Module 15 B1 Gas Turbine

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
CONTENTS
1 FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY ................................................................ 1-1
1.1.1 Work ....................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.2 Power.......................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.3 Energy .................................................................................... 1-2
1.2 FORCE AND MOTION........................................................................ 1-3
1.2.1 Force ........................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.2 Velocity ................................................................................... 1-3
1.2.3 Acceleration ........................................................................... 1-4
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION ............................................... 1-4
1.3.1 Thrust Calculation. ................................................................... 1-4
1.4 GAS TURBINES................................................................................... 1-6
1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE ......................................................................... 1-7
1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .1-9
1.6.1 Temperature and Pressure .................................................... 1-9
1.6.2 Velocity and Pressure .......................................................... 1-10
1.6.3 How The Changes are Obtained....................................... 1-10
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES...................................................................... 1-10
Continuity equation .............................................................................. 1-10
1.7.2 Incompressible fluid flow...................................................... 1-11
1.7.3 Bernoullis Theorem ............................................................. 1-11
1.7.4 Total energy........................................................................... 1-12
1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIS THEOREM ......... 1-13
1.8.1 Incompressible fluid.............................................................. 1-13
1.8.2 Gas Laws ................................................................................... 1-15
1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-
16
Divergent Duct .......................................................................................... 1-16
1.9.2 Convergent Duct ...................................................................... 1-16
SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-17
1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM 1-18
1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS. .............................................................. 1-19
1.12.1 Reaction engines ..................................................................... 1-19
1.12.2 Power Engines ...................................................................... 1-21
2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE ................................................................... 2-1
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES ................. 2-1
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE ............................ 2-2
2.2.1 Comparison between thrust and horse-power ................... 2-6
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT............................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 Effect of forward speed ........................................................ 2-9
2.3.2 Effect of afterburning on engine thrust ............................... 2-11
2.3.3 Effect of altitude ........................................................................ 2-11
2.3.4 Effect of temperature ............................................................ 2-13
2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY ................................................................. 2-14
Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP 2-15

2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION .................................................... 2-16
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION........... 2-16
2.7 FLAT RATING ...................................................................................... 2-16
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS............................................................... 2-16
3 INLET ................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION ........................................................................ 3-1
3.2.1 Importance of Ram Compression ......................................... 3-1
3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES ...................................................................... 3-2
3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES ................................................................... 3-2
3.3.2 DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT ................................................ 3-3
3.4 IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS .............................................................. 3-4
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING ........................................................................... 3-5
3.5.1 Engine Hot Air Anti-icing ...................................................... 3-5
3.5.2 Engine Electrical Anti-icing .................................................. 3-7
3.5.3 Oil Anti-ice ............................................................................. 3-8
4 COMPRESSORS ............................................................................................ 4-1
4.1 COMPRESSORS GENERAL ............................................................. 4-1
4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FLOW ........................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Operation ............................................................................... 4-3
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR .................................................... 4-5
Operation............................................................................................... 4-6
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE.............................................. 4-13
4.4.1 Airflow Control System Principles ......................................... 4-13
4.4.2 Compressor Characteristics ................................................... 4-17
4.4.3 Effect of Temperature on the Operating Point of the Airflow Control System 4-
18
4.5 AIR FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION ........................... 4-20
4.6 AEROFOIL THEORY AND THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR (CONTINUED) 4-
25
4.6.1 Speed of Airflow Over Blades ............................................... 4-25
4.6.2 Angle of Attack.......................................................................... 4-25
Some Important Points about Angle of Attack ................................... 4-26
4.7 APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ................. 4-27
4.7.1 Compressor RPM ................................................................. 4-27
4.7.2 Common Causes of Compressor Stall ................................ 4-27
4.7.3 Stagger Angle and End Bend ............................................. 4-27
4.7.4 Recent innovations .................................................................. 4-27
4.8 AIRFLOW CONTROL ............................................................................. 4-29
4.9 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY)...................................................... 4-29
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY) ........................... 4-29
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY) ............................. 4-29
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS .................................................................................................. 4-30

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
4.12.1 Centrifugal ............................................................................. 4-30

4.12.2 Axial Flow............................................................................... 4-30
5 COMBUSTION SECTION ..................................................................... 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 5-1
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS .................................................................... 5-1
5.3 FUEL SUPPLY ..................................................................................... 5-3
5.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER .............................................. 5-4
5.4.1 Multiple combustion chamber ............................................. 5-4
5.4.2 Tubo-annular combustion chamber ................................... 5-6
(Also known as Can-annular or Cannular.)......................................... 5-6
5.4.3 Annular combustion chamber ............................................. 5-7
5.4.4 Reverse Flow Combustion Chamber ................................... 5-9
5.5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE ................................ 5-10
5.5.1 Combustion intensity ............................................................ 5-10
5.6 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY ................................................................ 5-11
5.7 COMBUSTION STABILITY ................................................................ 5-11
5.8 POLLUTION CONTROL......................................................................... 5-12
5.8.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 5-12
5.8.2 Sources of Pollution................................................................. 5-12
5.9 EMISSIONS .......................................................................................... 5-12
5.10 MATERIALS ............................................................................................... 5-14
6 TURBINE SECTION .............................................................................. 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 6-1
6.2 ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO TURBINE .............. 6-5
6.3 CONSTRUCTION .................................................................................... 6-8
6.3.1 Nozzle guide vanes ................................................................. 6-8
6.3.2 Turbine discs ......................................................................... 6-9
6.3.3 Turbine blades .......................................................................... 6-9
6.3.4 Dual alloy discs ..................................................................... 6-11
6.4 COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING ............................................. 6-11
6.5 MATERIALS ............................................................................................... 6-11
6.5.1 Nozzle guide vanes ................................................................. 6-11
6.5.2 Turbine discs ......................................................................... 6-11
6.5.3 Turbine blades .......................................................................... 6-12
6.6 DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES ............................................. 6-16
6.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 6-16
6.6.2 Centrifugal Force .................................................................. 6-17
6.6.3 Causes of Unbalance ........................................................... 6-18
6.6.4 Objective of Balancing ............................................................ 6-20
6.6.5 Definition of Unbalance ........................................................ 6-20
6.6.6 Fan Balancing ....................................................................... 6-23
7 EXHAUST .............................................................................................................. 7-1
7.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 7-1
EXHAUST GAS FLOW ........................................................................................ 7-3
7.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS ............................................... 7-7

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
7.4 NOISE REDUCTION ............................................................................... 7-8

