviewer was
accompanied by a former doctoral student to ensure the interviewer was not leading with
questions or giving cues to the participants during the field-testing. This form of
interrater reliability was used to illustrate that the interviewee was not the only source for
gaining information and that the information gathered was not biased in any way.
Measures of validity indicate the likelihood that the answers provide accurate findings for
the research questions posed and that the results may be replicated with other similar
groups (Creswell, 2008; Krathwohl, 2004; Roberts, 2004).
Krathwohl (2004) defined internal validity as a studys power to link variables in
relationships or to generate relationships (p. 137). Researchers should take great care to
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ensure the measurement instruments truly address the research questions (Creswell, 2008;
Krathwohl, 2004).
Each field-test participant was interviewed, and the interviews were recorded
using audiotapes and were transcribed verbatim to determine comprehensibility and if the
questions on the protocol directly connected to the research purpose and questions. The
interviews were recorded with permission to allow the researcher to practice scoring the
interviews and provide information regarding additional probing. The researcher added
question probes to more clearly identify the women community college presidents
participative and feminine leadership styles.
Roberts (2004) suggested looking for the following in pretesting an instrument:
1. Is the wording clear?

2. Are the instructions understandable?
3. Is sufficient detail gained by the answers to the questions?
4. Can the interviewees provide adequate answers to the questions?
5. Are there any difficult sections?
6. Are there any irrelevant questions?
7. Is the length of the instrument appropriate?
8. Is the instrument convenient? (pp. 138-139)
After field-testing, the researcher modified the instrument by adding more
probing questions. Finally, it was determined that the interview could be completed in
less than 45 minutes.
Data Collection Process
The interview instrument was created to provide data to inform the research
questions. This allowed the respondents an opportunity to ensure their comments were
accurately reflected for each question. The participants were identified by codes to
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protect their identities. An initial phone call was made to the potential participants. This
initial contact was important to the process in order to further the variety of
communication and interpersonal skills required to conduct a successful interview (Gay,
2000, pp. 13-15).
Prior to collecting the data, the researcher submitted a proposal to the University
of La Vernes Institutional Review Board (IRB). Once permission was granted to
conduct the study (see Appendix A), the responses from each person were sent out in a
single document, to all participants, and they were given an opportunity to respond or
build on the responses of others. This process was fully disclosed during the initial phone
contact. Once selected, the participants were given a letter explaining the purpose of the
study, sampling method, and available times for scheduling the interviews.
The primary interview process was initiated via e-mail, followed by a telephone
call to each interviewee to set up a date and time for the interview, which was then
audiotaped with the permission of each participant. This process allowed the interviewer
to capture insights into the words and emotions of the interviewees. Each audiotape was
available for reference after the fact. The participants responses were stored for
analysis.
After completing the primary interviews, the researcher sent the combined
responses to participants and allowed them an opportunity to provide additional
comments based on review of the combined answers. The data were collected over a
period of 10 weeks, and the short duration of data collection prevented a potential
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maturation rate among the responses of participants. At the conclusion of the study, the
participants were provided with an executive summary of the study.
Procedures for Data Analysis
Content analysis of qualitative data requires the collection of data and the analysis
of the data in a way that will draw reliable meaning from the information (Creswell,
2008; Krathwohl, 2004). Great care should be taken to provide an accurate and complete
interpretation of the data. The process of qualitative data collection can be difficult,
because words create large amounts of data that must be collected and interpreted
(Creswell, 2008; Krathwohl, 2004; Patton, 2002). The data for this study were captured
in the written words of the respondents.
The researcher used the following steps to analyze the qualitative data generated
from the interview responses:
1. All audiotaped interview responses from the 12 women community college presidents
were transcribed verbatim.
2. Interviewer personal notes and additional comments were stored with archival data
provided.
3. The participants responses were sorted by research question and grouped into like
items.
4. Through analysis of the responses, themes were identified through coding of the like
items so patterns could be established.

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5. The qualitative findings were compared to the literature to determine which findings
were or were not supported in the literature.
6. A narrative summary was constructed that captured the key findings.
Limitations
The sample population was limited to 12 women presidents of community
colleges in Southern California with similar demographics, populations, and
environments. This type of limitation is appropriate to identify a purposeful sample in
qualitative research. As Krathwohl (2004) stated, Purposive sampling is most often
used in qualitative research to select individuals or behaviors that will better inform the
researcher regarding the current focus of the investigation (p. 172).
Purposive sampling limits the size of the population, which limits the
generalizability or transferability of the findings (Creswell, 2008; Krathwohl, 2004;
Roberts, 2004). This type of sampling limited a broad range of perspectives from women
community college presidents, but it focused on women community college presidents
with experience in community colleges, who had established participative leadership
styles within their institutions.
Interview questions were written and designed to inform the research questions,
but the participants may have interpreted different meanings other than those intended by
the researcher. Each participant was affected by her previous experiences, abilities, and
levels of trust experienced within her own institution (Creswell, 2008; Krathwohl, 2004).
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In order to mitigate any researcher bias, this limitation was controlled by steps taken to
ensure interrater reliability (Krathwohl, 2004; Patton, 2002).
Representation of the information contained in the study is dependent on the
credibility of the researcher (Patton, 2002). The researcher did not have the benefit of
verbal clues or syntax to develop a deeper meaning from the participants responses
(Krathwohl, 2004).
Summary
Chapter III outlined the methodology used in this study. This chapter included a
summary of the interview process, the steps used in data collection and analysis, and a
discussion of the limitations of the study. The validation process of the instrumentation
used in the study and a detailed description of the field test were also discussed in
Chapter III.
Chapter IV provides a breakdown of each individual case question by question
and variable by variable. Chapter IV presents a summary of the findings based on the
data collected from the research and interview questions. Findings from the research and
interview questions provide an overview that supports the literature-based characteristics
of feminine and participative leadership styles. Chapter V includes the summary,
conclusions, and recommendations for further research that are directly related to the
findings and data collected from Chapter IV.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Chapter IV provides a review of the purpose of the study, research questions,
research design and selection, population and sampling, data collection procedures,
instrumentation, and analysis of the interview data. The goal of this chapter is to report
factually and accurately the results of the study and to answer the research questions.
Findings are presented for each of the 12 women community college presidents relevant
to the purpose of the study. These findings support participative leadership style as their
first method of choice in the decision-making process and promote the literature-based
characteristics of feminine leadership. The chapter concludes with a summary of the key
findings for each research question.
The indicators utilized for this study were (a) nonhierarchical, democratic, and
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Research Questions
The study examined the following three research questions on how women
community college presidents demonstrate their feminine leadership characteristics in the
framework of participatory decision making:
The following process was developed to collect data and acquire information
regarding how women community college presidents used their participatory leadership
styles during the decision-making process, the barriers and facilitating conditions they
faced, and how their feminine characteristics substantially supported the participatory
leadership indicators utilized in this study.

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Telephone, E-mail, and Face-to-Face Interview Process
The researcher used e-mail to send the first and second follow-up requests to
contact participants (see Appendix B). In some cases, telephone conversations were held
between researcher and participants to get a feel for the interview process. Participants
who agreed to be interviewed were e-mailed an invitation to participate (Appendix C), a
matrix of participatory and feminine leadership styles (Appendix D), and the interview
questions (Appendix E).
The researcher conducted eight interviews by telephone and four face-to-face
interviews. The face-to-face interviews enabled the researcher to provide richness and
depth to this study. The interviews were conducted during the months of October,
November, and December of 2014, at times and locations coordinated with the
participants.
The interviews were kept confidential to ensure participants anonymity; codes
were used to develop trust and recognize the participants contributions to their particular
institutions. Said codes were referenced in the following manner: C1-C12 for community
colleges, P1-P12 for superintendent or presidents, and I1-I12 for interim presidents.
Analysis of the Interview Data
The telephone interviews were audiotaped upon agreement of participants. The
audiotapes were transcribed verbatim to gather the descriptive and qualitative data for
this study. The interview instrument was field-tested, which allowed the researcher to
practice scoring the interviews and provided information for additional probing. The
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face-to-face interviews added additional depth; interviews from this portion of the study
provided data on the women presidents knowledge, opinions, perceptions, and feelings,
as well as their actions, behaviors, activities, and interpersonal interactions. The intent of
the study was to analyze and gather data that adequately supported the research-based
characteristics and experiences of women community college presidents in their
institutions.
The interviews were used to determine how women community college presidents
demonstrated feminine leadership characteristics in the framework of participatory
leadership during the decision-making process. Participatory leadership ideology is
characterized as (a) participatory, nonhierarchical, and democratic with shared decision
making; (b) commitment to inclusion, empowerment, and diversity in the workplace;
and supportive work environment; and (e) involving leading from the middle instead of
the traditional way of leading from top to bottom.
Qualitative researchers typically begin their interviews and/or observations with a
target of interest, but they are open to whatever emerges of significance and conduct their
data collection accordingly. They work in natural situations and seek explanations that
provide the best understanding of what was observed. The description is in words, not
only illustrating what happened but also qualifying the description with adjectives and
adverbs to portray it more clearly (Krathwohl, 1998).
The researcher utilized the following steps to analyze the qualitative data
generated from the interview responses. First, the researcher transcribed verbatim all
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audiotaped interview responses from the 12 interview questions. Second, the researcher
sorted the participants responses by research question and grouped them into like items.
Third, through an analysis of the responses, like items were coded to identify themes so
patterns could be established. Fourth, the researcher compared the qualitative findings to
the literature to determine which findings were or were not supported by studies in the
literature. Fifth, the researcher constructed a narrative summary that captured the key
findings.
Findings Reported by Research Question
Research Question 1
What do women community college presidents consider as barriers and
facilitating conditions to participatory decision making in selected community colleges in
The number of participant responses in the area of participatory decision making
was 12. However, only 10 responses had commonalities, which were split into three
different themes. Two of the participants responded that special interests and a lack of
trust created barriers in their institutions. Five of the participants denoted that without
full inclusion of all staff and employee groups, there would be a severe lack of service for
the students. Five of the participants whose responses showed commonalities indicated
that resource barriers within their current budget situations limited the services they could
provide for their students (see Table 10). The hiring of qualified staff and faculty
members was also a key component of their organizational structures.

