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Most major metabolic pathways are considered to be either mainly anabolic or catabolic.
Which of the following pathways is most correctly considered to be amphibolic?
A. Lipolysis
B. Glycolysis
C. oxidation of fatty acids
D. Citric acid cycle
E. Gluconeogenesis
In general, the corresponding pathways of catabolism and anabolism are not identical
(glycolysis versus gluconeogenesis, lipolysis and oxidation of fatty acids versus fatty
acid synthesis and lipogenesis, glycogenolysis versus glycogenesis). However, the citric
acid cycle is a central pathway from which anabolic precursors of biosynthetic reactions
may derive or into which the complete catabolism of small molecules to carbon dioxide
and water may occur. For these reasons, the citric acid cycle is often called an amphibolic
pathway.
140.
If a homogenate of liver cells is centrifuged to remove all cell membranes and organelles,
which of the following enzyme activities will remain in the homogenate?
A. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase
B. Glycogen synthetase
C. Aconitase
D. Acyl CoA hydratase
E. Hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase
141.
Which of the following is appropriate for a patient with renal failure?
A. High-carbohydrate diet
B. High-protein diet
C. Low-fat diet
D. High-fiber diet
E. Free water of at least 3 L per day
A diet high in carbohydrate and fats spares glucose use and inhibits gluconeogenesis,
thereby preventing protein catabolism and nitrogen production. A major function of the
kidneys is to excrete nitrogen catabolized from proteins in the form of urea. Indeed, the
major clinical measures of renal function are products of protein catabolism [blood urea
nitrogen (BUN) and blood creatinine]. A diet for a patient with renal failure should
therefore minimize protein and nitrogen load. Although 3 L/day of fluid is a normal
intake for adults with healthy kidneys, glomerular filtration and water excretion are
decreased in renal failure. Water and salt intake (particularly potassium) must therefore
be limited in renal failure. Excess water or salt intake in patients with renal disease is
manifest clinically by edema (swollen eyelids, swollen lower limbs).
142.
An adolescent presents with abdominal discomfort, abdominal fullness, excess gas, and
weight loss. Blood glucose, cholesterol, and alkaline phosphatase levels are normal.
There is no jaundice or elevations. The stool tests positive for reducing substances.
Which of the following is the most likely diagnosis?
A. Diabetes mellitus
B. Starvation
C. Nontropical sprue
D. Milk intolerance
E. Gallstones
Milk intolerance may be due to milk protein allergies during infancy, but it is commonly
caused by lactase deficiency in older individuals. Intestinal lactase hydrolyzes the milk
sugar lactose into galactose and glucose, both reducing sugars that can be detected as
reducing substances in the stool. The symptoms of lactose intolerance (lactase deficiency)
and other conditions involving intestinal malabsorption include diarrhea, cramps, and
flatulence due to water retention and bacterial action in the gut. In nontropical sprue,
symptoms seem to result from the production of antibodies in the blood against fragments
of wheat gluten. It seems likely that a defect in intestinal epithelial cells allows tryptic
peptides from the digestion of gluten to be absorbed into the blood, as well as to exert a
harmful effect on intestinal epithelia.
Mobilization of fats with the production of ketone bodies occurs during fasting and
starvation, but ketone production is well controlled. During uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus, ketogenesis proceeds at a rate that exceeds the buffering capacity of the blood to
produce ketoacidosis.
143.
Juvenile diabetes mellitus is a disorder of carbohydrate metabolism caused by insulin
deficiency. The disease often follows a viral infection with inflammation of the
pancreatic cells, but also exhibits genetic predisposition with a 40 to 50% concordance
rate in monozygous twins and clustering in families. Juvenile diabetes mellitus is best
described as what type of disorder?’
A. Congenital disorder
B. Multifactorial disorder
C. Mendelian disorder
D. Sporadic disorder
E. Sex-limited disorder
A couple has three girls, the last of whom is affected with cystic fibrosis. The first-born
daughter marries her first cousin—that is, the son of her mother's sister—and they have a
son with cystic fibrosis. The father has a female cousin with cystic fibrosis on his
mother's side. Which of the following pedigree diagrams best represents this family
history?
144.
A. Diagram A
B. Diagram B
C. Diagram C
D. Diagram D
E. Diagram E
F. Diagram F
G. Diagram G
H. Diagram H
It is important that the pedigree be an accurate reflection of the family history and that
information not be recorded unless specifically mentioned. Pedigree B in the figure omits
the double line needed to indicate consanguinity, and pedigree C assumes that the father's
affected cousin is the offspring of his uncle rather than being unspecified. Pedigree F
correctly illustrates the birth order (third) of the affected female (indicated by arrow) and
the consanguinity (double line) represented by the first-cousin marriage.
145.
A couple is referred to the physician because their first three pregnancies have ended in
spontaneous abortion. Chromosomal analysis reveals that the wife has two cell lines in
her blood, one with a missing X chromosome (45,X) and the other normal (46,XX).
Which of the following is the best description of her chromosomal constitution?
A. Chimeric
B. Monoploid
C. Trisomic
D. Mosaic
E. Euploid
The case described represents one of the more common chromosomal causes of
reproductive failure, Turner mosaicism. Turner's syndrome represents a pattern of
anomalies including short stature, heart defects, and infertility. Turner's syndrome is
often associated with a 45,X karyotype (monosomy X) in females, but mosaicism (i.e.,
two or more cell lines with different karyotypes in the same individual) is common.
