Advantages:

Design concept & rationale

Loads ac
tion structural
metallurgy
system Steel
Basic principles of steel structures
er ec fabrication
tion
Member + connection

Dr. Xianzhong ZHAO

Force, deformation Strength, stability , rigidity
x.zhao@mail.tongji.edu.cn
www.sals.org.cn
SR
Performance:
Safety, serviceability, durability

Structural steel Requirement of steel properties

uni-axial tensile test: preparation
Outlines

; tensile-test specimen
requirement of properties for structural steel Sample location: transverse or longitudinal
Specimen: shape and dimension
factors affecting steel properties
state of stress and stress concentration
fatigue failure
steel grade, steel products & steel selection ; loading method
Rate of stressing
recent advances of structural steel
; temperature
room temperature

Requirement of steel properties Nominal stress Yield strain is 10 to 15 times

uni-axial tensile test: stress-strain diagram = conventional stress proportional strain for mild
N/ A = engineering stress steel or low-alloy steel. How
fu f y , fu , y , , E True stress about the ultimate strain?

fy p , f y / fu , Et = d / d , E c = /

fu
Proportional limit
, Linear elastic
Yield stress
fy Perfectly plastic
Strain-hardening
p Ultimate stress
Lateral contraction
Necking
Fracture
Modulus of elasticity
Proof stress
True stress

0.2% / A0

1
 Requirement of steel properties Requirement of steel properties
ductility: elongation & reduction of area
; strength
Proportional limit, yield point, tensile strength
; ductility: occur remarkable residual strain (plastic
Yield-to-tensile strength ratio (0.6~0.7 for mild steel)
deformation) without fracture after stress exceeding yield
point
; ductility
Percentage elongation at failure, reduction of area ; percentage elongation at failure
; toughness
static toughness, impact toughness
; cold-forming
cold bent test ; percentage reduction of area
; weldability true assessment criteria but difficult to measure
for construction & usage through-thickness property

; durability
corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance

Requirement of steel properties Requirement of steel properties

toughness: static & impact toughness cold-forming ability
; impact toughness: measure of impact resistance or the
ability to absorb sudden increase in stress at notch ; cold-forming property: ability to resist crack while
producing plastic deformation under cold-forming work
; Charpy V-notch test
; Cold-bent test
temperature-dependent
assess ductility and weldability

strength + plasticity

Requirement of steel properties Requirement of steel properties

weldability durability

; weldability
Construction: no crack in welds and HAZ area under normal weld ; corrosion resistance
condition 30-40% demolished
Usage: mechanical properties of welds and HAZ area are not less Corrosion-resist steel: Cu-P-Ti-Re
than the base metal

; fatigue resistance
; Carbon Equivalent No statement here

2
 Factors affecting steel properties Factors affecting steel properties
chemical composition
; chemical composition strength ductility toughness weldability durability
Fe, C, Si, Mn, V, S, P, O, N, others
; process of metallurgy
Iron
Smelt, cast, rolling, residual stress while cooling Carbon
; time effect silicon - - - -
time - hardening manganese - - - () - ()
; cold work
history of strain & stress, cold work
vanadium - - -
; temperature
Sulfur
elevated temperature and low temperature phosphorus
; rate of stressing oxygen
the higher rate, the higher stress
nitrogen

Factors affecting steel properties Factors affecting steel properties

process of steelmaking process of steelmaking

Factors affecting steel properties Factors affecting steel properties

process of steelmaking time-effect and cold work hardening
; produce - smelt ; time effect
Basic oxygen furnace, electric-arc furnace Strength increase, ductility decrease, crispy
Heat treatment
; casting (ladle treatment)
Rimming steel (Mn)
Semikilled steel ; cold work hardening
Killed steel (Si) History of stressing
Ultra-killed steel Cold work: cut, punch,
roll, press,
; hot rolling fold, drill,
1200-1300 degree
plane, strike
transverse & longitudinal
; residual stress while cooling ; rate of stressing
the higher rate, the higher stress

3
 Factors affecting steel properties Factors affecting steel properties
temperature temperature
; elevated temperature ; low temperature
250, brittle toughness decrease suddenly
600, soft

Brittle failure transition ductile

Energy absorbed Ak
Transition temperature
at steepest slope

Temperature

State of stress and stress concentration State of stress and stress concentration
combined stress and criteria of yield combined stress and criteria of yield

; equivalent stress (von Mises stress) ; criteria of elastic failure

1st: The maximum-principal-stress theory
2nd: The maximum-principal-strain theory
zs = x2 + y2 + z2 x y y z z x + 3( xy
2
+ 2yz + zx
2
)
3rd: The maximum-shear-stress theory
The maximum-strain-energy theory
4th: The maximum-distortion-energy theory

von Mises theory (4th):
fu
zs < fy Elasticity
zs = fy Plasticity
fy

zs =
1
2
[
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ] Plane stress?
Stress in beam?
(perfect elasto-plastic model)

State of stress and stress concentration

State of stress and stress concentration
yielding under biaxial or triaxial stresses
yielding under biaxial or triaxial stresses
Yielding under biaxial stresses: any stress is smaller than yield strength?

