Int. J. Hospitality Management Vol. 14 No. 3/4, pp.

351-374, 1995
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Ecoresort: a green masterplan for the international resort

industry

Hana Ayala
Eco Resorts International, Research & Development, 2 Locke Court, Irvine, California 92715,
U.S.A.

Strategies adopted by the international hotel industry for achieving greater environ-
mental sensitivity and sustainability are assessed from three perspectives: ecotech-
niques, environmental sponsorship, and eco-packaging. The key finding is that the
business as well as the environmental cases for a green hotel fall short of tapping the
potential of a green resort. Evidence is also presented for the increasing convergence
of international tourism and international ecotourism, a trend that will effect a shift
from vacation product to place product in defining the competitiveness and quality of
international resort destinations. The article pioneers guidelines for an ecoresort
masterplan, conceptualized specifically to benefit the international resort industry and
introduced as complementary to the directives of the International Hotel Environment
Initiative. The resort-plus scope of masterplanning, an expanded capacity to assimi-
late, and a layered approach to product development are the core principles that, in
their interplay, will distinguish an ecoresort product from a resort product. The
guidance provided by the ecoresort concept will be of greatest use to new develop-
ments. It will also help to structure the international multi-resort expansion of hotel
groups, taking maximum advantage of the large-scale ecotourism initiatives under-
taken by a growing number of countries and regions.

Key words: resort industry international ecotourism

ecoresort masterplan conservation place product
sustainable development

The Issue

An environmentally sensitive hotel, ecotel or ecohotel alters its equipment, policies and
practices to minimize the strain of its presence on the environment, particularly in the
areas of energy and waste management, water conservation, and purchasing (Checkley,
1993; Iwanowski and Rushmore, 1994; Withiam, 1993). This generally accepted and
highly commendable concept of a green hotel, however, falls short of extending the
hotels environmental friendliness to the provision of learning and experiencing that
constitute two important components of the ecoproduct sought by the new tourist. It does
not deal with the soaring tourist demand for quality experiences of the destinations nature

351
352 Hana Ayala

and culture (Bennett, 1992; Frangialli, 1992; Moore and Carter, 1993). This demand calls
for solutions that would transform visitor volume into a resource for conserving heritage
attractions and would mediate the enjoyment of these attractions with limited or no
visitation. The need for planning, design, and management responses to the market shift
away from sun worship to protection from ultraviolet rays is as relevant to new tourism as is
the supply of green rooms. And so is prevention of both the loss of quality of tourist
experiences and negative impacts on the destination that are caused by the travelers
unprepared exposure to unknown environments and cultural traditions. The business case
for hotels environmental commitment, as well as the environmental case for their business
practice, is built too narrowly for the resort industry.

Research agenda
This study defines the changes in the resort concept and in the growth strategies of the
international resort industry that will be rendered necessary by the prominence of the
environment and sustainable development. It assesses greening techniques, environmen-
tal sponsorship approaches, and development and marketing concepts that draw momen-
tum from the destinations heritage attractions, seeking to identify the scope and reserves
of environmental performance in the hotel business. A complementary focus is on the
changing profile of international leisure travel, examined through a comparative analysis
of the evolving markets of international tourists and international ecotourists. Finally,
consideration is given to the implications for the resort industry of the growing importance
of ecotourism resources and ecotourism experiences in the definition of the quality and
competitiveness of international leisure destinations. The findings are utilized to structure
a conceptual blueprint for the ecoresort masterplan. The goal is to formulate a prototype
masterplan that is internationally applicable from the point of view of conceptual
guidance, and that will deliver a unique resort product in each destination by channeling
the identity of places into the product development. A related objective is to equip the new
generation of resorts with the means to guarantee-in the long-term-the ecological,
cultural and social sustainability of the resort-destination partnership. The study further
investigates the effect of multi-destination ecotourism initiatives that are being adopted by
a growing number of countries and regions on the viability of hotel groups international
portfolios and expansion plans throughout leisure destinations.

Defining the scope of environmental performance in the hotel business

Ecotechniques
In his overview of ecotourism around the world, Ceballos-Lascurain (1993) conditioned
the adequacy of ecotourism facilities on the utilization of ecotechniques (e.g. solar
energy, rain water collection, recycling of waste, bio-climatic design, local materials and pro-
cedures). The umbrella term ecotechniques can also be identified with the global greening
of the hotel industry. Environmental Management for Hotels, a workbook produced
through a cooperative effort of 11 hotel groups within the International Hotels Environ-
ment Initiative (IHEI, 1993), testifies to the importance that the industry has placed on
ecotechniques for upgrading its environmental performance. From the improvement of
 An ecoresortmasterplan 353

waste management, energy and water conservation, and indoor air quality to the reduction
of noise and limited use of pesticides and herbicides, the document pools international
expertise in building a hotels environmental culture through rethinking, re-using, reduc-
ing, rationalizing, recycling, and recovering.
The benefits of ecotechniques go beyond cost-saving, competitive market position,
favorable corporate image, and positive impact on the supply industries through
precycling-i.e., purchasing decisions that favor environmentally friendly products. They
can be very significant in terms of stispaining and enhancing the quality of a destinations
physical environment. For example, a sensitive blend of the Great Barrier Reef Resort
(Hayman Island, Australia) into the island topography is as important for the environmen-
tal fitness of this project as are its recycling of waste and self-sustainability in water and
power resources (IHEI, 1993). The Rockresorts, whose development philosophy stresses
understated architecture and design in harmony with outstanding natural settings, and the
Amboseli and Mara Game Lodges in Kenya, which won a commendation for their site-
respectful architectural use of indigenous rural dwellings (Game Lodges, 1986), are
among examples that could be cited to balance the comparatively little attention paid by
the IHEI to the benefits of muting hotel structures with the landscape.
The role of the hotel grounds is another underrepresented topic in the global debate on
the greening of the industry. Yet, a landscape design that converted a polluted tin mine on
Thailands Phuket Island into an ecosystem of indigenous vegetation, which utilizes
recycled water, organic waste and treated sewage, contributed to the selection of the
Laguna Beach Resort for the International Hotel Associations 1992 Environmental
Award. The Loews Ventana Canyon Resort (Arizona) further broadens the business
argument for an ecologically-sound grounds concept. Using landscape design to achieve
continuity of the desert experience across the resort boundary, the project employs the
Sonoran Desert itself to boost its identity, marketability and real estate value (Burr, 1991;
Phillips, 1986). The combined objective of the resort grounds ecological and contextual
fitness harbors endless, and largely overlooked, opportunities for achieving environmen-
tal sensitivity and originality of future developments, opportunities as diverse as is the
diversity of resort settings.

