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Environmental Studies:

Science and Engineering


by

Dr. Anurag Garg


2016-2017
Module A
Water
Water and Wastewater Management

a.garg@iitb.ac.in
7861
Course Outline

Water and wastewater quality parameters


Overview of water and wastewater treatment
processes
Introduction to ecology

Total marks: 33
Semester exam = 20 marks
Assignment = 13 marks

3
Key References
Masters, G.M., Introduction to Environmental
Engineering and Science, Prentice Hall, New
Delhi.

Nathanson, J. A., Basic Environmental


Technology Water supply, Waste
Management and Pollution Control. Prentice
Hall, New Delhi.

4
Water and Sanitation
The availability of clean drinking water at affordable
cost is a major challenge in India.
On an average, 80% of water supplied for domestic
purpose returns as wastewater.
With increase in development activities, the domestic
and industrial wastewater generation is also
increasing.

5
Changing Water Consumption Patterns

Agricultural Industrial Domestic


production production consumption

6
Water Consumption Breakdown in India
(Source: Water: The India Story. Grail Research, March 2009. Available online:
http://www.grailresearch.com/pdf/ContenPodsPdf/Water-The_India_Story.pdf)

1000
Agriculture Industrial Domestic
900
Consumption by sector (Tr Litres)

800

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
2000 2025 2050
Year

7
Wastewater Generation and Treatment
Domestic in urban cities Industrial
Treatment
capacity (37%) Treated (60%)

Untreated (63%)

Untreated (40%)
Domestic sewage in urban areas
= 62000 Ml/day (as on March
2015)

http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/only-37-pc-
sewage-treatment-capacity-in-urban-areas-
govt/1/541467.html

8
Causes of Water Pollution

Discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater


in surface water streams
Improper solid waste disposal
Inadequate use of fertilizer for agricultural purposes
Contamination of ground water due to soil formation
or anthropogenic activities

9
Additional Reading for River Water
Quality
CPCB bulletin - Central Pollution
Control Board (as on July 2016),
cpcb.nic.in/upload/Latest/Latest_123_SU
MMARY_BOOK_FS.pdf

10
Challenges in Wastewater Decontamination

Conventional processes at centralized plants


are often not very effective to remove toxic
and persistent pollutants from water
Regulatory effluent standards are becoming
more stringent
Sophisticated instruments required for
detection of concentrations of emerging
pollutants

11
Water Quality Parameters
Water Quality Criterion
(http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Water_Quality_Criteria.php)
Designated-Best-Use Criteria Class of Criteria
water
Drinking Water Source A Total Coliforms 50 MPN/100 ml
without conventional pH between 6.5 and 8.5
treatment but after Dissolved Oxygen 6 mg/l or more
disinfection
BOD5 = 2 mg/l or less
Outdoor bathing B Total Coliforms 500 MPN/100 ml
pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Dissolved Oxygen 5 mg/l or more
BOD5 = 3 mg/l or less
Drinking water source after C Total Coliforms 5000 MPN/100 ml
conventional treatment and pH between 6 to 9
disinfection Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more
BOD5 = 3 mg/l or less

13
Water Quality Criterion.

Designated-Best-Use Class of Criteria


Criteria water
Propagation of Wild life D pH between 6.5 to 8.5
and Fisheries Dissolved Oxygen 4 mg/l or more
Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l
Irrigation, Industrial E pH between 6.0 to 8.5
Cooling, Controlled Waste Electrical conductivity at 25C
disposal micro mhos/cm Max. 2250
Sodium absorption ratio = Max. 26
Boron = Max. 2 mg/l

14
Water Quality Parameters

Physical Suspended solids, turbidity, color,


temperature, taste and odor

Chemical Total dissolved solids, alkalinity,


hardness, fluoride, metals, dissolved
gases, BOD, COD and nutrients

Biological Pathogens

15
Classification of Total Solids

Suspended (1 - 100 m)
or non-filterable

Colloidal (0.001 - 1 m) Total solids


Dissolved (< 0.001m)
or filterable

Settleable (> 100 m)

16
Problem
The following test results were obtained for a wastwater sample. All
the tests were performed using a sample size of 50 ml. Determine the
concentration of total solids, total volatile solids, suspended solids,
volatile suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total volatile
dissolved solids and total fixed solids. The samples used in the solid
analysis were all either dried or ignited to the constant weight.
Tare mass of evaporating dish = 53.5433 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after evaporation at 105C =
53.5794 g
Mass of evaporating dish + residue after ignition at 550C = 53.5625 g
Tare mass of whatman filter after drying at 105C = 1.5433 g
Mass of whatman filter + residue after evaporation at 105C = 1.5554 g
Mass of whatman filter + residue after ignition at 550C = 1.5476 g

17
Turbidity
It is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or
scattered by suspended or colloidal organic or inorganic
materials in water.

