LSAT Center Reading Comprehension Introduction

This is a breakdown of how to read in an effective manner. You can find out what the author is really saying
by reading between the lines while looking for implied statements.

A typical LSAT test will include three Reading Comprehension passages that are straightforward essays follo
by questions and one pair of "dual passages", also called "comparitive reading".

Dual passages feature two passages on a similar or related subject. The passages may agree with each other o
may take different sides of an issue. Or, passage pairs may have complex relationship where one passage
articulates a set of principles while another applies those principles.

Introduction to Reading Comprehension

Video Courtesy of Kaplan

Reading Comprehension Strategies

Video Courtesy of Kaplan

The Challenge

View reading comprehension passages as if they were a reality TV show where you are
dropped in a rain forest with no clues about where you are or how to proceed. On the LSAT, a
reading passage will be dropped in front of you and you will have no background on it whatsoever.

1. You don't know who the author is.

2. You don't know what the title is.
3. You don't have enough time to fully read it.
4. You can't see the paragraphs before or after the essay.
5. You don't know when or where it was published.
6. The content is dense, boring, esoteric and jargon-filled.

.And your mastery of these 300 words will determine your future law school and career.

You're going to need a compass!

Reading for a Purpose

The passages are intentionally jargon-filled and dense. In school you were taught to read for detail,
but on the LSAT you would run out of time doing that. This means that you have to re-learn how to
read.

Financial-market analysis studies ignore deficiencies because of analysts' inherent preferences for
perfect rationality.

You will have to process through sentences like that while preparing for the questions that follow. If
you know what to look for, what to cue in on, and what to ignore in a passage, you stay in control
and not get think clearly. You are not reading the passages for enjoyment or acquisition of
knowledge; you are reading for the purpose of answering the the 11 question types (below) as
efficiently and accurately as possible.
Macro Questionsgeneral issues (macro is Greek for large or "big picture")
1. Main idea
2. Purpose of the passage
3. Tone
4. Organization of the passage
5. Category of Writing (Advanced)
6. Identity of the author (Advanced)

Micro Questionsrefer to specific elements of the essay

7. Detail of the passage
8. Definition of a term or phrase
9. Support for a premise Wheres the proof?
10. Function of part of the passage (Advanced)

Macro/Micro
11. Inference
A: Reading Comp Introduction
B: The Five Steps
C: Question Types
D: Tips for Finding the Right Answer

B: The Five Steps

Here are the 5 steps you should take while reading a passage to prepare for the questions.

1. Classify the Passage

Is it science or humanities? Is
this a persuasive essay or a
descriptive one?

2. Break down each

paragraph
Look for tone, main idea and
transitions.

3. See the Organization

Make roadmap of essay and/or
draw out map structure on your
scratch paper.

4. Find the Big Idea

Pay more attention to first and
last paragraphs. Look for
unusual language that makes an
important point.

5. Diagnose the author's

purpose
Look for intention in the essay.
1. Passage Classification

Most passages fall into one of three categories: Science, Business/Law and Cultural Studies.

A. Science
These passages deal with such topics as chemistry and astronomy. Although these passages can
often be dull, they are also often straightforward and thus manageable. You are not likely to see
any inference questions here. Instead, you will most likely see several factual questions that can be
answered by direct, accurate reading of the passage. So long as you don't allow yourself to be
buried by jargon, science passages should be easy reading comprehension questions.

Example Passage: Discussion in an engineering magazine on a new plan for solar power.

Science is often subjective

We tend to think of scientists as clear and logical, like Spock on
Star Trek, and scientific fact as static. The reality is that science is
full of conflict and contains controversial ideas. Science essays on
the LSAT will often foray into controversy and it's your job as the
reader to see the points of view, the bias, and the conflict.

B. Business/Law
These essays may also be jargon intensive, but you may have some background knowledge in this
area. This is usually beneficial, as it makes the passage easier to read; just remember that specific
outside knowledge will never be called upon to answer an essay question. All the answers can be
found in the essay itself.

Example Passage: Yale Law Review evaluation of modern labor law and its impact on productivity.

C. Cultural Studies
A large number of these essays will focus on historically-oppressed identity groups (their art,
culture and history). From the standpoint of test-taking strategy, you can be assured that any essay
about a historically-oppressed group will have a positive and sympathetic tone. The author's
purpose will always present the group's cultural contribution in a favorable manner.

Example Passage: Commentary on the political achievements of the Iroquois Confederacy.

Most passages fall into one of three categories of purpose : describe, evaluate, and persuade.

