SUBJECT : BIOLOGY

FORM :4
TUTORIAL NUMBER : 44
THIS WEEKS TOPIC : Colonisation & Succession

CIKGU S. MURALI

Colonisation and succession

1. Colonisation : The process in which living organisms arrive at a new habitat, live, reproduce

and take control of the habitat.

2. Pioneer species : The first species of organisms to colonise a new habitat.

5. The pioneer species have special adaptations to survive in unfavourable land conditions.

6. The pioneer species gradually changes the conditions of the habitat, making it no longer
suitable for itself but more suitable for other species, called the successor species.

7. Gradually, the successor species takes over the place of the pioneer species.

7. The process whereby a pioneer species is gradually replaced by other successor species is
called succession.

8. Succession will carry on until a relatively stable community is formed. This type of community
is known as the climax community.

9. In Malaysia, the tropical rainforest is the climax community.

 Colonisation and succession in a mangrove swamp
1. Swamps are formed by deposition of mud and silt carried down by the river.

2. Only mangrove trees are able to colonise the soft, waterlogged, muddy soil which has a low oxygen
level but high salt concentration.

3. Mangrove trees have adaptive structures to overcome the harsh conditions in a swampy area.

Adaptations of mangrove trees

Problems faced by Adaptive structures of mangrove trees

mangrove trees
Ground too soft to Have long, branched cable roots or prop roots to support the plants in soft
provide support ground.

Very little oxygen in Have breathing roots called pneumatophores which grow upwards and
waterlogged mud protrude out of the ground.
Gaseous exchanges also occurs through lenticels on the bark of mangrove
tress.
The root systems of mangroves
Pneumatophores of Avicennia sp.
Problems faced by mangrove trees
High salt content of sea water
Seeds sink into the mud and die due
to insufficient oxygen
Exposure to strong sunlight and
intense heat leads to a higher rate of
transpiration
Prop roots of Rhizophora sp.
Buttress roots of Bruguiera sp.
Adaptive structures of mangrove trees
The cell sap in root cells has a higher salt content.
Sea water enters the roots by osmosis.
Excess salt from the sea water is eliminated through
hydathodes found at the lower epidermis of leaves.
Have viviparous seeds.
A radicle grows from the germinated seed when it is still
attached to the parent tree.
When the seedling is released, the radicle holds the shoot
above the mud.
Leaves with thick cuticle and sunken stomata to reduce
transpiration
Store water in succulent leaves
Avicennia sp & Sonneratia sp

1. Avicennia sp. and Sonneratia sp. are the pioneer species of a mangrove swamp.

2. Avicennia sp. grows in areas facing the sea while Sonneratia sp. is found in more sheltered
areas.

3. The extensive cable root system of these plants traps more mud and silt as well as organic
matter from decaying plant parts.

4. As time passes, the soil becomes more compact and the shore level is slightly raised. The
soil becomes firmer and less waterlogged. Such conditions favour the growth of Rhizophora
sp.

5. Gradually, Rhizophora sp. replaces the pioneer species.

Rhizophora sp

1. The prop root system of Rhizophora sp. continues to trap more slit and mud.

2. Humus is formed from the old pioneer species as well as decaying leaves of Rhizophora sp.

3. The soil becomes firmer, more compact and fertile.

4. The shore level is raised and is less saline.

5. The condition now is more suitable for Bruguiera sp.

Bruguiera sp

1. The buttress root system of Bruguiera sp. traps more silt and mud causing the shore to extend further
to the sea.

2. As time passes, coconut trees and Nipah gradually replace the Bruguiera sp. when the soil becomes
more like terrestrial ground.

3. Eventually a tropical rainforest, which is the climax community, is formed.

Colonisation and succession in a pond
1. Colonisation by pioneer species

(a) Submerged plants such as Hydrilla sp., Elodea sp. and Cabomba sp. as well as phytoplankton

are the pioneer species in a pond.

(b) These submerged plants have adaptive features such as long fibrous roots which penetrate deep

into the soil to absorb nutrients and hold the sand together. Fine leaves enable the plants to flow

with the water.

Submerged plants

Hydrilla sp. Elodea sp. Cabomba sp.

2. Succession by floating plants

(a) When the pioneer species die, they settle to the bottom of the pond and become humus. At the
same time, the soil eroded from the sides of the pond makes the pond shallower.
 (b) Such a condition becomes unfavourable for the submerged plants but more suitable for floating
plants such as Nymphaea sp. (lily), Lemna sp. (duckweed) and Eichornia sp. (water hyacinth)
which gradually replace the pioneer species.