Environmental sponsorship
Forte PLC is among hotel corporations and associations that have expressed a commit-
ment to the environment of the very communities in which their hotels operate, through
tree planting, creation of conservation programs and facilities for local schools, and other
socially responsible activities (IHEI, 1993). The Going Green program, carried out by ITT
Sheraton in Africa and the Indian Ocean region, is representative of another form of
environmental patronage by the hotel industry. This program seeks to benefit conser-
vation and environmental education within the geographical region in which the group is
represented. Sheratons optional dollar fundraising scheme invites guests at several of
the corporations city hotels to donate to such causes as: the study of the countrys wildlife
at the Sheraton Benin; protection of the black rhinoceros from extinction at the Sheraton
Harare; and purchase of antipoaching equipment for Nigerias Game Reserves at the
Sheraton Lagos. A cooperative venture between Ramada International Hotels and
Resorts and American Express has been executed within an even broader frame both
geographically and in the number of participating hotels, as a corporate program to
354 Hana Ayala

support The Nature Conservancy in its effort to preserve the Palau archipelago in
Micronesia.
The stimulus for Sheratons guests to contribute to the African conservation effort is of a
promotional nature, communicated via guest room cards, T-shirts, badges and a newslet-
ter (N. Munyati, Director of Marketing-Africa, personal communication, August 10,
1993). Similarly, the Ramada/American Express partnership is a marketing initiative
designed to raise funds for a global conservation organization and to inform a wider
audience of its work (IHEI, 1993, p. 9). These and other similar initiatives involving the
hotel industry deserve to be applauded. At the same time, it should be recognized that the
marketing approach is far from sufficient for realizing the potential benefits of the hotel
patronage of places or wildlife that are the very reasons for the tourist choice of a particular
leisure destination. Marketing will not substitute for the contribution that resort planning
and design can make to conservation by (1) sensitizing the tourist to the ecological and
cultural resources that warrant protection and by (2) directly protecting these resources
through the zoning of tourist consumption.
It is becoming increasingly common for a new resort development to set aside a portion
of the site as an environmental preserve. Mexicos multiresort project, Las Bahias de
Huatulco, which has dedicated some 70% of the sites 51,900 acres to conservation, is
representative of this trend. Unfortunately, it is also representative of a leakage of
environmental and business benefits, created by the failure of the resort developers to
transform the valuable asset of a private preserve from being merely a set-aside area to
becoming an integral part of the projects identity and environmental commitment. Siting
and designing the resort in a manner that presents and interprets the sites heritage
resources, or those in its vicinity, would give the resort a strong sense of place and convey
to the guests a commitment to conserve these resources. Such a design-management
approach would benefit new developments and their landscapes at a time when existing
resorts rely on marketing heritage attractions in order to secure their niche in international
tourism.

Eco-packaging
The Hyatt Regency Kauai provides a good example of the current wave of re-packaging
the resort products with an eye on ecotourists. Kauai by Design, an offer of ecologically
and culturally sensitive island adventures, and Discover Kauai, a program designed to
help guests be responsible tourists, now highlight the Hyatts promotion. An introduction
of environmentally oriented activities by a hotel that in itself is not a facility built for, or
conducive to, ecotourism is perhaps the most common step taken by hotels for implement-
ing eco-transformation through marketing.
In another eco-packaging marketing scenario, hotels take advantage of the increased
appreciation of their sites brought about by the demand for ecotourism experiences. This
scenario is typified by properties that use their location inside national parks or equivalents
to re-position themselves as ecological resorts, such as the Tropical Hotel das Cataratas
(Iguazu Falls National Park, Brazil), as well as hotels and resorts that exploit the new
marketability of their locations as good starting points towards the destinations ecotour-
ism attractions (Tropical Hotel Santarem, Brazil). As the resort industry continues to shift
its interest towards pristine and environmentally-sensitive areas (Barr, 1991), a question
will have to be answered whether the existing approaches to resort planning and design will
 An ecoresort masterplan 355

be adequate to guarantee the quality and viability of the new generation of tourism
products built around mass consumption of natural and cultural heritage.
A development concept that relates hotels as closely as possible to the attractions they
serve characterizes the tourist/sightseeing resorts (Rutes and Penner, 1985). Two
examples of hotels whose development philosophy bridges the goals of hospitality and
access to unique heritage attractions are the Petra Forum Hotel (Jordan), built on the
doorstep of the ancient walled city of Petra, and the Camino Real Tikal (Guatemala),
conceived as a gateway to the old Mayan city of Tikal and to the Peten jungle. Similarly,
the choice of location for Club Meds Villas was key to their distinctive image as stepping
stones to prestigious natural and cultural sites in various parts of the world. The planning
and design that mix the hotel comforts of the Taita Lick Lodge (Kenya) with game-viewing
on location-a natural salt lick-carry this approach to an extreme, by removing the factor
of spatial separation between the hotel and the attraction all together. Future resort
developments, however, will be challenged by an opposite trend towards greater separ-
ation of hotels from the tourism-drawing natural and cultural features. The growing
emphasis that UNESCO, the World Tourism Organization, and other international
organizations place on the surroundings of heritage sites as essential parts of these sites
identity, integrity and appeal; the expanding evidence that direct or excessive tourist
contact can disturb wildlife, ecosystems, and traditional cultures; and the fact that stricter
environmental standards, new environmental legislation, and the zoning concept are
being adopted by more countries will all contribute to this trend.

The new tourist and the changing profile of international leisure travel

There are several current studies that tie heightened concern about the environment to a
major trend in tourist preferences. Poon (1989a) argues that one can already witness the
transformation of international tourism towards a new tourism. Leisure travelers
preferences are shifting towards participatory, experiential, educational and
conservation-enhancing vacations (Bennett, 1992; Boo, 1993; Burr, 1991; Crawford,
1991), especially in the context of international travel. Well-traveled and well-educated
international tourists are increasingly concerned with physical fitness, health, state of mind
and the quality of natural and cultural experiences. This trend makes an ever stronger case
for a new tourism that can offer flexibility and authentic experiences, reflect greater care
and conservation of the environment, and be driven by intelligence and innovation (Poon,
1989b).
Experiencing and learning are at the core of the shifting demand. The destination
choices of international tourists are favoring a complex experience that imparts more than
superficial learning, and more and more tourists are choosing their destinations after
making a conscious decision to learn from their travel experiences (Greenberg, 1991;
Tourism, 1992). An interesting parallel can be drawn with international ecotourists.
Personal growth in emotional, spiritual, and intellectual terms is the expected outcome
from international travel for the majority of ecotourism travelers (Williams, 1991).
The fastest growth of international tourism is expected in long-haul trips (Tourism,
1992). Predictions place most of the tourism growth in the emerging destination regions
(Go and Ritchie, 1990; Tourism, 1992), which are also expected to be of greater interest for
resort developments (Stiles and See-Tho, 1991). Murphy (1991) elaborates on a study of
356 Hana Ayala