Author's main purpose is to convey information and clearly present a situation or idea. These essays
present themselves as being objective, but often inject some opinion and bias as well.

Example Author: Newspaper Reporter

Author describes a phenomenon, situation, viewpoint, or theory and analyzes it. The author is
giving you the pros and cons, strengths and weaknesses of the topic in a methodical, detached
manner.
Example Author: Researcher / Academic

The author advocates a particular position, often against another point of view. Think of this
author as an idea salesman who wants you to become a True Believer and reject opposing opinions.

Example Author: Debater, Politician

Don't argue with the essay

Maybe you don't think Peruvian weaving is as nice as the author
thinks it is. If your personal understanding or view of the issue
happens to contradict that of the author in a Persuade essay, this
could inhibit your ability to comprehend the author's point of view.
Leave your opinions out and try to enter the same point of view as
the author.

2. Breaking Down Each Passage

Each paragraph is the basic unit of the essay. By breaking down an unwieldy and cumbersome
essay into smaller pieces, it is easier to comprehend ideas, intentions, and follow the organizational
structure.

When reading a paragraph and after finishing it, make a mental note or write down three things to
help you answer the questions:

A. Main Idea of each paragraph

The first sentence in a paragraph will often be a topic sentence or transition sentence. It should tell
you the main idea of the paragraph or the paragraph's relation to the preceding one.

B. Tone of each paragraph

Recognizing an author's tone is very important to understanding the structure and purpose of an
essay. Having a strong grasp on the author's tone will go a long way in answering main idea and
author purpose questions.
Here's the last paragraph from a passage about artistic concepts; see if you can cue in to the
author's tone to more easily discern his point:

The "mimetic" theory holds that art reproduces reality, but although amateurs' photographs
reproduce reality, most artists and art critics do not consider them art. Much of what is recognized as
art conforms to the definition of art as the creation of forms, but an engineer and the illustrator of a
geometry textbook also construct forms. The inadequacy of these definitions suggests a strong
element of irrationality, for it suggests that the way in which artists and art critics talk and think
about works of art does not correspond with the way in which they actually distinguish those things
that they recognize as works of art from the things that they do not so recognize.

The words "inadequacy" and "irrationality" establish an attitude of frustration over the current
method of defining art. We can sense that the author is exasperated by the current practice of critics.

C. Relation to preceding paragraph

A good writer will make a smooth transition to a new paragraph with a new idea. After each
paragraph, mentally note its relation to the preceding paragraph. The paragraph is the main structural
unit of any passage. To find a paragraph's purpose, ask yourself:

1. Why did the author include this paragraph?

2. What shift did the author have in mind when transitioning to this paragraph?
3. What bearing does this paragraph have on the main idea of the passage so far?

Tone can shift suddenly in a new paragraph:

There are increasing indications that academic research has separated itself from practical concerns
to such an extent that, in many academic arenas, the transition from theory to practice has vanished
entirely. Indeed, public and private institutions alike are awakening to the need to infuse scholarship
with an "ear" for the practically useful. Yet, the problem appears intractable, with a chasm between
academics and practitioners that grows only wider. Only radical change will steer academia back
toward collaboration with practical concern. But who could devise such a radical, yet effective,
strategy?

I can. I have the answer. All academic research must seek private funding. Scholarship without
funding has no justification for existence. You, naturally, think my idea is preposterous. Surely I
understand that commercial value is separate from scholarly significance? Yet it is you who are
mistaken. You do not understand that the market is the most efficient measure of worth, be it
commercial or scholarly. You again object, this time almost in a panic, that I speak nonsense. But
you are merely afraid of what you know to be the one viable path for modern academia. Follow or
be left behind in your blind fear of the most fundamental economic truths. This is the only way.

The first paragraph sets up the problem: academics have lost touch with real life. The second
paragraph signals a tone shift from explanatory to aggressive persuasion, reflecting a shift in
purpose from explaining a problem to forcefully advocating a solution.

3. See the Organization

Here we will uncover the author's organization and develop a roadmap of the text. A roadmap
essentially paraphrases the main point of each paragraph.

Why do you need to make a mental roadmap of an essay?

1. In order to uncover the author's main point, you will often need to combine the author's statements
and the organizational structure.

2. Detail questions ask you to answer questions related to specific information in the essay. If you
know the organization of the essay, you will more efficiently pull details because you have a good
idea where the needed information is located.

3. Writing down content doubles its exposure to your brain, increasing the retention rate of the
content. This makes re-reading less necessary and ultimately saves you time.

Skim
The most efficient way to read essays is to read closely for the main idea but skim through the
details. The amount you skim will depend on you, but you will hurt yourself by treating each word
as vitally important.

