Chapter 2

ENGINEERING ANALYSIS
 Introduction
Analysis is the breaking down of an object into its basic
elements to get to its essence.

Studying the nature and identifying its essential features and

their relationships.

Tools of analysis are based upon logic and the application of

logical systems (e.g. mathematics, physics & mechanics).

The role of analysis in design is a critical one and can be

considered the internal guidance system of a project.

A project without analysis is like a sports team without a

coaching staff.
 The Role of Analysis
The traits of engineers and their relationship with analysis.

What comes first: analysis or experience?

At what point in the evolution of a design should the guidance

from theory be given.

priority? Guidance from experiment?

The seamless interplay between hands-on and theoretical

components.

Will the application of the tools of engineering remain static?

 The Role of Analysis (Cont.)
What happens when theory and experiment do not agree?

How is it known that an analysis is flawed?

How is a design analyzed?

What are the types and levels of analysis?

Where does analysis begin?

Does a project ever begin based solely upon analysis?

 Engineer Traits & Analysis
Universities are developing educational programs to
encourage ambidextrous thinking, or both the left & right
hemispheres of the brain.

Linear logical process and verbal abilities derive

primarily from left side of brain.

Visual spatial properties, intuition and qualitative

assessment skills derive primarily from the right side.

An eventual goal as an engineers skill evolves is to move

towards whole brain thinking.
 Engineer Traits & Analysis (Cont..)

1st year students have significant analytical or creative skills,

but lacks broad set of abilities required in engineering.

University education is focused to nurture existing as well as

broaden range of talent.
 The Role of Analysis in Design
Process (Complementary Roles)
Design requires different abilities &
perspectives at different stages.

Initially either or both perspectives

can derive the choice of project.

Creative brainstorming suggests

path investigated.

Next stage involves critical

assessment of the possibilities &
first level of analysis : resulted in a
prioritized list of choices and
rational.
 After first analysis, followed with
iterative & review to include additional
avenues.

Creative review the ways of

constructing, testing & implementing
the design usually leads to prototypes.

Elements of final design,

recommendations for production, use
of marketing are key product of the
review.

Always an opportunity for another set

of iteration and fine tuning.
 Iterative Process

Radcliffe [Ref] presents an alternative view of the design process.

Emphasized the iterative nature of design.

New information can be introduced at any design stage, which also

necessitates to return to the previous point in the process.
The Design Spiral
 The Design Spiral : Submarine
Designing a submarine is a challenging task.

Design constraints in designing a submarine:

Size and weight
Environmental challenges (depth & pressure)
Critical life support needs
Hull design
Mission requirements
Propulsion and energy requirements

Design of each of these parameters effect the other parameters

as well.

Different design parameters are methodically integrated with

the help of design spiral.
The Design Spiral: Submarine
 The Design Spiral (Cont)
The strong interactions between subcomponents are
accounted in all stages.

On moving from outside to inside or vice versa, each of

the systems is revisited in an interactive way, moving
toward the final design.

Design of aircrafts, space vehicles, defense vehicles also

offer similar challenges.

Analysis can be viewed as an umbrella that protects the

whole system-ensuring a minor change in one sector
wont produce disaster changes in another sector.
 Interplay Between Theory &
Experiments
Design should be a seamless transition between theory and
experiments.

An effective engineer respects & understands the relative

roles of analysis and practice.

Engineer should be comfortable in handling theory

experiments as well as transition between both.

With experience, the choices and application of engineering

skills should become a reflex.
Theoretical & Experimental
Developments
 Evaluation Areas for Theory &
Experiments
Several important questions are raised when theory and
experiments are not in agreement.

Keys area to evaluate in theory and experiments are

tabulated as:
 Critical Role of Analysis in
Engineering Projects
It is essential for engineers to learn from success & failure.

Success and failure helps to derive valuable lessons by

analysis of a great range of designs.
Stay on Tabs: Al Cans
An example of the value of
being sensitive to a societal
need.

Replaced many throw-away

taps and curved pollution.

Recovered and recycled

cans along with tabs helps
in saving tons of aluminum.

Simple concept with

significant impact.
Boing 777
40% conventional materials are
replaced with advanced materials.

Advanced computers and

software's.

Networking permitted engineers

world wide to work effectively on
the same design.

An example of paperless design

and concurrent engineering.

Considered as the most advanced

passenger planes.
Global Positioning System
An example of an existing
base of infrastructure and
technical capabilities
making a concept
practical.

Satellite platforms and

electronics enabled the
execution of the concept,
permitting accurate
location world wide.

