ALUMINIO Y SUS ALEACIONES

@MANUAL DEL ALUMINIO Y SUS ALEACIONES (Jos Vega, Ingeniero Industrial)

https://ingenieriademateriales.wordpress.com/2009/04/17/manual-del-aluminio-y-
sus-aleaciones/

El aluminio y sus aleaciones

A pesar de que el aluminio puro es un material poco usado se da la paradoja de que las
aleaciones de este material son ampliamente usadas en una grandisima variedad de
aplicaciones tanto a nivel industrial como a otros niveles. Por ello pasamos a ver su clasificacin,
estados y designaciones ms comunes:

Clasificacin por su proceso

Aluminios forjados
Aluminios fundidos

Clasificacin por su estado

F: Estado bruto. Es el material tal como sale del proceso de fabricacin.

O: Recocido. Se aplica a materiales ya sea de forja como de fundicin que han sufrido un
recocido completo.

O1: Recocido a elevada temperatura y enfriamiento lento.

O2: Sometido a tratamiento termomecnico.

O3: Homogeneizado. Esta designacin se aplica a los alambrones y a las bandas

de colada contnua, que son sometidos a un tratamiento de difisin a alta temperatura.

W: Solucin tratada trmicamente. Se aplica a materiales que despus de recibir un tratamiento

trmico quedan con una estructura inestable y sufren envejecimiento natural.

H: Estado de Acritud. Viene con materiales a los que se ha realizado un endurecimiento por
deformacin.

H1. Endurecido por deformacin hasta otener el nivel deseado y sin tratamiento
prosterior.

H2. Endurecido en exceso por deformacin y recocido parcialpar recuperar suavidad

sin perder dutilidad.

H3. Acritud y estabilizado.

H4. Acritud y lacado o pintado. Son aleaciones endurecidas en frio y que pueden sufrir
un cierto recocido en el tratamiento de curado de la capa de pintura o laca dada. 7En
sta clasificacin se usa un segundo dgito (en ocasiones es necesario un tercer dgito)
que indica el grado de endurecimiento por deformacin.
T: Denomina a materiales que has sido endurecidos por tratamiento trmico con o sin
endurecimiento por deformacin posterior. Las designaciones de W y T solo se aplican a
aleaciones de aluminio ya de forja o de fundicin que sea termotratables.

T1: Enfriado desde un proceso de fabricacin realizado a una

elevada temperatura y envejecido de forma natural.

T2: Enfriado desde un proceso de fabricadin realizado a una alta

temperatura, tragajado en fro y envejecido de forma natural.

T3: Solucin tratada trmicamente, trabajada en fro y envejecida a Tamb

hasta alcanzar una condicin estable.

T4: Solucin tratada trmicamente y envejecida a Tamb hasta alcanzar

una condicin estable. Es un tratamiento similar a T3 pero sin el trabajo en fro.

T5: Enfriado desde un proceso de fabricacin a alta temperatura y

envejecida artificialmente.

T6: Solucin tratada trmicamente y envejecida artificialmente. Son designados de

esta forma los productos que despus de un proceso de conformado a
alta temperatura (moldeo o extrusin) no son endurecidos en fro sino que sufren
un envejecimiento artificial.

T7: Solucin tratada trmicamente y sobreenvejecida para su

completa estabilizacin.

T8: Trmicamente tratada por disolucin, trabajada en fro y

envejecida artificialmente.

T9: Solucin tratada trmicamente, envejecida artificialmente y trabajada en fro.

T10: Enfriado desde un proceso de fabricacin realizado a una

elevada temperatura, trabajado en fro y envejecido artificialmente hasta una
condicin sustancialmente estable.

Existen variantes del estado T, a estas variantes se les aaden a la T dos dgitos. Estos dos
dgitos son especficos para cada producto y se usan para estado de alivio de tensiones en
productos fabricados mediante el proceso de forja.

Series de aluminios segn sus aleantes

Las aleaciones de aluminio (tanto las forjadas como las moldeadas) se clasifican en funcin del
elemento aleante usado (al menos el que est en mayor proporcin). Los elementos
aleantes ms usados son:

Serie 2xxx.

En estas aleaciones el principal elemento aleante es el Cu, pero a veces tambien se le

aade Mg. Las caractersticas de esta serie son: buena relacin dureza-peso y mala
resistencia a la corrosin. En lo referente a la primera caracterstica decir que algunas de las
aleaciones de esta serie tienen que ser sometidas a TT de solubilidad y a veces de envejecimiento
para mejorar sus propiedades mecnicas. Una vez hecho esto la serie 2xxx tiene
unas propiedades mecnicas que son del orden y, a veces superiores, que las de
los aceros bajos en carbono. El efecto de los TT es el aumento de la dureza con una bajada de la
elongacin. En lo referente a la segunda caracterstica estas aleaciones generalmente
son galvanizadas con aluminio de alta pureza o con aleaciones de la serie 6xxx para protegerlas
de la corrosin y que no se produzca corrosin intergranular. Los usos ms frecuentes que se le
dan a estos aluminios son (generalmente son usados en lugares donde sea necesario una alta
relacin dureza-peso) en las ruedas de los camiones y de los aviones, en la suspensin de los
camiones, en el fuselage de los aviones, en estructuras que requieran buena dureza
a temperaturas superiores a 150 c. Para finalizar decir que salvo la alecin 2219 estas
aleaciones tienen una mala soldabilidad pero una maquinabilidad muy buena.