7.4.1 Sources of Engine Noise ..................................................... 7-8
7.5 THRUST REVERSAL ............................................................................. 7-18
7.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 7-18
7.5.2 Requirement for Thrust Reversal ......................................... 7-18
7.5.3 Layout and Operation of Typical Thrust Reversing Systems 7-19
7.5.4 Safety Features ..................................................................... 7-22
CFM 56 Thrust Reverser for Boeing 737-300 .................................. 7-22
8 BEARINGS, SEALS AND GEARBOXES .......................................... 8-1
8.1 BEARINGS ................................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 8-1
8.1.2 Ball Bearings ......................................................................... 8-1
8.1.3 Roller Bearings...................................................................... 8-1
8.1.4 Other types of bearings ....................................................... 8-1
8.2 BEARING CHAMBER OR SUMP ...................................................... 8-3
8.2.1 Lubrication ............................................................................. 8-3
8.2.2 Sealing........................................................................................ 8-3
8.2.3 Thread Seals ......................................................................... 8-4
8.2.4 Carbon Seal........................................................................... 8-5
8.2.5 Spring Ring Seal ................................................................... 8-5
8.2.6 Hydraulic Seal ....................................................................... 8-6
8.3 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARBOXES ................................................ 8-7
8.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 8-7
8.3.2 Internal gearbox .................................................................... 8-7
8.3.3 Radial driveshaft ................................................................... 8-10
8.3.4 Direct drive ................................................................................ 8-10
8.3.5 Gear train drive ......................................................................... 8-10
8.3.6 Intermediate gearbox ........................................................... 8-10
8.3.7 External gearbox................................................................... 8-11
8.3.8 Auxiliary gearbox .................................................................. 8-12
8.3.9 Construction and Materials .................................................... 8-14
9 LUBRICANTS AND FUEL .................................................................... 9-1
9.1 GAS TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION ...... 9-1
9.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION ........................................................... 9-1
9.3 PROPERTIES ...................................................................................... 9-3
9.3.1 Ease of Flow.......................................................................... 9-3
9.3.2 Ease of Starting ........................................................................ 9-3
9.3.3 Complete Combustion ............................................................ 9-3
9.3.4 Calorific Value........................................................................... 9-4
9.3.5 Corrosive Properties ............................................................. 9-4
9.3.6 Effects of By-Products of Combustion ................................. 9-5
9.3.7 Fire Hazards .............................................................................. 9-5
9.3.8 Vapour Pressure ................................................................... 9-6
9.3.9 Fuel Boiling and Evaporation Losses ................................. 9-6
9.3.10 Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Fuel Losses ............ 9-6
9.3.11 Fuel additives ............................................................................ 9-8
9.3.12 Safety precautions ................................................................... 9-8
9.4 GAS TURBINE OIL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS ........ 9-9

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
9.4.1 Viscosity ................................................................................. 9-9

9.4.2 Hydro-Dynamics or Fluid Film Lubrication .......................... 9-9
9.4.3 Boundary Lubrication ........................................................... 9-10
9.5 LUBRICATING OILS ........................................................................... 9-10
9.6 TURBINE OILS..................................................................................... 9-11
9.6.1 First Generation Synthetic Oils ........................................... 9-12
9.6.2 Second Generation Synthetic Oils ..................................... 9-12
9.6.3 Third Generation Synthetic Oils .......................................... 9-12
9.6.4 Safety Precautions ............................................................... 9-13
10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ................................................................... 10-1
10.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 10-1
10.2 BEARINGS ................................................................................................. 10-1
10.3 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ................................................. 10-5
10.3.1 Pressure Relief Valve Re-circulatory System ................... 10-5
10.3.2 Recirculatory Oil System Full Flow Type ....................... 10-8
10.3.3 Advantages of Full Flow Lubrication .................................. 10-8
10.3.4 Expendable System.............................................................. 10-10
10.4 MAIN COMPONENTS ............................................................................ 10-11
10.4.1 Oil Tank .................................................................................. 10-11
10.4.2 Oil Pumps .............................................................................. 10-12
10.4.3 oil cooling ............................................................................... 10-14
10.4.4 Pressure Filter ....................................................................... 10-15
10.4.5 Last Chance Filter ................................................................ 10-17
10.4.6 Scavenge Oil Strainers ........................................................ 10-17
10.4.7 Magnetic Chip Detector ....................................................... 10-18
10.4.8 De-aerator.............................................................................. 10-18
10.4.9 Centrifugal Breather ................................................................ 10-19
Pressure Relief Valve .............................................................................. 10-19
10.4.11 By-Pass Valve ....................................................................... 10-20
10.5 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS ...................................................... 10-21
10.5.1 Low Pressure Warning Lamp ................................................ 10-21
10.5.2 Oil Pressure, temperature and quantity indication ........... 10-21
10.6 OIL SEALS ............................................................................................ 10-21
10.7 SERVICING .......................................................................................... 10-21
11 ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS ................................................ 11-1
11.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 11-1
11.2 PURPOSE OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ................................ 11-1
11.3 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS ........................... 11-3
11.3.1 Aircraft Mounted Components............................................... 11-3
11.3.2 The Engine LP fuel system ................................................. 11-3
11.3.3 The Engine HP Fuel System............................................... 11-3
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS ......................... 11-5
11.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM .................... 11-5
11.6 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS ....................................... 11-5
11.7 FUEL PUMPS ....................................................................................... 11-5
11.7.1 Fuel Pump Requirements....................................................... 11-5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
11.7.2 Plunger-type Fuel Pump ...................................................... 11-6

11.7.3 Gear-Type Fuel Pump ......................................................... 11-7
11.8 FUEL FLOW CONTROL ........................................................................ 11-7
11.8.1 Basic Flow Control System ................................................. 11-8
11.9 HYDRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL UNITS ..................................... 11-10
11.9.2 Barometric Controls ................................................................. 11-11
11.9.3 Proportional Flow Control .................................................... 11-13
11.9.4 Acceleration Control Units...................................................... 11-14
11.10 ENGINE PROTECTION DEVICES ................................................... 11-18
11.10.1 Top Temperature Limiter ........................................................ 11-18
11.10.2 Power Limiter. ....................................................................... 11-18
11.10.3 Overspeed Governor............................................................... 11-19
BURNERS ........................................................................................................ 11-21
11.11.1 Atomiser Burners .................................................................. 11-21
11.11.2 Vaporising Burners ............................................................... 11-26
11.11.3 Combustion and Airflow ....................................................... 11-28
11.12 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS................................ 11-30
11.12.1 Supervisory Electronic Engine Control ................................ 11-30
11.12.2 FUEL CONTROL .................................................................. 11-32
11.12.3 General .................................................................................. 11-32
11.12.4 Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) ............ 11-36
12 AIR SYSTEMS ........................................................................................ 12-1
12.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 12-1
12.2 INTERNAL COOLING AIRFLOW ......................................................... 12-2
12.2.1 Low Pressure Air................................................................... 12-2
12.2.2 Intermediate Pressure Air .................................................... 12-2
12.2.3 High Pressure Air.................................................................. 12-2
12.2.4 Differential Pressure Seals..................................................... 12-3
12.3 SEALING ............................................................................................... 12-3
12.4 COOLING .............................................................................................. 12-5
12.5 TURBINE CASE COOLING DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION 12-9
12.5.1 Passive Clearance Control System. Figure 12.7. ............. 12-9
12.5.2 Active Clearance Control System. Figure 12.8 ................ 12-10
12.5.3 Low Pressure Turbine Clearance Control Valve ............... 12-11
12.6 EXTERNAL COOLING ........................................................................... 12-13
12.6.1 External skin of aero-engine .................................................. 12-13
12.6.2 Cooling of Accessories ........................................................ 12-14
12.7 HP AIR FOR AIRCRAFT SERVICES ............................................... 12-15
External Air Tappings .......................................................................... 12-15
12.8 ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 12-18
13 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS .............................................. 13-1
13.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS 13-1
13.1.1 Purpose .................................................................................. 13-1
13.1.2 Essential Starting Requirements........................................... 13-1
STARTER MOTORS ........................................................................................ 13-2
13.2.1 Electrical Starter Motor ........................................................... 13-3

