001 OurPlaceInTheUniverse - Final PDF

Overview of the Universe
Astronomical Terminology
Scale of the Universe
Motion of Earth in the Universe
Tour of our Sky
The Cause of Seasons
Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-1
Astronomical Terminology
Star
large, glowing ball of gas that
generates heat & light through
nuclear fusion
Planet
moderately large object orbiting a
star & shines by reflected light
own gravity makes it round
cleared its orbital path
may be rocky, icy, or gaseous in
composition

Astronomical Terminology, contd
Moon
object orbiting a planet
Just like satellite
Asteroid
relatively small & rocky object
orbiting a star
Also called minor planets because
they orbit much like planets with a
smaller size

Comet
relatively small & icy object that
orbits a star
??
Nebula
an interstellar cloud of gas and/or
dust

Solar System
The Sun & all the
material that
orbits it, including
its planets &
moons
Technically refers
only to our own
star system.

Star System
star(s) & all the material that orbits
it, including its planets & moons

How Large is the Solar System?

How Large is the Solar System?
Earth Jupiter Sun

Galaxy
great island of stars in space, all held together by gravity &
orbiting a common center
Milky Way Galaxy in our Sky

Our Address in the Milky Way Galaxy

Universe
sum total of all matter & energy, i.e. everything within &
between all galaxies
origin of Universe explained by the Big Bang Theory
Our Cosmic Address

How Big is the Universe?
There are as many
stars in the
observable universe
as there are grains of
dry sand on all the
beaches on Earth.
Observable universe
is ~13.9b light-years.
Definition of a light-year:
the distance traveled by light in one year
unit for distance, not time!
corresponds to ~10 trillion km
Our Lifetimes compared to the Age of the Universe
The universe is ~13.9b years
old.
On a cosmic calendar:
entire history of the universe
compressed into 1 year
solar system forms in early Sep
life on Earth started by late Sep
dinosaurs appeared on 26-Dec
& became extinct on 30-Dec
On 31-Dec:
human evolve @9pm
modern human @11:58pm
human civilization only occupy
the last half-min
Spaceship Earth
The Earth
rotates around
its axis once
every day.
Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.

we are moving with the Earth in several ways & at surprisingly
fast speeds!
Earths Motion in the Solar System
The Earth orbits

around the Sun
once every year.
Earth is racing around the Sun.

Earth is at an average distance of 150m km from the Sun
Earths axis tilted by 23.5 (pointing to Polaris)
orbits around the Sun in the same direction as its rotation
counter-clockwise as viewed from above the North pole
Earths Motion in the Solar System, contd

Solar Systems Motion in the Milky Way Galaxy
The Solar System is racing around the Milky Way Galaxy.
the Sun moves randomly relative to other nearby stars at typical
speed of more than 70,000 km/hr
the Sun orbits the
galactic center
once every 230m
years at speed of
800,000 km/hr
The Solar System orbits

the galactic center once
every 230m years.
Milky Way Galaxys Motion in the Universe
The Universe is expanding.

galaxies are carried along with the expansion & are generally
moving away from each other (like expanding raisin cake)
those in Local Group can move towards or away from us, e.g.
Milky Way moving towards Andromeda @ 300,000 km/hr
Summary of Earths Motion in the Universe

Constellations
A constellation is a
region of the sky.
defined in 1928 by
the International
Astronomical
Union
often recognizable
by a pattern or
grouping of stars
total of 88 official
constellations, most
names come from
antiquity

The Celestial Sphere
The sky above us looks like
a dome (hemisphere).
celestial sphere =
lower + upper half of
the dome
we see half the sphere
at any moment
All stars appear to lie
on the celestial sphere.
we lack the depth
perception when looking into space, as the stars are too far
away
The patterns of stars have no physical significance!
stars that appear close together may lie at different distances
Model of the Celestial Sphere
The idea of a celestial sphere is used to map the sky.
shows how stars are
arranged in the sky
This is a 2-D
representation of the sky
as viewed from Earth.
Earth is placed in the
center of the sphere
Special points & circles:
north & south celestial
poles
celestial equator
ecliptic

The Local Sky
Our local sky appears

to take the shape of a
hemisphere define
location of a star by
its altitude &
azimuth.
zenith : point directly overhead

horizon : boundary between Earth & sky (90 from zenith)
meridian : line from northern to southern horizon through zenith
azimuth : angle direction along horizon, clockwise from due north
altitude : angle above the horizon
Review: Coordinates on Earth
Latitude: position north or

south of equator
Singapore: 122 N
Longitude: position east or

west of prime meridian
(Greenwich, England)
Singapore: 10348 E
Measuring Size & Distance in the Sky
True sizes or separations of objects in the sky cannot be

determined due to lack of depth perception
describe using angular size & angular separation instead

Handy Sky Measures
each arcminute
For more subdivided into
precise 60 arcseconds
astronomical
measurement:
each degree
subdivided into
60 arcminutes
Daily Motion of Celestial Objects in the Sky
Earth rotates from west to east.
celestial sphere appears to rotate around us from east to west
Stars make daily circles around the celestial poles
Stars at the north or south
celestial poles will appear
stationary.

Northern Hemisphere View
Stars near north
celestial pole (at
angle less than A
from celestial pole) A
do not rise or set,
but remain above
the horizon
circumpolar star
Stars near south
celestial pole never
rise above horizon.
Other stars (& Sun, Moon, planets) generally
have daily circles partly above & below horizon.
appear to rise in the east & set in the west
Southern Hemisphere View
Similarly, stars near south
celestial pole do not rise
or set, but remain above
the horizon
circumpolar star
Stars near north celestial
pole never rise above
horizon.
Other stars (& Sun,
Moon, planets) generally appear to
rise in the east & set in the west.
If you stand at the poles, nothing rises or sets.
If you stand at the equator, everything rises & sets 90 to the horizon.