distance segmentation by Etzel and Woodside, which revealed that long-distance travelers
exhibit the strongest orientation to natural and cultural heritage. Such a conclusion can be
supported by studies carried out by the European Travel Commission among American
pleasure travelers to Europe, who overwhelmingly see their trip abroad as educational and
value it for historical and cultural benefits (Berrol, 1990). Similarly, few European
travelers to Asia would consider undertaking the long-haul trip to spend two weeks lying
on a beach (Cockerell, 1986). Surveys of the American and European tourists who travel
overseas have brought some strikingly comparable data. The majority of these travelers
have university education, are in the mid- to upper-income brackets, are well-traveled,
and come from professional and business households (Berrol, 1990; Cockerell, 1986;
Menezes and Chandra, 1989). Interestingly, the international ecotourists who expect high-
quality heritage experiences are primarily well-educated and relatively affluent; they
travel frequently; their occupations are mostly business and professional; and they come
from North America, Europe and Japan (Rye1 and Grasse, 1991). The similarities
between international tourists and international ecotourists as they effect travel motiva-
tion and trip activity deserve to be given careful consideration in masterplanning of
tourism destinations, particularly in long-haul regions.
At the same time as quality tourism increasingly implies learning and the satisfaction of
tourists interest in heritage resources, the quality of the natural and human environment
of resort destinations is becoming a key factor in the vacation planning of international
travelers. For one out of every two German tourists, for example, environmental quality is
now a decisive factor in destination choice (Frangialli, 1992). It is predicted that, by the
year 2000, Queensland alone could experience an extra three million international and
four million domestic visitors, a large proportion of whom will wish to access Australias
natural resources (Moore and Carter, 1993). There will be a need for planning, design, and
management concepts that would make visitor numbers and a high standard of resort
accommodation compatible with long-term guarantees of the quality of both the heritage
resources and the tourist experience. A closely related need, and untapped opportunity
for the hotel industry, has been brought about by the growing market of international
ecotourists and adventure travelers. Sorensens (1993) analysis of American special
interest travelers illustrates that though these travelers, typically professionals and
business executives heading anywhere from Indonesia to Zimbabwe, may rough itduring
their trip, they overwhelmingly expect first-rate hotel accommodation with plentiful
amenities before and after their outdoor experience.

The shifting rationale for product and market segmentation in international tourism
Throughout the world, the tourism and hotel industries are facing a new megatrend: the
growing merger between international tourism and international ecotourism. This merger
will call for considerable evolution of the industries from the point of view of management
as well as that of planning. The most general definition of ecotourism, i.e. tourism that
allows for the enjoyment and understanding of the nature and culture of a destination
while producing economic benefits and actively promoting environmental conservation,
can be equally well used to define the business perspective of new tourism. The soft line
between new tourism and ecotourism blurs progressively with the distance traveled, being
the least detectable in long-haul tourism.
Quality of the destination environment, potential for learning, and complexity and
 An ecoresort masterplan 357

authenticity of the experience are the criteria that will increasingly characterize the
destination choice of international leisure travelers. This is not to imply a trend against
product and market segmentation. Rather, this is to argue that the demand in inter-
national tourism in general, and long-haul international tourism in particular, will be
newly segmented in accordance with harder and softer versions of the new tourism
product or ecoproduct. Hard is used here to imply an intense, dedicated, or scientific
interest in nature and culture; significant physical effort involved; and accommodations
other than a hotel. Soft ecoproducts are those enjoyed aesthetically and culturally in a less
strenuous mode and from the base of hotel facilities and services. The bulk of international
tourism will qualify as soft ecotourism, in large part because of the desire for high
accommodation standards.

Ecotourism and the resort industry: the inevitable partnership

Virtually every geographical region lends support to Douglas (1992) prediction that the
availability of ecotourism product will become a major determinant of visitor destinations.
Whether using the term ecotourism or new tourism, both Douglas (1992) and Poon
(1989b) make the same projection for the Caribbean: if the region wishes to remain
competitive in the global marketplace and if it is to build a profitable tourism industry, it
has to deliver a tourism product that enhances both the quality of the environment and the
quality of life, and is characterized by conservation and dignity. In 1991, the Australian
Tourist Commission adopted a new environmental strategy, encouraging Australia to
develop an ecologically sustainable tourism industry that would position Australia as a
destination that would appeal to international ecotourists (Ayers Rock Resort, Infor-
mation Release). The outstanding natural attractions of the rainforest, the Amazon River,
or Iguacu Falls, together with handicrafts, folklore and other cultural attractions afford
Brazil a great opportunity to differentiate its tourism product from that of other countries
(Rizzotto, 1992). Schieneman (1995) extends Brazils enormous potential for inter-
national ecotourism even to coastal areas, where future national parks and marine
reserves could serve as catalysts of a beach product unique to Brazil. Belize, Costa Rica,
and Ecuador are among the countries that have already initiated the process of creating a
national ecotourism strategy (Boo, 1993). According to Winterbottom (1991), the United
States will not be excluded from the challenge to offer quality ecotourism products in order
to remain competitive as an international vacation destination.
The prominence of ecotourism in the definitions of new national and regional strategies
for international tourism, combined with the reality of the growing ecotourism orientation
of international leisure travel, sharply contrasts with the belief (Andersen, 1993) that the
limited size of an ecotourism facility precludes the participation of major hospitality
corporations. Volume and scale do not necessarily determine the environmental and
socio-cultural impact or acceptability of tourism development (Butler, 1990; PATA,
1992). Neither is dispersion of tourists necessarily better than their confinement to small
areas in large numbers (Butler, 1990, p. 44; Inskeep, 1987). These facts, however, are yet
to be articulated into guidance for reconciling resort planning with the ecotourism
demand.
The success of engaging the resort industry in international ecotourism will also be
358 Hana Ayala

conditioned by this industrys involvement in correcting the unsustainable definition of

ecotourism destinations. Unfortunately, the obvious ecotourism character of places,
rather than their potential to provide ecotourism experiences, is what defines the majority
of destinations offered by the booming eco-travel industry. The commonly held view that
naturally- and culturally-oriented tourism is incompatible with the less ecological beach
and coastal tourism (Amrhein, 1993) is a good example of the kind of preconceptions that
are harmful to both the environment and the prospect of a greener and more sustainable
resort industry. Such preconceptions are often based on what has been done, rather than
what could be done. The demand for authentic, participatory, and environmentally-
focussed vacations clashes with the standard formula of a sun-sea-and-sand paradise. But
this demand presents a unique opportunity for a new generation of resorts to engage in
planning, design, and marketing that will heighten tourists awareness of the beauty and
diversity of coastal ecosystems in which sunlight will be valued as a source of distinctive
qualities of light and color rather than as a tanning agent.

From vacation product to place product

Tourism research demonstrates that sunshine and a pleasant resort are ceasing to be
primary motivations for international leisure travel and are no longer likely to be
significant factors in the tourists choice of a foreign destination-be it in sub-Saharan
Africa or the South Pacific (Ankomah and Crompton, 1990; King, 1992). A 1992 Japan
Travel Bureau survey confirmed that this new trend applies even to Japanese travelers,
who used to equate resort vacations with sun and sand; 70% of the respondents indicated
that enjoyment of nature and scenery is now their top priority in going abroad (Owens,
1994).
A sunshine break or a resort vacation built around the offer of resort facilities and
amenities typify what could be called a vacation product. This product often incorporates
the theme of a tropical paradise, lacks clear geographical identity, and is characterized by
high sensitivity to price and easy interchangeability among destinations that subscribe to
the same kind of vacation product (Ayala, 1991b). Domestic and short-haul destinations
can easily outcompete long-haul destinations in the vacation product offer.
The competitiveness and appeal of international tourism destinations will increasingly
be measured in terms of the place product, whose ecological, cultural, and geographical
identity mitigate against price sensitivity and product substitutability. The revision of the
Huatulco Bays multi-resort project in Mexico demonstrated that place product can be fully
compatible even with a beachfront setting (Ayala, 1993a). The vacation product, how-
ever, continues to dominate the international resort boom, with growing discrepancies
between the resort concept and the changing profile of the new consumer.