Effects of biaxial or triaxial stresses on yielding

1
Bi-/tri-axial stress with same sign
Uni-axial stress
fy
Bi-/tri-axial stress with different sign

Pure shear condition: y = f y / 3 0.58 f y

4
 State of stress and stress concentration State of stress and stress concentration
stress concentration: definition stress concentration and brittle failure
Steel bar with abrupt change of width at middle
The uniform stress pattern is disruption and the intensity of stress An < A
increases greatly within a very short distance. The condition is x Subjected to axial tensile load in x-direction, then
described as STRESS CONCENTRATIONS.
It is due to the abrupt changes in geometry caused by imperfection of A, x , x nx > x , nx > x
structural steel or manufacture. It includes holes, grooves, notches, Lateral strain is obtained by poissons ratio,
ny = nx < x = y
keyways, threads, or abrupt changes in plate width or thickness.
An , nx , nx
Stress concentration factor: Lateral contraction at middle is larger than that
at the ends, therefore, the lateral stress at
m m o
A, x , x middle must be tensile stress
K=
n nx > 0, ny > 0
Abrupt change in width at middle
y stress concentration
n
Constant thickness biaxial tensile stress field brittle failure

State of stress and stress concentration State of stress and stress concentration
stress concentration and change of geometry stress concentration and perfect plasticity of steel
p1 p2
The more abrupt the geometry change,
the severer the stress concentration,
the larger the increase of tensile strength,
o1 o2
1 1
the worse the capacity of plastic deformation 1-1
m1 m2 fy
2 2
2-2
10

0.4
25
10

10
Idealized stress-strain plot For a material with perfect elastoplastic
for an elastoplastic material
10 constitutive relation, once the peak stress
18 m1 m 2 reaches yield point, its stress will remain this
K1 = > = K2 value and the stress concentration factor will
100
n1 n 2
decrease.

State of stress and stress concentration Fatigue failure

stress beyond yield point: low-cycle fatigue high-cycle fatigue: basic concepts

; hysteretic curves of steel ; fatigue failure: steel material subjected to dynamic loads is
likely to fail at a lower stress than when the same loads are
; stress/cycle hardening fy applied statically, especially when the loads are repeated for a
; Bauschinger Effect large number of cycles.

; plastic energy absorbed

fy

t
fy

2 fy
Number of cycles to failure
Nominal stress at failure
fy

5
 Fatigue failure Fatigue failure
high-cycle fatigue: failure mechanism high-cycle fatigue: basic concepts

; Progressive fracture: ; fatigue life: number of stress cycles to failure under certain
cycle symbol.
imperfection of material (local damage)

microscopic crack forms (crack initiation) ; Factors governing fatigue failure
types of stress (tensile, compressive, shear or combined stress)
crack gradually enlarges (crack propagation)
cycle symbol

number of cycles to failure
crack becomes unstable and
sudden fracture of steel occurs stress concentration
(unstable crack growth and fracture) residual stress
surface condition
range of stress
; Characteristic of fracture

Fatigue failure Fatigue failure

fatigue research I: max. stress method fatigue research I: max. stress method
+
; research background = 1 max = min
; Engineering application: Goodman diagram While design,
t
Small steel specimen for fatigue fatigue life N is a
tests for a specified stress ratio
Definition of max max definite value for a
+ min
and fatigue life: designated
; be applicable 1 < < 0 1 structural detail
Non-welded elements t max p
= 1 =1
max
; main concepts + fy
=0 max
fatigue life = cycle numbers to failure P (fatigue strength) max = P
fatigue strength: ( p ) t 0
min 1
the max. stress (absolute value) + = Const. 0 1
1 max K=
fatigue life under specified cycle symbol 0 < < 1 1 min min
min
endurance limit = threshold stress P = max = 0 + K min
stress ratio: = min / max
Endurance limit (threshold stress)
+
t
0
=1
N P = max =
1 K
t

Fatigue failure Fatigue failure

fatigue research II: stress range method fatigue research II: stress range method
+

= 1
; Engineering application: [ ] = (c / N )1/
; research background t
Full-scale structural specimen
+
lg = B A lg N
for fatigue tests
1
+ = 1

t
lg B = A lg c , A =
1

; be applicable 1 < < 0 +
1
welded elements t 1 < < 0
Built-up I beam with
single-layer flange plate
; main concepts +
t
+
fatigue failure is governed by =0 Built-up I beam with
t =0 double-layer flange plates
stress range of the part of the t
element, rather than stress ratio + +
1 1
lgN
0 < <1
0 < <1
stress range: = max min t
: stress ratio
t + = 0