Floating plants

Water lily Pistia sp Water hyacinth

3. Succession by emergent (amphibious) plants

(a) The floating plants reproduce rapidly as they receive enough sunlight for photosynthesis. They
cover a large area of the surface of the pond. This prevents sunlight from reaching the bottom of
the pond.
(b) Without sunlight, the submerged plants cannot perform photosynthesis. As a result, these plants
die and become humus.
(c) The amount of humus deposited at the bottom of the pond increases. More soil erosion occurs
which results in the pond becoming shallower. This makes the pond too shallow for the floating
plants.
(d) Floating plants are gradually being replaced by emergent plants such as Fimbristylis sp. and
Lepironia sp.
(e) Emergent plants can live in water as well as on land. Their extensive rhizomes grow rapidlly to
bind the soil together and to absorb nutrients, changing the habitat. They grow from the edge of
the pond to the middle of the pond.

Amphibious plants
 Scirpus grossus Cyperus sp Scirpus mucronatus

4. Succession by terrestrial plants

(a) The death of emergent plants as well as deposition of more organic matter make the pond even
shallower. Evaporation of pond water finally dries the pond.
(b) Terrestrial plants such as creepers, grasses, ferns and herbaceous plants begin to grow.
(c) Later, shrubs and woody plants begin to grow.

5. Climax community

Over hundreds of years, a tropical rainforest which is a climax community is formed.

The end
Colonisation and succession

1. Colonisation takes place in a newly formed areas where no life previously existed.
2. The first organism occupy a newly formed area are called pioneer species.
 3. Characteristics:
1.Hardy plant that have dense root system (grass)
2.Short life-cycle
4. They modify and creating more conducive condition to other organisms
5. Second species came after the pioneer species are the successor species.
6. Characteristics:
1.Bigger than pioneer species (herbs)
2.Have small wind-dispersal seeds (to spread and grow rapidly)
7. They change the structure and quality of the soil and creating more conducive condition for
larger plants to grow.
8. Third and permanent species are the dominant species (shrub).
9. Modify the environment for larger trees to grow.
10. Succession the gradual process through which one community changes its environment
to be replaced by another community.
11. Climax community ecological succession leads to relatively stable community (equilibrium
with its environment)

MICROORGANISM
1. Tiny living things that only can be seen using microscope
2. Classified based on their characteristics (appearance, shape, size, method of reproduction,
nutrition and habitat)
3. Classified into 5 groups:
A. Viruses smallest microorganisms, not a living cell and must use living cells to
reproduce. (E.g.
B. HIV, Influenza virus etc.)
C. Bacteria unicellular organisms, have cell wall, form spores under unfavourable
condition and have 3 common shape a spherical, rod-shaped and spiral. (E.g.
Lactobacillus sp., Straphyloccous sp. etc.)
D. Protozoa unicellular organism, have plasma membrane and can carry out living
processes. (E.g. Amoeba sp., Paramecium sp. etc.)
E. Algae have chlorophyl and chloroplast, can undergoes photosynthesis process.
F. (E.g. Spirogyra sp.)
G. Fungi heterotrophic microorganisms, feeds by secreting enzymes that break down the
surrounding organic material into simple molecule before absorb them. (E.g. Mucor sp.,
yeast etc.)

The role of useful microorganisms in the ecosystem

The role of useful microorganisms in the ecosystem
Roles of microorganisms in ecosystem
Decomposition The nitrogen cycle
Digesting animals
food
Digesting humans
food

The harmful microorganisms

1. Microorganisms that cause diseases are called pathogens
2. Pathogens are classified as parasites or saprophytes
3. They cause diseases in two ways:
1.Produce poisonous chemical
2.Attack and destroy host cells and body tissues
Transmission of diseases
1.Air
2.Water
3.Food
4.Vectors
5.Direct Contact
6.Indirect Contact

Controlling Pathogens
The uses of microorganisms in biotechnology
1. Biotechnology application of biological processes in the manufacturing and servicing
industries
The use of microorganisms in biotechnology
Production of antibiotics, vaccines and hormones
Waste treatment
Production of biodegradable plastic (bioplastic)
Cleaning of oil spills
Production of energy
from biomass
Food processing
Appreciating Biodiversity

Through conservation and

preservation.