The sun factor

Ever larger and technologically ever more sophisticated water features have become a
selling point for the resort grounds, whose concept remains focussed on relaxation and fun
under the sun. Rows of chaise-lounges lace the sand along mushrooming beach resorts in
South-East Asia, the Caribbean, and Mexico-symbols of many resorts philosophy of
making the most of the sun as an asset of their settings. At the same time, sunlight is
 An ecoresort masterplan 359

predicted to take its place alongside animal fats and tobacco leaf as one of the modern
hazards to be avoided as much as possible (Petty, 1989).
The daily UV index forecast is one of the new educational tools in the U.S. and Canada
that foster the publics awareness of the risks of exposure to ultraviolet rays. In the 2 years
since this program started in Canada, polls show that eight in 10 Canadians are aware of
the UV forecasts, and half of those surveyed attest to changing their behavior based on the
forecasts by staying inside, covering up, or using sunscreen (Healy, 1994). Bennett (1992),
Middleton (1991), Petty (1989), and Smith (1991) explicitly link the decreasing inter-
national demand for sun and sea vacations with fears relating to the exposure to the sun. A
question raised by Hall (1993, p. 155) about Mexican resorts goes far beyond the Mexican
context: Who can say that lying under carcinogenic sun at a megaresort will still be a
favorite holiday pursuit in thirty years time?

The resort concept at the crossroads

International tourism is undergoing rapid transformation, an element of which is the
movement away from sun-lust to sun-plus and even anti-sun approaches (Poon, 1989a).
The resort philosophy will have to undergo transformation as well, balancing sun-lust with
wanderlust in the resort masterplan, and increasingly shifting the balance towards
wanderlust experiences. As Koh (1982) articulated it, ecological design is more inclusive
than energy-conscious design; it is not so much the design of environment as the design of
the human-environment system and the human experience of it. Applied to a resort,
ecological design should be able to induce and catalyse the ecotourism experience for the
guests. At the same time, it should have enough flexibility to support a multiplicity of such
experiences in response not only to the different levels of guests interests, but also to
different travel patterns and the inclinations exhibited by short-haul and long-haul
tourists. Ecological design does not have to, and should not, compromise the high
standards of hotel service, cuisine, and amenities that a large majority of international
ecotourists expect. But what it should and could do is integrate the enhancement of both
physical and spiritual well-being into the notion of a high standard of an ecological resort.
Andersen (1993) believes that if ecotourism is to realize its potential for contributing to
environmental quality, it must necessarily remain a small segment of the huge global
tourism industry. The international resort industry will have the greatest interest and the
most critical say in disproving this belief.

Ecoresort: the conceptual foundations

The following text presents a conceptual outline for the ecoresort masterplan. It specifies
three core principles that, in their interplay, would distinguish an ecoresort product from a
resort product: (a) the resort-plus scope of masterplanning; (b) an expanded capacity to
assimilate; and (c) a layered approach to product development. Examples of hotels and
resorts given below serve solely to illustrate or support individual approaches that are
integrated within the ecoresort concept; they are not quoted as prototypes of ecoresorts.
This articles guidelines are formulated to complement the directives of the International
Hotels Environment Initiative (IHEI, 1993) for the benefit of the resort industry with a
special focus on new resort developments.
360 Hana Ayala

Resort-plus scope of masterplanning

The current concept of tourism planning, which also applies to resorts, favors an
integration of tourism into the broader framework of an areas development planning,
including an evaluation of the economic, sociocultural, and environmental costs and
benefits as part of the process of selecting the optimum plan (Inskeep, 1987). New tourism
introduces an additional rationale for resort planning that extends beyond the property
line. Given the significance of a destinations ecological and cultural endowment for
attracting foreign tourists, the competitive strength of international resorts will be
increasingly defined in terms of the markets identification of the resort product with the
ecotourism experience of the vacation destination. This calls for much greater awareness
by developers, planners, and managers of the landscape resources that are outside the
resort but still within the reach of the resort through the use of views and excursions.
The demand for ecotourism may have already exceeded the sustainable supply in many
parts of the world (Droste, Silk and Rossler, 1992). The future will be in quality, nature-
based visitor experiences that are more accessible to the mass market but that require large
accommodation capacities that can be developed in a sustainable manner only on the
fringes of the World Heritage Sites, National Parks, and other areas requiring protection
because of their heritage value (Ashton, 1991; Wells, 1993). The emphasis of the
ecotourism product development will have to shift from physical access to contextual
access that will heavily depend on interpretation in order to compensate for the visitors
separation from the heritage resources. The ecoresort concept takes up this challenge by
introducing a new perspective on the execution of a destination resort. Rather than
striving to be a destination in its own right as a vacation product, the ecoresort will
captivate the guest by becoming a place product. This implies an orchestration of planning,
design and management that will mediate an ecotourism experience of the place, with
special attention to the enhancement of the scenic quality and information content of the
views afforded from the ecoresort site. This also implies utilizing the interpretive capacity
of the ecoresorts place product in order to catalyse optional excursion experiences, by
providing an educational and participatory setting.
There is another meaning to the resort-plus scope of masterplanning. It derives from
the fact that a destinations natural and cultural interest can be defined on several spatial
scales, some of which will be accessible to tourists only on multiple-stop itineraries. For
example, the revival of the mediaeval Pilgrims Way to Santiago, which leads modern
travelers through the history of civilization and art in northern Spain, has only been
possible through the development of a tourist circuit that involves four hotels (Reig, 1987).
The Ice and Fire theme will reward tourists willing to make more than one stop with an
introduction to glaciation and vulcanism, the two major geological forces that have shaped
the striking beauty of New Zealands landscapes (Hall et al., 1993). Regionally distinctive
heritage themes represent unique incentives for cooperative masterplanning several
ecoresorts in place product development. This is a business opportunity waiting tohappen,
given that a large and growing proportion of international tourism is multidestination in
nature, particularly in the case of long-haul travel (for references see Ayala, 1993b). And it
is also an environmental opportunity. The simultaneous masterplanning of ecoresort
circuits with national and regional conservation schemes could be used to mobilize the
benefits of environmental patronage by the resort industry and to guarantee the viability of
protected areas. Using the Fijian archipelago as a model, the author (Ayala, 1995) has
 An ecoresort masterplan 361

translated these ideas into a proposal of a conceptual masterplan for Fijis resort industry
that would transform the resort network into a catalyst for the heritage conservation
strategy of the country.
The resort-plus scope of masterplanning calls for an identification-at the earliest stage
of the conceptual masterplan-of the destinations heritage resources whose ecotourism
value could be enhanced through interpretation carried out on the premises of one or more
ecoresorts. It serves as an umbrella principle that is further elaborated in two other,
closely-intertwinned principles: an expanded capacity to assimilate and a layered
approach to product development.

An expanded capacity to assimilate

Basic to current thinking on ecologically sustainable resort industry is the concept of self-
contained developments, which stresses energy efficiency, water conservation and recyc-
ling of waste. An ecoresort project will fully subscribe to the strategy of developing a self-
sustainable property as a closed system, in which closed implies re-use and recycling as
well as minimized demand on the destinations non-renewable or scarce resources.
However, the same ecoresort project as the catalyst of a quality ecotourism experience will
strive to achieve the greatest possible openness between the resort-owned and bor-
rowed components of the setting, and to stimulate interaction between the visitor and this
setting.