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
13.2.2 Electric Starter/Generator....................................................... 13-3

13.2.3 Safety Interlocks ................................................................... 13-4
13.2.4 Air Turbo Starters ................................................................. 13-5
13.3 A300 STARTING SYSTEM ................................................................ 13-8
13.3.1 GE 6-50 Starting Procedure .................................................. 13-8
13.4 IGNITION SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 13-12
13.4.1 High Energy Ignition Unit........................................................ 13-12
13.4.2 Igniter Plug ................................................................................ 13-14
13.4.3 Servicing the Ignition System .............................................. 13-14
14 ENGINE INDICATION SYSTEMS ....................................................... 14-1
14.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 14-1
14.2 ENGINE SPEED INDICATORS ......................................................... 14-3
14.3 THRUST INDICATION ........................................................................ 14-7
14.3.1 Engine Pressure Ratio.EPR .................................................. 14-7
14.3.2 Torque indication .................................................................. 14-9
14.3.3 Phase comparison Torquemeter .......................................... 14-12
14.4 EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE........................................................ 14-13
14.4.1 Thermocouples ..................................................................... 14-13
14.5 FUEL FLOW METERING....................................................................... 14-17
14.6 OIL ......................................................................................................... 14-20
14.6.1 The Oil Pressure Indicator ..................................................... 14-20
14.6.2 Oil pressure warning light ....................................................... 14-21
Oil Temperature........................................................................................ 14-22
14.6.4 Oil Quantity ............................................................................ 14-23
14.7 VIBRATION........................................................................................... 14-24
14.8 WARNING LIGHTS ................................................................................. 14-24
15 THRUST AUGMENTATION ................................................................. 15-1
15.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 15-1
15.2 WATER INJECTION ............................................................................ 15-1
15.2.1 Effects on Engine Power ........................................................ 15-1
15.2.2 Methods of Applying Water/Methanol ................................ 15-1
15.2.3 Compressor Intake Injection (Turbo Prop) .......................... 15-2
15.2.4 Combustion Chamber Injection System ............................ 15-4
15.3 RE-HEAT (AFTER BURNING).............................................................. 15-6
15.3.1 Purpose .................................................................................. 15-6
15.3.2 Revision of Thrust ................................................................. 15-6
15.3.3 Re-heat and By-pass Engines ............................................ 15-6
15.3.4 The Advantage of Re-heat ..................................................... 15-6
15.3.5 The disadvantages of Re-heat .............................................. 15-7
15.3.6 Propelling Nozzles ................................................................... 15-7
15.3.7 Re-heat Nozzles ....................................................................... 15-8
15.3.8 The Re-heat Jet Pipe .............................................................. 15-10
16 TURBO-PROP ENGINES ..................................................................... 16-1
16.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 16-1
16.2 TYPES OF TURBO-PROP ENGINES ................................................ 16-1
16.2.1 Coupled Power Turbine ....................................................... 16-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
16.2.2 Free Power Turbine.............................................................. 16-2

16.2.3 Compounded Engine .............................................................. 16-3
16.3 REDUCTION GEARING......................................................................... 16-3
16.3.1 Simple Spur Epicyclic ............................................................ 16-4
16.3.2 Compound Spur Epicyclic ................................................... 16-6
16.3.3 Gear Train/Epicyclic ............................................................. 16-7
16.4 TURBO-PROP PERFORMANCE......................................................... 16-7
16.5 TURBO-PROP ENGINE CONTROL ................................................. 16-7
16.5.1 Integrated Control of RPM and Fuel Flow ......................... 16-8
16.5.2 Direct Control of Fuel Flow .................................................... 16-8
16.5.3 Direct Control of Blade Angle (Beta Control) ..................... 16-8
16.6 ENGINE AND PROPELLER CONTROLS.......................................... 16-9
16.7 CONTROL OUTSIDE NORMAL FLIGHT RANGE ........................... 16-9
16.8 PROPELLER CONTROL ....................................................................... 16-9
16.8.1 Constant Speed Unit ............................................................... 16-10
16.8.2 Manual and Automatic Feathering Controls ....................... 16-10
16.8.3 Fixed and Removable Stops ............................................... 16-15
16.9 OVERSPEED SAFETY DEVICES .................................................... 16-16
17 TURBOSHAFT ENGINES..................................................................... 17-1
17.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 17-1
17.2 FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................................ 17-4
17.3 ARRANGEMENTS................................................................................... 17-6
17.4 DRIVE SYSTEMS ................................................................................ 17-10
17.5 COUPLINGS .................................................................................................. 17-13
18 AUXILLIARY POWER UNITS .............................................................. 18-1
18.1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 18-1
18.2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CONFIGURATION ................ 18-3
18.2.1 Inlet Duct Arrangement ........................................................... 18-7
18.2.2 Exhaust Duct Arrangement .................................................... 18-9
18.3 THE APU ENGINE .................................................................................. 18-10
18.4 FUEL CONTROL ................................................................................. 18-12
Mechanical Fuel Control ..................................................................... 18-12
18.4.2 Speed Control ....................................................................... 18-18
18.4.3 Mechanical Fuel Control Unit Operation ........................... 18-19
18.4.4 Electronic APU Fuel Control .................................................. 18-20
18.4.5 Electro/mechanical Fuel Control (FIGURE 18.26) ............ 18-21
18.5 APU OIL SYSTEM ............................................................................... 18-23
18.6 APU BLEED AIR SYSTEMS .............................................................. 18-25
18.6.1 direct from engine compressor ........................................... 18-25
18.6.2 SEPARATE LOAD COMPRESSOR .................................... 18-27
18.7 BAY COOLING ..................................................................................... 18-28
18.7.1 Ram Air Cooling ....................................................................... 18-28
18.7.2 Fan Air Cooling ......................................................................... 18-28
18.8 APU POWERPLANT INSTALLATION .............................................. 18-32
18.9 APU STARTING SEQUENCE .............................................................. 18-34