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Table 10
Barriers and Facilitating Conditions to Participatory Decision Making
Barrier/facilitating condition Number of participants responding (N = 12)

Full inclusion 5
Resources/budgets 5
Special interests/trust 2
The 10 responses with commonalities indicated that decision making was more of
a process in a participatory environment, with more time needed from start to finish
before reaching a decision. The 10 responses with commonalities also indicated that the
use of a shared and open decision-making process was vital to the success of the
participants institutions. Without this process, input from employee groups and their
responses may at times take months, and occasionally an entire academic year. All this
can be complicated even further by other bargaining group issues. An additional
challenge is that there remains a misunderstanding that participatory means everyone will
agree on the issues.
Interview Question 2. Participants were asked, What barriers or facilitating
conditions do you face on a daily basis in staff or shared governance meetings as they
relate to decision making? The most common participant response in the area of
facilitating conditions during staff or shared governance meetings was that many
employee groups and their representatives were reluctant at times to voice their opinions.
Without their voice, the decision-making process would linger for months, creating
barriers to staff and students that increased the timeframe for setting the academic
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calendar. This pressure in the decision-making process to reach agreement on the
academic calendar was vital to the institution. On numerous occasions, special meetings
were held in order for everyone to agree on an issue.
Resource barriers and budget constraints also hindered the decision-making
process during staff or shared governance meetings. The lack of respected resources in
different departments limited the community colleges ability to provide ample staffing
of teachers and employees. P3 said, Classes are being cut at an alarming rate in several
disciplines, institutions with employee groups insisting on maintaining a respectable
budget to avoid layoffs and other reductions in service. Furthermore, hidden agendas
hindered progress and the ability to make a final decision. P11 said, You cannot always
get what you want because of status or pride, may or may not have a degree, or your
particular department has a separate agenda. Decisions are to be made through full
participation and full inclusion that leads to making a decision for the desired outcomes
of the institution.
Interview Question 5. Participants were asked, How would you best describe
leadership within your institution? Traditional-hierarchical organizational structure;
participatory-supportive nurturing environment; flat-network organizational structure
top-down leadership with desired outcomes based on decisions from upper
management? Nine of the participants indicated that their institutions were participatory
and supportive by nature; however, seven of the nine participants said isolated decision-
making silos still existed. Decisions and actions in those instances seemed to be the most
criticized, the least supported, and the least effective. Commonalities among the nine
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participants were that they placed a high value on relationships and based the quality of
the relationships on whether they ensured a nonhierarchical organizational structure in
their institutions.
Three of the participants indicated that their institutions were nontraditional and
that they solved problems as a team. They were very flexible, open, and empathetic,
creating an environment in their institutions where the people really cared for each other.
P10 said, Skillfully employing participatory/collaborative decision making helped create
an organizational structure that made decisions both horizontally and vertically. P11
said, Within our institution, we invited consultants to present seminars for management
and staff in which the presentations illustrated examples of how a participatory institution
should work. Mock meetings with high participation were held for everyone to voice
their opinions. P12 said, As the first woman president of the college, I immediately
illustrated to the staff a passion for learning, passion for people, and a passion for
creating a nurturing environment.
Overall, the general consensus of the participants was that as women community
college presidents, they instilled a participatory and supportive work environment in their
institutions.
Interview Question 7. Participants were asked, What explicit rules or clear-cut
norms do you feel omit you from creating an atmosphere of a neighborhood setting
during staff meetings? Ten of the 12 participants stated they established clear-cut norms
within the context of their staff meetings based on the topics they were addressing. The
norms had few constraints, and all voices were allowed to be heard. The level of
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openness to new ideas and participation created a safe environment and an atmosphere of
full inclusion, lots of talking and exposure, and respect for everyones opinion while
steering change and innovativeness.
Five participants indicated they never sat at the head of the table during staff
meetings but instead sat in a circle, and if the room restricted that possibility, they
positioned themselves along the side of the table. Five participants indicated they began
each meeting with some kind of icebreaker. P6 gave examples of icebreakers she used:
Tell us one thing on your bucket list . . . or if you won the lotto tomorrow, whats the
first thing you would do? P9 said, Academic conversations and language use with
professional dialogue were very important during staff meetings.
Ten of the 12 participants indicated they used college council meetings as the
gateway toward setting the tone for all meetings throughout their respective institutions.
P10 said that during her staff meetings she created an atmosphere of zeal and inspiration
that encouraged those in attendance not to be afraid to speak up. P12 said that during
their staff meetings they had high expectations from employees to not resort back to what
they used to do and move forward to what is really important. Establishing an avenue of
trust, building relationships, and treating others the way the presidents would like to be
treated were also valuable components during staff meetings.
Table 11 summarizes the results of the leadership norms the participants
established within their institutions: the level of openness and flexibility, high
participation of teams and groups, empathy, and a passion for people through relationship
building. Table 11 also demonstrates high participation, full inclusion, supportive work
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environment, and clear-cut norms as major components implemented by women
community college presidents within their institutions, moving from an autocratic
leadership style to a participative leadership style.
Table 11
Participants Perceptions of Leadership/Norms Within Their Institutions
Leadership/norms Number of persons responding (N = 12)

Traditional 3
Nontraditional 3
Nonhierarchical 0
Flat network 0
Top-down leadership 0
Relationship building 9
Clear-cut norms 10
High participation 10
Supportive environment 9
Team oriented 9
Flexible/openness 7
Empathetic 9
Nurturing environment 9
Full inclusion 7
Lots of talking 5
Passion for people 5
Respect for everyones opinion 9
Level of trust 7
Interview Question 8. Participants were asked, How would you best describe
the responsibilities of your institutions board of trustees? Please describe. The most
common participant responses in the area of responsibilities for the boards of trustees in
their institutions were to understand their roles as eyes and ears of the college and
community, to be a policymaking body, to be fiscal agents of revenues and resources, and

102
most importantly, to focus on board development including the role of the board. Board
development is important for a number of reasons, not the least of which is ensuring the
institution maintains its accreditation standards.
Five of the 12 participants indicated that when board members become overly
involved in the day-to-day operations of the institution, it creates problems and possible
barriers that hinder decisions being made. P8 said, Boards hire presidents and
chancellors to run the institutions. They rely on and empower those leaders to be
responsible for the operation of the institution. P11 said, When a board member
attends a staff meeting on a regular basisfor example, college councilit tends to send
a negative signal to staff, faculty, and students that he/she [is] watching how they run the
institution.
Commonalities among the responses of the 12 participants were that making
connections with board members was a key component for communicating their
institutions vision and organizational structure. Without those connections, board
members can often misunderstand what the president is communicating to them when
sharing the vision and goals of their campus. P7 said,
This is my ninth year as the president of the college. My goal is to communicate