Example of an area that is

under dynamic expansion
with different set of
applications.
Radio Detection and Ranging
Required an existing base of
electronic capabilities to be
feasible.

Supporting technology grew to a

threshold to made radar possible.

This development eventually led

to parallel remote sensing devices
using light and sound.

A successful design exploiting one

area of technology may have
fruitful derivatives applications in
other areas as well.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
Bridge collapsed under
modest wind in 1940.

Modest wind exciting a

resonance.

An example of extrapolated
engineering, effects of winds
were not properly
considered.

Engineering design failure

should encourage caution
when extending past,
seemingly successful, design.
Walkways Regency Hotel

The walkways failed in 1981,

resulting in many deaths.

Seemingly non-critical
design change to save time
and cost resulted in a weak
design of suspension.

Unimportant design
element: NO SUCH THING
Challenger Space Shuttle
Exploded on January 28,
1986.

Design of O-ring seals failed

at low temperature launch.

Seals were critical elements

for separating different
stages of rocket.

Decision to use multi-stage

rocket was politically
motivated.

This decision made the

design more complicated
than necessary, which
eventually led to failure.
Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant
Simple component can cause
major problems.

Indicates the importance of

working out foolproof
displays of system status.

Valve failure led to to

overheating problem.

Visual display did not

indicate the actual
overheated status of the
valve.
 Reliability
The reliability method of design is one in which we obtain
the distribution of stresses and the distribution of
strengths and then relate these two in order to achieve an
acceptable success rate.

The reliability R can be expressed by a number having the

range
0R1

In the reliability method of design, the designers task is

to make a judicious selection of materials, processes, and
geometry (size) so as to achieve a specific reliability goal.

It is important to note that good statistical data and

estimates are essential to perform an acceptable reliability
analysis.
 Safety & Liability
The strict liability concept of product liability generally prevails
in USA.

It ensures the liability of manufacturer for any damage or harm

that results from any defect.

Liability of manufacturer will not be eased if unknown to defects

or defective design.

Best approach to the prevention of product liability are:

Good engineering in analysis and design.
Quality control.
Comprehensive testing procedure.
Warranties and sales literature should be reviewed carefully.
Statistical Considerations
 Introduction
Statistics in mechanical design provides a method of dealing with
characteristics whose values are variable.

Products manufactured in large quantities have a life that is variable.

One automobile may have so many defects that it must be repaired

repeatedly during the first few months of operation while another may
operate satisfactorily for years, requiring only minor maintenance.

The variability inherent in limits and fits, in stress and strength, in

bearing clearances, and in a multitude of other characteristics must be
described numerically for proper control.

Evidence gathered from nature by measurement is a mixture of

systematic and random effects. It is the role of statistics to separate
these, and, through the sensitive use of data, illuminate the obscure.
 Arithmetic Mean, Variance , and
Standard Deviation
The total number of elements, called the population, may
in some cases be quite large.

A small part of the group, called a sample is generally

selected for measurement.

Sample mean :

Sample variance :

Sample standard deviation :

 Random Variables
Outcome when two dices were tossed:

A Probability Distribution:

A Cumulative Probability Distribution:

 Random Variables
The strength determined by random experiment is called a
random, or a stochastic, variable.

A probability distribution shows all possible values of a

random variable and with the corresponding probabilities.

The probability function p = f (x ) , a function of x, is often

called the frequency function or, sometimes, the probability
density function (PDF).

A cumulative probability distribution describes the

probability that x is less than or equal to a certain value xi.
Probability Distribution Function
p = f (x )
Cumulative Distribution Function
 Gaussian ( Normal ) Distribution
The Gaussian, or normal, distribution is expressed in
terms of its mean x and its standard deviation x as

The normally distributed variate x can be expressed as

where N represents the normal distribution function.

 Gaussian ( Normal ) Distribution

Probability Distribution Function Cumulative Distribution Function

Gaussian ( Normal ) Distribution
 Lognormal Distribution
The lognormal distribution is one in which the logarithms of
the variate have a normal distribution.

The lognormal distribution has the following two characteristics:

The distribution is asymmetrical about the mean.
The variables have only positive values.
 Lognormal Distribution

Probability Distribution Function Cumulative Distribution Function

Weibull Distribution

Probability Distribution Function

Weibull Distribution
Cumulative Distribution Function
 Uniform Distribution
The uniform distribution is a closed-interval distribution that arises
when the chance of an observation is the same as the chance for any
other observation.
The probability density function (PDF) for the uniform distribution is

where a is the lower bound and b is the upper bound.

