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CHAPTER 7.

AIR-HANDLING EQUIPMENT AND SYSTEMS

7.1 Air-Handling Equipment


7.2 Heat Transfer
7.3 Air Cleaning
7.4 Air Mixing
7.5 Fans
7.6 Duct Systems
7.7 Air Devices
7 8 General
7.8 G l Guidelines
G id li for
f Duct
D t System
S t Design
D i
7.9 Under-Floor Air Systems
7.1 Air-Handling Equipment

Components of air-handling units:

- Fan section(s)
- Heat-exchange section
- Humidification section
- Filter section
- Air-mixing section
- Discharge air plenum
7.2 Heat Transfer
Heat transfer occurs at the heat-exchange section of the air handling unit.
Commonly used heating and cooling media include water, steam, refrigerant, and
electric.

7.2.1 Water Coils


The water coils are normally constructed of copper tubes and aluminum fins.
fins
Drain pans are required under cooling coils to collect condensate.

The construction of a typical water coil


The pperformance of a heating g or coolingg coil depends
p on the design
g of its tubes and fins,,
as well as the size of the coil, including the depth and face area.

The depth of the coils is expressed in rows, which represent layers of tubes that conduct
the heating or cooling fluid.

Tubes of adjacent rows are staggered to gain more contact between air and coil.
Depths of heating coils and cooling coils:

- Heating coils: 1 to 4 rows (because of high temperature difference between


the heating fluid and the heated air)

- Cooling coils: 4 to 8 rows (because of low temperature difference between


the cooling
g fluid and the cooled air))

Face velocities of heating coils and cooling coils:

-Heating coils: up to 6m/s

- Cooling coils: below 3m/s (to avoid carryover of condensate)


7.2.2 Steam Coils
In steam coils, the tubes are designed for easy drainage of the condensate.

Tow types of steam coil:

- Conventional type (single-tube design): supply(steam) and return(condensate) at


different ends of the coil.
- Steam-distribution type (tube-in-tube design): steam is distributed evenly from an
inner orifice tube within the outer heat-
transfer tube.
7.2.3 Electrical Coils
Electrical coils may be designed as a part of the air-handling unit or installed on the
ductwork exterior to the air-handling unit.

The heating elements are usually made of a nickel-chromium alloy.

Electric coils have veryy low resistance to airflow,, so higher


g velocities can be used than
with water or steam coils.
7.2.4 Direct Expansion (DX) Coils
When the cooling medium is a refrigerant, the cooling coil is designed to allow the
refrigerant to vaporize in the coil.

A typical DX coil consists of a refrigerant header and many distribution tubes.

Refrigerant
inlets

Header

Refrigerant
outlets
7.3 Air Cleaning
Air in urban environment contains many impurities, in the form of gas, liquid, and
solid particulates.

Many of these particulates are classified as pollutants, such as smog, smoke, and
pollen.

In addition, air may contain bacteria and viruses.

Common suspended particulates in urban air


Normal Size Normal Size
P ti l t
Particulate ( )
(m) P ti l t
Particulate ( )
(m)
Fumes 0.001-1 Tobacco smoke 0.01-1
Smogg 0.001-2 Bacteria 0.3-30
Dust 0.001-20 Pollen 10-100
Viruses 0.003-0.05 Human hair 40-200
Source : ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1993.
7.3.1 Means of Cleaning Air

Air can be cleaned by passing it through a liquid curtain or spray or through a dry
filter medium.

A liquid curtain or spray may use water or chemical solutions to remove the air
particulates, but these solutions usually serve other functions, such as cooling or
humidification.
humidification

The dry type of filtration is by far the most commonly used method for cleaning air.

Classification criteria of air filters:

- Filtration
t at o principle:
p c p e: Filtration
t at o by the
t e medium
ed u oro by electrostatic
e ect ostat c precipitation
p ec p tat o
- Impingement: Dry medium or viscous medium
- Configuration: Flat or extended surface (pockets, V-shaped or radial pleats)
- Service life: One-time disposable
p or renewable
- Performance: Low and medium efficiency, high efficiency particulate air
(HEPA), or ultrahigh efficiency (UEPA)
- Special features: Order absorption, disposal of radioactive material, etc.
7.3.2 Typical Air Filters
In electrostatic filters, dust and
fumes first are positively charged
at 14,000 V and then enter a
second electric field
field, where they
are pushed by positively charged
plates and attracted to the collector
plates
l t charged
h d negatively.
ti l
For odor removal, adsorption-type
filters are used to remove gaseous
contaminants from the airstream.