the vision and goals of the institution to board members on a weekly basis; this
helps everyone stay on course during our monthly meetings.
Interview Question 11. Participants were asked, In what situations do you
consider that gender becomes a barrier or facilitating condition that limits your duties as a
woman community college president? Five of the 12 participants indicated that in their
institutions, the president position should not be limited or based on ones gender. They
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indicated that gender norms did exist throughout their campuses; they were subtle and
communicated during interpersonal interactions, through the gender of people who had
positions of power. P2 said, In some instances, I have overheard male administrators at
our campus say I display a caring, nurturing, compassionate type of demeanor that is
typical of being a woman. P4 said, Ive been thinking about this question, and I can
honestly say I am constantly managing my female identity to conform to the gender
norms as a means to receiving positive or negative feedback.
Five of the 12 participants acknowledged that at times when they entered a room
or meeting with mostly men in attendance, it could become a lonely place. P7 said,
When I enter a staff meeting with mostly men in attendance, I pull up a chair right
in the center or middle of the room to ensure my presence is visible. This makes
it hard for my male counterparts in attendance to talk around me.
P6 said, Women must possess certain leadership skills to be successful in their work
environments. For decades society has perceived that women are not ready for the top
leadership positions in the public or private sector.
Two of the participants indicated that three of their vice presidents were women
who competed equally for the position of president that the participants now held. P10
said, The presence of the other women in meetings gives me a sense of freedom with
male counterparts. I tend to take a more authoritative and assertive stance when voicing
my opinion and speaking up during the meetings. Ten of the 12 participants indicated
they employed strategies and a participatory leadership style that worked well for them as
women. P9 said, I spend more time on relationship building and maintenance, which
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means to a certain extent that Im more patient and more receptive to ensure all voices are
heard before reaching a decision.
However, all 12 of the participants indicated they were saddened that women did
not hold more positions as president even though the community college industry for
decades has acknowledged that more women attend and earn degrees in community
colleges than men. The participants responded that community colleges should be more
intentional and less accidental in the hiring of women presidents. Community colleges
can serve as role models in their approach to gender equity; in turn, this approach would
be valuable to their respective institutions and communities.
Research Question 2
In what situations do women community college presidents in Southern California
Interview Question 3. Participants were asked, In what situations do you
consider participatory decision making to be the first method of choice, and what new
ideas have you implemented to ensure everyone is involved in the process? The most
common participant response in the area of participatory decision making as the first
method of choice was that few decisions were made without participatory governance
being utilized in the participants institutions, whether it was required or not.
Committees were to provide campus-wide reports of the decisions that resulted from the
meetings to ensure everyone was involved. P5 said, The chair and/or co-chair
responsibilities were rotated on a regular basis so that everyone, including students, has
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leadership roles. Five of the 12 participants used survey results to get everyone
involved in their institutions. The surveys asked questions to instill new thoughts, new
ideas, creativity, and innovativeness toward steering change. P8 said, When I first came
aboard as the president, I realized that our campus did not utilize everyone on the
campus. Their values were based on ideas of the past, thus limiting creativity,
empowerment, and the development of people.
Four of the participants acknowledged that without participatory decision making
as their first method of choice, their institutions would resort back to the autocratic way
of making decisions. P9 said, Through participation, I was able to create mechanisms
that encouraged staff and students to participate on all levels. Past leaders damaged their
morale, leaving many dissatisfied and eventually exiting committees and withdrawing
from attending meetings altogether. Three of the participants indicated they
implemented a conversational style of communicating in college council and other shared
governance meetings. P7 said that her approach was participatory and collaborative in
nature: We discussed, encouraged, consulted, and negotiated depending on the issues
and circumstances as hand.
Table 12 summarizes the participants responses to Research Question 2 in which
they considered participatory decision making as their first method of choice.
Interview Question 6. Participants were asked, What organizational structures
have been created during your tenure as the president to create leadership characteristics
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Table 12
Participatory Decision Making as the First Method of Choice
First method of choice Number of participants responding (N = 12)

Campus requirement 5
Use of campus-wide surveys 4
New ideas/mechanisms 3
that are participatory in nature? Ten of the 12 participants indicated they had built
institutional cultures that relied on collaboration, consensus building, empowerment, and
inclusion. They made it a point to walk their respective campuses and visit staff and
students. The 10 participants employed table groups in meetings to ensure full inclusion.
P6 said,
I would say that in every setting, every individual at the table feels as if their
voice is of equal importance and value. One of the most gratifying aspects of my
leadership characteristics has been mentoring others who now employ some of the
same strategies and methods in their leadership.
Two of the participants indicated that their institutional cultures supported a
caring and nurturing environment in which peoples skills and opinions were deeply
respected. P11 said, There is equal access to leadership and regard for opinions from
our diverse population of administration, staff, and students; all voices are heard, and the
skills accumulated within those voices are openly recognized.
Interview Question 10. Participants were asked, How open is the decision-
making process in your organization, and are they team oriented to which relationships
are built for desired outcomes? The most common response in the area of being team
oriented in the decision-making process in order to build relationships for desired

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outcomes was that participants established a culture of collaboration and participation
standards in their institutions. The participants indicated they used a team approach to
create greater job satisfaction, stronger collective identity, and group cohesiveness. Ten
participants acknowledged they opened the door within the teams by unleashing
individual and organizational energy to achieve meaningful results for their institutions.
Two of the participants indicated they brought in speakers who emphasized the
team approach in their presentations. Various workshops were conducted to make
change happen, encourage staff and faculty to commit to action, and offer ways to
achieve desired outcomes. Engaging in next-action thinking and applying what was
learned made a significant difference in participants organizations.
P11 said,
Within our institution, there were numerous individual silos that continued to
promote their own agendas. By having them commit to being part of the team,
we were able to instill in their thoughts that the most effective and lasting
processes are through the work of teams.
P12 said, It is very important that faculty, staff, and students recognize the importance
of building relationships through teams. Teams initiate change and innovation towards
creating a new vision for desired outcomes.
Table 13 summarizes the results of the level of openness (change and innovation)
in the decision-making process through the use of teams in which relationships are built
and desired outcomes are achieved.

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Table 13
Decision Making and Relationship Building Through Teams for Desired Outcomes
Desired outcome Number of participants responding (N = 12)

Team approach 10
Collective identity 5
Group cohesiveness 5
Collaboration/participation 6
Job satisfaction 4
Building relationships 4
Innovation/change 6
Shared vision 5
Speakers/presentations 2
Research Question 3
In what ways do women community college presidents in Southern California
validate or demonstrate the research-based characteristics of feminine leadership as
viable in their own experience?
Interview Question 1. Participants were asked, How can you best describe the
characteristics of your leadership style as being one of participatory or feminine or both?
The most common participant responses in the area of participatory or feminine
leadership style were that the amount of time needed for a particular task, the situation, or
the issue they were trying to get across determined which type of style the participants
would adopt or if they would use both. Eight of the 12 participants indicated they used a
mixture of both participatory and feminine leadership styles through their experience and
as a guidance tool to direct other leaders. Being collaborative and inclusive were top
priorities that resulted in consensus building/decision making. This was made possible in
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most cases by having mutually respectful relationships with their faculty, staff, and
students. Four of the participants indicated that fostering effective relationships allowed
them to use their feminine leadership characteristics in a male-only environment where
their voices were not being heard.
P6 said,
I tend to adopt a certain leadership style depending on the audience; this is due to
my counseling background. Because I am a caring person, the nurturing side of
me often comes into play when helping a staff member or student succeed.
Four of the participants indicated that satisfying followers needs and treating each
person as humanely as possible illustrated a participative and feminine leadership style.
The majority of the participants indicated that they were more empathetic than their male
counterparts when it came to giving a staff member or student another chance.
P9 said, My experience and social instinct as a woman allows me to connect
with other people at a deeper level; I tend to put myself in the other persons shoes to find
out what they are thinking and feeling. P5 said, As a communicator, my leadership
style is very different from those used by men. I am more willing to accept people for
what they bring to the table, male or female.
Table 14 summarizes the results of the participants responses to questions
regarding how they how they would validate or demonstrate the research-based
characteristics of feminine leadership as viable in their own experience.

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Table 14
Validation or Demonstration of Feminine Leadership
Characteristic Number of participants responding (N = 12)

Feminine 8
Participatory 4
Fostering relationships 12
Nurturing/caring 10
Satisfaction of followers needs 9
Empathetic 11
Effective communication 8
Interview Question 9. Participants were asked, In what ways does your
institution illustrate a commitment to diversity? All of the participants indicated they
had diversity policies in place in their institutions. Each of the 12 respondents indicated
that their institutional values were all-inclusiveness with diversity and professional
development as a strategic goal toward educating people to enter the workforce. P4 said,
Our institution has a diversity committee in which diversity data is collected and a
diversity climate survey is conducted on a yearly basis. P7 said, We named our human
resource department Diversity and Human Resources. The institution missions are to
support the students, applicants, employees, and communities by recruiting, developing,
and retaining a qualified and diverse workforce. Additionally, P7s institutional board
policy was entitled Commitment to Diversity.
Four of the participants responded that their diversity policy reflected the
institutions values, which encouraged inclusiveness for all. The four participants
indicated that social justice and diversity go hand in hand with their mission statements
111
that reflect their communities. Two of the participants brought in speakers to address the
importance of having a diverse workforce and to explain that diversity enhances their
institutions ability to provide people from all walks of life with the skills to work in their
communities. P8 said, As a woman president, I am well versed on diversity and how it
affects people from different backgrounds. Our first two speakers on diversity were
women, one a Hispanic woman and the other an African American woman.
P11 said,
When I became president of this institution, I recognized the workforce was

mostly of Caucasian descent; this was not reflective of the community or student
population. I immediately directed the human resource director to hire more
people from diverse backgrounds that symbolized what our college was about.
P12 said, Our commitment to diversity became superior to other goals within the
institution. We actively recruited people from diverse backgrounds to ensure we fulfilled
the accreditation standards.
Table 15 summarizes the participants responses and level of priority given to the
variables related to their commitment to diversity. The table highlights the interactions
required between the researcher and the subjects during the interviews.
Interview Question 12. Participants were asked, How important is mentorship
as a career pathway for other women seeking to become a community college president?
The most common participant response in the area of mentorship as a career pathway was
that without some form of mentorship being available for them, the participants
performance in the presidency would have suffered tremendously. Mentorship is an