Expanding the travelers capacity to enjoy the novelty of the place experience. Space, light,
and indigenous materials are among the place qualities that lend themselves to a design
capable of creating shifts in awareness and of stimulating the discovery and enjoyment of
foreign destinations. Scale can be a factor, but never the most important one (Taylor,
1987). To be effective, the design for ecotourism must filter out the preconceptions and
stereotyped expectations that tourists tend to take abroad with them. It must create a
participatory educational environment that can heighten the experience of the visitor and
help to instill an appreciation of the setting (Andersen, 1993). A successful design and
management policy for heritage-based tourism cannot be built on an idealistic assumption
that the ecotourist is automatically an environmentally sensitive breed (Cater, 1993). Nor
can it ignore the fact that tourists are able to enjoy much more thoroughly the experience
of foreign environments, traditions, and climates from a basis of familiarity and safety
(Kopp, 1989; Warmedal, 1991).
Several approaches have already proven effective in sensitizing the resort guests to the
special qualities of their vacation destination. Among them are: a property layout that
encourages walking and exposes the guest to a range of contrasting environmental
experiences; the greatest possible openness of the buildings to nature, aided by the
confluence of the interior gardens and courtyards with the exterior portions of the resort
grounds; and a careful presentation and interpretation of the indigenous elements
enclosed within the resorts boundary. Landscape paintings, sculptures, music, and other
forms of landscape-inspired art deserve to be given much greater weight as interpretive
tools, providing the tourist with a better understanding and appreciation of the distinctive
features of the area and of the ecological, spiritual and aesthetic values they integrate. In
China and Japan, where remarkable landscapes have been inspired by lines of classical
362 Hana Ayala

poetry and brush strokes of painters (Coats, 1989; Kuck, 1984), an ecoresort must be able
to alert guests to the full-circle interrelationships among the real landscape, the literature
and paintings, and the gardens.
Whether destined to Central and South America, the Galapagos, or Australia, inter-
national travelers increasingly expect a high quality of information about the nature and
culture of their destinations, from the point of view of both the content and presentation of
this information (Boo, 1990; Machlis and Costa, 1991; Moore and Carter, 1993). The
Ayers Rock Resort (Australia) is in a good position to meet this growing expectation and
to appeal to the international ecotourist, given the combination of its environmental
sensitivity, its excellent visitors center, and the range of tours it offers conducted by
university-trained guides. The Toraja Cottage (Sulawesi, Indonesia) is another example of
a hotel that has taken proactive measures to influence the quality and sustainability of
excursion experiences. In this case, videotape presentations are used by the hotel to
prepare its guests for direct contact with the indigenous culture (Volkman and Zerner,
1987). There is a great need for further planning, design and management approaches that
would enable an ecoresort to act as a pre-excursion filter, to enhance and protect the
authenticity of experiences. Interpretation, however, must not become over-
interpretation, which may diminish the sense of wonder and even become intrusive
(Bramwell and Lane, 1993).

Expanding the affinity of the resort infrastructure to the place experience. A development
philosophy that seeks to blur the inside-outside line and achieve the greatest continuity of
the resort with the setting is conducive to the projects ecological fitness and sense of place.
This applies to diluting the indoor-outdoor boundary (Westin Mauna Kea, Hawaii) as well
as to tuning the hotel architecture and grounds design to the character of the surrounding
natural or cultural landscape, through respect for the ecosystem and the legacy of
traditional architecture (Camino Real Ixtapa, Mexico; Nusa Dua Beach Hotel, Indone-
sia).
A great resource for the ecoresorts ability to serve as a catalyst for the guests
interaction with the destination exists in the concept of the grounds. As Ayala (1991b)
demonstrated in a separate study, this resource could be mobilized through a variety of
approaches, depending on whether the grounds area contains a representative sample of
the local landscape heritage (the Mauna Lani Bay Hotel, Hawaii); whether it can
incorporate an evocative abstract of the regional environmental and cultural setting (the
Twin Dolphin Hotel, Mexico); or whether the accent of the grounds design can be
purposefully shifted towards highlighting landscape elements outside the propertys
boundary (the Horai Ryokan, Japan; the Parador National San Francisco, Spain).
The treatment of the view will be decisive in projecting the qualities of the place into the
ecoresort environment and transforming the scenery into a priceless property of the
ecoresort itself. Working with the view so as to frame, accentuate, tame, or dramatize
scenic elements for the enjoyment of the guests has largely been the domain of a place-
conscious architecture of the lodging facility. The ecoresort concept identifies an even
greater capacity for adopting the view in the landscape design of the resort grounds.
The grounds area can be viewed as a middle ground between the hotel and the
surrounding ecosystems of natural and human landscapes, joining the physical facility in
providing an environment of security and sufficient familiarity, but much more exposed to
 An ecoresort masterplan 363

the climatic, sensory, and other qualities of the setting. Working with the view possesses
the unique potential to shift the focus of the design away from just viewing to experiencing,
and to transform the guest from an observer to a participant. The highly interpretive and
enjoyment-enhancing concept of shakkei or borrowed scenery or landscape captured
alive, which has been developed into an art by Japanese landscape architecture (Itoh,
1988) and is applicable much beyond the Japanese context, could serve as the key source of
inspiration and guidance (Ayala, 1991~).
A view that is masterplanned into the heritage attraction invites further enhancement of
its impact through the use of interpretive exhibits. Such an approach could actually
transform the requirement of a setback or separation into a contributing factor to a
visitors enjoyment, as demonstrated on a somewhat related exhibit concept by the
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (1993). In the Institutes Marine Education
Center in Panama, aquaria depicting the local marine ecosystems are located in an open air
site that surrounds the visitor with the smells and sounds of the Pacific ocean and projects
the exhibits into the views ranging from rocky intertidal pools to the Pacific entrance to the
Panama Canal. An expansion of the interpretive capacity of the resort infrastructure,
which is as much a planning and design concern as it is a management issue, would also
make a resorts commitment to environmental sponsorship much more engaging for
guests. The typically modest, often nonexistent, exhibit space in a corner of an enclosed
lobby area would be inadequate for a green resort.
The zero-cost scenery should become an integral part of the greening effort by the resort
industry to use the environmental resources more sustainably and less wastefully. The
views value in new tourism derives from the combination of scenic and interpretive
quality, fully realized only through the coordination of planning, design, and manage-
ment, which, optimally, should involve a close interplay of hotel architecture and
landscape architecture. Building into the ecoresort product the capacity to borrow,
rather than develop, landscape resources is proposed by this article as the driving element
of the ecoresort masterplan from the point of view of both the environmental and business
benefits.
The interpretation-mediated borrowing could even involve landscapes that are not
directly observable. The resort site, its immediate surroundings, and the excursion sites
within easy reach often harbor environments that bear similarities to those under strict
protection or in need of strict protection in other parts of the destination. The Vatulele
Island Resort, Fiji, is located on one of the archipelagos very few limestone islands that
exist outside the ecologically and culturally sensitive Lau Group, which is largely off limits
to visitors. A spectacular specimen of a limestone island in itself, and surrounded by
mushroom-like islets echoing the islet groupings for which parts of the Lau are legendary,
Vatulele island is in many respects a microcosm of the Lau ecosystem. There will be no
substitute for an imaginative and intelligent system of interpretive guidance that would
extol1 the Vatulele-Lau connection, thereby enriching the guests experience of a unique
destination and encouraging the resorts active, and most marketable, patronage of
heritage assets elsewhere in Fiji.
Conservation lands may soon become so valuable, and the level of tourism use so great,
that it will be logical for private enterprise to take over the operation, funding, and
protection of many wildlands (Ashton, 1991). In my view, a sustainable resort industry
faces the real prospect of becoming the strongest conservation force, if only it fully
364 Hana Ayala

recognizes that an investment in providing quality visitor experiences can make the resort
an invaluable part of a much larger land-use concept.