Prioritize
Read the paragraphs strategically.

1. Read the first paragraph the most closely (usually every word), unless it is a backgrounder (an
introductory paragraph that introduces background information, with little description of the author's
point of view). If it is a backgrounder, then the second paragraph takes primary importance.
Backgrounders are one way the LSAT writers make the essays longer.
2. Read the last paragraph with second to highest priority.
3. Skim most of the content of secondary paragraphs (all others).

Mapping
Primary
Spend more time understanding the function of the first paragraph (or second, if the first is a
backgrounder) and last paragraph.

Secondary
In skimming secondary paragraphs, you should focus entirely on understanding tone, main idea, and
relation to preceding paragraph. This system keeps you focused on getting the important secondary
content without wasting time on details. Remember to look for slam-on-the-brakes or any other
conspicuous language.

For example, a science essay might have the format:

P1: Background
P2: Main idea: stem cell therapy faces many problems
P3: Problems in stem cell research
P4: More problems in stem cell research
P5: Conclusion about future

Here is a sample long passage, broken down paragraph by paragraph:

Paragraph One
What is going on?
Nearly twenty years ago, biochemists
found that a separable constituent of the The first paragraph here is
cell deoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) actually mostly fluff. This is a
appeared to guide the cell's protein- scientific background that
synthesizing machinery. The internal prepares the reader for the
structure of DNA seemed to represent a set material ahead. Don't get
of coded instructions which dictated the intimidatedskim over it and
pattern of protein-synthesis. Experiments don't panic if you are unable
indicated that in the presence of to understand all the jargon
appropriate enzymes each DNA molecule the first time through.
could form a replica, a new DNA
molecule, containing the specific guiding
message present in the original. This idea,
when added to what was already known
about the cellular mechanisms of heredity
(especially the knowledge that DNA is
localized in chromosomes) appeared to
establish a molecular basis for inherence.
Paragraph Two What is going on?
Proponents of the theory that DNA was a
"self-duplicating" molecule, containing a
code that by itself determined biological
inheritance, introduced the term "central
dogma" into scientific literature in order
to describe the principles that were
supposed to explain DNA's governing
role. The dogma originally involved an
admittedly unproven assumption that
whereas nucleic acids can guide the
synthesis in other nucleic acids and of
proteins, the reverse effect is impossible,
that is, proteins cannot guide the synthesis
of nucleic acids. But actual experimental
observations deny the second and crucial
part of this assumption. Other test-tube
experiments show that agents besides
DNA have a guiding influence. The kind
of protein made may depend on the
specific organism from which the
necessary enzyme is obtained. It also
depends on the test tube's temperature, the
degree of acidity, and the amount of
metallic salts present.
Paragraph Three
The central dogma banishes from
consideration the interactions among the
numerous molecular processes that have
been discovered in cells or in their
extracted fluids. In the living cell,
molecular processesthe synthesis of
nucleic acids and proteins or the
oxidation of food substanceare not
separate but interact in exceedingly
complex ways. No matter how many
ingredients the biochemists' test tubes
may contain, the mixtures are nonliving;
but these same ingredients, organized by
the subtle structure of the cell, constitute
a system, which is alive.
When you see "dogma" or some
other somewhat derogatory term,
bells should go off. Read S L O
W L Y because you are getting to
the important part. You have just
found the raison d'etre of the
essay: our author is challenging a
"dogma"!
What is the author using? Take
note of the phrase "actual
experimental observations".
Like Galileo using the
movements of the planets to
disprove the established
orthodoxy of his time, our author
seeks to use his experimental
observation to challenge the
"dogma". That's part of the
controversy of this essay: a
conflict between dogma and
actual experimental evidence.
What is going on?
"The central dogma banishes from
consideration....". That is strong
language. The author must follow up
that line with the main point: "...the
interactions among the numerous
molecular processes that have been
discovered in cells or in their
extracted fluids."
So, we know this a "simple vs.
complex" conflict. In the prior
paragraph, it was "dogma vs.
experimental evidence". In this
paragraph, it is "simple" dogma
versus more "complex" understanding