Serie 3xxx.
En estas aleaciones el principal elemento aleante es el Mn. Estas aleaciones tan solo
tienen un 20% ms de dureza que el aluminio puro. Eso es porque el Mn solo puede
aadirse de forma efectivan en solo un 1.5%. Por ello hay muy pocas aleaciones de esta
serie. Sin embargo los aluminios 3003, 304 y 3105 son muy usados para fabricar utensilios que
necesiten dureza media y que sea necesario buena trabajabilidad para fabricarlos como son
botellas para bebidas, utensilios de cocina, intecambiadores de calor, mobiliario, seales
de trfico, tejados y otras aplicaciones arquitectnicas.

Serie 4xxx.

En esta serie el principal elemento aleante es el Si que suele aadirese en cantidades

medianamente elevadas (por encima del 12%) para conseguir una bajada del rango de
fusin de la aleacin. El objetivo es conseguir una aleacin que funda a una temperatura ms
baja que el resto de aleaciones de aluminio para usarlo como elemento de soldadura.
Estas aleaciones en principio no son tratables termicamente pero si son usadas en
soldadura para soldar otra aleaciones que son tratables termicamente parte de los
elementos aleantes de las aleaciones tratables termicamente pasan a la serie 4xxx y
convierten una parte de la aleacin en tratable termicamente. Las aleaciones con un elevado
nivel de Si tienen un rango de colores que van desde el gris oscuro al color carbon y por ello
estan siendo demandadas en aplicaciones arquitectnicas. La 4032 tiene un bajo
coeficiente de expansin trmica y una alta resistencia al desgaste lo que la hace bien situada
para su uso en la frabricacin de pistones de motores.

Serie 5xxx.

Esta serie usa como principal elemento aleante el Mg y a veces tambien se aaden pequeas
cantidades de Mn cuyo objetivo es el de endurecer el aluminio. El Mg es un elemento que
endurece ms el aluminio que el Mn (un 0.8 de Mg produce el mismo efecto que un 1.25 de
Mn) y adems se puede aadir ms cantidad de Mg que de Mn. Las principales caractersticas
de estas aleaciones son una media a alta dureza por endurecimiento por deformacin, buena
soldabilidad, buena resistencia a la corrosin en ambiento marino y una baja capacidad de
trabajo en fro. Estas caractersticas hacen que estas aleaciones se usen para
adornos decorativos, hornamentales y arquitectnicos, en el hogar, iluminacin de
las calles y carreteras, botes, barcos y tanques criognicos, partes de puentes grua y estructuras
de automviles.

Serie 6xxx.

En estas aleaciones se usan como elementos aleantes el Mg y el Si en proporciones adecuadas

para que se forme el Mg2Si. Esto hace que esta aleacin sea tratable termicamente.
Estas aleciones son menos resitentes que el resto de aleaciones, a cambio tiene tambien
formabilidad, soldabilidad, maquinabilidad y resistencia a la corrosin. Estas aleaciones
pueden modearse por un TT T4 y endurecido por una serie de acciones que completen el
TT T6. Su uso suele ser el de aplicaciones arquitectnicas, cuadros de
bicicletas, pasamanos de los puentes, equipo de transporte y estructuras soldadas.
Serie 7xxx.

El Zn aadido en proporciones que van desde el 1 al 8 % es el elemeto aleante en mayor

proporcin en estas aleaciones. A veces se aaden pequeas cantidades de Mg para
hacer la aleacin tratable termicamente. Tambien es normal aadir otros elementos aleantes
como Cu o Cr en pequeas cantidades. Debido a que la principal propiedad de estas aleaciones
es su alta dureza se suele usar en las estructuras de los aviones, equipos mviles y otras partes
altamente forzadas. Debido a que esta serie muestra una muy baja resistencia a la
corrosin bajo tensin se le suele aplicar levemente un TT para conseguir una mejor
mezcla de propiedades.

http://www.alumatter.info

http://aluminium.matter.org.uk/content/html/eng/default.asp?catid=2&pageid=995466854

The main properties which make aluminium a valuable material are its low density, strength,
recyclability, corrosion resistance, durability, ductility, formability and conductivity. Due to this unique
combination of properties, the variety of applications of aluminium continues to increase. It is essential
in our daily lives. We cannot fly, go by high speed train, high performance car or fast ferry without it.
Nor can we get heat and light into our homes and offices without it. We depend on it to preserve our
food, our medicine and to provide electronic components for our computers.