112
Table 15
Commitment to Diversity
Multiculturalism Number of participants responding (N = 12)

All-inclusiveness 8
Professional development 10
Mission statement 4
Social justice 11
Strategic goals 8
Recruitment 10
Workforce 9
effective career path not only for women but for men as well, although there is a
tremendous shortage of female role models as community college presidents. Other
responses were that women mentors are excellent role models for other women, they
serve as good listening sources, and they usually provide unbiased feedback.
P3 said, I have always believed in extending the hand of friendship, support,
experience, and knowledge to others, faculty, staff, and administrators alike. P10 said,
Perhaps its the teacher in me that wants me to help lift others, and nothing pleases me
more than to see others stretch, grow, and fulfill their goals and dreams. Mentorship,
whether formal or informal, is an excellent way to share experiences, float ideas, and test
the waters for new approaches.
Five of the participants indicated they attended the American Council on
Education (ACE) Fellows mentorship program for community college presidents and
administrators. The mentorship program inspired them to complete their doctorates and
opened up doors for them to become community college presidents. P11 said,
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Mentorship is a very important resource for women and men; without having mentors in
my life, my career as a community college president would not have lasted this long.
Five of the participants indicated that mentorship was not just about having
female role models but that ones attitude was very important. Everyone is gifted with
some form of talent, and sharing it with others is very rewarding. P12 said,
At first I was reluctant to go to the next level as a senior administrator and now as
the president; my mentors taught me good people skills and showed me how to
work with people from all walks of life.
Two of the participants implied that mentoring was a critical element toward their
continued success as community college presidents. The support from their mentors
provided advice and skills that they would not have received if mentors were not
available. Table 16 shows the elements the participants perceived as effective
mentorship toward their career pathways to becoming community college presidents.
Table 16
Perceptions of Mentorship as a Career Pathway for Women Seeking to Become Community

College Presidents
Mentorship effectiveness Number of participants responding (N = 12)

Career pathway 10
Critical element 9
Inspirational 8
People skills/advisory 5
Role models 7
Supportive/unbiased 11
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Summary of Findings
Research Question 1
What do women community college presidents consider as barriers and
facilitating conditions to participatory decision making in selected community colleges in
Finding 1. The responses to Interview Question 2, What barriers or facilitating
conditions do you face on a daily basis in staff or shared governance meetings as they
relate to decision making? revealed the following: The women community college
presidents identified that representatives of staff and students were at times reluctant to
voice their opinions during the meetings, causing the decision-making process to linger
on for months at a time. Resource barriers and budget constraints also made a huge
impact on the decision-making process in staff or shared governance meetings.
Finding 2. The responses to Interview Question 5, How would you best describe
leadership within your institution? Traditional-hierarchical organizational structure;
participatory-supportive nurturing environment; flat-network organizational structure
top-down leadership with desired outcomes based on decisions from upper
management? revealed the following: The majority of the participants stated that their
institutions were participatory by nature and placed a high value on relationships and the
quality of those relationships to identify and describe leadership in their institutions. The
participants were open, flexible, empathetic, supportive, nontraditional, and solved
problems as a team.
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Finding 3. The responses to Interview Question 7, What explicit rules or clear-
cut norms do you feel omit you from creating an atmosphere of a neighborhood setting
during staff meetings? revealed the following: The women community college
presidents established an atmosphere of full inclusion; all were heard and respect was
given for everyones opinion. There were few constraints during the meetings depending
on the topic they were addressing. Several of the participants adopted a style of sitting in
the middle or along the side of the table to create a safe environment. They used college
council as the backbone for setting the tone for meetings and used icebreakers to open
their meetings.
Finding 4. The responses from Interview Question 8, How would you best
describe the responsibilities of your institutions board of trustees? revealed the
following: The most common responses regarding the responsibilities of the boards of
trustees were that the boards of trustees are the eyes and ears of the community, fiscal
overseers of resources and revenues, and the group that maintains a balance between their
institutions politics and the community politics. Establishing connections with board
members was also a key component toward communicating the institutions goals and
vision.
Finding 5. The responses from Interview Question 11, In what situations do you
consider that gender becomes a barrier or facilitating condition that limits your duties as a
woman community college president? revealed the following: 11 of the 12 women
community college presidents responded that when they entered a meeting with mostly
men in attendance, it could become a lonely place. All of the respondents stated they
116
were very saddened that in the 21st century women did not hold more positions as
president in the community college arena.
Research Question 2
In what situations do women community college presidents in Southern California
Finding 6. The responses to Interview Question 3, In what situations do you
consider participatory decision making to be the first method of choice, and what new
ideas have you implemented to ensure everyone is involved in the process? revealed the
following: Responses from the 12 women community college presidents demonstrated
that participatory decision making was utilized as their first method of choice in their
institutions, whether it was required or not. The respondents acknowledged that without
participatory decision making as the first method of choice, their institutions would resort
back to the autocratic way of making decisions.
Finding 7. The responses to Interview Question 6, What organizational
structures have been created during your tenure as the president to create leadership
characteristics that are participatory in nature? revealed the following: The most
common response from the 12 women community college presidents was that they built
institutional cultures that reflected participatory leadership characteristics, which
reflected them. All 12 respondents said they applied their leadership characteristics by
mentoring others, who now apply the same characteristics in their leadership.
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Finding 8. The responses to Interview Question 10, How open is the decision-
making process in your organization, and are they team oriented to which relationships
are built for desired outcomes? revealed the following: Responses from the participants
demonstrated they used the team approach for stronger collective identity, greater job
satisfaction, and group cohesiveness when making decisions for desired outcomes. Being
part of a team initiates change and innovation toward creating a new vision for desired
outcomes.
Research Question 3
In what ways do women community college presidents in Southern California
validate or demonstrate the research-based characteristics of feminine leadership as
viable in their own experience?
Finding 9. The responses to Interview Question 1, How can you best describe
the characteristics of your leadership style as being one of participatory or feminine or
both? revealed the following: The most common response from the 12 participants was
that they adopted a mixture of both participatory and feminine leadership styles
depending on the audience they were addressing. The participants used feminine
characteristics in male-only environments and participatory characteristics when the
audiences included men and women. The respondents described that their feminine
characteristics and social instincts as women allowed them to connect with people at a
deeper level than their male counterparts.

118
Finding 10. The responses to Interview Question 9, In what ways does your
institution illustrate a commitment to diversity? revealed the following: The participants
indicated that diversity policies were in place within their institutions. The respondents
stated that as women they were well versed on diversity and how it affects people from
different backgrounds. Their institutions actively recruited and hired people from
diverse backgrounds that reflected their communities.
Finding 11. The responses to Interview Question 12, How important is
mentorship as a career pathway for other women seeking to become a community college
president? revealed the following: The responses demonstrated that without some form
of mentorship as a career pathway, the participants performance as community college
presidents would have suffered tremendously. The respondents also acknowledged that
women mentors are excellent role models for other women and usually provide unbiased
feedback. Extending the hand of friendship, support, and experience to others was very
important to the participants.
Summary
Chapter IV raised as many questions as it answered. However, the evidence
provided by the data collected supports participatory leadership styles of women
community college presidents and the literature-based characteristics of feminine
leadership. The women community college presidents were identified through codes to
ensure confidentiality of their respective institutions and positions.