These filters rely on extremely


porous activated charcoal to
collect the contaminant.
7.3.3 Application of Air Filters

For residential and commercial buildings:

- Low-efficiency and medium-efficiency filters are adequate.


- Bag-type or pleated filters are used for higher efficiency.

For health care facilities and laboratories:

- The filtration requirements are often dictated by codes and regulations.


- HEPA filters are used for clean rooms and special laboratories to maintain very clean
environments or to remove hazardous particles.
- HEPA filters are expensive and exhibit a high resistance to airflow, so their use is
limited
ed too these
ese special
spec applications.
pp c o s.

For hazardous materials:

- The filter housing is designed to pull the contaminated filter directly into a plastic bag
so that the filter can be replaced without exposing it to the environment. This feature is
called bag
bag out.
out.
7.4 Air Mixing
Outside air required for a building is usually ducted to the inlet of
an air-handling unit by mixing with the return air.

The two airstreams(OA, RA) must be balanced with dampers to introduce sufficient
outside air for ventilation, but not so much as to require excessive energy for conditioning
duringg extremes of weather.

Typical air-mixing box


Introducing large quantities of
outside air for ventilation or
free cooling will tend to over-
pressurize a building.

Therefore provisions are made


for relieving certain portion of
the return air to outside.

The choice between a return


air fan and a relief air fan
depends on the relative
resistance of the air paths.

A long relief air path that


causes a high resistance to
airflow would favor the use of
a relief
li f air
i fan.
f

Otherwise, a return air fan is


sufficient.
ffi i t
7.5 Fans
A fan moves air used in HVAC systems to ventilate or transport heating or cooling.

All fans have a rotating impeller with blades; this increases the kinetic energy of air by
changing its velocity. The increased velocity is then converted to pressure.

Two basic fan designs: centrifugal and axial.


7.5.1 Application of Fans

Centrifugal fans are generally used for air-handling application.

Axial fans have the advantage of being compact when installed in line with ductwork.
7.5.2 Controls of Air Volume (Flow Rate)
Outlet dampers are common for small units.

Inlet guide vane dampers are more energy-efficient and are used on larger air-handling
units

Variable-frequency motor speed controllers are the most energy-efficient and have become
common ini recentt years.
7.5.3 Fan Drives
M
Motors
t can bbe placed
l d within
ithi the
th fan
f cabinet
bi t or air-handling
i h dli unitit or can be
b mounted
t d
externally.

Fan wheels can be coupled directly to the motor or can be driven by belts and
pulleys (sheaves).

Direct-drive fans operates at the same speed as the motor and are not adjustable.
adjustable

Sheaves and belts allow fans to be designed for slower, quieter operation, and selection
of pulley diameter.
7.5.4 Fan Performance and Fan Laws

The performance of a fan is measured by the following characteristics:

- Volume of air delivered per unit


time (airflow rate): m3/s (cfm)

- Pressure created (static, velocity,


and total pressures): Pa (inches of
water column)

- Power input: W (horsepower, hp)

- Mechanical and static efficiency:


percentage

- Other factors, such as sound level in


noise criteria(NC) or decibels(dB),
etc
The most common procedures for developing the characteristics of a fan:

- The performance of a fan is tested from tested from shutoff conditions to nearly free delivery
conditions.

- At shutoff,
h t ff the duct
d t is
i completely
letel blanked
bl ked off;
ff; att free
f ee delivery,
deli e the outlet
tlet resistance
e i t e isi reduced
ed ed to
t
zero.

- Between these two conditions,, various flow restrictions are pplaced on the end of the duct to
simulate various conditions on the fan. Sufficient points are obtained to define the curve between
shutoff and free delivery conditions.

- Pit
Pitott tube
t b traverses
t off the
th test
t t duct
d t are
performed with the fan operating at
constant speed. The point of rating may
be anyy ppoint on the fan pperformance
curve.

- For each case, the specific point on the


c r e must
curve m st be defined bby referring to the
flow rate and the corresponding total
pressure.
The fan laws in the previous table relate the performance variables for any
dynamically similar series of fans. The variables are fan size D; rotational speed N;
gas density r; volume flow rate Q; pressure ptf or psf ; power W; and mechanical
efficiency t.

Fan Law 1 shows the effect of changing size, speed, or density on volume flow rate,
ppressure,, and ppower level.

Fan Law 2 shows the effect of changing size, pressure, or density on volume flow rate,
speed, and power.

Fan Law 3 shows the effect of changing size, volume flow rate, or density on speed,
pressure, and power.