For many years the biggest end-use market for aluminium has been the transport sector.

The transport industry plays an important role in the European Union economy. It accounts for 7%
of GNP, 7% of jobs, 40% of investments by member states and 30% of energy consumption. Aluminium
use yields, through its contribution to vehicle lightweighting, substantial energy savings and reduced
emission and fuel consumption levels in todays environmentally conscious society. Its strength and
corrosion-resistance guarantee durability, reliability and security, coupled with cost-effectiveness. Its
formability ensures complete flexibility of design and ease of handling, while its flawless aspect promises
maximum aesthetic impact. Finally, its total recyclability allows the aluminium industry to fulfil its
commitment to the principles of sustainable development.

Today, aluminium is widely used in cars, trucks, buses, coaches, trains, metros, ships, ferries, aircraft
and bicycles.

Transport

Aeronautics

The modern commercial aviation industry would never have succeeded without aluminium. The Wright
brothers' first airplane, which flew in 1903, had a four-cylinder, 12-horsepower auto engine modified
with a 30-pound aluminium block to reduce weight. Aluminium gradually replaced the wood, steel and
other airplane parts in the early 1900s, and the first all-aluminium plane was built in the early 1920s.
Since then, airplanes of all kinds and sizes have been made very largely of aluminium. For airplanes,
aluminium is used because of its combination of light weight, corrosion resistance and the critical
superior strength and mechanical properties which can be obtained in the 2xxx and 7xxx alloy series.
Strong aluminium alloys take the extraordinary pressures and stresses involved in high altitude flying;
wafer thin aluminium panels keep the cold out and the air in. Many internal fittings like the seating on
planes are made from aluminium or an aluminium composite in order to save weight and thus save fuel,
reduce emissions and increase the aircraft's payload.

Today, there are around 5,300 commercial passenger aircraft flying in the world, and many thousands of
light aircraft and helicopters. Demand for commercial aircraft is forecast to rise by around 60% over the
next decade. Aluminium is the primary aircraft material, comprising about 80 per cent of an aircraft's
unladen weight. The standard Boeing 747 jumbo jet contains approx. 75,000 kg of aluminium. Because
the metal resists corrosion, some airlines don't paint their planes, saving several hundred kgs of weight.

For space exploration, such as in rockets, or satellites, aluminium is used for additional reasons. For
example on satellites as highly reflective solar panels and on rockets as anodised heat shields.

Automotive

Carl Benz produced the first combustion engine-driven car in 1886. Then, in 1899, a small sports car
with an aluminium body was unveiled at the Berlin international car exhibition. In 1948, Land Rover
made intensive use of aluminium outer skin sheets and, in 1953, the Panhard Dyna was the first
volume-produced car to have an aluminium body. It was in 1965 that large-scale production of
aluminium engine blocks began, while 1975 saw accelerated production of aluminium bonnets in US
cars, due to stricter fuel consumption legislation resulting from the oil crisis. In 1994, Audi launched the
all-aluminium passenger car in its Audi A8, which was followed in 1999 by the A2, geared for high-
volume production.

Today, many cars contain surprisingly significant amounts of aluminium, as designers become
increasingly aware of the metals proven advantages.

The Peugeot 307, for example, has an aluminium bonnet and the Jaguar XJ is the first all-aluminium
body-in-white (BIW-the cars metal structure) to employ structural adhesive bonding as one of its joining
methods. Several high-performance sports cars, such as Ferrari and Lotus, are also produced in different
variations and grades of aluminium.

The European Aluminium Association, through its automotive department, has developed an online
Aluminium Automotive Manual (AAM). This manual is a vast and comprehensive online information guide
intended to provide technicians and engineers with information about aluminium for use in automotive
applications. By logging on to the AAM website (see link below), you can discover the many and varied
applications of aluminium in automotive and learn more about its material properties, its shaping,
forming and joining technologies, and discern the unique aluminium design approach.

You can also discover the main automotive applications by visiting the interactive automotive case
study. By clicking on the left menu, you can also have a quick look at few examples of aluminium
components used in automotive applications.

Closure Sheet: The key in-service requirements for automotive closures (bonnets, boots,
wings, rear quarter panels, doors) are panel bending stiffness and dent resistance, corrosion
resistance and surface appearance. The main manufacturing requirements are good formability
and joinability.

Here we investigate the mechanical performance (bending stiffness and dent resistance) of two
steels and an aluminum alloy, with respect to panel mass.

Bending stiffness depends on Young's modulus, so changing alloy within steels or within Al
alloys has little effect. Dent resistance requires a sufficiently high yield strength to withstand
permanent deformation. Therefore Al alloys for closures are generally selected from the age-
hardened 6xxx series. Bending stiffness, dent resistance and panel mass all increase with panel
thickness.