Paragraph Four
Consider an example from another field.
At ordinary temperatures, electricity
flows only so long as a driving force
from a battery or generator is imposed on
the circuit. At temperatures near absolute
zero, metals exhibit superconductivity; a
unique property that causes an electric
current to flow for months after the
voltage is cut off. Although independent
electrons exist in a metal at ordinary
temperatures, at very low temperatures
they interact with the metal's atomic
structure in such a way as to lose their
individual identities and form a
coordinated, collective system which
gives rise to superconductivity.
Paragraph Five
Such discoveries of modern physics
show that the unique properties of a
complex system are not necessarily
explicable solely by the properties
that can be observed in its isolated
parts. We can expect to find a similar
situation in the complex chemical
system of the living cells.
Now here is a simple roadmap of the passage:
P1: DNA is the molecular basis of inheritance
P2: DNA is not the only game in town. The reality is more complicated.
of the interactions of molecular
processes that go on in a cell.
What is going on?
W hat does electricity have to do
with DNA? The last sentence says
"... lose their individual identities
and form a coordinated, collective
system". The author is drawing an
analogy to complex and
coordinated cell function. The
purpose of this extended analogy
is to make sure that you
understand that we are dealing
with COMPLEX systems.
What is going on?
The author discusses his point
for the third paragraph in a
row. Simple concept of cells =
bad. Complex coordinated
systems in cells = good.
P3: A cell is extremely complicated and all the parts work together

P4: In case you don't get the idea of complication, here is another example: metals are complicated
and the parts work together.

P5: Okay, one more time: cells are complicated, highly coordinated systems.
4. Find the Big Idea

Wouldn't it be easier if LSAT essays had a title? If they did, you would have a good idea from the
start what the main point of the essay would be. The writers of the LSAT purposefully exclude the
title so that it is up to you to decipher the essay and its main idea.

The main idea is the Rosetta stone of a passage. It helps us to decipher the passage and discern its
structure. The tone, scope, and implications of the main idea usually hold the key to answering
more than half of the reading comprehension questions. Accordingly, we must focus our strategy
on easily finding the author's point of view and the main idea.

In nearly all LSAT passages, the author will make an argument of some form. Don't expect the main
point of a passage to be a detail issue like "World War I was fought from 1914 to 1918." Instead, it's
more likely to be "World War I was extended by Britain's needless and poorly executed
intervention".

An author can't make such an argument without substantial support. This means that the argument
must contain the elements of persuasion:

1. Evidence
2. Refutation of possible rebuttals
3. Subsidiary points

Most essays will put up clear signposts and make the Big Idea pretty obvious--so long as you know
what to look for.

A. The first and last sentences of the first paragraph and the first and last sentences of the
final paragraph are important, since they often introduce or summarize the main points.
Here is a first paragraph of an essay:

One of the most persistently troubling parts of national domestic policy is the development and use
of water resources. Because the technology of water management involves similar construction
skills, whether the task is the building of an ocean jetty for protection of shipping or the construction
of a river dam for flood control and irrigation, the issues of water policy have mingled problems of
navigation and agriculture. A further inherent complexity of water policy is the frequent conflicts
between flood control and irrigation and between requirements for abundance and those for scarcity
of water. Both problems exist in America, often in the same river basins; one is most typically
the problem of the lower part of the basin and the other the problem of the upper part.

This is a clear topic sentence. "Troubling", in the context of water management, is rather strong
language. We know, from the start, that there is a serious problem with water management and that
the author is going to explain what it is.

Here is the final paragraph of the essay:

Nevertheless, the most startling fact about the history of water projects in the United States is
the degree to which their shortcomings have been associated with administrative failures.
Again and again these shortcomings have proved to be the consequences of inadequate study of
water flow, of soil, of factors other than construction technology, and of faulty organization. In
1959, the Senate Select Committee on National Water resources found that twenty different national
commissions or committees charged with examining these problems and seeking solutions had
emphasized with remarkable consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing
with water.

This closes in very specifically on the author's opinionthe failure of government agencies to
effectively deal with water management. The first paragraph introduces the general idea and this
paragraph focuses in on the area for correction the government's lack of administrative
coordination.

Look at the Questions for the Big Idea

If, as we have said, many Macro questions revolve around the Big
Idea, then isn't it possible to get clues about the main idea from
sample Macro questions from the essay? If all fails, look at the
first question and maybe it will give you a clue about what the
LSAT considers important about the essay. In addition, as you get
to the second and third question on the essay, this will help tighten
your understanding of the essay.

B. Slam on the Breaks Language is another signpost. These are tone signals that should compel
you to slow down your reading pace and start reading very closely. There is a good chance the
author is about to reveal a central point and his opinion. It is like a lie detector test when the pen
starts jittering.