119
At the conclusion of the interviews, the researcher asked the participants if they
would like to share anything else regarding the interview. The participants indicated they
had no additional information to share but were very appreciative of the opportunity to
participate in the study and looked forward to receiving the final results.
Chapter V presents a summary of the findings based on the data collected and the
literature, conclusions, implications for action, and recommendations for future research.
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter V contains a review of the problem, the purpose, the research questions,
and the methodology, and provides an overview of the findings. The chapter also
includes conclusions drawn from the study, limitations of the study, recommendations for
further research, and closing comments.
Review of the Study
Problem Statement
Since the late 1970s and early 1980s, women have made up the majority of
community college students, faculty, and staff. With the emerging educational workforce
becoming more diversified leading into the 21st century, the need to have management
skills that demonstrate caring, nurturing people skills has given women an opportunity to
make a direct impact in todays workplace (Tarver, 1992).
Leading business schools and community colleges are starting to pay attention to
the large proportion of women being sidelinedfor example, challenging the ideal
administrator in the educational arena. As the world seeks collaboration, participation,
and inclusion from leadership, the role of women in leadership becomes a compelling
priority (Tully, 2007).
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121
As global competition intensifies, educational institutions and corporations can no
longer afford to ignore the potential talent of female leaders in favor of the traditional
patterns of male-dominated leadership. Most leaders know their workplaces cannot
ignore talent simply because it wears a skirt or holds a different passport (Chin, 2004,
pp. 4-5).
It is important to understand that women often come in second to men, are more
harshly evaluated, and hold less than 3% of most senior positions in the United States and
worldwide. Community colleges have a unique opportunity to set the example by
employing more women as community college presidents.
Research Questions

122
Methodology
The research methodology selected for this study was qualitative and descriptive,
specifically a case study. Findings of the study were derived from interviews of 12
women presidents of community colleges in Southern California with similar
demographics, populations, and environments. Potential participants were contacted via
e-mail to set up phone interviews, which were audiotaped upon agreement of the
participants. Transcriptions of the interviews were analyzed to gather and report the data
and findings.
Creswell (2008) defined a case study as an exploration of a bounded system
based on in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information rich in
context (p. 439). Roberts (2004) supported the use of case study research to focus on
peoples experience from their own perspectivean organizational process (p. 111).
In this case study, interviews were used to describe peoples knowledge,
opinions, perceptions, and feelings; as well as detailed descriptions of peoples actions,
behaviors, activities, and interpersonal interactions (Roberts, 2004, p. 111). The
interviews were conducted during the months of October, November, and December of
2014. Data collected from the interviews were generated from the interview responses
and were analyzed. A narrative summary was constructed that captured the key findings.
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Summary and Discussion of the Results
The literature and the findings of this study support the participatory leadership
styles of women community college presidents and the literature-based characteristics of
feminine leadership. Both the literature and the findings of this study identified the key
indicators that were utilized for the study: (a) nonhierarchical, democratic, and
The interview instrument was field-tested, which allowed the researcher to
practice scoring the interviews and provided information for additional probing. Based
on the data collected, the research revealed the following:
Finding 1
Research Question 1 explored what women community college presidents
considered as barriers and facilitating conditions to participatory decision making. The
results supported that the key components of the study of full inclusion, building
relationships, and trust were vital to participatory decision making. The results also
indicated that resources and budget constraints imposed a significant barrier to the
decision-making process.
124
Finding 2
The results from the respondents strongly indicated that leadership within their
institutions was participatory by nature, nontraditional, and ensured full inclusion, and the
participants were flexible, supportive, and solved problems as a team. A high value was
placed on building and establishing quality relationships with faculty and staff.
Finding 3
An open-ended question posed by the researcher asked what explicit rules or
clear-cut norms prevented the participants from creating an atmosphere of a
neighborhood setting during staff meetings. The respondents confirmed and supported
that the indicators used in the study of empowerment, full inclusion, high participation,
self-confidence, and information sharing were key components in creating a safe
environment.
Finding 4
The majority of respondents indicated that the boards of trustees were vital to
their institutions as the eyes and ears of the community, overseers of fiscal resources and
revenues, and the group that maintains a balance between their institutions politics and
the community politics. Establishing connections with board members was a key
component toward communicating the institutions goals and vision as confirmed in the
results.
125
Finding 5
The results for Interview Question 11 confirmed that gender can become a barrier
or facilitating condition for women when performing their duties as community college
presidents. The majority of respondents strongly supported that when they entered a
meeting with mostly men in attendance, it could become a lonely place. The respondents
indicated that they were constantly managing their female identity to conform to gender
norms.
Finding 6
Interview Question 3 examined the situations in which the participants considered
participatory decision making to be the first method of choice. The respondents indicated
that participatory decision making was utilized as their first method of choice whether it
was required or not. The results confirmed and supported the presence of participatory
and feminine leadership styles.
Finding 7
An open-ended interview question asked what leadership characteristics in
participants tenure as presidents were participatory in nature. The majority of
respondents indicated that they were consultative/inclusive; that they guided teamwork
with clear goals and policies; and that they were participative, enthusiastic, cooperative,
and placed a high value on believing in people. The results confirmed and supported the
presence of participatory and feminine leadership styles.

126
Finding 8
The results indicated that the majority of respondents demonstrated a personal
touch with a team-oriented approach when making decisions toward desired outcomes.
The team approach provided greater job satisfaction and group cohesiveness, developed
stronger collective identity, and was the key component that initiated change and
innovation. The results confirmed and supported the presence of participatory and
feminine leadership styles.
Finding 9
Research Question 3 explored the ways in which women community college
presidents in Southern California validated or demonstrated research-based
characteristics of feminine leadership as viable in their own experience. The results
indicated a mixture of both participatory and feminine leadership styles depending on the
audience the participants were addressing. The majority of respondents utilized their
social instincts, which allowed them to connect with people at a deeper level than their
male counterparts. The results confirmed and supported the presence of participatory and
feminine leadership styles.
Finding 10
The majority of respondents indicated that they placed a high priority on their
commitment to diversity and ensured that their institutions actively recruited and hired
people from diverse backgrounds. As women, they were well versed on diversity and
127
how it affects people from different backgrounds. The results confirmed that the
respondents demonstrated greater gender sensitivity than their male counterparts.
Finding 11
Interview Question 12 addressed the importance of mentorship as a career
pathway for women seeking to become community college presidents. The majority of
the respondents indicated that without mentorship, their performance as community
college presidents would have suffered tremendously. Women mentors are excellent role
models for other women and provide unbiased feedback. The results confirmed and
supported that mentorship was a key component in the respondents presidencies.
Conclusions
The results of this study demonstrate evidence that substantially supports the
participative leadership style used by women community college presidents as a key
component of participative decision making and the research-based characteristics of
feminine leadership. The information collected substantially supports the importance of
promoting women in terms of institutional ethics and equal opportunity, providing
education and meeting the needs of students and the workplace in the next decade
(Stephenson, 2001).
In summary, this study has raised as many questions as it has answered.
However, there is evidence to confirm the presence of participative leadership and
feminine leadership as vital to the participative leadership style demonstrated among
women community college presidents. Studies of a variety of leadership styles within the
128
educational environment and abroad are necessary to further pursue the phenomenon of
participative leadership styles, as a leadership style approach has not yet been confirmed.
Limitations of the Study
For the purpose of this study, the sample population studied was restricted to 12
women presidents of community colleges in Southern California with similar
demographics, populations, and environments. The small number of participants in this
study reduced the generalizability of findings and conclusions to all women presidents or
women in positions of leadership in higher education. The qualitative and descriptive
case study focused on the centrality of the participants and their experiences in the study
and, at the same time, acknowledged the role of the researcher in analyzing and
interpreting the data gathered from interviews and interactions with the participants.
The study centered on the individualized experiences of the participants in a
naturalistic setting. Roberts (2004) supported the use of case study research as a
naturalistic approach conducted in a real world setting with no attempt to manipulate
the environment (p. 111). The unique aspect of the contribution of each participant was
emphasized. As a result, findings and conclusions can potentially be open to the further
interpretation by the reader.
Recommendations for Further Research
Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following research is
recommended:
129
1. This study should be replicated with a larger sample of women community college
presidents and their contributions to community college leadership.
2. This study should be replicated and conducted in other regions throughout the state of
California to determine whether the findings of this study are consistent statewide.
3. This study should be replicated as a revealing factor of how participatory leadership
and the feminine leadership characteristics of women in leadership are a compelling
priority in higher education.
4. This study should be replicated to encourage other women in higher education to
pursue the presidency in the community college sector.
5. This study should be replicated to examine the differences and uniqueness revealed
between the leadership styles of men and women as an approach for future community
college leaders.
6. This study should be replicated with a follow-up study shadowing women community
college presidents in Southern California within their institutions.
Closing Comments
There are many challenges in the U.S. education system, especially in higher
education. If there is a real commitment to womens equality, higher education
institutions must fully support and embrace women as leaders. Findings from the
research indicated that women still come in second to men, are more harshly evaluated,
and hold less than 3% of most senior positions in the United States. Community colleges
and organizations from around the world would be able to adapt practices and policies
130
from the research to create effective leadership training with gender as a major
component.
Research Question 1 explored the areas of organizational structures that were
barriers and facilitating conditions to participatory decision making for women
community college presidents. The key findings revealed that special interests and a lack
of trust created barriers in participants institutions. Resource barriers and current budget
situations limited their ability to provide adequate services for their students and to hire
qualified staff and faculty members. Decision making was more of a process in a
participatory environment, with more time needed from start to finish before reaching a
decision. A shared and open decision-making process was vital to the success of the
participants institutions.
The interview results revealed that participants institutions were nontraditional
and nonhierarchical, and the participants solved problems as a team. They were flexible,
open, and empathetic, creating an environment where people really cared for each other.
The participants employed participatory/ collaborative decision making to help create an
organizational structure that made decisions both horizontally and vertically. Mock
meetings with high participation were held for everyone to voice their opinions.
Research Question 2 explored the situations in which women community college
presidents considered participatory decision making to be their first method of choice.
The key findings revealed that few decisions were made without participatory
governance being utilized in the participants institutions. The participants created
mechanisms that encouraged staff and students to participate at all levels. They
131
encouraged, consulted, and negotiated depending on the issues and circumstances at
hand.
The interview results revealed that the participants organizational structures and
institutional cultures relied on consensus building, empowerment, and inclusion. They
walked their respective campuses, employed table groups in meetings, and emphasized
the team approach to create stronger collective identity and group cohesiveness. There
was equal access to leadership, peoples skills and opinions were deeply respected, and
next-action thinking and applying what was learned made a significant difference in their
organizations.
Research Question 3 examined the ways women community college presidents
validated or demonstrated the research-based characteristics of feminine leadership as
viable in their own experience. The participants indicated that the decision to adopt the
participatory or feminine leadership style depended on the particular task or situation, the
amount of time needed, or the issue they were trying to get across. Their experience and
social instincts as women allowed them to connect with people at a deeper level using
leadership styles that were different from those used by men. They were more willing to
accept people for what they brought to the table.
The interview results revealed that the participants were well versed on diversity
and how it affects people from different backgrounds. The participants indicated that
social justice and diversity go hand in hand and that having a diverse workforce enhanced
their institutions and their communities. Diversity committees were established in which
diversity data were collected and a diversity climate survey conducted on a yearly basis.
132
Commitment to diversity became superior to other goals within the participants
institutions and symbolized what their colleges were all about.
The interview results revealed that without some form of mentorship as a career
pathway being available for them, the participants performance in the presidency would
have suffered tremendously. Extending the hand of friendship, support, and experience
to others helped increase their abilities to stretch, grow, and fulfill their goals and dreams.
Mentorship programs inspired the participants to complete their doctorates and opened
doors for them to become community college presidents. Mentoring was a very critical
element in their success, and they would not have succeeded if mentors were not
available.
The interview results revealed that the participants were saddened that women did
not hold more positions as president even though the community college industry for
decades has acknowledged that more women attend and hold degrees from community
colleges than men. Community colleges can serve as role models in their approach to
gender equity; in turn, this approach would be valuable to their respective institutions and
communities.
The results of this study have inspired the researcher to believe that community
colleges are motivated to increase the number of women hired as community college
presidents and are willing to collaborate to ensure that diversity and educational needs are
met, but they still have a long way to go.