Using aluminium sheet 1.44 times thicker than steel will result in 50% weight reduction for the
same panel bending stiffness, without loss of dent resistance. Aluminium also competes
favourably with steel on corrosion performance. However, the wider uptake of aluminium
requires development of manufacturing technologies at a competitive cost, notably for forming
and joining. One example of an efficient processing operation is the integration of forming, heat
treatment and paint-bake cycle for 6xxx sheet.
 The sheet is solution treated and naturally aged condition (T4), formed in this relatively soft
condition, and finally age hardened (typically 160-180 C for 30 minutes) to simultaneously
increase the yield strength (for dent resistance) while curing the paint coating.

Engine Block: luminium foundry alloys used in the production of such complex cast parts as
engine blocks and cylinder heads must meet a combination of requirements which include low
cost, castability, machinability, and moderate strength at elevated temperatures. Alloys
commonly used in these applications include AA 319, AA 320, AlSi5Cu3, and AlSi6Cu4 (A23).
These are all secondary hypoeutectic Al-Si alloys whose relatively high Cu content enables them
to retain their strength at elevated temperatures as well as making them easily machinable.
The parts may be T6 tempered but for many designs a T5 stabilizing temper is frequently
sufficient. Some heads have even been put into service in the F-temper. These alloys have
proven themselves over time to be the best engineering compromise for gasoline engines.
Diesel engine cylinder heads may be cast out of AA 356, AA 357, AA 359, AlSi7Mg or AlSi9Mg.
The higher resistance to cracking in the plastic regime that these alloys display enables them to
survive the much harsher thermal fatigue loading conditions encountered in this application.
There is some sacrifice in machinability (mainly burring) and added cost in heat treatment since
a T6 or T7 temper is usually required. Cast aluminium cylinder heads and engine blocks
generally weigh only half as much as ferrous castings

Structure Sheet: luminium stamped sheet used for structural components requires high
formability, strength/stiffness and corrosion resistance. Stamped sheet is used for higher
volume production in preference to extruded "space-frame" structures.

The stiffness of a given component is determined by its gauge (thickness) and the geometrical
design - there is very limited scope for altering it through material properties (the Young
modulus, E only ranges from 69-73 GPa for all aluminium alloys).

The strength levels required are achieved using rolled and soft-annealed 5xxx (Al-Mg) sheet,
which derive their strength through a combination of solute hardening and grain size hardening.

Automotive Extrusions: luminium extrusions used for structural components require high
formability, strength/stiffness and corrosion resistance. Extruded structures are used for lower
volume vehicle builds as they are more cost-effective than stamped sheets. The stiffness is
determined by the gauge (thickness) and design of the component - there is very limited scope
for altering it through material properties. The strength levels required are achieved using
precipitation hardened 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si) extrusions.

Crash Box: Energy Absorption. Conflicting requirements with respect to saving weight and
increasing vehicle crashworthiness at the same time, pose a major challenge in automotive
design. Today, aluminium in its various product forms (sheet, extrusions, die castings) is an
established automotive lightweight material offering excellent weight saving potential, including
crashworthiness applications for passive vehicle safety. Modern ductile aluminium alloys have
an outstanding ability to absorb impact energy in case of accidents. Combined with a good
design, over 30 kJ per kg total weight of a structural component can be absorbed with
aluminium. The underlying physical principle is illustrated by the relation for the energy
absorption E of a rectangular tube:

Bumpers: Aluminium bumpers are extruded from either 6xxx (Al-Mg-Si) or 7xxx (Al-Zn-Mg)
heat-treatable alloys. The high strength 7xxx bumpers offer higher potential for weight
reduction since thinner sections can be used. The required high-energy absorption capacity is
met by special alloys and tempers combining good ductility and strength with extrudability and
weldability. Also, the design of the extrusion plays an important role for the energy absorption
in a collision, e.g. multihole extrusions have more favourable folding characteristics than single
hole extrusions.

The 6xxx alloys used are, for example EN AW-6008 and EN AW-6014 tempered to the T72
condition (overaged).

Heat Exchangers: The high thermal conductivity of aluminium, combined with low density,
makes it an ideal material for use in thermal management in the transport sector, especially
automotive. About 80% of all vehicles contain aluminium heat exchangers.

Other Road Transport

Having made its debut in Parisian buses in 1910, aluminium was used for a variety of elements in road
transport in the 1930s, when the industrial development of components actually began. The 1950s saw
the first aluminium tankers, vans and tipping vehicles. For commercial vehicles, traditionally heavy
vehicles, the advantages of aluminium were put to good use with the manufacture of the first aluminium
systems to meet weight-sensitive transport requirements in the 1970s. By 1976, Alusuisse had produced
the first all-aluminium truck prototype.

Today, most tankers and silo semi-trailers are made entirely of aluminium. Aluminium is also frequently
used for vans, tipping and self-discharging bodies. Without aluminium, the average articulated vehicle
would be 800 kg heavier.