Expanding the capacity of indigenous societies to benefitfrom resort ecotourism. The desire
to experience different cultures is one of the major motivations of leisure travel (Sofield,
1991). The management of tourisms encounter with traditional cultures is, not surpris-
ingly, an increasingly debated challenge to quality ecotourism. Regrettably, a disruption
of a way of life and of family traditions and crafts tends to be viewed as a pitfall in the
pursuit of the benefits of tourist dollars. And when solutions to facilitate this encounter are
offered, they are often idealistic rather than realistic, about the volume, expectations, and
demands of international ecotourists. At the same time that the ecotourism product is
validated by national and regional planning as the tourism product of the future, many
U.S.- and Europe-based agencies are funding projects to encourage local people to build
an extra bedroom on their home to house casual visitors to the village (Ashton, 1991).
The principal opportunity the megatrend of international ecotourism opens to indigen-
ous cultures is not in the provision of lodging. Neither does the focus on locally-sponsored
accommodations do justice to the contribution the indigenous people can make to the
quality of international ecotourism. The growing prominence of heritage resources in the
quality of the tourism product creates an unprecedented opportunity for the indigenous
people to benefit from tourism by being directly involved in the management of these
resources. The benefit to the tourism and hotel industries, in turn, is a higher quality visitor
experience.
An essential element of what Sofield (1991) terms sustainable ethnic tourism is
granting the village people responsibility for control and management of a traditional
ceremony in the presence of tourists. From determining the size of the tourist group to
briefing and educating the visitor, the villagers are encouraged to take all the steps they
consider necessary to guarantee preservation of the cultural integrity and authenticity of
the attraction. Visitors understanding of the events symbolic importance and their sense
of participation rather than observation, significantly increases their satisfaction and
appreciation of the quality of the service provided. The income, which is shared within the
village, does not reward a staged event but fulfills a contact between different cultures,
carried out on the basis of partnership, respect and reciprocity of gains.
The Uluru (Ayers Rock) National Park, Australia, is an inspiring model of the kind of
tourism product that generates environmental, cultural, and economic benefits by recog-
nizing the vital role of indigenous cultural knowledge with respect to effective conser-
vation and land management. The Aboriginal people receive training that integrates their
traditional skills into the parks land management practices. This strategy promotes the
managements effectiveness, encourages the continuation and renewed strength of Abori-
ginal culture (Figgis, 1993), and positions Ayers Rock Resorts ecotourism product around
a superlative natural landscape with a 20,000 year-old link to an indigenous culture.
The motivation for using indigenous cultural and material resources in resort architec-
ture and design in order to increase their marketability and appeal to international
travelers has overshadowed consideration of the economic and cultural benefits for the
host country. Yet, a hotel development that utilizes traditional styles and indigenous
materials can give significant spiritual support to the local culture, by acknowledging its
importance and beauty, and can provide an economic rationale for the continuation of
 An ecoresort masterplan 365

local traditions, with increased linkages between the tourism and other sectors of the host
economy (Week and Richardson, 1991).
It has been predicted that the resort of tomorrow will have to function as a patron of
local arts and crafts and play an active role on safeguarding the areas continuity with the
past (Gee, 1988). The ecoresort concept places an equal importance on safeguarding the
continuity with the future, by enhancing the capacity and motivation of the local
sociocultural system not just to preserve the legacy of the past but to keep it alive and
evolving. It recognizes that a resort development can actively mitigate against the erosion
of cultural heritage in a way that strengthens the economic base for local communities, and
that such a commitment is an integral part of the resorts investment in the business success
of new tourism. The ecoresort philosophy identifies with the perspective of sustainable
tourism as discussed at the Globe 90 Conference in Vancouver, Canada (Var, 1991), in
that tourism could make significant contributions to the environment, economy, and
quality of life of the host community while providing a high-quality experience for the
visitor. New tourism and sustainable tourism converge as models of economic develop-
ment that would systematically enhance quality and profitability of the natural and human
environment for both the hosts and the guests.

A layered approach
The selling of places for tourism involves some distinctive opportunities. The same place
can be multi-sold as a component in a hierarchy of spatial scales and as a source of various
levels of involvement in the place experience (Ashworth and Voogd, 1990). Tapping these
opportunities will broaden the spectrum of the target markets that an ecoresort product
can attract and successfully service.
The international ecotourist is just as likely to be a highly dedicated specialist birder, a
nature lover whose interest is broader but also intense, or a non-specialist tourist for whom
satisfaction comes from a less profound interaction with nature and the sense of discovery
associated with it (Valentine, 1992). Thus, each tourist requires a different depth of
exposure to the destination and different interpretive support. A combination of the main
resort complex with a smaller specialist outpost is one strategy that can layer the
ecoresort product for different intensities of visitor interest. The Tropical Hotel Manaus
(Brazil) offers an example. The guests can either stay exclusively at this five-star gateway
to the exploration of the Amazon or include the accommodation base and excursions of
the satellite Lago Salvador Jungle Hotel for a more intense experience of the rainforest.
In part, a reflection of the changing demographics in the tourism-generating countries
and, in part, a factor of resources and motivation, older travelers are a great prospect for
international ecotourism destinations (Andersen, 1993; Winterbottom, 1991). Their
demand for a comfortable ecotourism experience underscores the viability of the ecoresort
masterplans focus on place-experiencing from the ecoresort premises. At the same time,
the ecoresort-supported place product should remain receptive to further expansion
through excursion experiences that would allow the packaging of the ecoresort-destination
connection on various levels of the physical effort involved. Comparable in concept to the
Tropical/Lag0 Salvador hotel team, the Kia Ora Village Hotel offers adventure in style on
the atoll of Rangiroa in French Polynesia, expandable into the experience of harder
adventure and discovery through a complementary stay on a little islet at Kia Ora Sauvage.
There usually exist several spatial scales on which different travelers to the same foreign
366 Hana Ayala