The fan laws apply only to a series of aerodynamically similar fans at the same point
of rating on the performance curve.

They can be used to predict the performance of any fan when test data are available for
any fan of the same series.
An example of the application of the fan laws for a change in fan speed N for a specific
size fan.

For example, point E (N1 = 650) is


computed from point D (N2 = 600) as
follows:

At D,

Q2 = 3 m3/s and = 228 Pa

Using Fan Law 1a at point E,

Q1 = 3650/600 = 3.25 m3/s

Using Fan Law 1b,

Ptf1= 228(650/600)2 = 268 Pa

The total pressure curve at N = 650


may be generated by computing
additional points from data on the base
curve, such as point G from point F.
If equivalent points of rating are joined,
joined as shown by the dashed lines,
lines they form
parabolas, which are defined by the relationship:

The
Th line
li is
i called
ll d SYSTEM LINE.
LINE
7.5.5 Examples of Fan Performance

Given conditions:

1) An air-handling
air handling system is designed to circulate 15,000
15 000 cfm at a system pressure 2.7
2 7 in.
in
w.c.
2) A fan is selected on the basis of the previous graph (Barry Blower Model Versacon).

Problems:

1)) With this pparticular choice of fan, what should be the fan speed?
p

2) What is the Brake Horsepower (BHP) of the electric motor to drive the fan operating at
this condition?

3) If the same fan is operating at 825 rpm, what will be the fan delivery, the air-handling
system static pressure, and the BHP required?

BHP (Brake Horsepower) is the amount of power generated by a motor without considering
any of the various auxiliary components that may slow down the actual speed of the motors.
S
Sometimes
ti referred
f d to
t as pure horsepower,
h BHP iis measured
d within
ithi the
th engines
i output
t t
shaft.
Units used in air
air-conditioning
conditioning engineering

1 hp = 0.7457 kW (approximately 0.75 kW)


Answers:

1) From the graph, the intersection of 15,000 cfm with the system curve demands that the
fan run at 1125 rpm.
2) The fan should be driven by a motor having a minimum of 8.55 BHP.
3) At 825 rpm, the fan can deliver 11,000 cfm, operating at 1.46 in. w.c., and drawing
3.39 BHP.
7.6 Duct Systems
Ductwork is part of the air-handling system.
Duct system includes ducts for supply air, return air, outside air, relief air, and exhaust
air.
air
Ducts are usually fabricated from sheet metal, such as galvanized steel, aluminum, or
stainless steel.
Some ducts are made with nonmetals,, such as pplastics.
7.6.1 General Classifications for Ductwork
Ductwork
D t k systems
t for
f HVAC are classified
l ifi d bby static
t ti pressure.

Recommended air velocities:


7.6.2 Symbols for Sheet Metal Work
There are various standard
symbols for sheet metal work
to be used in drawings.

One of the commonly accepted


standards is the SMACNA
Symbols.
7.6.3 Duct Shapes and Insulation Methods

Rectangular ducts

- Mostly used for low-velocity applications.


- Insulation is often applied to the interior of the duct for both acoustical absorption
and thermal insulation.
- The insulation applied internally is called duct liner.
- In
I cooling
li applications,
li ti liner
li also
l prevents t condensation
d ti on the
th outer
t surface
f off
the duct.
7.6.4 Duct Shapes and Insulation Methods
Round
R d or flat
fl t ovall ducts:
d t

- Can be used for low-velocity, but these shapes are generally reserved for medium-
and high
high-velocity
velocity ductwork.
ductwork
- If insulation is required, it is usually applied externally in the form of a fiberglass
blanket wrap with an external vapor barrier for cooling applications.
- The vapor barrier is intended to prevent the migration of humid air through the
insulation, which could result in condensation on the surface of a cold duct.
- Internal insulation is also available for round or flat oval ductwork.
7.6.5 Materials of Construction
Galvanized
G l i d steel
t l is
i the
th mostt widely
id l usedd material.
t i l
Aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic may be used for ducts installed in humid
environments or ducts that carry moist air, such as a dishwasher exhaust.
Fire-resistant steel ductwork is used for kitchen hoods.

Assembly of high-pressure/velocity round ducts


with low-pressure rectangular ducts
7.6.6 Duct Assembly and Air Leakage
RRoundd ducts
d t have
h the
th mostt cross-sectional
ti l area per unitit area off sheet
h t metal
t l andd thus
th are
most economical.
When ceiling space is limited, oval ducts fit the need.
Round or oval ducts are available in double
double-wall
wall construction to reduce the air
air-
transmitted and duct-radiated noises.
Ducts should be sealed in compliance with the recommended duct seal levels for
different applications
applications.
Exposed supply ductwork in conditioned spaces should be seal level A to prevent dirt
smudges.
Responsibility for proper assembly and sealing belongs to the installing contractor.