Here are some common Slam on the Brakes words:

amazing
successful
impressive
remarkable
greatness
inadequate
invalid
unfortunately
inefficient
leadership
competition
startling
surprising

In that final paragraph, look at how the Slam on the Break words emphatically signal the
author's point:

Nevertheless, the most startling fact about the history of water projects in the United States is the
degree to which their shortcomings have been associated with administrative failures. Again and
again these shortcomings have proved to be the consequences of inadequate study of water flow, of
soil, of factors other than construction technology, and of faulty organization. In 1959, the Senate
Select Committee on National Water resources found that twenty different national commissions or
committees charged with examining these problems and seeking solutions had emphasized with
remarkable consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water.

By focusing on these triggers, we can see how the author consigns the problem of water
management to the government's failings. This gives us access to the Big Idea.
C. Polish Up the Big Idea
Ok, you've finished reading the essay, you think you know the Big Idea, and you have an idea about
structure. Take a moment to review everything and double check that you have the Big Idea
narrowed down. Write a sentence-long summary of the big idea on your white board.
5. Diagnose Author's Purpose

Ask yourself: Why is the author telling me this? Why does the author select certain facts and draw
certain conclusions? What is the author's agenda? There is always some reason why the author
wrote the passage. Often essays will have a policy idea or suggestion to fix a problem described.
Sometimes, the author might simply want to educate people about a subject or correct a
misconception. And sometimes, there will be a more political/ideological motive for the claims
made.

Writers try to sound objective, but there is always something the author wants to convince you of, or
at least, get you to learn from the passage.

Be careful to distinguish fact from opinion. Though they may look like facts, some statements in
the essay may be false claims or unsupported opinions loaded with bias. Pay close attention to the
language in order to distinguish fact from opinion. The author's purpose for writing the essay and his
or her convictions are found in these subtle statements of opinion.

Take these excerpts from a passage on water management, for example. Some of the author's
statements are fact, but many are opinion.

"In the arid parts of the FACT: This statement is a review

land, it has recently become
clear that climate varies
over time, with irregular
periods of serious drought
followed by wet periods
marked by occasional
floods."
of recent scientific findings about
climate. No opinion here.
However, the author is using data
regarding drought periods to back
up later claims about water being
mismanaged.

"One of the most OPINION: "The most troubling"

persistently troubling parts
of national domestic policy
is the development and use
of water resources."
indicates feeling, not fact. The
author's opinion is that the
development of water resources is
one of the most troubling parts of
national domestic policy. This is
not necessarily the ultimate truth.
Some people may not think that
 development of water resources is
problematic.

FACT: The author is citing

"In 1959, the Senate Select specific research conducted by a
Committee on National Senate committee. He or she is
Water resources found that using these findings to back up
twenty different national the claim that water is
commissions or committees mismanaged due to administrative
charged with examining failure. However, this statement
these problems and seeking alone contains no opinion.
solutions had emphasized
with remarkable
consistency the need for
coordination among
agencies dealing with
water."

In summary, every author has a purpose for writing his or her passage. The author's purpose can be
found in subtle statements of opinion. Pay close attention to language that indicates conviction.
Section C: Question Types

SPECIFIC QUESTION TYPES

Nearly all questions fall into 11 distinct types:

Macro Questionscover general issues

1. Main idea
2. Purpose of the passage
3. Tone
4. Organization of the passage
5. Category of Writing (Advanced)
6. Identity of the author (Advanced)

Micro Questions--refer to specific elements of the essay

7. Detail of the passage
8. Definition of a term or phrase
9. Support for a premise Proof and evidence
10. Function of part of the passage (Advanced)

Macro/Micro
11. Inference

HOW TO HANDLE THE MACRO QUESTIONS

The Five Questions are an effective means for answering macro questions because they enable you
to focus on the essay's "big issues."

Question 1. What is the passage type?

Question 2. What is each paragraph about?
Question 3. What is the organization? (Create a mental roadmap.)
Question 4. What is the big idea?
Question 5. What is the authors purpose?

As you read the passage, look for answers to the Five Questions. Once you've done this, you should
be able to answer the macro questions without referring back to the passage. You will then have
plenty of time for answering the micro questions.
 Section 4: Question Type 1Main Idea

Some typical phrasings for Main Idea questions are:

What is the main point of the passage?

What argument is the author making?

The author is primarily concerned with advancing which of the following points?

What is the main idea?

Which of the following best summarizes the authors argument?

Keep an eye out for words like main, general, summarize, and argument.

How to tackle them: If you follow the Five Steps strategy, you should easily be able to locate the
main idea. Then, translate your conception of the main idea into something that matches one of the
answer choices. Passages on the LSAT are relatively short. Therefore, the answer to a main idea
question cannot be too general or too specific. Main ideas tend toward medium focus. If stuck,
eliminate the options that are at the extremes of specificity: either very general or very detailed. This
may leave you with one probably, the right answer; if it leaves you with more than one, you have
still improved your chances of guessing correctly.