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION ........................................................ 19-1

19.1 NACELLES OR PODS ........................................................................ 19-1
19.1.1 Cowlings..................................................................................... 19-1
19.1.2 Firewalls ..................................................................................... 19-4
19.1.3 Cooling ....................................................................................... 19-6
19.1.4 Acoustic Linings ....................................................................... 19-8
19.1.5 Abradable Linings ................................................................. 19-11
19.2 ENGINE MOUNTS .................................................................................. 19-12
19.2.1 Wing Pylon Mounted Engine (Turbofan) ........................... 19-12
19.2.2 Wing Mounted Engine (Turboprop) .................................... 19-14
19.2.3 Rear Fuselage Engine Turbofan.(Figure 19.14/15.)......... 19-16
19.3 ENGINE DRAINS ..................................................................................... 19-18
19.3.1 Controlled Drains .................................................................. 19-18
19.3.2 Uncontrolled Drains ................................................................. 19-20
19.4 ENGINE CONTROLS ............................................................................. 19-22
19.4.1 Throttle Control Mechanical ................................................ 19-22
19.4.2 Turbofan Engine Controls.................................................... 19-22
19.4.3 Turboprop Engine Controls .................................................... 19-24
19.5 ENGINE BUILD UNIT ............................................................................. 19-29
19.5.1 Turbofan Engine ................................................................... 19-29
19.6 FIRE PREVENTION BAYS OR ZONES ....................................... 19-38
19.7 INSTALLING AND REMOVING ENGINES ........................................ 19-40
19.7.1 Removal ..................................................................................... 19-40
19.7.2 Fitting ...................................................................................... 19-48
19.7.3 Turbo Prop Engine Removal/Fit............................................ 19-48
19.7.4 Flight Transit .......................................................................... 19-48
20 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS ........................................................... 20-1
20.1 FIRE DETECTORS ............................................................................. 20-1
20.2 FIRE WIRE SYSTEMS ....................................................................... 20-3
20.2.1 Resistance Type ................................................................... 20-3
20.2.2 Capacitance Type ................................................................. 20-3
20.2.3 Gas Operation Fire Wire ...................................................... 20-4
20.2.4 Single Loop............................................................................ 20-5
20.2.5 Dual Loop............................................................................... 20-5
Dual Loop Systems .............................................................................. 20-6
20.3 FIRE AND LOOP FAULT INDICATION (E.C.A.M.)......................... 20-8
20.4 FIRE SUPPRESSION ......................................................................... 20-9
20.4.1 Types of Fire Suppression System .................................... 20-11
One Shot System ..................................................................................... 20-11
20.4.2 Two Shot System (shared extinguishers) ......................... 20-12
20.4.3 Two Shot System (Single Head extinguishers) ................ 20-14
20.5 EXTINGUISHERS................................................................................ 20-16
20.5.1 Operating Head..................................................................... 20-17
20.5.2 Safety Discharge .................................................................. 20-17
20.5.3 Discharge Tube Configuration............................................... 20-18
20.5.4 Operating Time ..................................................................... 20-19
20.5.5 Extinguishant ......................................................................... 20-19

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
20.6 INDICATIONS OF FIRE DETECTION .............................................. 20-20

20.6.1 Fire T Handle ............................................................................ 20-20
20.6.2 Fire Bell .................................................................................. 20-20
20.6.3 Fire Detection Test ............................................................... 20-22
20.7 DISCHARGE INDICATORS .................................................................. 20-23
20.7.1 Mechanical Indicators .......................................................... 20-23
20.7.2 Electrical Indicators .............................................................. 20-23
20.8 CARTRIDGES OR SQUIBS ............................................................... 20-24
20.8.1 Life Control of Squibs .............................................................. 20-24
INTENTIONALLY BLANK .................................................................................... 20-26
21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATIONS ................. 21-1
21.1 PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUNNING ...... 21-1
21.2 STARTING ............................................................................................ 21-3
21.3 UNSATISFACTORY STARTS ........................................................... 21-7
21.4 ENGINE STOPPING ........................................................................... 21-8
21.5 ENGINE FIRES ........................................................................................ 21-9
21.6 INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUTS AND PARAMETERS. 21-10
21.7 TREND MONITORING........................................................................ 21-22
21.7.1 On Ground Monitoring............................................................. 21-24
21.7.2 Air Washed Components ....................................................... 21-24
21.7.3 Oil Washed Components ....................................................... 21-32
21.7.4 Inspections............................................................................. 21-36
22 ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION. .................................... 22-1
22.1 STORAGE AND TRANSIT..................................................................... 22-1
22.1.1 Fuel System Inhibiting............................................................. 22-1
22.1.2 Packing ....................................................................................... 22-2
22.1.3 Storage................................................................................... 22-3
Issue 2 April 2003 Page

10
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
Work, power, and energy are all interrelated. Work is the amount of movement a
given force causes; energy is the ability to do work, and power is the rate of doing
work.
1.1.1 WORK
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.
This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of
6 feet, we can use the formula:
Work = Force x Distance
= 500 X 6
= 3,000 foot-pounds
1.1.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit
time. As a formula, this would be:
power = work done
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second,
and foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in
the United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lbs
or 33000 ft-1b/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the
kilowatt (kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW = 1.34 hp.
Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed
as follows:
Power = work done = 2500 x 100 = 50,000 ft-lbs/sec
Time taken 5
Since 1hp = 550 ft-lbs/sec then required hp = 50,000

550
= 90.9 hp (67.81 kw assuming no friction losses)
Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-1

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.1.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two
forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.1.3.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the
relative positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object
to a certain height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the
gravitational force. This energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy.
The amount of potential energy a system possesses is equal to the work done on
the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that
is released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, when detonated.
Example :
A weight of 50 pounds is raised 5 feet. Using the formula:
Potential Energy = Force x Distance
= 50 x 5
= 250 ft-lbs.
Note: That energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work and in all
cases energy is the product of force x distance.
1.1.3.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of
that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed
of the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy =mv2 or w v2
2g
where m = mass, v = velocity (in feet or metres per second), w = weight, g =
gravity (32 ft/sec2 or 9.81m/sec2).
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.
Example:
A weight of 50lbs dropped from a height of 5 ft has kinetic energy of
KE = 50 x 25
2 x 32
= 19.53 ft-lbs