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APPENDICES
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APPENDIX A
IRB APPROVAL LETTER
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APPENDIX B
FOLLOW-UP LETTER
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Dr. Erlinda Martinez

Santa Ana Community College
1530 W. 17th Street
Santa Ana, CA. 92706
Frederick R. Board Sr.

P.O. Box 100
Victorville, CA. 92393
Dear Superintendent/President
Recently I asked you to participate in a study on the use of Participative

Leadership Style within your perspective institution. The dissertation is entitled An
Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles Among Women Community
College Presidents, A Qualitative Approach.
If you have completed and returned the consent form portion of the study, please
accept my heartfelt thanks. If you have not, please complete and return it to me as soon as
possible. Should you wish to respond but need another copy of the questionnaire and
matrix- copies are enclosed. Please feel free to call me at (760) 515-0024 or email me at
Frederick.Board@vvc.edu
As you know, your individual responses will remain confidential and all
information will be compiled as a group and reported anonymously.
Your participation is needed for a more comprehensive picture of the ways in
which Women Community College Presidents use their Participatory Leadership Styles
in campus settings.
Please help me document womens experiences through your participation.
Sincerely,

Doctoral Candidate-College of Education and Organizational Leadership
Attachments: (1). Matrix of Participative / Feminine Leadership Styles

APPENDIX C
INVITATION TO PARTICIPATE
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Date: September 29, 2014

P.O. Box 100
Victorville, CA. 92393
Erin Vines, PhD.

Antelope Valley College
300 W. Ave. K.
Lancaster, CA. 923536
Dear Superintendent/President:
I would like to introduce myself. I have worked in higher education for the past eight
years and presently working at Victor Valley College in the high desert. I am a Doctoral
Candidate in Education and Organizational Leadership at the University of La Verne. My
research interests include leadership issues in higher education and the focus of my
doctoral dissertation is on An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles
among Women Community College Presidents.
The purpose of my study is to identify and describe both the barriers and facilitating
conditions of participatory decision-making among women community college presidents
in southern California. The second purpose of this study is to identify and describe how
women community college president validate or demonstrate the literature-based
characteristics of feminine leadership.
Therefore, I am asking you to please assist me with my dissertation study by filling out
the enclosed consent form regarding this study. Upon completion of the consent form I
am asking your permission to participate in a 20 to 45 minute interview; please attach
dates / times you am available. Your name and the name of your institution will be kept
confidential; this researcher recognizes that each participant is affected by their previous
experiences, abilities, and levels of trust within their perspective communities.
Your individual responses will remain confidential and all information will be compiled
as a group and reported anonymously. The enclosed self-addressed-stamped return
envelope is coded for response tracking purposes only and will be discarded, upon
completion of dissertation.
Your willingness to participate in this study will be greatly appreciated. If you should
have any questions, suggestions, or wish to receive a copy of the findings, please contact
me at (760) 515-0024 or email me at Frederick.board@vvc.edu. In order to meet a
151
critical time schedule to finish this project, I would ask that you please return the
enclosed envelope by July 31, 2014.
Thank you very much,
Sincerely,

Doctoral Candidate-College of Education and Organizational Leadership
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CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH

An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles Among Women Community
College Presidents: A Qualitative Approach
You are being asked to participate in a this research as part of researcher Fredrick R.
Board Sr.s dissertation study for the Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership
at the University of La Verne. You were selected as a possible participant in this study
because:
Participative leadership style(s) are composed of many qualities and

characteristics that are different from those used by men. The qualities represent a
leadership style that works extremely well for women in general-better, in fact,
more than the traditional approach.
The literature-based characteristics of feminine leadership consist of consensus-
building, sharing/caring, diversity, non-hierarchical, open communication and
being team-oriented in a non-traditional atmosphere.
As a female community college president, you have been selected to participate in
this study.
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
facilitating conditions of participatory decision-making among women
community college presidents.
The second purpose of this study was to identify and describe how women
community college presidents validate or demonstrate the literature-based
characteristics of feminine leadership
PROCEDURES
If you decide to participate in this study, we will ask you to do the following things:
Reply to email, fax, or phone message your willingness to participate in the

research. Invitation to Participate in this Study will be sent electronically. (See
Attachment).
Sign and date the Informed Consent form to participate in the research, consent
form will be sent electronically.
Participate in 20 to 30 minute interview via phone or in person at agreed upon
time, date, and location.
Interviews will be kept confidential. Interview questions (See Attachment).
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No names of participants will be used; codes will be used to distinguish.

Participants may remove themselves from the study at anytime.
POTENTIAL RISKS AND DISCOMFORTS
Minimal Risk to Participants

Participant(s) may have an uncomfortable memory related to a situation that
happened in the past.
Participants (s) not obligated discuss any situation or circumstances that they are
uncomfortable with.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS TO PARTICIPANTS AND/OR TO SOCIETY
Participants will be able to gain a deeper, more grounded understanding of factors

that may enhance their perspectives on women community college presidents who
lead their institutions in a more participative style; their experiences that are
unique from their male counterparts and how said experiences has shaped and
prepared them as leaders in a male-dominated culture.
A summary and findings from the research can be used as a benefit to the
participants organizations, to the participants from a professional perspective, to
others-especially women who are seeking to obtain the presidency within their
own institution or other institutions in the community college sector.
PAYMENT FOR PARTICIPATION
No payment to be rendered to participants for participating in the study.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Interviews will be kept confidential.

