odu e echanics

Humidity
Some water in the form of invisible vapour is intermixed with the air throughout the atmosphere.
It is the condensation of this vapour which gives rise to most weather phenomena: clouds, rain,
snow, dew, frost and fog. There is a limit to how much water vapour the air can hold and this
limit varies with temperature. When the air contains the maximum amount of vapour possible for
a particular temperature, the air is said to be saturated. Warm air can hold more vapour than
cold air. In general the air is not saturated, containing only a fraction of the possible water
vapour.

The amount of vapour in the air can be measured in a number of ways. The humidity of a
packet of air is usually denoted by the mass of vapour contained within it, or the pressure that
the water vapour exerts. This is the absolute humidity of air. Relative humidity is measured
by comparing the actual mass of vapour in the air to the mass of vapour in saturated air at the
same temperature. For example, air at 10C contains 9.4 g/m3 (grams per cubic metre) of water
vapour when saturated. If air at this temperature contains only 4.7 g/m3 of water vapour, then
the relative humidity is 50%.

When unsaturated air is cooled, relative humidity increases. Eventually it reaches a

temperature at which it is saturated. Relative humidity is 100%. Further cooling leads to
condensation of the excess water vapour. The temperature at which condensation sets in is
called the dew point. The dew point, and other measures of humidity can be calculated from
readings taken by a hygrometer. A hygrometer has two thermometers, one dry bulb or standard
air temperature thermometer, and one wet bulb thermometer. The wet bulb thermometer is an
ordinary thermometer which has the bulb covered with a muslin bag, kept moist via an
absorbent wick dipped into water. Evaporation of water from the muslin lowers the temperature
of the thermometer. The difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures is used to calculate
e various measures of humidity.

Definitions

Absolute humidity: The mass of water vapour in a given volume of air (i.e., density of water
apour in a given parcel), usually expressed in grams per cubic meter

Actual vapour pressure: The partial pressure exerted by the water vapour present in a parcel.
ater in a gaseous state (i.e. water vapour) exerts a pressure just like the atmospheric air.
apour pressure is also measured in Millibars.

Condensation: The phase change of a gas to a liquid. In the atmosphere, the change of water
a our to liquid water.

e point: the temperature air would have to be cooled to in order for saturation to occur. The
e oint temperature assumes there is no change in air pressure or moisture content of the air.

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Dry bulb temperature: The actual air temperature. See wet bulb temperature below.

Freezing: The phase change of liquid water into ice.

Evaporation: The phase change of liquid water into water vapour.

Melting: The phase change of ice into liquid water.

Mixing ratio: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the mass of the dry air in the
parcel (not including water vapour).

Relative humidity: The amount of water vapour actually in the air divided by the amount of
water vapour the air can hold. Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage and can be
computed in a variety of ways. One way is to divide the actual vapour pressure by the saturation
vapour pressure and then multiply by 100 to convert to a percent.

Saturation of air: The condition under which the amount of water vapour in the air is the
maximum possible at the existing temperature and pressure. Condensation or sublimation will
begin if the temperature falls or water vapour is added to the air.

Saturation vapour pressure: The maximum partial pressure that water vapour molecules
would exert if the air were saturated with vapour at a given temperature. Saturation vapour
pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.

Specific humidity: The mass of water vapour in a parcel divided by the total mass of the air in
the parcel (including water vapour).

Sublimation: In meteorology, the phase change of water vapour in the air directly into ice or the
change of ice directly into water vapour. Chemists, and sometimes meteorologists, refer to the
vapour to solid phase change as "deposition."

Wet bulb temperature: The lowest temperature that can be obtained by evaporating water into
the air at constant pressure. The name comes from the technique of putting a wet cloth over the
bulb of a mercury thermometer and then blowing air over the cloth until the water evaporates.
Since evaporation takes up heat, the thermometer will cool to a lower temperature than a
thermometer with a dry bulb at the same time and place. Wet bulb temperatures can be used
along with the dry bulb temperature to calculate dew point or relative humidity.