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.2 FORCE AND MOTION

1.2.1 FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system
the pound (1b) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a
force of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 meter per second per second
(m/s2).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne
is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per
second (cm/s2). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 Ib).
1.2.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when
describing how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar
quantity, whilst the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object.
The full definition of velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over
time, and the direction of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path
from 'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph
in an East-Northeast direction.
Path of Aircraft
B
350 Ml (563 Km)
200 Ml (322 Km)

N
A C
Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Figure 1.1.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
1.2.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred
to a linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation
is increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION
Newtons Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is

necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a
force. If the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will.
continue to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a
force.
2. The Second Law States. When a force acts on a mass the mass will
accelerate in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:-
a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: first
law,
the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: second law,
there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: third law.
1.3.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:-
the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,

the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust = Mass x Acceleration
The MASS is defined as the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W = the weight of the body (in lbs or newtons) and
g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec2)

The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and
outlet velocity.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
If we let: -
V2 = the air velocity at exit (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
and
V1 = the air velocity at inlet (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec2)
It may be expressed as V2 V1
Taking these expressions for Mass and Acceleration, the thrust produced by an
engine or propeller can be calculated from the following formula:-
W
THRUST = V2 - V1
g
Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:
W
THRUST = V2 - V1
g
THRUST = 256 x (700 0)
32
= 5600 lbs
Example 2.
The mass airflow through a gas turbine engine is 128lbs/sec, inlet velocity is 0
ft/sec, outlet velocity is 1400 ft/sec. Using the formula :
THRUST = 128 x (1400 0)
32
= 5600lbs
By comparing both examples, you can see that the gas turbine produced the same
thrust as the propeller by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass. It can
be said that a propeller accelerates a large mass slowly whilst the gas turbine
produces the same thrust by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass.
Note that in both of the examples the inlet velocity was zero ft/sec. The aircraft
was stationary so the thrust produced is referred to as STATIC THRUST.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.4 GAS TURBINES

A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air
is increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic
energy in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single
centrifugal(Double Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of
engine can still be found in certain special installations but generally, they have
been superseded by engines with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines.
The advantages and disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be
discussed in depth later in this module
Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Figure 1.2.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke
piston engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both
cases, although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the combustion
in a piston engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas turbine engine it
occurs at a constant pressure.
The Working Cycle.

Figure 1.3.
The cycle, upon which the gas

turbine engine functions, in its
simplest form, is the Brayton
cycle, which is represented by
the pressure/volume diagram,
shown in figure 1.4.
The Brayton Cycle.

Figure 1.4.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
The air entering the engine is compressed.

Heat is added to the air by burning fuel at a constant pressure, thereby
considerably increasing the volume of the resulting gas.
The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which
converts some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor.
The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and
jet pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure
and temperature and decreases the volume of air.
During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases
the temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost
constant (the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the
compressor via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure,
whilst the volume increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled
through the turbine and jet pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater
than the initial momentum; it is this change in momentum which produces the
propulsive jet.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

1.6.1 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine
engine are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are
made will determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure,
temperature and velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the
higher is the pressure generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given
temperature rise of the gas. Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the
expanding gas, the greater is the output of work for a given temperature drop in
gas.
Gas Flow Through an Engine

Figure 1.5

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
1.6.2 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is
the change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
1.6.3 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.
The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means
of the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine.
When a conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts
are divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy
stored in the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The
design of the passages and nozzles is of great importance, for upon their good
design depends the efficiency with which the energy changes are effected. Any
interference with the smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could
result in component failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of
the gas flow.
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.7.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume
flowing per sec:
Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Figure 1.6.
Now volume flow = Area of duct x distance travelled (L)

Time (sec)

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
But the distance travelled per second = Velocity.

Therefore, Mass flow = density x area x velocity.
This is known as the continuity equation and it is true for any steady flow system
regardless of changes in the cross-sectional area of the duct.
1.7.2 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW.
Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system shown in
the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is of a constant value and, naturally, as
the fluid enters the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and
the initial volume will now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given
time, less distance is travelled and the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an
increase in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity, and a
decrease in duct area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express
this action as velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.
Duct System
Figure 1.7.
1.7.3 BERNOULLIS THEOREM

This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called static pressure and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged
in the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called dynamic pressure and this term is used
to define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to mass x velocity 2 (ie. mv2).
When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy = static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from
one end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a
valve, which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall
of the duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static
pressure and total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to
allow a fluid flow, the circumstances changes and, although the total energy must
remain the same, it now consists of static pressure + dynamic pressure. As the
velocity V increases, so dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is
reduced.
Duct with Flow Control Valve

Figure 1.8.
1.7.4 TOTAL ENERGY.

Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the total
head or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A
gauge connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure
regardless of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure
drops.
Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

Figure 1.9.
1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIS THEOREM

1.8.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoullis theorem produces
the effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct
of varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).
Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Figure 1.10.
The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity)

change.
Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) changes as area
(and velocity) change.
1.8.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1)
and velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will
spread out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down
(continuity equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of
the air will increase (Bernoullis theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the
duct and, because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is
compresses by the rise in pressure in section B of the duct.
Airflow Through a Duct Section

Figure 1.11.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
1.8.1.2 Diffuser action.

The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig
1.12.)and its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which
the air is compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and,
because of this, a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When
air is compressed by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle
that is used extensively in jet engine design.
Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.
1.8.2 GAS LAWS

In addition to the preceding information, the following gas laws are closely related
to the function of a gas turbine engine:
Boyles Law. This law is related to temperature and pressure of a gas. It
states that if the temperature T remains constant, the volume V of a given mass
varies inversely as the pressure P exerted upon it (ie. PV = Constant).
Charles Law. This law states that the volume V of a given mass of gas
increases by 1/273 of its volume at 0C for a rise of 1C when the pressure P of
the gas is kept constant. These laws are now combined in what is called the
ideal gas law. It gives the relationship:
PV = RT where: P = pressure
V = volume
R = a constant
T = absolute temperature in K

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT

DUCTS
1.9.1 DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic
speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the
pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.
Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.
1.9.2 CONVERGENT DUCT
A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.
Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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1.10 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS
When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic speed through a convergent duct a
shock wave forms at the exit area of the duct - The exit area is said to be choked.
The shock wave forms a restriction to the fluid and pressure will increase,
temperature will increase and velocity will decrease.
A Con-Di Nozzle
Figure 1.14.
When a gas flow reaches sonic velocity in a convergent duct the nozzle will choke
and the pressure will increase. To prevent a pressure rise that would eventually
prevent a 'fluid' flow and completely choke the duct a divergent section is added
making the duct convergent/divergent (Con/DI). The pressure of gas released into
the divergent section of the nozzle causes the velocity of the 'fluid' to increase,
pressure to decrease, and therefore temperature to decrease. Gas pressure acts
on the walls of the divergent section, this pressure gives additional thrust that is
known as pressure thrust.
Airflow Through a Con-Di Nozzle or Venturi.