The cumulative density function (CDF) is linear in the range axb

given by

The mean and standard deviation are given by

 Uniform Distribution

Probability Distribution Function Cumulative Distribution Function

 Linear Regression
Statisticians use a process of analysis called regression to obtain a
curve that best fits a set of data points.

The process is called linear regression when the best-fitting straight

line is to be found.

A correlation coefficient r calculates how well x and y correlate with

each other.
 Linear Regression

The standard deviations for m and b

Sy.x = Standard deviation of

the scattered data from the
regression line.
Computer Aided Design
Terminology of Solid Models
 Coordinate Systems
Model(Master) Coordinate System (MCS)
MCS is the reference space of model with respect to which all
the model geometries data is stored. In a CAD system MCS is
generally shown by displaying X,Y,Z axis.

Working Coordinate System (WCS)

Portable coordinate system often employed when desired
plane of sketching is not easily defined as one of the MCS
planes.
Sketching Planes

Are the orthogonal planes

created by the axis of MCS or
WCS. Creating or selecting a
sketch plane is the very first
step toward creating a CAD
model.
 Three Modeling Approaches
Primitive Approach
Views a solid model as a combination of simple generic, and
standard shapes that can be combined. Primitives include,
block (box), cylinder, sphere, cone. These primitives are
combined with Boolean operations.
Steps :

i. Create the block using block primitive.

ii. Create a cylinder in the desired location/orientation.
iii. Subtract the cylinder from the block.
 Block

Hole

Feature Approach
Similar to primitive approach, it replaces primitives with
features and embeds Boolean operation in the features
definition.

Steps:
i. Create the block using block feature.
ii. Create the hole in the block by creating a hole feature.
 Sketching Approach
Sketching
Similar to features approach, with one change . Instead of
using predefined shapes only, it allows designers to create
much more elaborate & more general features starting
from a sketch.

2-D Sketch Solid Model

Modeling 3D Operations

Extrusion

Revolving

Sweep
Revolve
 Modeling 3D Operations

Sweep
Loft
3 D Model

Are the ones that do not have a uniform cross section and/or
not have constant thickness. Require more than one sketch in
different sketch planes.
 Visualization
Once the model is created, CAD system allows to view those
models in many different ways. Viewing operation in a CAD
system can be classified into three groups.

i. View orientation
ii. View modes
iii. View manipulation
 View Orientation
Includes standard views such as front, top, right and
isometric.
 View Modes
Allow us to change the display of the model to different types
such as wireframe, hidden & shaded

Wire Frame Hidden Dotted Frame Shaded

 View Manipulation
Allow us to dynamically rotate, pan and zoom the model to
gain better control over its viewing.
 Softwares
CATIA
Pro-Engineer
Solid works
ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA
 Introduction
to
Finite Element Method
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PHYSICAL PROBLEMS IN ENGINEERING
COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING USING FEM
Geometry modelling
Meshing
Material properties specification
Boundary, initial and loading conditions specification
SIMULATION
Discrete system equations
Equation solvers
VISUALIZATION
 INTRODUCTION
Design process for an engineering system
Major steps include computational modelling,
simulation and analysis of results.
Process is iterative.
Aided by good knowledge of computational
modelling and simulation.
FEM: an indispensable tool
 Conceptual design

Modelling
Physical, mathematical , computational , and
operational, economical

Simulation
Experimental, analytical, and computational

Analysis
Photography, visual -tape, and
computer graphics, visual reality

Design

Prototyping

Testing

Fabrication
 PHYSICAL PROBLEMS IN
ENGINEERING

Mechanics for solids and structures

Heat transfer
Acoustics
Fluid mechanics
Others
 Advantages of FEM

Accurate representation of complex geometry

Inclusion of dissimilar material properties

Easy representation of the total solution

Capture of local effects.

 COMPUTATIONAL MODELLING
USING FEM

Four major aspects:

Modelling of geometry
Meshing (discretization)
Defining material properties
Defining boundary, initial and loading conditions
Modelling of geometry

Points can be created simply by keying in the

coordinates.
Lines/curves can be created by connecting
points/nodes.
Surfaces can be created by connecting/rotating/
translating the existing lines/curves.
Solids can be created by connecting/
rotating/translating the existing surfaces.
Points, lines/curves, surfaces and solids can be
translated/rotated/reflected to form new ones.
Modelling of geometry

Use of graphic software and preprocessors to

aid the modelling of geometry
Can be imported into software for
discretization and analysis
Simplification of complex geometry usually
required
Modelling of geometry

Eventually represented
by discretized elements
Note that curved
lines/surfaces may not
be well represented if
elements with linear
edges are used.
 Discretization of Continuum
Numerical techniques in continuum mechanics are
based on the principle that a continuum can be divided
into an equivalent system of smaller bodies.