destination identify a place attribute that has influenced their destination choice. For
example, four spatial scales of the destination image were detected among the guests at La
Grande Motte resort in France: some were lured by the image of the resort itself; others
base their choice on their preference for the Languedoc coastal zone and its hinterland
over Cote dAzur; still others were driven by the image of the French Mediterranean; and
still others came to experience the Mediterranean (de Haan, Ashworth and Stabler, 1990).
Long-haul travelers typically perceive their foreign destination within much broader
spatial scale than do short-haul travelers, and are often motivated by features and
characteristics pertaining to a country, a region, or a continent (Leiper, 1990).
Consequently, provisions for multilayered appreciation of the destination should
become an integral part of the place product development for international tourism (see
also Hall et al., 1993). In the specific context of an ecoresort project, the resort-plus scope
of masterplanning will allow the assessment of the destinations attributes that are
identifiable with the resort through borrowing, cross-referencing, and excursion visi-
tation at the earliest stage of the conceptual masterplan. This will permit the coordination
of planning, design, and management in layering a range of place products at the same
ecoresort address, The Twin. Dolphin Hotel (Baja California, Mexico) offers a develop-
ment philosophy that is relevant to this argument, even though more in its potential than in
its full implementation. The grounds display of succulents native to the Baja peninsula
and identified for the guests interest in their names and local uses is complemented, within
the ground and inside the hotel, by artistic reconstructions of cave paintings found
throughout the peninsula. A nutshell of Bajas natural and cultural attractions in itself-
something that deserves explicit acknowledgement in the Twin Dolphins marketing-the
resort enhances the viewing of the reconstructed murals with a written guide that links the
exhibits to the specific caves and mountain ranges housing the originals. An untapped
opportunity offers itself in expanding this referential connection into optional, resort-
mediated excursions, which could be backed by the resorts commitment to the preser-
vation of the prehistoric rock art. Moreover, several hotels and resorts along the peninsula
could join the Twin Dolphin in sharing the patronage of Bajas prehistoric cultural legacy,
creating a consortium to support an additional layer of the destination experience via a
cultural circuit. New tourism brings a new dimension to cooperation and competition. The
layered nature of the place product development translates cooperation among ecoresorts
into a distinctive level of competitive strength, which has a synergistic effect on the identity
and visibility of the cooperating properties.

The future of cooperative masterplanning. Spanish paradors have set an outstanding

precedent for planning a viable infrastructure of multihotel place products (Ayala, 1991a).
The vision behind this network of over 80 hotels is that of a trip across the geography and
history of Spain. The match of the networks layout to the opportunities for general
sightseeing as well as special interest tourism that includes rediscovery of historic routes is
one factor behind the success of the paradors teamwork. Equally important is the fact that
most of these establishments borrow from the richness of Spains heritage resources
directly on the premises-by reusing and preserving old hospices, palaces, castles and
convents-and are, therefore, able to offer their guests unique insights into the values,
beliefs and events that have left their marks on the local landscapes. That makes them
highly desirable for inclusion in multidestination itineraries, which their marketing
 An ecoresort masterplan 367

systematically explores and which even inspired a two-volume tribute to paradors Spain
by well-known Spanish writers and photographers (Secretaria General de Turismo, 1986).
The layering of place products along multiresort itineraries is becoming recognized as a
source of appeal, flexibility, and quality in international ecotourism. The execution is
primarily through marketing. An initiative by the Select Hotels and Resorts International,
Select the Natural Pacific, developed in cooperation with Qantas and benefitting the
World Wide Fund for Nature, is notable for its modular structure. Select properties and
heritage attractions to which they cater in both their close vicinity and through eco-
excursions are pooled into several theme groups, such as reefs, coasts and forests. The
hierarchical structure of educational itineraries sponsored by the participating hotels
custom-tailors Selects EcoTouring throughout the Pacific Region to the pursuit of a
special environmental interest or sampling of the regions natural contrasts, to shorter or
longer stays, and to a more or less intense ecotourism experience. A number of city
gateway properties join the program as points of arrival and departure, confirming the
tremendous potential of cities and their hotels around the world to benefit, as urban base
camps (Winterbottom, 1991), from international ecotourism.
This trend is likely to be enhanced further as more countries and regions move to
strengthen their tourism offers through the launch of ecotourism megaprojects. These
megaprojects (such as the five-country Maya World and the 50-country Silk Route) are
conceptualized around powerful heritage themes that bridge several destinations and will
force existing and future resorts to join in or lose a distinctive competitive edge. Thinking
in terms of joint marketing, as exemplified by the Selects initiative, is helpful for
repositioning the existing hotel portfolios towards international ecotourism. However, the
current ambitious plans by many hotel groups for future, multiproperty expansions
throughout international leisure destinations call for a strategy that is much more
proactive than just a marketing approach that layers the new portfolios with natural and
cultural itineraries. The significance of heritage themes makes the case for recognizing a
multiresort network as a unit of masterplanning in its own right, and for coordinating
planning, design, and management of the networks individual projects in order to entice a
flow of tourists (Ayala, 1993b). The international resort industry may want to take a
second look at the strong preference hotel companies have (Olsen, 1993) for franchise
agreements and management contracts as international growth strategies.

The Maya World perspective. The Maya World megaproject provides an excellent
example for illustrating the desirability of a pro-active infrastructural masterplan that
pools the benefits of cooperative planning and marketing for both the resort industry and
the destination. This megaproject, designed to integrate the superlative cultural and
landscape heritage of the Maya peoples across the five Latin American countries, has
become a new prospect for existing resort developments such as Cancun, Mexicos largest
megaresort. The fading power of the fun-under-the-sun marketing message to motivate
international trips is a key reason for promoting Cancun as the main point of entry to the
Maya Work (J. Polanco, Director of the Project Cancun, personal communication,
December 22, 1993). The promise of Mayan experience by Ramada International now
positions this groups properties in Belize, Mexico, and Guatemala. Mexicana, Aerocozu-
mel, and Aerocaribe have emerged as the Official Airlines of the Maya World.
The business as well as conservation potential of this project is enormous; the execution,
368 Hana Ayala

however, is weak. The Maya World has so far been predominantly a promotional strategy,
repositioning the existing infrastructure and paralleled by some planning proposals that
aim mostly at small-scale, alternative ecotourism projects, such as a string of inns,
Posadas Mayas, in southeast Mexico and Guatemala and ecotourism encampments in
Lacandon Forest. As the demand for heritage-oriented tourism becomes the rule rather
than the exception, it is unrealistic and even harmful to the projects potential, as well as to
the conservation and economic needs of the Maya lands, to think about additional
infrastructure primarily in terms of small inns and lodges. The more so since the carrying
capacity of many archaeological attractions within the project is quite high for tourist use.
The magnitude and uniqueness of the heritage that the Maya territory encompasses; the
fact that, to date, only a small fragment of these outstanding natural and cultural assets has
ben adequately protected and prepared for tourist use; the still limited awareness of the
splendour of the ancient Maya cities and the diversity of their landscape settings among
international tourism markets; and the accelerating deforestation and environmental
degradation throughout the region, all call for a much more comprehensive strategy. The
Maya World cries for a masterplan that would prioritize the projects potential to bring
volume and scale into the development of a high-quality ecotourism product and would
mobilize resources for heritage restoration, conservation, and presentation in a systematic
and well-orchestrated fashion.
Immediate attention should be given to identification, consolidation, and long-term
planning of what could be labelled nodes or staging areas, i.e. accommodation centers
that would cater to clusters of the most important archeological and ecological sites. Such
staging areas would reuse, to the greatest degree possible, the existing infrastructure. They
would also incorporate quality interpretive exhibits linking resorts and heritage sites and
cross-referencing the individual staging areas so as to entice combined and repeat stays.
Care should be given to the delimitation of future staging areas so as to maximize
opportunities for the resort-supported contextual access to the heritage resources of the
Maya region. A novel business opportunity would exist for resorts in individual staging
areas to pledge sponsorship of the borrowed heritage attractions. This planning-
management model would provide the much needed continuity and volume of investment
into conservation, on-going restoration of the sites, training of local human resources, and
economic revitalization of the area. It would give the project a much stronger identity and
increase recognition, enhancing the perception of the security of future investment into
the project. This is an important consideration in view of tensions that exist in parts of the
Maya territory, including the current situation in the state of Chiapas that harbors many of
the existing and future magnets of the Maya World.
This strategy would not undermine the role of smaller-scale ecotourism initiatives but,
rather, place them in the overall perspective of the Maya World project. Smaller,
independent, and possibly locally owned or managed eco-establishments could not only
cater to harder ecotourism markets, but could also appeal to softer ecotourists as
outposts reachable from the staging areas and offering attractive excursion options. In
turn, the staging areas could actively pursue the additional role as points-of-entry to the
harder ecotourism circuits. Thinking in terms of integration of softer and harder forms
of ecotourism infrastructure is what could most effectively layer hotel groups multiresort
expansions within the Maya World and what could make this project unique and highly
competitive in international tourism of the 21st century.
 An ecoresort masterplan 369