Figure 1.15.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM
Air is drawn from the atmosphere (Ambient Air) into the compressor. The
compressor raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on diagram. If the pressure of
the air is increased the volume is decreased. The air passes to the combustion
system and heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the
diagram (B to C) it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the
gas turbine working cycle is known as the constant pressure cycle. In the
combustion system the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas
increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the
turbine section to drive the turbine (s), energy is extracted and the pressure
decreases. The gas passes via an exhaust unit to the propelling nozzle which
forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the
high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D on diagram).
Changes in Temperature, Pressure and Velocity and the Brayton Cycle

Figure 1.16.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.

There are two main types of gas turbine engines:
Reaction engines, which derive their thrust by jet reaction
Power engines, which provide a mechanical output to drive another device.
1.12.1 REACTION ENGINES

These can be divided into several categories.
a. Turbojet engines. The turbojet was the first type of jet engine developed. In this
engine all the air passes through the core engine (i.e. the compressor,
combustor and turbine). The engine may be single shaft as in the Avon engine,
or twin shafted as in the Olympus 593 fitted to Concorde.
These engines are noisy and are not the most fuel efficient for normal use,
however for high altitude high speed flight they are in a class of their own.
Turbo jet Engines.

Figure 1.17.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced by-passes the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors
and thrust. These engine are quieter than turbojets and more fuel efficient. The
Spey and Tay engines fall into this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the by-
pass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than
2:1, medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.
Low By-pass Twin Spool Engine (Spey)

Figure 1.17.
c. High by-pass turbofan engines. These engines have very large fans driven by
a relatively small core engine. Often the fan is geared to run at a lower speed
than the LP turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical advantage and also
allows it to run at higher speed where it is more efficient. The ALF 502, RB211
and the Trent engines are all high by-pass
High by-pass engines
are very fuel efficient,
powerful and quiet.
These engines have a
very large diameter
which does give drag
problems, and are not
suitable for high
speed flight as the
blade tips will suffer
compressibility
problems as they
A Three Spool High By-pass Engine (RB211)
Figure 1.18. approach the speed
of sound.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
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engineering ENGINES
1.12.2 POWER ENGINES

Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the
gas stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The
engines are either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or
main shaft drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate
power turbine to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high by-
pass turbofans in that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and
prepare the air before passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet
the demands of airspeed etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.
Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
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b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share

many of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not
have propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main
rotor gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed
which tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more
efficient as the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.
Turboshaft Engine with Free power Turbine. (Gem)

Figure 1.20.
There are other types of engine such as ram jets, pulse jets, turbo-ram jet and
turbo - rockets, but none of these are used commercially if at all.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES
The thrust forces or gas loads can be calculated for the engine, or for any flow
section of the engine, provided that the areas, pressures, velocities and mass flow
are known for both the inlet and outlet of the particular flow section.
The distribution of thrust forces shown in Fig 2.1. can be calculated by considering
each component in turn and applying some simple calculations. The thrust
produced by the engine is mainly the product of the mass of air passing through
the engine and the velocity increase imparted to it (ie. Newtons Second Law of
Motion), however the pressure difference between the inlet to and the outlet from
the particular flow section will have an effect on the overall thrust of the engine and
must be included in the calculation.
FORWARD GAS LOAD 57836 lbs REARWARD GAS LOAD 46678 lbs
TOTAL THRUST 11158 lbs
Thrust Distribution of a Typical Single Spool Axial Flow Engine.

Figure 2.1.
To calculate the resultant thrust for a particular flow section it is necessary to
calculate the total thrust at both inlet and outlet, the resultant thrust being the
difference between the two values obtained.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Calculation of the thrust is achieved using the following formula:

Wv
Thrust = ( A P) J
g
Where A = Area of flow section in sq. in.
P = Pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
VJ = Velocity of flow in feet per sec.
g = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE
When applying the above method to calculate the individual thrust loads on the
various components it is assumed that the engine is static. The effect of aircraft
forward speed on the engine thrust will be dealt with later. In the following
calculations g is taken to be 32 for convenience.
Compressor casing
To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the
conditions at the inlet to the compressor and the conditions at the outlet from the
compressor. Since the pressure and the velocity at the inlet to the compressor are
zero, it is only necessary to consider the force at the outlet from the compressor.
Therefore, given that the compressor
OUTLET Area (A) = 182 sq. in.
Pressure (P) = 94 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
Velocity (vj) = 406 ft. per sec.
Mass flow (W) = 153 lb. per sec.
The thrust
= ( AP) Wv j 0
g
153406
= (18294) 0
32
= 19,049lb. of thrust in a forward direction.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Total Thrust of the Compressor.

Figure 2.2.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
International Standard Atmosphere

Figure 2.3.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Choked Nozzle
Considering the formula for thrust under choked nozzle conditions:
Wv J
Thrust = (P P0 )A +
g
Where: P = Pressure
P = Ambient Pressure
A = Area
W = Mass Flow
V = Velocity
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection to cool the air and increases in jet
velocity by using after-burning.
Changes in ambient pressure and temperature considerably influence the thrust
of the engine. This is because of the way they affect the air density and hence the
mass of air entering the engine for a given engine rotational speed.
Thrust Correction - Turbojet
To enable the performance of similar engines to be compared when operating
under different climatic conditions, or at different altitudes, correction factors must
be applied to the calculations to return the observed values to those which would
be found under I.S.A. conditions. For example, the thrust correction for a turbo-jet
engine is:
30
Thrust (lb) (corrected) = thrust (lb) (observed) x
PO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg)
(observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
Shaft Horsepower Correction - Turboprop
The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.
conditions, but due to the rating being in s.h.p. and not in pounds of thrust the
factors are different. For example, the correction for s.h.p. is:
30
S.h.p. (corrected) = s.h.p. (observed) 27315
PO 273TO
Where P0 = atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)
T0 = atmospheric temperature in deg. C (observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
273 + 15 = I.S.A. standard sea level temperature in deg. K
273 + T0 = Atmospheric temperature in deg. K

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Equivalent Shaft Horsepower (EHP)