The aluminium industry is active in developing new solutions for fleet operators. Whether used for the
manufacture of trucks, trailers or buses, aluminium cuts down weight and brings substantial savings.
The minimal additional investment for an aluminium vehicle is often offset by fleet operators in less than
two years, through significant payload increase and reduced operating costs.

Rail Transport

In the 1960s and 70s, aluminium made considerable progress in passenger railway cars where, from
trams to trains, many aluminium components were introduced, like window frames and interior partition
walls.

Between the late 70s and the early 80s, when many European capitals developed their underground and
tram networks, to link the main cities with their satellites, and when France developed its high speed
trains, new technical challenges arose, that aluminium was able to meet:

For underground and tramways, light vehicles were needed to lower running costs and improve
acceleration.

For the high speed trains, the choice of aluminium proved to be almost a must, as these trains needed
to travel at more than 300 km/h on traditional railway tracks.

A good example of aluminium's benefits in the public rail transport sector is the TGV-Duplex. Developed
by Alstom by order of the SNCF, it weighs 12% less than the traditional TGV, transports 40% more
passengers, and offers superior passive safety.

For goods transport, an important use of aluminium occurs in countries such as the USA, Canada, and
South Africa, which are rich in coal, metal ores, and other minerals, and which need to transport these
materials over considerable distances between mines and production plants or port facilities. In these
countries, aluminium railcars offer increased payloads that often compensate their extra purchasing
costs in less than two years.

Today, aluminium metros and trams operate in many European capitals and aluminium intercity trains
are used all over Europe.

Sea Transport

Soon after production of aluminium became possible on an industrial scale (just before the end of the
19th Century) a number of interesting possibilities arose for this class of materials, which were light and
at the same time able to withstand mechanical stress. Above all, they possessed excellent resistance to
corrosion in a marine atmosphere, thus reducing maintenance costs.

Scottish shipbuilders Yarrow & Co were the first to construct a vessel from aluminium in 1895.

The first applications designed and developed for mass production date back to the early post-war period
when aluminium appeared in a number of parts of the deck and the bridges in cargo ships and military
vessels. Starting in the 60s, aluminium spread also to passenger ships.

The first important structural applications of aluminium were found in passenger hydrofoils. These were
highly sophisticated vessels and the know-how developed during this technological experience formed a
precious base for subsequent developments.

A decisive turning point in the spread of aluminium in shipping came in the early 90s when European
passenger and cargo sea transport saw a growth trend of the order of 15% per year, with peaks of 20%
in Spain, Finland and Sweden between 1990 and 1997 (Eurostat, 2001). The increase in traffic and the
consequent birth of a class of private operators encouraged the diffusion of a competitive logic, based
essentially on limiting the running costs of vessels and especially on the ability of shipping companies to
effect more journeys in less time and with reduced consumption. In this competitive scenario, the
demand for new vessels developed, based on high performance propulsion and on lightness.

The use of aluminium combined with the use of water-jet propulsion made it possible to create a new
category of vessels, the so-called high-speed ferries, single-hulled boats or more often catamarans,
made entirely of aluminium.

The same trend is noted in passenger vessels of between 30,000 - 70,000 gross tonnes and in cruising
ships that are often built with steel hull and superstructures in aluminium.

The application of aluminium in shipping extends also to other types of vessels. In fact aluminium now
have a consolidated tradition lasting more than half a century in the construction of pleasure boats for
sport and leisure, commercial passenger and cargo ships and military ships.

Aluminium also has interesting applications in a similar field: offshore constructions. In oil drilling
platforms, a large part of the superstructures and helicopter landing pads are entirely in aluminium.

Construction

Aluminium is used in building and architecture for various reasons:

Its light weight allows for easier rectification of structures for example faade panels, roofing,
doors and windows in architecture, and ladders and platforms as building tools.

Its good inherent corrosion resistance and methods for protection such as anodising allow for
durable outdoor exposure

Its attractive metallic appearance and the methods for colouring is ideal for decorative design

These properties in combination with the good strength-to-weight ratio that can be obtained,
results in various day to day applications of aluminium, mainly of the 1xxx, 3xxx and 5xxx alloy
series for sheet products and 6xxx series for extruded products, in our houses, offices, public
buildings and their construction.

Note also that metallic aluminium in "massive" form will not burn. Further, its relatively low melting
point (660 C) means it will "vent" early during a severe fire, releasing heat and thereby saving lives
and property. Construction and demolition waste products represent a growing challenge for modern
industrial societies. The depositing or incineration of most types of materials can lead to air, water and
soil pollution. This is not the case for aluminium, which even if inadvertently dispersed in the
environment does not have harmful side-effects. Therefore, aluminium recycling not only has important
economic implications but also contributes to environmental protection. A study has demonstrated that
about 95% of aluminium building products are recycled at their end-of-life thanks to the high value of
the aluminium scrap.

Architectural Sheet

Aluminium alloys in sheet form are used for a variety of applications on buildings, such as roofing and
external cladding. Such applications make use of the material's durability, being hard wearing and
resistant to corrosion. The sheet can be used bare, but for many applications a paint coating is applied
by the sheet supplier to increase protection from the environment and for aesthetic appearance. For
some applications, the sheet surface is anodised to produce a decorative surface finish.