Names and contact information for this study will be shredded and/or erased at
the conclusion of this study.
Codes will be used to protect the confidentiality of the participants, the
organizations, and their perspective communities both during the study and upon
rendering the results.
All video/sound recordings will be shredded and/or erased when the final version
of this dissertation is submitted to Graduate Academic Services and approved for
publication.
154
The researcher will assure that all data/information will be kept confidential and
in a locked file, all electronic data will be securely stored and password protected.
Disclosure of said data/information will only occur upon your permission or as
required by law.
PARTICIPATION AND WITHDRAWAL
You can choose whether to be in this study or not. If you volunteer to be in this study,
you may withdraw at any time without consequences of any kind. You may also refuse
to answer any questions you dont want to answer and still remain in the study. The
investigator may withdraw you from this research if circumstances arise which warrant
doing so.
IDENTIFICATION OF INVESTIGATORS
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel free to contact:
Frederick R. Board Sr. Principal Investigator, Frederick.board@vvc.edu 760-
515-0024: Day/night emergency phone number
Barbara J. Poling Faculty Sponsor bpolin@ulv.edu 909-593-3511 Ext. 4380
RIGHTS OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS
You may withdraw your consent at any time and discontinue participation without
penalty. You are not waiving any legal claims, rights or remedies because of your
participation in this research study. If you have questions regarding your rights as a
research participant, contact Marcia L. Godwin, Ph.D., IRB Director, at 909-593-3511,
extension 4103, (irb@laverne.edu). University of La Verne, Institutional Review Board,
1950 Third Street, CBPM 123, La Verne, CA 91750.
You will be asked to acknowledge you have received this Informed Consent prior to the
actual interview and given the opportunity to ask questions and/or clarify. You verbal
agreement will be required prior to the actual interview.
APPENDIX D
MATRIX OF PARTICIPATORY AND FEMININE

LEADERSHIP STYLES
155
156
Matrix of Participative Leadership Style
Characteristics Participation Work Themes Author /Year

Environment
Collaboration: Shared with open Non-Hierarchical. People work Feyerherm &
involvement. with seal an Vick (2005)
Leading from the
More talkative. inspiration
middle.
Consensus Open Transformational. Satisfying Eagly & Carli
Building meetings/sessions. needs/treating (2003)
Supportive work
others as
environment.
humans.
Decision- High quality All inclusive, Shared visions White (2005)
making decisions & supportive, to accomplish
creativity. nurturing institutional
environments. goals.
Diversity Diverse Non-traditional, Steering Helgesen
perspectives. transformational. change. (2008)
Everyone is Greater gender Innovativeness.
involved. sensitivity.
Empowerment Sharing/caring & Non-traditional. Inspiring self- White (2005)
respecting ones confidence.
Empowering of
skills. Information &
others.
skill sharing.
Inclusion Lots of talking Valuing people. Believing in Helgesen
and exposure. people with (2008)
Developing
desired
people.
outcomes.
Non- High participation. Leading from the Creating an Feyerherm &
Hierarchical middle. Low ambiance of Vick (2005)
Sharing of power.
control. zeal &
inspiration.
Teams & Cooperative Collaborative with Innovativeness. Feyerherm &
Groups high team Vick (2005)
Team-oriented to Good coach &
involvement.
meet intuitional teacher.
needs.
Democratic Collaborative Inclusion with Participation Stephenson
creative with a (2001)
Encouraging
mechanisms. conversational
style.
157
Matrix of Feminine Leadership Style
Characteristics Feminine Work Themes Author / Year

Environment
Cooperative Rational in Non- Effective Chavez (2003)
thought process. hieracharchial. communication
to inspire self-
Low control.
confidence.
Collaborative More talkative. Low control. Innovativeness. Helgesen
(1990); Astin
Everyone has a Transformational.
& Leland
voice.
(1991)
Sharing / Caring Empathic to others Supportive with a Foster effective Hooks (1984);
voices & opinions. nurturing relationships. Donovan
environment. (1992); Evans
(1995)
Effective Participatory, Non- Making Helgesen
Communication collective style of hieracharchial. connections (1990); Astin
leadership. with vocabulary & Leland
Openness.
development. (1991)
Low control
Low Control Informal meetings Atmosphere of a Participation & Chavez (2003)
& sessions. neighborhood open
setting. communication.
Decision- Open involvement Non-informal, High Hooks (1984);
Making with information team oriented. performance Donovan
& skill sharing. Open standards. High (1992); Evans
conversation. expectations. (1995)
Diversity Commitment to all Multiculturalism. Empathy & Valdata (2006)
cultures. Equality
Valuing &
including others.
Non- Open Lower control Shared vision, Chavez (2003)
Hierarchical participation. with effective everyone is
communication. involved.
Greater
involvement.
Team-Oriented Group atmosphere Open Relationship Helgesen
with open communication, building with (1990); Astin
participation. full involvement desired & Leland
by all groups. outcomes. (1991)
Revised: August 4, 2014

APPENDIX E
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
158
159
Interview Questions (C-1) (P-1)
1. How can you best describe the characteristics of your leadership style as being one of
participatory leadership style or one of a feminine leadership style or both?
2. What barriers or facilitating conditions do your face on a daily basis in staff or shared
governance meetings as they relate to decision-making?
3. In what situations do you consider participatory decision-making to be the first
method of choice and what new ideas have you implemented to insure everyone is
involved in the process?
4. In what ways can you best describe your use of feminine leadership characteristics as
your own experience?
5. How would you best describe leadership within your institution? As a traditional-
hierarchical organizational structure; as participatory- supportive, nurturing
environment; as a flat-networked organizational structuretop-down leadership with
desired outcomes based on decisions from upper management?
6. What organizational structures have been created during your tenure as the president,
to create leadership characteristics that are participatory in nature?
7. What explicit rules or clear-cut norms do you feel omit you from creating an
atmosphere of a neighborhood setting during staff meetings?

160
8. How would you best describe the responsibilities of Board of Trustees? Advisory,
policymaking, other-please describe?
9. In what ways does your institution illustrate a commitment to diversity?
10. How open is the decision-making process within your organization and are they team-
oriented to which relationships are built for desired outcomes?
11. In what situations do you consider that gender becomes a barrier or facilitating
condition that limits your duties as a women community college president?
12. How important is mentorship as a career path for other women seeking to become a
community college president?

APPENDIX F
CODING RESPONSES
161
162
Coding Responses by Questions
Leadership Style Characteristics that impede

None 12
Other 7
__________________________________________________________________________________
Characteristics of your leadership style
Collaboration and all inclusive 8

Consensus building for decision-making 8
Empowerment of others 5
Feminine 7
Low control 6
Mutually respectful relationships 12
Non-Hierarchical 5
Participation in teams/Groups 7
Participatory 9
Other
__________________________________________________________________________________
Barriers /facilitating conditions
Budget restraints 5
Employee Groups 3
Full Inclusion 5
Lack of resources 5
More time to reach a decision 4
Relationship Building 4
Trust 4
Other 30
__________________________________________________________________________________
Participatory decision-making first method of choice
All voices are heard 5

Desired outcomes 4
First-method of choice 5
Full inclusion of staff, faculty, and students 6
Participatory Governance as a requirement 5
Rotation of chair/co-chair responsibilities 2
Campus wide surveys 5
Valuing/developing people 5
Other 32
__________________________________________________________________________________
Feminine Leadership Characteristics
Collaborative 6
Cooperative and rational in thought process 7
Decision-Making with high performance standards 8
Good Listener 4
163
Non-Hierarchical with low control 6

Power of persuasion to build consensus 5
Sharing/Caring 8
Team Oriented with open communication 10
Other
__________________________________________________________________________________
Leadership within your institution
Collaborative 8
Flat-networked 2
Non-Hierarchical 2
Participatory by nature 10
Supportive/nurturing 10
Top-down 0
Traditional 2
Other 34
__________________________________________________________________________________
Organizational structures created that are participatory in nature
Allow lots of talking 7

Collaboration 8
Cooperative groups 9
High expectations & accountability 8
Innovativeness 8
Low control 10
Making connections 9
Mentoring others 11
Open communication 10
Respect of others 12
Supportive 11
Other 99
__________________________________________________________________________________
Explicit rules or clear-cut norms
Encouragement of others to speak up 10

Few constraints 10
Full inclusion 12
High participation 11
Ice breakers to build self-confidence 9
Information sharing 10
Level of openness and flexibility 12
Mutual respect of others 12
Position oneself in middle of room during meeting 8
Safe environment 10
Sets example in college council 10
Teams and groups 9
Use of professional dialogue 10
Other 101
__________________________________________________________________________________
164
Responsibilities of Board of Trustees
Accreditation Standards 6
Commitment to goals and vision of the institution 7
Empowerment of leaders 9
Maintains balance of institutions politics/community politics 7
Non-involvement of day- to-day operations 8
Overseers of fiscal resources and revenues 10
Other 43
__________________________________________________________________________________
Gender as a barrier to facilitating conditions
Communicated during interpersonal interactions 5