However, chimerism (i.e., two cell lines in an individual arising from different zygotes,
such as fraternal twins who do not separate) is extremely rare. Trisomy refers to three
copies of one chromosome, euploidy to a normal chromosome number, and monoploidy
to one set of chromosomes (haploidy in humans).
146.
A child with cleft palate, a heart defect, and extra fifth fingers is found to have 46
chromosomes with extra material on one homologue of the chromosome 5 pair. This
chromosomal abnormality is best described by which of the following terms?
A. Polyploidy
B. Balanced rearrangement
C. Ring formation
D. Mosaicism
E. Unbalanced rearrangement
147.
A 10-year-old boy is referred to the physician because of learning problems and a lack of
motivation in school. His family history is unremarkable. Physical examination is normal
except for single palmar creases of the hands and curved fifth fingers (clinodactyly). The
physician decides to order a karyotype. Which of the following indications for obtaining
a karyotype would best explain the physician's decision in this case?
A. A couple with multiple miscarriages, or a person who is at risk for an inherited
chromosome rearrangement
B. A child with ambiguous genitalia who needs genetic sex assignment
C. A child with an appearance suggestive of Down's syndrome or other
chromosomal disorder
D. A child with mental retardation and/or multiple congenital anomalies
E. A child who is at risk for
The hallmarks of children with chromosomal anomalies are mental retardation and
multiple congenital anomalies. In this case, the individual has learning problems that
have not yet been recognized as mental retardation, and he has minor anomalies rather
than major birth defects that cause cosmetic or surgical problems. The physician was
astute to suspect a chromosomal anomaly even when the developmental disability and
alterations in physical appearance were subtle. Other indications for a karyotype include
a couple with multiple miscarriages, an individual at risk for inheriting or transmitting a
chromosomal rearrangement, a child with ambiguous external genitalia, or an individual
with characteristics of a chromosomal syndrome such as Down's, Turner's, or
Klinefelter's syndrome. Chromosome translocations are characteristic of many types of
cancer, but these occur in somatic cancer cells rather than in the patient's germ line.
148.
Chromosomal analysis reveals a 47,XYY karyotype. Which of the following descriptions
best fits this abnormality?
A. Autosomal trisomy
B. A male with Klinefelter's syndrome
C. Sex chromosome aneuploidy
D. A female with Turner's syndrome
E. Sex chromosome triploidy
Aneuploidy involves extra or missing chromosomes that do not arise as increments of the
haploid chromosome number n. Polyploidy involves multiples of n, such as triploidy (3n
= 69,XXX) or tetraploidy (4n = 92,XXXX). Diploidy (46,XX) and haploidy (23,X) are
normal karyotypes in gametes and somatic cells, respectively. A 90,XX karyotype
represents tetraploidy with two missing X chromosomes, which has been seen in one
patient who had features that resembled those of Turner's syndrome.
150.
Which of the following is the proper cytogenetic notation for a female with Down's
syndrome mosaicism?
A. 46,XX,+21/46,XY
B. 47,XY,+21
C. 47,XXX/46,XX
D. 47,XX,+21/46,XX
E. 47,XX,+21(46,XX)
Mosaicism occurs when a chromosomal anomaly affects one of several precursor cells of
an embryo or tissue. The two or more karyotypes that characterize the mosaic cells are
separated by a slash in cytogenetic notation. The notation 47,XX,+21 denotes a cell line
typical of a female with trisomy 21 (Down's syndrome), while 46,XX is the karyotype
expected for a normal female.
151.
A newborn girl is found to have marked swelling of the dorsal areas of her feet along
with a broad (webbed) neck, a broad chest, and a heart murmur that is due to coarctation
of the aorta. Her physician suspects a chromosomal disorder and orders a karyotype.
Which of the results pictured below is most likely?
A
B
C
A. Result A
B. Result B
C. Result C
D. Result D
152.
A 2-week-old baby is hospitalized for inadequate feeding and poor growth. The parents
are concerned by the child's weak cry. An experienced grandmother accompanies them,
saying she thought the cry sounded like a cat's meow. The grandmother also states that
the baby doesn't look much like either parent. The physician orders a karyotype after
noting a small head size (microcephaly) and subtle abnormalities of the face. Which of
the results pictured below is most likely?
A
B
C
D
A. Result A
B. Result B
C. Result C
D. Result D
E. Result E
Children with chromosome abnormalities often exhibit poor growth (failure to thrive) and
developmental delay with an abnormal facial appearance. This baby is too young for
developmental assessment, but the catlike cry should provoke suspicion of cri-du-chat
syndrome. Cri-du-chat syndrome is caused by deletion of the terminal short arm of
chromosome 5 [46,XX,del(5p), also abbreviated as 5p–] as depicted in panel e. When a
partial deletion or duplication like this one is found, the parents must be karyotyped to
determine if one carries a balanced reciprocal translocation. The other karyotypes show
(a) deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4 [46,XY,del(4p) or 4p–]; (b) XYY
syndrome (47,XYY); (c) deletion of the long arm of chromosome 13 [46,XX,del(13q) or
13q–]; (d) Klinefelter's syndrome (47,XXY). Most disorders involving excess or deficient
chromosome material produce a characteristic and recognizable phenotype (e.g., Down's,
cri-du-chat, or Turner's syndrome). The deletion of 4p– (panel A) produces a pattern of
abnormalities (syndrome) known as Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome; deletion of 13q–
produces a 13q– syndrome (no eponym). The mechanism(s) by which imbalanced
chromosome material produces a distinctive phenotype is completely unknown.
153.