What Constellations can you see?
It depends on your latitude & time of the year.
due to rotation & orbit of Earth
Variation with Latitude
The constellations you see depend on your latitude but not longitude.

Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere
Daily circles CCW looking north, CW looking south

Variation with Time of Year
As the Earth orbits the Sun, the Sun appears to move eastward along
the ecliptic with respect to the stars.
Constellations along the ecliptic make up the zodiac.
How Long is a Day?

The Seasons
Four Special Moments in the Year

Summer Solstice (21 June)
when the northern hemisphere receives its most direct sunlight
Winter Solstice (21 December)
when the northern hemisphere receives its least direct sunlight
Spring Equinox (21 March)
when northern hemisphere just starts to tip towards the Sun
Fall Equinox (22 September)
when northern hemisphere just starts to tip away from the Sun
What causes the Seasons?
Earths axis tilted at 23.5 from normal to ecliptic plane.

celestial equator tilted at 23.5 to the ecliptic plane
The Sun spends 6 months north & south of the celestial
equator in a year.
Seasons are caused by Earths axis tilt & not the distance
from the Earth to the Sun!
Summer in the Northern Hemisphere

Why Distance is not the cause of Seasons?
Variation of Sun-Earth distance is only about 3%.
small variation overwhelmed by effects of axis tilt
However distance does matter for some other planets, notably
Mars and Pluto
Seasons are more extreme in the northern hemisphere.
due to more land, less ocean

Seasonal Change in the Suns Path
Days are longer &

warmer in summer.
In winter, days are
shorter & cooler.

Seasonal Change in the Suns Path, contd
Northern
Equator
Hemisphere

Seasonal Change in the Suns Altitude
Summer
solstice
Photograph taken at
8~10 day intervals
Equinoxes
over a year.
same place & time
Figure 8
observed due to the
combination of
Earths axis tilt &
Winter
solstice varying speed as it
orbits the Sun.
North South
Sun rising on 3 particular days

Earth's Precession
The direction of Earths rotation axis is
not fixed in space but executes a slow
precession (like a top) with a period of
26,000 years.
axis currently pointed at Polaris
13,000 years later: axis will point to
Vega (within a few degree)
Amount of axis tilt stays close to 23.5.
pattern of season not affected
positions of solstices & equinoxes in
Earths orbit gradually shift with cycle
of precession
Precession due to gravitys effect on
a tilted, rotating object that is not a
perfect sphere.
The Moon, Our Constant Companion
The Moon is the
brightest & most
noticeable object
in our sky.
orbits the Earth
in 271/3 days
rise in the east &
sets in the west
appears to move
eastward from
night to night
You can also see
it in the day!

Phases of the Moon
Half the Moon is illuminated by the Sun.
we see a
combination
of the bright &
dark faces
The phase of
the Moon
depends on its
position relative
to the Sun as it
orbits Earth.

Phases of the Moon, contd
Each complete cycle of phases takes about 291/2 days.
from one new moon to another
~2 days longer than Moons orbital period of 271/3 days
due to Earths motion around the Sun during the time the Moon
is orbiting around Earth
new
}
crescent
Waxing means increasing
first quarter Moon visible in afternoon/ evening
gibbous gets fuller & rises later each day
full
}
gibbous
Waning means decreasing
third quarter Moon visible in late night/morning
crescent gets less and sets later each day

Eclipses
Earth & Moon cast shadows.

When one passes through the others shadow, we have an
eclipse.
Two types of eclipses:
Lunar Eclipse Earth is between Sun & Moon
Solar Eclipse Moon is between Sun & Earth
Conditions for Eclipses
Moons orbit is inclined at 5 to the ecliptic plane.

we do not get a lunar & a solar eclipse every month (~twice/year)!
Moon only crosses the ecliptic plane at 2 nodes
eclipse possible only when full or new moon occurs near nodes
Solar Eclipses
You will see it when you
are in Moons shadow.
There are three types of
solar eclipses.
Total solar eclipse
within umbra
Partial solar eclipse
within penumbra
Annular solar eclipse
Moon is relatively further
away & its umbral
shadow does not reach
Earth

Progression of a Total Solar Eclipse

Lunar Eclipses
Lunar eclipse begins
when the Moon enters
Earths penumbra.
After that, one of the 3
types of lunar eclipse
can be seen:
penumbral lunar eclipse
Moon only passes
through penumbra
partial lunar eclipse
part of full moon passes
through umbra
total lunar eclipse
Moon passes entirely
through umbra

001 OurPlaceInTheUniverse - Final PDF

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Overview of the Universe

Further Reading: The Essential Cosmic Perspective, Chapters 1 & 2

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-2

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-3

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-4

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-5

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-6

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-7

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-8

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-10

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-11

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-13

Contrary to our perception, we are not sitting still.

The Earth orbits

Earth is racing around the Sun.

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-18

The Solar System orbits

The Universe is expanding.

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-21

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-22

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-25

Our local sky appears

zenith : point directly overhead

Latitude: position north or

Longitude: position east or

True sizes or separations of objects in the sky cannot be

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-28

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-30

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-32

Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

Daily circles CCW looking north, CW looking south

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-36

Four Special Moments in the Year

Earths axis tilted at 23.5 from normal to ecliptic plane.

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-39

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-40

Days are longer &

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-41

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-42

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-43

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-45

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-46

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-47

Earth & Moon cast shadows.

Moons orbit is inclined at 5 to the ecliptic plane.

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-50

EE8086 Astronomy: Stars, Galaxies & Cosmology p.1-51

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