Endangered
Ecosystem
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CHAPTER 9
9.1 Human Activities that
Endangered an Ecosystem
Pollution
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Pollution - Any undesirable change in
the natural environment caused by
pollutant.
Pollutant substance that cause
pollution
Pollution being make dirty
Types of environmental pollution:
1.Air pollution
2.Water pollution
3.Soil pollution
4.Pollution caused by solid waste and
hazardous (dangerous) waste
5.Noise pollution
Air pollution
Air pollution is responsible for major health effects. Every year,
the health of countless people is ruined or endangered by air
pollution.
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Many different chemicals in the air affect the human body in
negative ways. Just how sick people will get depends on what
chemicals they are exposed to, in what concentrations, and for how
long.
Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in
the US alone could be over 50,000.
Older people are highly vulnerable to diseases induced by air
pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are under additional
risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk.
Because people are exposed to so many potentially dangerous
pollutants, it is often hard to know exactly which pollutants are
responsible for causing sickness. Also, because a mixture of
different pollutants can intensify sickness, it is often difficult to
isolate those pollutants that are at fault.
Many diseases could be caused by air pollution without their
becoming apparent for a long time. Diseases such as bronchitis,
lung cancer, and heart disease may all eventually appear in people
exposed to air pollution.
 Air pollutants such as ozone, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide
also have harmful effects on natural ecosystems. They can kill
plants and trees by destroying their leaves, and can kill animals,
especially fish in highly polluted rivers.
Water pollution
Boston Harbor is a strong example of how badly pollution can
damage bodies of water. The water is filled with toxic waste
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and sewage, and routinely receives more waste when rainfall
pushes it into the harbor.
Many bodies of water near urban areas are highly polluted.
This is the result of both garbage dumped by individuals and
dangerous chemicals legally or illegally dumped by industries.
The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills life
that inhabits water-based ecosystems. Dead fish, birds,
dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on beaches,
killed by pollutants in their habitat.
Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants
such as lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later,
these animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the food
chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well.
People can get diseases such as hepatitis by eating seafood that
has been poisoned.
Ecosystems can be severely changed or destroyed by water
pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless
human pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt
humans.
Soil pollution
Not enough oxygen in the soil,
acidy soils that may burn the plant,
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bugs will go and start an infestation in the
soil,
it effects plants growth,
 the soil pollution eats away at the
nutrients and becomes
a bigger soil polluter,
not enough drainage,
new soil diseases develop every year,
not enough moisture in the soil.
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution disturbs our health and behavior in a
number of ways including deafness causing lack of
sleep, irritability, indigestion, heartburn, high blood
pressure, ulcers, and heart disease. Just one noise
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explosion from a passing truck drastically alters our
endocrinal, neurological, and cardiovascular functions
in many individuals. If this is prolonged or frequent,
the physiological disturbances become chronic and
contribute to mental illness.
Sometimes, even low levels of noise are irritating and
can be frustrating, and high volumes can be annoying.
Natural sounds are less irritating than those we find
uncontrollable but intermittent sounds such as a tap
dripping water can be more irritating than the sound
of falling rain.
Noise more than 50dB can be very difficult to hear and
interpret and cause problems such as partial deafness.
Increased noise levels gives rise to a lack of
concentration and accuracy at work, and reduce ones
productivity and performance. Difficult tasks can be
impaired, and instructions or warnings difficult to be
heard and interpreted, causing accidents.
The Greenhouse Effects and the
Thinning of the Ozone Layer
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Greenhouse effect.
Occur when greenhouse gases
accumulates in the atmosphere to form a
layer of gases
Greenhouse gases carbon dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbon, nitrogen oxides,
methane and water vapour
The layer of gases trap the Suns heat
around the world
Greenhouse effect cause the global
warming
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Ozone layer
located in the atmosphere.
consist of ozone molecules which made
up of three oxygen atom (O3).
act as protective shield that absorb the
Suns harmful UV radiation
Thinning of ozone layer
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Main cause - chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
CFC man made gases used as
refrigerant (substance that make things
cold or freeze) and propellants
(compressed gas that forces out the
content of an aerosol container)
CFC when exposed to UV radiation will
release chlorine
atom which can break down ozone
molecules in chain
reaction causing the ozone layer become
thinner
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The Importance of Proper
Management of Development
Activities and the Ecosystem
The need for development and the
effects of an increasing population on
the ecosystem
The increasing in population cause the
increase in development.
Development interfere the balance in nature.
Unplanned and unmanaged development
cause environmental problems.
Proper management of development activities
are important
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The importance of proper management
of development activities
Natural resource are non-renewable means
once they have been used they cannot be
replaced.
They need to be manage in proper ways to
maintain balance in nature.
Uncontrolled use of the natural resources will
cause them to be used up.
The importance of proper management
of development activities
Carry out sustainable development to balance
the demands and the needs for resources with
the need to conserve the resources.
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Measures taken in the management of
development activities
1.Implementation of laws
2.Use of technology
3.Education on the management of
resources
4.Preservation and conservation
activities
5.The practice of biological control