In practice there is always a certain amount of jet thrust in the total output of the
turbo-propeller engine and this must be added to the s.h.p. The correction for jet
thrust is the same as that specified earlier.
To distinguish between these two aspects of the power output, it is usual to refer
to them as s.h.p. and thrust horse-power (t.h.p.). The total equivalent horse-power
is denoted by t.e.h.p. (sometimes e.h.p.) and is the s.h.p. plus the s.h.p. equivalent
to the net jet thrust. For estimation purposes it is taken that, under sea-level static
conditions, one s.h.p. is equivalent to approximately 2.6 lb. of jet thrust. Therefore:
jetthrust lb.
t.e.h.p. = s.h.p.
2.6
The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance,
the higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of
total output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be
required if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the
shaft. In general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5
h.p. to 5 h.p.
2.2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN THRUST AND HORSE-POWER
Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller engine in
s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without a power
conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine receives its thrust
mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horse-
power developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust developed by the turbo-jet
engine to t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to force or force to work. For this
purpose, it is necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.
FV
t.h.p. is expressed as
550 ft. persec
Where F = lb of thrust
V = aircraft speed (ft. per sec)
Since one horse-power is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is
equivalent to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that one
lb. of thrust equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote the speed
in knots (nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515 m.p.h. or one pound
of thrust is equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed of
600 m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be 5,000600 8,000

375

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine with a
propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600 m.p.h., then the
100
t.h.p. would be: 8,000 14,545
55
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT
Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:
Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine
and the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:
WvJ
(P P0 )A +
g
The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
WV
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as where:
g
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V = Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
WVJ
MomentumThrust
WV wv
Momentum Drag Gross Thrust (P Po ) A J g

g g Pr essureThrust (P PO ) A

The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag. From the definitions and
formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net thrust of the engine,
W Vj V
simplifying, can be expressed as: P P oA
g
All pressures are total pressures except P which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)
VJ = Jet velocity at propelling nozzle (ft. per sec)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. Per sq. in)
PO = Atmospheric pressure (lb. Per sq. in)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)
G = Gravitational constant 32.2

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
The Balance of Forces and Expression for Thrust and Momentum Drag.
Figure 2.4.
Graph of Thrust Against Forward Speed.

Figure 2.5.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.3.1 EFFECT OF FORWARD SPEED

Since reference will be made to ram ratio and Mach number, these terms are
defined as follows:
Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry to
the static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as the
ratio of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0 therefore
represents a speed equal to the local speed of sound.
From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains constant,
independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases the thrust
would decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ram ratio effect from
the aircraft forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine so that the mass
airflow and also the jet velocity increase with aircraft speed. The effect of this
tends to offset the extra intake momentum drag due to the forward speed so that
the resultant loss of net thrust is partially recovered as the aircraft speed
increases. A typical curve illustrating this point is shown in the figure 2.5.
Obviously, the ram ratio effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure rise at
entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag, is of
considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high speeds. Above
speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock waves at the air intake,
this rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless a suitably designed air intake
is provided; an efficient air intake is necessary to obtain maximum benefit from the
ram ratio effect.
As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air temperature
rises rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This temperature rise affects the
compressor delivery air temperature proportionally and, in consequence, to
maintain the required thrust, the engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry
temperatures. Since the maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is
determined by the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of
turbine materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the ram
ratio effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an increase in fuel
consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with forward speed, the
end result is an increase in specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.), as shown by the
curves for a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure 2.6.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ram ratio effect causes very high
stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is automatically
reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Effects of speed on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.

Figure 2.6.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.3.2 EFFECT OF AFTERBURNING ON ENGINE THRUST

At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine is
negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net thrust.
If after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order of 30 percent
is possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with the by-pass
engine. This augmentation of basic thrust, is of greater advantage for certain
specific operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the ram
effect, better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through the engine.
2.3.3 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced.
This affects the engine in two inter-related ways:-
The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall. The fuel
control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced mass airflow, so
maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass of air
entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This causes the
mass airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to some extent for the
loss of thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At altitudes above 36,089
feet and up to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature remains constant, and the
thrust or s.h.p. is affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust and fuel consumption are
illustrated in Figure 2.7.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
Effects of Altitude on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.

Figure 2.7.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p. is
higher. The denser air does, however, increase the power required to drive the
compressor or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel to maintain the
same engine speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if no increase in fuel is
available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air
entering the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a given
r.p.m. Because less power will be required to drive the compressor, the fuel
control system reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine rotational
speed or turbine entry temperature, as appropriate; however, because of the
decrease in air density, the thrust will be lower. At a temperature of 45C,
depending on the type of engine, a thrust loss of up to 20 percent may be
experienced. This means that some sort of thrust augmentation, such as water
injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel supply is
held practically constant at low air temperature conditions, whereupon the engine
speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow as a result of the increase
in air density, the thrust remains the same. For example, the combined
acceleration and speed control (CASC) fuel system schedules fuel flow to maintain
a constant engine r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air temperature decreases
until, at a predetermined compressor delivery pressure, the fuel flow is
automatically controlled to maintain a constant compressor delivery pressure and,
therefore, thrust, Figure 2.8. illustrates this for a twin-spool engine where the
controlled engine r.p.m. is high pressure compressor speed and the compressor
delivery pressure is expressed as P3. It will also be apparent from this graph that
the low pressure compressor speed is always less than its limiting maximum and
that the difference in the two speeds is reduced by a decrease in ambient air
temperature. To prevent the L.P. compressor overspeeding, fuel flow is also
controlled by an L.P. governor which, in this case, takes a passive role.
The Effect of Air

Temperature on
a Typical Twin
Spool Engine
Figure 2.8.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY

Performance of the jet engine is not only concerned with the thrust produced, but
also with the efficient conversion of the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy,
as represented by the jet velocity, and the best use of this velocity to propel the
aircraft forward, ie. the efficiency of the propulsive system.
The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is termed thermal or
internal efficiency and, like all heat engines, is controlled by the cycle pressure
ratio and combustion temperature. Unfortunately this temperature is limited by the
thermal and mechanical stresses that can be tolerated by the turbine. The
development of new materials and techniques to minimise these limitations is
continually being pursued.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed the
propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected by the amount of kinetic
energy wasted by the propelling mechanism. Waste energy dissipated in the jet
wake, which represents a loss, can be expressed as
W (v j V ) 2
where (vJ - V) is the waste velocity.
2g
It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range the pure jet stream
wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and consequently is
less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as aircraft speed
increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a high velocity
from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is reduced
and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.
Efficiency Plots of Differing Types of Engine to Airspeed