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Problems

1. Verify, that using the Gas Law (p = P/RT) and the temperature and pressure from the
Standard Atmosphere Table, at an altitude of 65,000 ft., the density of air is 0.000178
sluq/ft.?

2. A pressurized Cessna Centurion II has a cabin pressurization system which can maintain
a pressure differential of 3.45 lbs/in" What is the maximum altitude at which the plane
can fly and still maintain a cabin altitude of 8,000 feet?

(Hint: convert the of 3.45 lbs/in" to Ibs/ft2 and compare with the Standard Atmosphere
table)

3. What is the maximum altitude at which this same Cessna plane can fly and maintain a
cabin altitude of 6,000 ft?

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Answers

2. About 18,000 ft
3. About 14,000 ft

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Density and Specific Gravity

Density
he density of a material is defined as the mass of a sample of the material divided by the
olume of the same sample. The symbol used for density is the Greek letter rho, (p).

m
p= -
V
Other algebraic forms of this same equation are:

m
m = pV and V = -
p
Density is a very important and useful concept. If a body is made of a certain kind of material its
density is known. If the weight of the body is also known, it is possible to determine the volume
of this body. Similarly, if the kind of material and volume are known it is possible to determine
the weight of the body.

Table 2.8 is a table of densities. You can refer to this table when you solve the problems
dealing with mass, weight, and volume.

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Densities of Liquids and Solids

Liquids Kg/m3 SIug/ft3 Metals Kg/m3 SIug/ft3

Water 1000 1.940 Aluminium 2700 5.25
Sea Water 1030 2.00 Cast Iron 7200 14.0
Benzine 879 1.71 Copper 8890 17.3
Alcohol 789 1.53 Gold 19300 37.5
Gasoline 680 1.32 Lead 11340 22.0
Kerosene 800 1.55 Nickel 8850 17.2
Sulphuric Acid 1831 3.55 Silver 10500 20.4

Mercury 13600 26.3 Steel 7800 15.1

Tungsten 19000 37.0
Non-Metals Zinc 7140 13.9
Ice (32F, OC) 922 1.79 Brass 8700 16.9
Concrete 2300 4.48

Glass 2,600 4.97 Woods

Granite 2700 5.25 Balsa 130 0.25
Pine 480 0.93
Maple 640 1.24
Oak 720 1.4

Ebony 1200 2.33

Table 2.8: Comparison of densities - Liquids and solids

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EXAMPLE:
An order has been placed for 120 gal. of lubricating oil. How much will this oil weigh?

1fe
V=120 galx =16.0 fe
7.481 gal

p=1.75 sl~g
ft

The density of the lubricating oil has been obtained from table 2-1.

m = pV

W 150lbs
m=- = = 4.69 slug
g 32 Ibs/slug

W = mg = (28 slugs) 32 IbS] = 896 Ibs

( slug

EXAMPLE:

An order has been placed for 150 Ibs. of turpentine. How many gallons of turpentine will be
delivered?

W 150lbs
m=- = = 4.69 slug
g 32 Ibs/slug

v=m= 4.69 slug = 2.78 ft3

P 1.69 slug/ft3

v = 2.78 ft3 x 7.481 gal = 20.8 gal

1ft

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Specific Gravity
The term "specific gravity" is closely related to the idea of density. The definition is as follows:

if G it density of the substance

S pect IC ravt y =
density of water

The calculation will give the same result (for a given substance) no matter what units are used.
The example below will calculate the specific gravity of sulphuric acid (see table 2.8).

If we use the metric units (kg/m3) we obtain:

S pecifIC G raviity = --
1,831 = 183
.
1,000

If we use the English units (sluq/tt") we obtain:

Specific Gravity = 3.55 = 1.83

1.94

The specific gravity number (1.83) is unitless. It tells us that, for sulphuric acid, the density is 1.83
times as dense as water.

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