These bodies are connected at points (nodes) common

to the sub-regions (smaller bodies called elements).

As the size of these small bodies gets smaller, the

numerical solution becomes more accurate.

The cost of computation time may become prohibitive.

Meshing (Discretization)

Why do we discretize?
Solutions to most complex, real life problems are
unsolvable analytically
Dividing domain into small, regularly shaped
elements/cells enables the solution within a single
element to be approximated easily
Solutions for all elements in the domain then approximate
the solutions of the complex problem itself (see analogy of
approximating a complex function with linear functions)
A complex function is represented by piecewise
linear functions

F(x) Unknown function Unknown discrete values

of field variable of field variable at nodes

x
elements nodes
Meshing (Discretization)

Part of preprocessing
Automatic mesh generators: an ideal
Semi-automatic mesh generators: in practice
Shapes (types) of elements
Triangular (2D)
Quadrilateral (2D)
Tetrahedral (3D)
Hexahedral (3D)
Etc.
Elements & Nodes
Element Geometries
 Mesh Generation
The network of elements and nodes that discretize a region is referred
to as a mesh.
Results generally improve when the mesh density is increased in
areas of high stress gradients and/or when geometric transition zones
are meshed smoothly.
There are three basic ways to generate an element mesh.
Manual mesh generation : This is how the element mesh was created in
the early days of the finite-element method.
Semiautomatic mesh generation : this method enable the modeler to
automatically mesh regions of the structure that he or she has divided up,
using well-defined boundaries.
Fully automated mesh generation. Many software vendors have
concentrated their efforts on developing fully automatic mesh generation,
and in some instances, automatic self-adaptive mesh refinement.
Element Mesh
Mesh in Biomechanics
Meshing Curves
Mesh
Mesh for the design of scaled model of aircraft for dynamic analysis
Mesh for a boom showing the stress distribution (Picture used by courtesy of

EDS PLM Solutions)

Mesh of a hinge joint
 Axisymmetric mesh of part of a dental implant
(The CeraOne abutment system, Nobel Biocare)
Property of material or media

Type of material property depends upon

problem
Usually involves simple keying in of data of
material property in preprocessor
Use of material database (commercially
available)
Experiments for accurate material property
Boundary, initial and loading conditions

Very important for accurate simulation of

engineering systems
Usually involves the input of conditions with
the aid of a graphical interface using
preprocessors
Can be applied to geometrical identities
(points, lines/curves, surfaces, and solids) and
mesh identities (elements or grids)
 SIMULATION
Two major aspects when performing simulation:
Discrete system equations
Principles for discretization
Problem dependent
Equations solvers
Problem dependent
Making use of computer architecture
Discrete system equations

Principle of virtual work or variational principle

Hamiltons principle
Minimum potential energy principle
For traditional Finite Element Method (FEM)
Weighted residual method
PDEs are satisfied in a weighted integral sense
Leads to FEM, Finite Difference Method (FDM) and Finite
Volume Method (FVM) formulations
Choice of test (weight) functions
Choice of trial functions
Discrete system equations

Taylor series
For traditional FDM
Control of conservation laws
For Finite Volume Method (FVM)
Equations solvers

Direct methods (for small systems, up to 2D)

Gauss elimination
LU decomposition
Iterative methods (for large systems, 3D onwards)
Gauss Jacobi method
Gauss Seidel method
SOR (Successive Over-Relaxation) method
Generalized conjugate residual methods
Line relaxation method
Equations solvers

For nonlinear problems, another iterative loop

is needed
For time-dependent problems, time stepping
is also additionally required
Implicit approach (accurate but much more
computationally expensive)
Explicit approach (simple, but less accurate)
 VISUALIZATION
Vast volume of digital data
Methods to interpret, analyse and for
presentation
Use post-processors
3D object representation
Wire-frames
Collection of elements
Collection of nodes
 VISUALIZATION
Objects: rotate, translate, and zoom in/out
Results: contours, fringes, wire-frames and
deformations
Results: iso-surfaces, vector fields of variable(s)
Outputs in the forms of table, text files, xy plots are
also routinely available
Visual reality
A goggle, inversion desk, and immersion room
Air flow in a virtually designed building
Air flow in a virtually designed building
 Pre Processing
General features,
nodes, elements,
topology, Co-ordinate
axes etc.