What is the main idea of the passage?

A) The Native Americans of Wichita have a long and rich cultural history.
B) Native Americans have traditions.
C) Chief Running Horse of the Wichita Native Americans enjoys the traditional New Years dance
because he likes to watch his neighbor, Lone Tree, dance.
D) People have traditions.
E) The Native Americans of Wichita use dance in many of their traditions.

Now analyze the answer choices, looking for super-specific or super-general wording. Which choice
is the most general? ...most specific?

(D) People have traditions is extremely general. A book might be able to cover such a broad topic,
but a short passage can't address a wide enough variety of topics for this answer to make sense.

(B) Native Americans have traditions is still too broad. Native Americans have traditions, but what
traditions? If the answer choice says something so general and so obvious that there's no need to
write an essay about it, it's probably wrong.

(C) Chief Running Horse of the Wichita Native Americans enjoys the traditional New Years dance
because he likes to watch his neighbor, Lone Tree, dance is far too specific. This idea can probably
 Section 4: Question Type 2 Purpose of the passage

How to identify Purpose of the passage questions: Look for synonyms for purpose: objective,
goal, main strategy.

What is the purpose of the passage?

Why did the author write the passage?

For which of the following reasons did the author write the passage?

What was the authors primary objective?

The overall objective of the passage is which of the following?

How to tackle them: Often the answer choices will also start with verbs.

Look for the one that fits.

For example, if the passage is a description of a new species of bird, look for words that mean
"describe": explain, discuss, etc.

Which of the following is the authors main purpose?

A) Present . . .
B) Argue . . .
C) Persuade . . .
D) Lament . . .
E) Praise. . .

The answer must be (A) because it is the closest synonym to "describe." Notice how "present"
(choice A) is similar to "a description of a new species". The other choices don't match up with the
"description of a new species" essay topic.
 Section 4: Question Type 3 Tone

How to identify Tone questions: Tone is feeling, not thinking. Look for emotion and attitude.

What is the authors attitude toward . . . ?

Which of the following best describes the authors feelings toward . . . ?

How to tackle them: Look for adjectives in the passage that describe attitudes, such as "jubilant",
"depressed", "extraordinary", etc. Also, remember that the tone must be consistent with the main
idea.

Which of the following best describes the authors feelings towards gentrification?

A) Outrage
B) Suspicion
C) Indifference
D) Acceptance
E) Exhilaration

The author is probably not outraged or exhilarated about the subject. Both of these adjectives are
extreme and would warrant much stronger language than that which commonly appears on LSAT
essays.

Section 4: Question Type 4 Passage Organization

How to identify Passage Organization questions: Look for questions asking about organization.

Which of the following correctly describes the organization of the passage?

In which of the following ways is the passage organized?

In the third paragraph, the author does which of the following?

How to tackle them: Knowing the function of each paragraph is key to being able to answer
organization questions. Remember the Five Steps. Step #3: What is the organization? said to look
out for each paragraphs main points and function in the essay as a whole. If you make a mental
roadmap of the essay as you read, you will already know how the passage is organized when you
reach the questions. Then, answering an organization question is simply a matter of referring back to
your roadmap.

Section 4: Question Type 5 Category of Writing (Advanced)

LSAT passages represent some form of writing in the real world. Is it a letter to a newspaper? An
excerpt from a book? A lobbyist's position paper?

How to identify Category questions: Look for questions asking about the origin of the passage's
writing.

In what type of publication would this passage most likely appear?

Which of the following best describes the passage?

From which of the following sources was the passage most likely excerpted?

How to tackle them: As always with macro questions, it comes back to main idea and purpose.
Who is the author and why did he or she write the passage? If you know that, youll know where the
passage should appear.

For example, you decide that the purpose of the passage is to discredit a politician and its official
language lets you know it was meant for the public to read. You can assume the writer is a reporter
or journalist.

From which of the following sources is the passage excerpted?

A) A nationally distributed newspaper

B) A press release from a big company
C) The diary of a senator
D) A governmental budgetary report
E) An encyclopedia

if the writer is a journalist, then you know the answer must be A.

Section 4: Question Type 6 Identify the Author (Advanced)

This question type asks you to identify the type of person who wrote the passage. Dont forget to use
some elementary logic. A passage written to describe the mating habits of the whale will probably
not have been written by a senator.

How to identify Identity of Author questions: Look for the question to ask about the author.