+ = 0 =1
t : yield stress of steel

0 =1
t
0 ; structural details

6
 Fatigue failure Fatigue failure
fatigue research II: stress range method fatigue failure under variable amplitude stress cycles
; Mechanism of stress range method
Stress range and residual stress ; fatigue under constant and variable
m ax = 0.4f y
amplitude stress cycles
t + + j
i
t
= 0.8f y
t
cr,max = 0.7f y ni N n Nj
i j

fy
; Miner criteria:
0.7f y
= 0 .8 f y n
Ni =1
i

Structural steel Structural steel

classification & steel grade steel grade: carbon structural steel

; common used: Q235

; carbon structural steel ; product quality documentation
Q195, Q215, Q235, Q255, Q275
Mechanical properties: yield strength, tensile strength, elongation
; low alloy structural steel Chemical composition: C, Mn, Si, S, P
Q295, Q345, Q390, Q420, Q490 ; expressed by:
; quality carbon structural steel quality grade: A, B, C, D
31 types, 20, 45 deoxidization: F, b, Z, TZ
; quality structural steel wires Q235A[F,b,(z)] No Ce Guarantee fy = 235MPa
high-strength Q235B[F,b,(z)] 20, Ak27J fu = 400MPa
Q235C [(z)] 0, Ak27J fvy = ?
Q235D [(TZ)] -20, Ak27J E=?

Structural steel Structural steel

steel grade: high-strength low alloy structural steel
steel grade: quality carbon steel (wires)
; common used: Q345, Q390, Q420 (alloy <5%)
; product quality documentation ; quality carbon steel
Mechanical properties: yield & tensile strength, elongation, cold work Heat treatment: thermal refining, tempering
Chemical composition: C, Mn, Si, S, P, V, Nb, Ti Advantages: less impurity, less imperfection
; expressed by: Classification: 31 types, 20, 45 for high-strength bolts
quality grade: A, B, C, D, E
deoxidization: Z, TZ, plus heat treatment ; quality structural steel wires (rope)
wires: quality carbon steel cold work
Q345/390/420A No toughness Guarantee Q345: high strength: 1570~1770MPa
Q345/390/420B 20, Ak34J fy = 345MPa expressed by: 67, 819
Q345/390/420C 0, Ak34J fu = ? 470~630MPa
Q345/390/420D -20, Ak34J fvy = ?
Q345/390/420E -40, Ak27J E=?

7
 Structural steel Structural steel
steel products (shapes) design value of steel strength (design index)

; steel plate
Steel sheet: 0.35 ~ 1mm ~ 4mm ; expression of design index
Thicker steel plate: rolled steel plate 4.5~20mm, thicker plate 20~60mm ASD (Allowable Stress Design): [ ] = f y / K
Super-thick steel plate: >60mm
Flat steel: 12~200mm width LRFD (limit states design - factor): f = f y / R

; (hot rolled) shaped steel ; determination of design value

I-section, channel, angle, H-section, T-section, tube As mentioned in Introduction Part
; cold-formed thin-wall sections
angle, channel, Z-section, hat-section, tubular
; design value of structural steel
steel plate: steel grade, thickness
; welded sections (built-up) cast-steel: just authorized
I-section, box-section weld: butt weld / fillet weld
bolt: ultimate strength

Structural steel Recent advances of

principles for selection of structural steel
Structural steel
; structural types and importance
Important / normal / secondary ; fire-resistant structural steel
; characteristic of loads ; corrosion-resistant structural steel
Static load / dynamic load
Period of actions ; high-strength structural steel
High-strength, weldability (Ceq)
; connection methods Through-thickness steel
weld / bolt
; ultra-low yield point steel
; temperature (steel located)
north / south, indoor / outdoor ; structural casting (steel)
; stress condition ; high friction factor steel plate
tension / compression, through-thickness loading 0.3~0.5 0.9

Recent advances of Structural steel Recent advances of Structural steel

fire-resistant structural steel corrosion-resistant structural steel

; traditional structural steel ; additional chemical constituent

600: Cu, Cr, Mn, RE
remain one-third strength
; USA Cro-Ten steel
; fire-resistant steel 2~8 times corrosion resistance
600: ; Baosteel 09CuPTiRE
remain two-third strength 2~3 times corrosion resistance

; stainless steel
Strength, ductility, weldability

8
 Recent advances of Structural steel Recent advances of Structural steel
through-thickness structural steel ultra-low yield point structural steel

; thickness >100mm ; low yield point: 100~120MPa

; excellent toughness ; tensile strength: 250~260MPa
; elongation: approximate 60%
; aim: keep key members out of plasticity
column beam

Recent advances of Structural steel

structural casting steel