Working on duct assembly


Duct seal
Transverse joints

Longitudinal seams
Plastic film and fabric ductwork is good alternative to sheet metal duct work in
hi h h idit spaces suchh as swimming
high-humidity i i pools l andd greenhouses.
h

The rigidity and tubular shape of these ducts is achieved by internal air
pressure, and air is diffused through holes (plastic duct) or through pores
(fabric).

Pl ti fil ductwork(greenhouse)
Plastic-film d t k( h ) Different applications of fabric ductwork
7.6.7 Coordination of Ductwork with Other Building Elements
IIn mostt commercial
i l buildings,
b ildi ductwork
d t k shares
h space above
b the
th ceiling
ili withith other
th
elements including structural supports, fireproofing, electrical conduits, sprinkler
piping, and light fixtures.

Clearances must be provided between ductwork and the lighting fixtures below them
to allow the fixtures to be removed (3 inches, approximately 8cm).

Congested ceiling space and the importance of coordination between systems


7.6.8 Materials and Fittings for Sound Control
S
Soundd attenuators,
tt t also
l called
ll d soundd traps,
t are special
i l duct
d t fittings
fitti containing
t i i sound-
d
absorbing material faced with perforated metal.

Inner wall is constructed of perforated metal


7.7 Air Devices
7.7.1 General Classifications
Air devices, used for supplying air and removing air from space, are among the few
parts of the HVAC system that are visible to the occupants of a building.

Air devices include diffusers, grills and registers, flow control devices, and other
accessories.
i

Grills simply contain vanes; registers contain a


control damper behind the vanes.
vanes
Coanda Effect
Ceiling diffusers rely on a phenomenon called the Coanda effect, in which cold air clings
to the ceiling upon being discharged from the diffuser.

The Coanda effect allows the airstream to fall gradually and mix with the room air over a
large area.
7.7.2 Special Concerns for Warm-Air Supply

If ceiling diffusers are used to deliver warm air, the warm air has a tendency to stay at
the ceiling, owing to its low density.
The
Th velocity
l it mustt be
b sufficient
ffi i t to
t create
t turbulence
t b l andd mixing
i i with
ith cold
ld air.
i

7.7.3 Spacing, Distribution, and Area of Coverage

The area that can be effectively served by a diffuser is affected by a parameter called
throw
throw.
If the velocity is too small, complaints of stuffiness will result.
If the velocity is too high, drafts will result.

Throw: The horizontal or vertical axial distance an airstream travels after leaving an air
outlet before the maximum stream velocity is reduced to a specified terminal velocity
(e.g., 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, or 1.0 m/s), defined by ASHRAE Standard 70. Room air velocities
less than 0.25 m/s are generally preferred.
Ai di
Air distribution
t ib ti pattern
tt ffrom ceiling
ili air
i diffusers
diff
7.8 General Guidelines for Duct System Design
A well-designed duct system will result in the lowest installation cost and most energy-
efficient operation of the air-handling system.

Duct sizes are selected that will produce the highest possible velocity consistent
with a reasonable friction loss.

Duct installations are most economical when maximum use is made of straight duct runs,
and the number of fittings is minimized.

Duct systems that are not properly designed will create objectionable noise. Insulation
placed inside the ductwork will attenuate noise radiating from the system.

Doors should be provided in the duct walls to allow access for cleaning inside the duct
and for maintaining components in the ductwork.

Coordination of the ductwork with lighting layout and structural elements is an


important criterion in the architectural design process.
Ductwork plan of a simple HVAC system
showing supply air ducts and heating water piping
Ceiling grid and lighting fixtures are added for coordination
between different space elements
7.9 Underfloor Air Systems
Delivering air from underfloor is an alternative to conventional overhead air
distribution.
Underfloor distribution for commercial buildings generally uses 60x60cm access
access-floor
floor
panels supported by pedestals on the structure slab to form an air plenum.
Air is introduced to the space through floor-mounted diffusers which are specially
designed
g with cleanable receptors
p for dust and debris.
Air is introduced to the space through floor-mounted diffusers.
Air
Ai velocities
l i i must beb low,
l temperatures are generally
ll 15 to 18

Specially designed with cleanable Floor diffuser on access floor


p
receptors for dust and debris with carpet
p tiles
Air-handling devices for underfloor HVAC system

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