Who is the most likely author of the passage?

Who might have written the passage?

How to tackle them: Use main idea and purpose. You know what the passage is saying. You know
the authors purpose. Who would write such a passage?

Think back to the passage on water management. Government had screwed up water management
by having agencies that didnt coordinate. The authors purpose was to tell us about these problems.
His goal was for us to understand the problems as well as he did. So who could he be? Perhaps he is
an academic who studies land management. Perhaps he is a lobbyist for an organization that
supports irrigation. He could be a journalist who specializes in these issues. Use the main idea and
purpose in conjunction with common sense. Who would be the likely author of a passage describing
governmental problems in the management of water resources?

Section 4: Micro Questions

HOW TO HANDLE MICRO QUESTIONS

1) Find the section of the passage that is relevant to the question (often this is highlighted for
you).

2) Use information in the relevant section to select the correct answer choice.

How to find the relevant section of the passage:

Usually the LSAT writers help you out and highlight the relevant text of the essay. When there is no
highlighted text, micro questions will contain words that help you find the relevant section of the
passage.

Watch for Synonyms

Usually in micro questions, the correct answer choice will contain a paraphrase that will be a
rephrasing of the supporting text. Rarely will you see:

. . . My parakeets, Herman, Herman II, and Herman III, were an important part of my childhood.
Their deaths taught me that life was fragileand precious. . .

Question: What did the authors parakeets teach him about life?
 Section 4: Question Type 7Detail of the Passage

How to identify it: The question will use complex language to ask: "What does the author say?"

Which of the following is mentioned in the passage?

Which of the following is stated by the author?

What does the author say about . . .?

How to tackle it: Learn the skill of paraphrasing. Youll have to refer to the passage and find the
answer that says the same thing in different words. These questions only ask for you to find
information that is contained within the passage. All you need to do is match what you read with an
answer choice that has a similar meaning.

The avian wildlife of the Neru Valley has attracted little scientific attention.

"In other words" could possibly be:

No one has studied the birds of the Nehru Valley.

Interest in studying birds of the Nehru Valley is low.

Cut through the wordiness of the passage and translate the details into simple language. This will
help you match the passage to an answer choice.

Section 4: Question Type 8 Definition of a Term

You will be asked to define a word or phrase used in the passage. Rely on the context because the
authors use of a word or phrase may or may not coincide with the way it is normally used in
everyday speech. However, it is just as likely that a question will ask you for a definition of a
commonly used word or phrase, used in an unusual way.

Context clues will help you decipher the meanings of words.

How to identify it: Look for questions asking about specific terms or phrases in the passage.

What does the author mean by negative pressure (highlighted text)?

What is the meaning of an "invisible icon" as used in the passage?

Which of the following is an example of "creative destruction" as the author describes it in

paragraph 2?

How to tackle it: Most of the time, an unusual phrase will be defined somewhere near its use. Read
the sentences before and after the word or phrase in question to get context and use that information
to come up with an approximate definition of the word.

Section 4: Question Type 9 Support for a Premise

Say the author makes an assertion such as, "Small dogs make great pets." Does the author support it
with any evidence? A question may ask you to figure out how a premise is defended. Common
forms of evidence include:

Examples--The author recounts the devoted poodle he had as a child.

Statistics--The author surveys dog owners and finds that owners of small dogs are more satisfied
with their pets.

Logical ArgumentThe author presents logical reasons that small dogs must be great pets. Theyre
cute, they dont eat a lot, their bark isnt too loud, etc.

How to identify it: Look for questions that ask about evidence.

How does the author support his point that . . . ?

Which of the following does the author offer in support of his premise that . . . ?

The passage provides support for all the following statements EXCEPT:

How to tackle it: Look for real evidence, examples or logical arguments that reinforce the authors
point.
Section 4: Question Type 10 Function of Passage Part

Just why does the author say the things he or she does? Every part of the passage has a purpose,
which is typically connected to the main idea.

How to identify it: The question will ask why the author says something.

For what reason does the author assert that the slave rebellion was highlighted?

Why does the author cite the studies on global warming in paragraph 3?

What function does the analogy to a military coup in paragraph 2 serve?

How to tackle it: Generally, the selection of most passage parts in a question functions to:

1. Support a point made elsewhere in the passage (maybe the main idea).
2. Show why two things are similar or different.
3. Clarify a point.

Section 4: Question Type 11 Inference (advanced)

These questions ask you to go beyond the passage. The answer wont be stated directly in the text,
just implied. To answer this question type you must be able to get inside the authors mind and
understand how he or she would react to a given situation. Inference questions are especially
difficult because they combine both macro and micro elements of the passage.