Material properties,
yield strength, Appropriate General purpose
density, coeff. of Preprocessor Input Data File FE software
thermal expansion

Boundary conditions
imposed, mechanical
& thermal restraints

Applied loads
 Post Processing

Displacement

Strain

General purpose Stress Post Processing

FE software

Temperature

Velocity Result Files

 Softwares

ANSYS
Abaqus
I-DEAS
LS-DYNA
 The Finite-Element Method
Since the finite-element method is a numerical technique
that discretizes the domain of a continuous structure,
errors are inevitable.

Computational errors : due to round-off errors from the computer floating-point calculations
and the formulations of the numerical integration schemes that are employed.

Discretization errors : The geometry and the displacement distribution of a true structure
continuously vary. Using a finite number of elements to model the structure introduces errors in
matching geometry and the displacement distribution due to the inherent mathematical
limitations of the elements.
Overview of the Finite Element
Method

S W G M
Strong Weak Galerkin Matrix
form form approx. form
 Sample Problem
Axial deformation of a bar subjected to a uniform load
(1-D Poisson equation)
d 2u
EA 2 = p0
dx
L u 0 = 0
du
EA =0
p x = p0 dx xL

u = axial displacement
x = 0, L
E=Youngs modulus = 1
A=Cross-sectional area = 1
 Strong Form
The set of governing PDEs, with boundary conditions, is
called the strong form of the problem.
Hence, our strong form is (Poisson equation in 1-D):

d 2u
2
= p0
dx
u 0 = 0
du
=0
dx xL
 Weak Form
We now reformulate the problem into the weak form.

The weak form is a variational statement of the problem in

which we integrate against a test function. The choice of test
function is up to us.

This has the effect of relaxing the problem; instead of finding

an exact solution everywhere, we are finding a solution that
satisfies the strong form on average over the domain.
 Weak Form
d 2u Strong Form
2
= p0
dx
d 2u
2
p0 = 0 Residual R=0
dx
L
d 2u
0 dx2 p0 vdx = 0 Weak Form

v is our test function

We will choose the test function later.
 Weak Form
Why is it weak?
It is a weaker statement of the problem.
A solution of the strong form will also satisfy the weak form,
but not vice versa.
 Weak Form
Choosing the test function:

We can choose any v we want, so let's choose v such that it

satisfies homogeneous boundary conditions .
 Fundamentals of FEM
(i) Idealization of structure
simplify the geometrical features of the structure

(ii) Discretization of structures

subdivide the structure into a system of finite elements. The
size and number of elements are dictated by the
geometrical features of the structure, applied load and
restrains, accuracy and size of computer.

(iii) Choice of interpolation function

assume a trial function for the displacement (e.g.
polynomial)
 Fundamentals (Contd)
(iv) Derivation of the element stiffness matrix

Derive the element stiffness matrix using the principle

of minimum of potential energy (equilibrium equation).
The derived stiffness relates the nodal displacements
to the applied nodal forces.
The stiffness matrix is a function of the material and
geometric properties of an element.

(v) Assembly of global stiffness matrix

Assemble the global stiffness matrix from the element

stiffness matrices
 Fundamentals (Contd)
(vi) Solution for the unknown nodal displacement

apply boundary conditions

solve the global equilibrium equations that can be

described as [K]{u}={F}

(vii) Computation of element & nodal strains and stresses

calculate the element strains and stresses using the

appropriate solid mechanics relations
 Basic FE Algorithm
Mesh geometry
Input Data Element type
Boundary condition
Applied load
E.S.M.G. Symmetry

Assembler

Apply B.C.
Reducer

Solver Solve for [ug]

u
Output data
ij
ij
 The Finite-Element Solution Process
A truss element is a bar loaded in tension or compression and is of
constant cross-sectional area A, length l, and elastic modulus E.

A truss element can be modeled as a simple linear spring with a spring

rate

Assuming all forces f and displacements u directed toward the right as

positive, the forces at each node can be written as

Consider a two-spring system, the total force at each node is the

external force.
Example
 We combine the two stiffness matrices into the
global matrix.
 Now that the displacement at u2 has been obtained, the end forces and
stress values can be obtained by reverting back to the individual
element stiffness matrices

For the stress, you only need to look at the individual node of the
stiffness equation

Reactions
Element Forces
Element Stresses
 References
Finite Element Method by G. R. Liu and S. S.
Quek.
Some slides are courtesy of Dr. Avinash
Parashar, MIED, IIT Roorkee