Figure 2.9.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP

Primary engine design considerations, particularly for commercial transport duty,
are those of low specific fuel consumption and weight. Considerable improvement
has been achieved by use of the by-pass principle and by advanced mechanical
and aerodynamic features and the use of improved materials. With the trend
towards higher by-pass ratios, in the range of 15:1, the triple-spool and contra-
rotating rear fan engines allow the pressure and by-pass ratios to be achieved with
short rotors, using fewer compressor stages, resulting in a lighter and more
compact engine.
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the
overall efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high
pressures which in practice also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure
turbo-jet engine this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and
consequently lower the propulsive efficiency. However, by using the by-pass
principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by
by-passing a proportion of the L.P. compressor or fan delivery air to lower the
mean jet temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-
pass and overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is
obtained.
The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they deal with the total airflow,
whereas the turbines of by-pass engines deal only with part of the flow; thus the
H.P. compressor, combustion chambers and turbines, can be scaled down. The
increased power per lb. of air at the turbines, to take advantage of their full
capacity, is obtained by the increase in pressure ratio and turbine entry
temperature. It is clear that the by-pass engine is lighter, because not only has the
diameter of the high pressure rotating assemblies been reduced, but the engine is
shorter for a given power output. With a low by-pass ratio engine, the weight
reduction compared with a pure jet engine is in the order of 20 per cent for the
same air mass flow.
With a high by-pass ratio engine of the triple-spool configuration, a further
significant improvement in specific weight is obtained. This is derived mainly from
advanced mechanical and aerodynamic design, which in addition to permitting a
significant reduction in the total number of parts, enables rotating assemblies to be
more effectively matched and to work closer to optimum conditions, thus
minimising the number of compressor and turbine stages for a given duty. The
use of higher strength lightweight materials is also a contributory factor.
For a given mass flow, less thrust is produced by the by-pass engine due to the
lower exit velocity. Thus, to obtain the same thrust, the by-pass engine must be
scaled to pass a larger total mass airflow than the pure turbo-jet engine. The
weight of the engine, however, is still less because of the reduced size of the H.P.
section of the engine. Therefore, in addition to the reduced specific fuel
consumption, an improvement in the power-to-weight ratio is obtained.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is
how efficiently the power is produced. The amount of fuel consumed to produce a
given horsepower lbs. thrust is known as specific fuel consumption or SFC. A
typical aircraft fuel system measures the volume of fuel consumed. This is
displayed in pounds per hour or PPH. To calculate fuel flow, specific fuel
consumption found on the customer data sheet, is multiplied by the horsepower
lbs. thrust produced.
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION
SFC = SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION is defined as the lbs of fuel used per
HP/lbs of thrust per hour
2.7 FLAT RATING
Flat rating is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine that has
a capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then limit the power
output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits derived from flat rating.
One is the engine will have the ability to make take-off power at lower turbine
temperatures over a wide range of outside air temperatures and pressure
altitudes. Performance at altitude will be greatly enhanced. These two benefits
result in the third benefit, longer engine life. A fourth benefit available on some
engines is, a reserve of power which can be used to boost performance in an
emergency ie. Loss of an engine during take - off.
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS
In the chart, performance ratings are compared on 1 through 12 engines.
Notice the modifiers on the 1, -5, -6, -8 and 10 engines. These temperatures
represent the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will make take-off power
below their turbine temperature limits to the ambient temperatures indicated.
Engines that are not flat rated, such as the 3 or 11, would be unable to make
take-off power below their turbine temperature limits when operating in conditions
above 59F outside air temperatures.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
3 INLET
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An air intake should deliver air to the engine compressor with a minimum loss of
energy and at a uniform pressure under all engine operating conditions. The inlet
duct is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent diffuser, so that the kinetic energy
of the rapidly moving air can be converted into a ram pressure rise within the duct.
This condition is referred to as Ram Recovery.
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION
The degree of Ram Compression depends upon the following:-
i. Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of the intake entry which are
wetted by the intake airflow.
ii. Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
iii. Turbulence losses due to accessories or structural members located in the
intake.
iv. Aircraft speed.
v. In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses due to the prop blades and
spinner.
Ram compression causes a re-distribution in the forms of energy existing in the
air-stream. As the air in the intake is slowed up in endeavouring to pass into and
through the compressor element against the air of increasing pressure and density
which exists therein so the kinetic energy of the air in the intake decreases. This
is accompanied by a corresponding increase in its pressure and internal energies
and consequently compression of the air-stream is achieved within the intake, thus
converting the unfavourable intake lip conditions into the compressor inlet
requirements.
Although ram compression improves the performance of the engine, it must be
realised that during the process there is a drag force on the engine and hence the
aircraft. This drag must be accepted since it is a penalty inherent in a ram
compression process. (The added thrust more than makes up for this drag).
3.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF RAM COMPRESSION
At subsonic flight speeds, the ram pressure ratio is apparently quite small, say
1.33: 1 at 0.8M. Nevertheless, since the pressure rise due to ram compression is
multiplied by the pressure ratio of the compressor, the ram pressure rise becomes
significant even at subsonic speeds.
Furthermore, the greater the forward speed of the aircraft becomes, the more
significant is the ram compression; e.g. at 1.5M the ram pressure ratio may be
about 3.5 : 1, and at 2.5M about 8 : 1.

JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
uk MODULE 15
GAS TURBINE
engineering ENGINES
3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES

3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES
This intake is suitable for subsonic or low supersonic speeds. Examples, 707,
747, A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually short and is very efficient because
the duct inlet is located directly ahead of the engine compressor. As the duct
length increases, the risk of small airflow disturbances and pressure drop is
increased. This inlet makes maximum use of ram effect until sonic speed is
approached when efficiency falls due to shock wave formation at the intake lip.
Pitot inlets can however suffer from inlet turbulences at high angles of attack
and/or at low speeds.
Pitot Type Intakes.

Figure 3.1.

Module 15 B1 Gas Turbine

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JAR 66 CATEGORY B1

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1

2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP 2-15

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 2

4.12.1 Centrifugal ............................................................................. 4-30

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 3

7.4 NOISE REDUCTION ............................................................................... 7-8

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 4

9.4.1 Viscosity ................................................................................. 9-9

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 5

11.7.2 Plunger-type Fuel Pump ...................................................... 11-6

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 6

13.2.2 Electric Starter/Generator....................................................... 13-3

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 7

16.2.2 Free Power Turbine.............................................................. 16-2

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 8

19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION ........................................................ 19-1

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 9

20.6 INDICATIONS OF FIRE DETECTION .............................................. 20-20

Issue 2 April 2003 Page

Since 1hp = 550 ft-lbs/sec then required hp = 50,000

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-1

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-2

1.2 FORCE AND MOTION

350 Ml (563 Km)

200 Ml (322 Km)

Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-3

Newtons Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is

the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,

g = the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec2)

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-4

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-5

1.4 GAS TURBINES

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-6

1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The Working Cycle.

The cycle, upon which the gas

The Brayton Cycle.

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-7

The air entering the engine is compressed.

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-8

1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .

Gas Flow Through an Engine

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-9

1.6.2 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE

Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation

Now volume flow = Area of duct x distance travelled (L)

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-10

But the distance travelled per second = Velocity.

1.7.3 BERNOULLIS THEOREM

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-11

Duct with Flow Control Valve

1.7.4 TOTAL ENERGY.

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-12

Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures

1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIS THEOREM

Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-13

Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity)

1.8.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).

Airflow Through a Duct Section

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1-14