The proposed infrastructural model for the Maya World is applicable to other ecotour-
ism megaprojects, including the high-profile Silk Route, co-sponsored by the World
Tourism Organization and UNESCO and designed to preserve the cultural and landscape
heritage along several ancient East-West trading paths through Europe and Asia. The
belief that the Silk Routes future is not in 5-star hotels but in affordable, clean
accommodations linked to the local culture (Uzbekistan, 1994) is incorrect in two
respects. A viable hotel infrastructure for a project of this scale will have to be conceived as
a mix of price categories, catering to both domestic and international tourists, many of
whom will be long-haul travelers. The preference of overseas leisure travelers for 5-star
services and amenities is well documented and does not contradict the demand for the
hotels environmental sensitivity and for high-quality heritage experiences. Secondly,
correlating a hotels cultural and ecological fitness with affordability unjustly denies a large
segment of the industry the prospect of a greener and more sustainable product, and
sharply reduces resources that could be generated by the industry to support conservation
and sustainable development. A sensitive re-use of historically valuable architecture by a
hospitality operation, for example, can be accomplished in a luxury bracket equally as well
as in a medium-priced bracket. The Spanish paradors are an excellent proof of this. The
ecoresort concept gives a price-flexible means to respect and enhance placeness to
modern hotels. It should, nevertheless, be noted that a luxury ecoresort is likely to be in a
stronger position over its more affordable counterpart from the point of view of the size of
investment into the place product development and in regard to the volume of benefits that
the ecoresorts and its patrons sponsorship of heritage attractions could generate.

Conclusions

The progressing merger of international tourism and international ecotourism calls for
more than marketing changes; it places the current philosophy of resort development
under critical scrutiny and, at the same time, demands much closer communication
between planning and marketing. The link between resorts and the excursions they offer is
wasteful in terms of both ecological and business performance, because it excludes the
contribution that resort planning and design could make to sensitizing the guest to the
destinations unique features; stimulating the enjoyment and memorability of the place
experience; and curbing visitation of protected or fragile areas without diminishing the
capacity of the resort product to borrow their appeal. The value of a magnificent view in
place product development is as much in its scenic quality as it is in the authenticity and
intensity of exposure it gives the viewer to the destination. An interplay of architecture,
grounds design, and interpretive exhibits would allow the full exploitation of the potential
of the view to educate, fascinate, and inspire without any physical impact on the
landscapes that would be brought into the resort experience through the treatment of the
view. Interpretation and presentation of the heritage resources are essential for the quality
of the visitor experience in new, sustainable tourism. They merit utmost attention also as
greening techniques, allowing more effective and efficient use of the resources that will
increasingly motivate international leisure travel.
The ecoresort concept re-defines the resort concept in view of the changing profile of
international tourism and the growing business ramifications of environmental conser-
vation and sustainable development. The resort-plus approach to masterplanning treats
370 Hana Ayala

the ecoresort product as an overall system of resort-destination interaction from the

earliest phase of the conceptual masterplan, so as to maximize sustainability and quality of
this interactive system. A close coordination of planning, design, and management
underscores a related principle of the ecoresort masterplan, an expansion of the capacity
to assimilate. This principle encompasses building into the ecoresort development the
capacity to catalyze the place experience. This results in the enhancement of the travelers
capacity to enjoy the novelty of the place experience as well as the promotion of the
capacity of the indigenous societies to keep their environmental and cultural legacy alive
and evolving, with benefits for both the local economy and the quality of the visitor
experience. There is an important implication for future resort developments. Planning
and design will play a major part in management effectiveness and sustainability of a resort
that wishes to draw a competitive strength and immunity to imitations from the destina-
tions heritage resources. The narrowing focus of the international hotel companies on
management expertise, which increasingly separates planning and design stages of hotel
master-plans from those of management and marketing, is identified by this article as a
significant hindrance to the ability of the international resort industry to generate both
business and conservation benefits from sustainable tourism.
The third core principle of the ecoresort masterplan, a layered approach to product
development, integrates two main arguments. Firstly, the viability of an ecoresort project
will be conditioned by its ability to provide a supportive setting for various intensities of
visitor interest in the destination, and to cater to various levels of the physical effort the
guests will be willing or able to undertake in pursuit of their interests. The implied
desirability of layering a range of place products at the same resort address will, again,
demand close coordination between planning, design, and management. Secondly, the
fact that the identity and interest of places can be defined on various geographical scales,
around locally or regionally distinctive natural and cultural themes that are often
inaccessible to tourists during a one-stop vacation, translates cooperative masterplanning
into a distinctive level of ecoresort product development. Given the shifting focus of many
international hotel groups growth plans towards multiple resort developments within the
Caribbean, South-East Asia and other destination regions, resort networks deserve to be
recognized as units of masterplanning in their own right, capable of generating a flow of
intraregional tourism, enhancing the visibility and marketability of the interacting proper-
ties, and pooling the benefits of environmental sponsorship. The priority the international
hotel industry gives to management contracts and franchise agreements as international
growth strategies excludes the opportunities that conceptualization of multidestination
expansions from the earliest planning stage opens to the international resort industry. Of
course, not all the growth of the international hotel groups resort portfolios will occur
through new developments. However, even when re-flagging of existing properties is the
growth strategy of choice, it would seem advantageous to give preference to resorts with a
strong sense of place and therefore susceptible to inclusion into ecotourism itineraries.

Epilogue

The Pacific Asia Travel Associations (PATA, 1992) sees the future of Australias and the
regions tourism in endemic tourism (most recently relabelled as value based tourism)
that conserves natural and cultural resources, provides quality visitor experiences, and
 An ecoresort masterplan 371

increases benefits of tourism for local communities. The choice of endemic over eco
tourism reflects the Associations belief that the new concept recognizes what ecotourism
does not; namely, that it is the special character of each individual locality-as much
natural as cultural-that constitutes its major attractiveness to foreign tourists. The
existence of these endemic qualities is essential for the development and marketing of a
tourism product that is unique to a locality, country, or region and that competition cannot
match (PATA, foreword; pp. 11,14). There is no need for new terms; this is exactly what
ecotourism will accomplish in Australia and elsewhere if related to the reality of
international tourism demand. The resort industry has a fundamental role to play in
making this relationship both profitable and environmentally sustainable.

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future: A tour operators review. ZZZ International Symposium on Tourism, Ecology and
Municipalities, September. Mazatlan, Mexico.
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About the Author

Dr Hana Ayala, formerly on the faculty of the School of Social Ecology at the University of
California, Irvine, is President of EcoResorts International, Research & Development in
Irvine, California.