Good surface appearance is obviously a critical requirement of these products, but some strength is
generally required for in-service performance as well as formability, for example, to enable the sheet to
be shaped into profiled panels for rigidity. Low strength commercial purity alloys such as EN AW-1200
are used for some applications (e.g. flashing), but generally higher strength alloys of the 3xxx series are
used.
5xxx series alloys are employed where high strength is a particular requirement or where greater
corrosion resistance is needed, for example in marine environments. Depending on the product, sheet
may be used in the soft-annealed O-temper, where dispersion-hardening and solid solution
strengthening alone determine the mechanical properties, or in a range of work-hardened tempers.

Packaging

Aluminium packaging via its unique combination of properties contributes to the efficient fabrication,
storage, distribution, retailing and usage of many products

Aluminium is used in packaging for various reasons:

Its low density is beneficial for the transport of packaged goods and for the eventual disposal of
spent products;

Its inherent inertness and non-toxicity, lack of taste and odour and impermeability to liquids,
solids, gasses, or light allows the packaging, and durable protection of foodstuffs, beverages,
pharmaceuticals, cosmetics etc. It also withstands both heat and cold.

its good formability for alloys mainly from the 1xxx and 3xxx series, while still being of
sufficient strength is ideal for the production of foil (1xxx series), laminated closures (1xxx
series), round cans (3xxx and 5xxx series) or other thin sheet packaging containers and tubes.

Its recycling is cost effective and helps reduce energy consumption, raw materials and ultimate
disposal.

The aluminium industry has a long tradition of collecting and recycling used aluminium products;
the high economic value of used aluminium packaging is an incentive to continuous improvement of
recycling: an average of 58% of beverage cans were recycled in 2007 in Europe.

Aluminium can contain, protect, decorate or dispense products as diverse as soft drinks and soaps,
pet foods and snack foods, tobacco and toiletries, chocolates and chilled foods, tablets and take-
away meals even tennis balls and welding rods. Aluminium packaging has become part of
everyday life.

The aluminium beverage can is a nice example of how a well-chosen combination of alloy properties
can result in a globally used product.

Electrical and Thermal Applications

The use of aluminium in electrical and thermal applications is due to the good electrical and thermal
conductivities of the alloys mainly from the 1xxx (for electrical) and 3xxx, 5xxx and 6xxx series (for
thermal), but again its light weight, favourable strength-to-weight ratio and a durable corrosion
resistance are added benefits compared to other materials.

Aluminium or aluminium alloy electrical conductors are now widely used in the following areas:

Overhead lines, electrical energy distribution and transport cables, and energy cables for industrial use.

Almost all electric lights, motors, appliances and power systems depend on a vast grid of aluminium
wire. Around the world most high-voltage overhead transmission and distribution lines and many
underground lines are made of aluminium. Aluminium replaced copper in high-voltage transmission lines
after 1945 and today is the most economical way to transmit electric power.

Aluminium is also widely used in "switchyards" or substations where electricity is stepped down to lower
voltages for local distribution. Many substations are almost all aluminium. The power systems of the
world's largest buildings are made of aluminium.
Since the 1950s aluminium has practically replaced brass as the standard base for the electric light bulb.

Thousands of television antennae and many satellite dishes are also made of aluminium.

For electrical cables the mechanical properties are very important as illustrated in the dedicated case
study on electrical cables.

Additionally, the use of aluminium for electrolytic capacitors is also a large application area. The
possibility of rolling aluminium into thin foil and being able to change its capacitance through etching
and anodising is a major benefit as illustrated in the section on electrolytic
capacitors under dielectric surface properties.

Due to its high thermal conductivity, aluminium is also very well suited for heat exchanger tubes,
connections and brazing sheet. Aluminium brazing sheet is an innovation allowing the complicated
design of the heat exchanger to be assembled in one production step, as illustrated in the
dedicated case study on heat exchangers.

Aluminium Electrolytic Capacitors

In an electrolytic capacitor there is an anodised aluminium foil as one plate (the anode), and an
electrolyte replacing the second plate (cathode). There is a second metallic electrode for the electrical
contact (cathode foil). The anodisation layer is the dielectric.

The original wet electrolytic capacitors comprised a lead or aluminium can containing the aqueous
electrolyte and the loosely coiled anode foil. The dry types of electrytic capacitors contain a viscous
solution of e.g. boric acid in glycerol or ethylene glycol or, more recently introduced, dimethyl
formamide based electrolytes (extending the operation temperature range of the capacitors to between
55 C and 125 C).

The construction method is to sandwich a strip of porous paper soaked in the electrolyte between the
anode and the auxiliary plain cathode foil, rolled up and placed in a metal can or cardboard tube with
external connections.