How to identify it: Hint, imply, suggest . . . these are words that signal inference.

With which of the following would the author most likely agree?

Based on the details in the passage, which position would the author find most objectionable?

What does the author imply about military history?

How to tackle it: Think about which answer is best supported by the facts of the passage alone. On
inference questions, outside knowledge can confuse your understanding of the intention or
implication of the passage.

Vulcan Mind Meld and Reading Comprehension

In the science-fiction series Star Trek, the Vulcan mind meld
 occurred when a Vulcan said "your mind to my mind" and pressed
his hand to the subject's head. The subject's thoughts were then
transferred.
Inference questions are often the most challenging reading
comprehension questions because they ask you to make logical
conclusions based on the author's way of thinking. Because of this,
be open the author's point of view and learn how to "meld" with it.

D: Tips for Finding the Right Answer

The correct answers to most LSAT questions will have a middle focus. Don't choose overly
broad answers that the passage can't support and don't choose overly narrow choices
because passages usually aren't that focused. Take a look at this example.

The author is primarily concerned with:

A. Penguin mating patterns

B. Antarctic Penguins
C. Birds of the world
D. Penguin behavior and life cycle
E. Animals of the southern hemisphere

B is likely to be correct as it is closest to middle scope. It deals with an animal and its habitat, but
is not too narrow and also not too broad. It fits nicely in between:

Broad: Narrow:
Animals of the southern hemisphere Penguin behavior and life cycle
Birds of the world Penguin mating patterns

Watch out for words like "all, never, always, only". These qualifiers are strong, usually
outside a passage's scope. Just think how hard it would be to write a short passage that argued:

Every new medical treatment improves the quality of medical care. (No failures at all?)
Only the federal government can improve public school education. (What about states?
Individuals?)

Look for answers that use "some, most, or many". These qualifiers indicate a limited scope.

Does every reading comprehension question have one correct answer and four incorrect
answers?

Yes, you say? Well . . . . not exactly. Rather, there is one best answer and four not-so-good
answers. For example, main idea questions generally have one of two answers that are partly
correct, but flawed in some way. A wrong answer to the question What is the main idea? might
summarize the main idea of only part of the passage.

Your goal is to pick the best answer to the question, not hunt for the One True Answer.

Unless you are highly pressed for time, always read all answer choices before making a decision.
An answer that seems basically right could be rendered incomplete by a better choice. Do not ask
yourself if an answer is correct. Ask yourself if it is better than the other choices.

Which of the following assertions in the passage is supported by an example?

Now, turn it on its head:

Which of the following assertions in the passage is NOT supported by an example?

What can you do? Practice! You have to learn to reverse your thinking. Practice assists in
acquiring that skill. One pitfall is to overlook the critical reversal word and then wonder why all
the choices seem correct. NOT, LEAST, AND EXCEPT will be used in caps to indicate you're
looking for the reverse answer. Rephrasing the question before you answer it is helpful.
Not at first. You might accidentally skim over the Big Idea. As a beginner, you should
concentrate on finding the Big Idea and using the 5 steps for working through a passage.
Skimming is an advanced skill, as it demands you quickly distinguish between the significant
and the extraneous. If you skim over the important stuff, you'll have to go back, or even worse,
you'll get the questions wrong, due to misreading.

As you get the hang of spotting the Big Idea and mapping the passage, you'll approach a point
where you can begin skimming. Eventually, the Big Idea will become so obvious, it will jump
off the page, signaled by tone shifts, passage structure, "slam on the brakes language", and
your understanding of the author's purpose and bias. At that point you will be able to spot
important content quickly enough to skim over everything else. You will save precious time by
skimming everything that isn't centrally related to the Big Idea or the structure.

Time is a precious commodity on the LSAT. Do you want to waste it reading the extraneous
detail of the passages? The LSAT writers want you to trip up doing exactly that. Often, the
unimportant information contains the most challenging languagecomplicated technical
explanations or strange business jargon.

Remember: The longer you spend reading the passage, the less time you have to answer the
questions, so getting to the questions in the most efficient way is very useful.

LSATCenter Tip: How do you tell if you are reading too

quickly?

1. If, when you finish an essay, your first reaction is confusion,

then you probably read it too quickly, weren't reading for the
writer's idea, got buried in details, or lost in a blur of jargon. When
you are done with reading an essay, you should have a general idea
of the content.

2. If you have to return to the passage extensively for Macro

questions, then you probably read it too quickly. You shouldn't
have too much trouble answering general idea questions without
going back.