Ensure presence is visible 11
Gender equity and Gender norms 10
Lonely place during meetings 11
Maintaining gender identity 12
More intentional in hiring of women presidents 12
President position not limited or based on gender 11
Relationship building 9
Sense of freedom when other women are there 10
Valuable to institutions and communities 10
Other 101
__________________________________________________________________________________
Commitment to diversity
Diverse workforce 12
Diversity policies in place 10
Fulfillment of accreditation standards 8
Greater gender sensitivity 10
High priority 11
Inclusiveness 8
Professional development 9
Recruitment 10
Strategic goals 10
Social justice 11
Other 99
__________________________________________________________________________________
Mentorship as a career pathway
Critical element 9
Fulfillment of dreams and goals 8
Key component 11
People skills and advisory 5
Provide unbiased feedback 11
Rewarding to their career advancement 10
Role models 12
Sharing with others 10
165
Working with people from all walks of life 10

Other 86
APPENDIX G
INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPTS
166
167
Interview Questions (C-1) (P-1)
1. How can you best describe the characteristics of your leadership style as being one of
participative leadership or one of feminine leadership style or both?
I like this question, depending on the situation or issue I would adjust my

leadership style accordingly. Majority of the time I used a mixture of both.
Building great relationships with faculty, staff, and students illustrated my
feminine leadership characteristics. I was very caring and nurturing of others
needs and ensuring they were treated respectfully.
2. What barriers or facilitating conditions do your face on a daily basis in staff or shared
governance meetings as they related to decision-making?
At our institution, resources were limited that caused budget restraints to affect
several departments throughout the campus. Employee groups would challenge
the budget resulting in more time needed from start to finish before coming to a
consensus decision.
People had a hard time understanding that participatory does not means
everyone will agree on an issue. Hidden agendas at times caused barriers and
facilitating conditions when decisions needed to be made.
Getting past how things were done in the past complicated decision-making in
our staff and shared governance. People had a hard time doing things in a
different way.
3. In what situations do you consider participatory decision-making to be the first

method of choice and what new ideas have your implemented to insure everyone is
involved in the process?
In our institution, being a participant comes natural. Participatory governance

is utilized whether it is required or not. We have regular departmental and
campus wide meeting to ensure involvement of faculty, staff and students.
I created a conversational style of communicating in college council in which we
negotiated, consulted, and encouraged everyone not to be afraid to speak up.
For our institution, I rotated the chair / co-chair for all meetings-shared
governance or not. Students were also given the opportunity to have leadership
roles in the meetings.
168
4. In what ways can you best describe your use of feminine leadership characteristics as
your own experience?
As a woman, my social instinct for helping others and establishing a bond, a

connection at a deeper level than my male counterparts. I accepted people for
who they and what they brought to the table, male or female.
For me, I am a great communicator. I tend to listen more intently to what
people are saying. I have a caring personality being raised by my mother and
four sistersfeminine characteristics-that are natural through my upbringing.
5. How would best describe leadership within your institution? Traditional-hierarchical

organizational structure; participatory, supportive, nurturing environment; flat-
networked organizational structuretop-down leadership with desired outcomes based
on decisions from upper management?
Definitely participative, flexible, open to hear everyones voice during the

decision-making process. Our staff really cared about each other; it was very
hard for upper management to have the final say in decisions for the institution.
We placed a high value on building relationships and establishing trust on our
campus.
When I first came here the past leadership was old school and highly traditional;
upper management listened but rarely instituted any of the ideas from faculty,
staff or students. I immediately brought in consultants and other speakers to
present seminars/training sessions for management and staff.
6. What organizational structures have been created during your tenure as the president
to create leadership characteristics that are participatory in nature?
I used a proactive approach, collaboration and full inclusion with everyone

respecting the other persons opinion. My personal demeanor is very
participatory by nature, my parents always ensured we did things together; its
not just about me and you, its about us.
Great question, community colleges are participatory regardless of what others
might say. Our campus culture reflects their participation through our staff,
students and administration.
169
7. What explicit rules or clear-cut norms do you feel omit you from creating an
atmosphere of a neighborhood setting during staff meetings?
I use college council as a role model for setting the norms during staff meetings
and meetings to which I am conducting campus wide. I appreciate the many
mentors I have had for the past 25 years for their good advice.
For me, I really like this question. I never sit at the head of the table, I
position myself some where in the middle; with complete visibility of everyone in
the room.
Icebreakers are my favorites openers for getting everyones attentions; they
seem to create a relaxed atmosphere that gets meetings going and everyone
talking.
8. How would best describe the responsibilities of Board of Trustees? Advisory,

policymaking, other-please describe?
Policy making body, eyes and ears of the community. At times, board members
become overly involved with day-to-day operations causing problems and
institutional interruptions. Understand their roles; rely on the leaders they have
hired to be responsible for the institution. I personally send a weekly report to
our board members to insure our institutions goals and vision are on course.
9. In what ways does your institution illustrate a commitment to diversity?
High priority, we insure our institution recruit and hire people from all walks of
life. We have a very diverse student, staff, and community population; and,
diversity is an accreditation standard for our campus. As a woman, I am very
well versed on diversity. For professional development, women speakers and
people from diverse backgrounds gave presentations on a continuous and
ongoing basis.
10. How open is the decision-making process within your organization and are they team-
oriented to relationships are built for desired outcomes?
Within our campus we have established a culture of collaboration and

participatory governance. To set and reach goals are made using the team
approach, at times- reaching decisions and desired outcomes can become a
longer lasting process and are the most effective.
Teams lead to shared decision-making and empowers staff to be part of the
vision.
170
11. In what situations do you consider that gender becomes a barrier or facilitating
condition that limits your duties as a woman community college president?
Wow, good question to which I must be selective in my response. Primarily

during meetings when more men are in attendance than women facilitating the
meeting can at times become difficult. Maintaining ones composure is very
important, people in general must understand regardless of our gender-all voices
are to be heard before reaching a decision. Employ strategies and a leadership
style that work well for you as a woman helps significantly.
12. How important is mentorship as a career pathway for other women seeking to become
a community college president?
A. Perhaps its the teacher mentality in me that wants me to lift others up,
nothing pleases me more than to see others stretch, grow, and fulfill their
goals. Without mentors in my life, my tenure in the presidents position
would not have lasted as long as it did. Women mentors provide unbiased
feedback.
B. Attending a mentorship program with men and women, played a significant
role in my success as a community college president. Its not just about the
gender, attitude, confidence, all become very important; mentors are very
resourceful during the tough times and provide great guidance.

An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles

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UNIVERSITY OF LA VERNE

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP STYLES

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Frederick R. Board, Sr.

College of Education and Organizational Leadership

Organizational Leadership Department

All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS

All rights reserved.

All rights reserved

An Exploratory Study of Participative Leadership Styles Among

By Frederick R. Board, Sr., EdD

Methodology. Twelve women community college presidents within the California

Conclusions. For women to change the historically male-only pattern of leadership in

DEDICATION ........................................................................................................... xiii

Background of the Study........................................................................... 1

Women as Leaders .................................................................................... 5

Women as Community College Presidents ............................................... 6

Roles of Women in the Culture ................................................................. 8

Gender and Leadership ............................................................................. 10

Leadership Styles ...................................................................................... 12

Women and the Demand for Participative Leadership ............................. 14

Statement of the Problem .......................................................................... 15

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 16

Research Questions ................................................................................... 17

Significance of the Study .......................................................................... 17

Relevance of the Study.............................................................................. 18

Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitation ............................................ 19

Definitions of Terms ................................................................................. 20

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................................. 25

Historical Content ..................................................................................... 26

Women as Leaders .................................................................................... 29

Feminine Leadership (Womens Ways of Leading) ................................. 32

Autocratic Leadership ............................................................................... 36

Democratic Leadership ............................................................................. 38

Collaborative Leadership .......................................................................... 39

Transformational Leadership .................................................................... 40

Participative Leadership ............................................................................ 41

Decision-Making Practices ....................................................................... 43

Other Leaders Perceptions of Women Community College Presidents .. 47

Women in Educational Leadership ........................................................... 49

Community College Leadership ............................................................... 52

Gender Equity and Differences ................................................................. 56

Diversity and Multiculturalism ................................................................. 58

Barriers/Obstacles for Women in Their Journey to the Presidency .......... 64

Equality and Empathy ............................................................................... 73

III. METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 78

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 78

Research Design and Selection ................................................................. 80

Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Design..................................... 81

Population and Sample .............................................................................. 83

Field Test for Instrument Validation ......................................................... 86

Data Collection Process ............................................................................ 87

Procedures for Data Analysis .................................................................... 89

IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA.................................................................................. 92

Purpose of the Study ................................................................................. 92

Research Questions ................................................................................... 93

Telephone, E-mail, and Face-to-Face Interview Process .......................... 94

Analysis of the Interview Data .................................................................. 94

Findings Reported by Research Question ................................................. 96

Research Question 1 .......................................................................... 96

Research Question 2 .......................................................................... 104

Research Question 3 .......................................................................... 108

Summary of Findings ................................................................................ 114