Impurities can be a source of electronic leakage current, thus reducing the dielectric ability of the film.
Thus capacitor foil is made out of high purity aluminium, mostly 99.99%.

Conductors for Overhead Power Lines

High voltage overhead power lines must satisfy many simultaneous requirements: minimum electrical
resistance (to reduce losses), safe clearance above the ground, sufficient strength for the applied loads,
and practical cost for the 100s or 1000s of km typically installed. A wide variety of cable specifications
are available to meet the demands for different current carrying capacity in many different climates and
types of terrain.

Long-distance overhead conductors use aluminium in preference to copper - the lower electrical
conductivity being more than compensated by the lower density and cost. In composite steel-Al cables,
the steel carries most or all of the mechanical load, and the Al the electrical current. Aluminium is often
now used throughout, serving both electrical and mechanical purposes.

Overhead cables range in size from 5-40 mm in diameter, using layered helical windings, with the twist
direction alternating between layers. The individual strands are typically 2-4 mm in diameter, convenient
for wire drawing and winding. In reinforced cables, the inner strands predominantly carry the load.

Domestic Applications
he use of aluminium in domestic and office applications is often due to the highly decorative and
fashionable design appearance of aluminium, for example in kitchens, aluminium sheets above stoves or
around ovens or the use of design aluminium handles on doors. Of course for actual furniture, such as
tables and chairs, the mechanical properties are also very important. For household appliances such as
irons and cooking utensils, the thermal properties are equally determining; for example in the case of an
iron, anodised aluminium soles are a durable solution both in terms of heat resistance and for hardness,
wear and scratch resistance. For cooking tools, high thermal conductivity is a prerequisite additional to
the lighter weight compared to copper or steel pots and pans.

For lighting applications, it is the high inherent reflectivity of aluminium which determines its use, in
addition to its low density. Hence for various objects: furniture, utensils and decorations, a combination
of requisite properties explains why aluminium is so common in our everyday life.

Aluminium in Structural Applications

The use of aluminium alloys in structural applications has grown considerably in the past few decades. In
transportation, the low density of aluminium, resulting in a high strength-to-weight ratio, makes it a
favourable material for aircraft, high speed trains and ferries. In building and civil engineering, low
density is sometimes the determining factor in the choice of aluminium; e.g. movable bridges, helicopter
decks on offshore platforms, etc. However, other favourable properties such ascorrosion
resistance, easy shaping of profiles by extrusion, and aesthetics are often more important.

Why is aluminium used in structures?

To achieve lightweight structures

To aim at sustainable structures requiring less maintenance

Good recycling opportunities

Knowledge of aluminium structural behaviour at similar level to steel

Design rules available in Eurocode 9

In this module, three sections have been developed in order to illustrate the design and use of
aluminium alloys in structural applications:

Manufactura, ingeniera y tecnologa. Escrito por Serope Kalpakjian,Steven R. Schmid,Ulises

https://books.google.es/books?
id=gilYI9_KKAoC&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=aluminio+aleaciones+y+usos&source=bl&ots=mo5RBYot
Oy&sig=239exOB6z00XBCXk5w8Ukn9q27E&hl=es&sa=X&ei=JyEdVaSBMYjbU-
GIgMgI&ved=0CCYQ6AEwATgU#v=onepage&q=aluminio%20aleaciones%20y%20usos&f=false

Los factores de importancia en la seleccin de aluminio y de sus al3eaciones osn su elevada relacin
resistencia a peso, su resistencia a al corrosin frente a muchos productos qumico9s, su elevada
odneductividad trnmica y elctrica, su no toxicidad, su reflectividad, su apariencia y su facilidad de
conformado y de maquinabilidad ; tambin son antimagnticos.

Los usos principales del alumihio y de sus aleaciones, en orden decreciente de consumo, es en
recipientes y empaques (latas de alumini y hoja de aluminio(, en edificios y otros tips de
construccines, en eln transporte (aplicaciones en aeronaves y aerospaciales, autobus3es, automviles,
carros de ferrocarril y equipo marino), en ap,.icaciones elctircas (conductores elctricos econmicos y
no magnticos), en productos durarderos para el consumidor (aparatos domsticos, utensilios de cocina
y muebles(), y en herramientas porttiles. Prctrivamente todo el alambrado de transmisin de alto
voltaje est hecho en aluminio. En sus componentes estructurales (que soportan carga), el 82% de una
aeronave _Boeing 747 y el 79% de una aeronave Boeing 757 es aluminio.
Las aleaciones de aluminio estn disponibles como productos de laminacin, es decir, como productos en
bruto presentados en varias formas mediante laminado, extrusin, estirado y forjado. Estn disponibles
lingotes de aluminio para la fundici`ohn, como aluminio en polvo para aplicaciones de metalurgia de
povos. Se han desarrollado tcnicas mediante las cuales la mayor parte de las aleaciones de aluminio
pueden ser maquinadas, formadas y soldadas con relativa facilidad.

Hay dos tipos de aleaciones del aluminio forjados:

a) Aleaciones que peudan ser endurecidas por trabajo en fro y que no es posibles tratarlas
trmicamente, y

b) Aleaciones que pueden ser endurecidas por tratamiento trmico.

Designacion de las aleaciones del aluminio en bruto. Las aleaciones de aluminio en bruto se identifican
mediante cuatro dgitos y una designacin de temple mostrando el estado del material., SE identifica el
elemento principal de las aleaciones mediatne el primerdgito., Este es el sistema:

1xxx _ Aluminio comercialmetne puro excelente resitencia ala corrosin, elevsada conductividad
elctrica y trmica, buena capacidad de trabajo, baja resistencia, no es tratable termicamente.

2xxx Cobre elevada relacin restitencia a peso, baja resitencia ala corrosin, tratable trmicamente.

3xxx manganeso buena capa idazd dde trabajo, resitencia moderada, generalemnte no es tratable
trmicamente.

4xxx silicio menor punto de fusin, forma una pelcula de xido de color de greis oscuro a negro
carbn, generalmente no tratable trmicamente.

5xxx magnesio buena resistenca ala corrosin y buena soldabilidad, resitencia mecnica de moderada a
alta, no es tratable trmicamente.

6xxx magnesio y silicio . resistencia media, buena formabilidad, maquinabilidad, soldabilidad y

resistencia a la corrosin, tratable trmicamente

7xxx- zinc - resistencia demoderada a muy alta, tratable trmicamente.

8xxx otro elemento.

En estas designaciones el segundo dgito indica modificaciones de la aleacin. Para la serie 1xxx, el
tercero y cuarto dgitos representan la cantidad mnima de aluminio de la aleacin . por ejemplo 1050
indica un mnimo de 99,50% de aluminio. En otras series el tercero y cuarto dgito identifican las
diferentes aleaciones en el grupo sin un significado numrico.

Designacin de las aleaciones de aluminio fundidas. Las designaciones de las aleaciones de aluminio
fundidas tambin estn formadas por cuatro dgitos. El primer dgito indica el grupo de aleacin principal
como sigue:

1xx.x Aluminio (99,00% mnimo)

2xx.x Aluminio-cobre

3xx.x Aluminio-silicio con cobre y/o magnesio

4xx,.x Aluminio-silicio

5xx.x Aluminio.magnesio

6xx.x Serie no utilizada

7xx.x Aluminio-zinc

8xx.x Aluminio-estao
En la serie 1, los segundos y tercer dgitos indican el contenido mnimo de aluminio, igual que ocurre
en los terceros y cuartos dgitos delaluminio forjados. Oara las otras series, los dgitos segundos y
terceros no tienen un significado numtico. El cuarto dgito, a la derecha del punto digital, indica la
forma del producto.

Designaciones de temple. Las designaciones de temple para le aluminio tanto en bruto como fundido son
como sigue:

F tal y como se fabrica, mediatne trabajo en fro o en caliente o mediante el colado

O recocido, del estado de trabajo en gfro o colado

H endurecido por deformacin por trab ajo en fgreo, para productos forjados nicamente

T tratado trmicamente

W tratado por solucin nicamente (temple inestable)

Produccin

El aluminio se produjo por primera ve3z en 1825. Es el elemento metlico ms abundante,

representando aproximadamente 8% de la corteza terrestre. Es producido en cantidades superadas
nicamente por la producci`on de hierro,. Elmineral principal de aluminio es la auxita, que es un xido
de alumninio hidratado (que contiene agua) e incluye otros xidos. Una vez lavados la arcilla y la tierra,
el mineral es teriturado en polvo9 y despus tratado con sosa castica caliente (hidrxido de sodio) para
eliminar las impurezas,. La akmina (xido de aluminio) es extrada de esta solucin y despus es
disuelta en unbao fundido de fluoruro de socio y de fluoruyro de aluminio a 940C-980C.

Esta mezcla se somete a una electrlisis por corriente directa. Se forma el metal de aluminio en el
ctodo, en tanto que se libera oxgeno en le nodo,. El aluminio comercialmente puro tiene hasta el
99,99% de alumihnio y se conoce tambin en la industria como aluminio de cuatro nueves. El proceso
de produccin consume gran cantidad de electricidad contribuyendo por tanto de manera importante al
costo del aluminio.

Aluminio poroso,. Se han producido recientemente bloques de aluminio que son 37% ms ligeros que el
aluminio slido y tienen una permeablididad (microporosidad) uniforme,. Esta caracterstica permite syu
uso en aplicaciones donde se deben mantener o un vaco o una presini diferencial. Ejemplos seran la
sujecin por vaco de dispositivos de ensamble y automatizacin y el formado por vaco, es decir, el
termoformado de plsticos,. Estos bloques estn formados de 70 a 90% de povo de aluminio; el resto es
resina epxica, Oyueden ser maquinados con relativa facilidad y se pueden unir utilizando adhesivos.