The original standard unit is that which is produced by 1 mg of


finely divided silica in 1 liter of distilled water.

Disinfection of turbid waters is difficult.

18
Turbidity standards of 5, 50, and 500 NTU
Color
True color: Due to dissolved solids

Apparent color: Due to suspended matter

Major sources of color in natural water sources can


be decaying leaves or microscopic plants.

The standard unit of color is produced by dissolving


1 mg of platinum cobalt in 1 liter of distilled water.

For public supplies, color number on cobalt scale


should not exceed 20 and should be preferably less
than 10.
19
Taste and Odor
Taste and odor are caused by the presence of
organic and inorganic compounds.

Odor is measured and expressed in terms of


threshold odor number (TON).

TON is the ratio by which the sample has to be


diluted for the odor to become virtually unnoticeable.

TON = (A + B)/ A
A = Vol. of odorous water (ml), B = Vol. of odor free water
required to make the odor barely detectable in A.

For public supplies, TON should be 1 and should


never exceed 3.
20
Temperature
Temperature of the surface waters governs to a large
extent the biological species present and their rates
of activity.

Cooler waters usually have a wider diversity of


biological species.

At lower temperatures, the rate of biological activity is


slower.

The desired temperature of potable water is around


10C and a temp. above 25C is considered
objectionable. 21
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
TDS results from the solvent action of water on solids
and liquids.

These may be organic or inorganic in nature.

TDS may produce aesthetically displeasing colour,


tastes and odour.

TDS in natural waters are mainly due to ions.

22
Alkalinity
It is a measure of buffering capacity of the
water.

The alkalinity constituents result from


the dissolution of mineral substances,
microbial decomposition of organic materials,
wastewater discharges containing detergents,
fertilizers and insecticides.

Higher alkalinity impart bitter taste to water.

Total alkalinity = CO3-- + HCO3- + OH- - H+ (All


ions are expressed in mg/l as CaCO3)
23
Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of
highly mineralized water.

Hardness in water is derived largely from contact with


the soil and rock formation.

This is due to the presence of multivalent metallic


cations (such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Sr2+).

Desirable hardness should be between 75 115 mg/L


as CaCO3.

Hardness causes
Greater soap consumption,
Scaling of boilers,
Corrosion of pipes 24
Types of Hardness
Hardness
(Due to cations
Ca2+, Mg2+ etc)

Temporary or Permanent or
carbonate Non-carbonate
(CO32-, HCO-3) (SO42-, Cl-, NO3-)

25
Problem
In a water sample, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions
concentrations are 160 mg/L and 40 mg/L,
respectively. Find the total hardness of the
water sample.

Solution:
Ca2+ concentration = 160*50/20 = 400 mg/L as
CaCO3
Mg2+ concentration = 40*50/12 = 166.7 mg/L as
CaCO3
Total hardness = 400 + 166.7 = 566.7 mg/L as
CaCO3 26
Nitrogen
Nitrogen is found in proteins, chlorophyll and many
other biological compounds.

Its principal forms in the water are


Free ammonia
organic nitrogen
Nitrites
Nitrates

Presence of high nitrates may cause blue baby


disease in infants.
27
Permissible Limits of Different
Forms of Nitrogen in Drinking Water

Forms of Nitrogen Permissible limit (mg/l)


Free NH3 0.15
Organic N 0.3
Nitrites Nil
Nitrates 45

28
Fluoride

Fluoride is mainly originated from


sedimentary or igneous rocks.

F concentration below 1 mg/l may cause


dental cavities in children.

Higher F concentrations > 1.5 mg/l cause


discoloration of teeth (also called mottling).

29
Dissolved Gases
O2, CO2, H2S and CH4 may be found in
dissolved state in water.

H2S even in smaller concentrations gives bad


taste and odour.

Presence of CO2 indicates biological activity.

Deficit of O2 in the sample indicates the


presence of organic matter.
30
Chloride
Chlorides are generally present in water in
the form of salt.

These may be originated from the leaching of


marine sedimentary deposits, pollution from
sea water, brine or industrial and domestic
wastes etc.

Cl- concentrations above 250 mg/l are


objectionable.
31
Metals
Sources of metals in natural waters include
dissolution from natural deposits and
discharges of domestic, industrial or
agricultural wastewaters.

Fe and Mn may cause colour problems even at


very low concentrations.

Pb, Ba, As, Cd, Hg and Cr are considered


poisonous and a very small quantity of these
metals may cause serious health hazards.

32
Permissible Limits of Metals in Potable
Water
Metal Max. permissible conc. (mg/l)
Fe 0.3
Mn 0.05
Cu 0.05
Pb 0.05
As 0.05
Se 0.05
Cd 0.01
Cr 0.05
Ag 0.05
Zn 5.0
33
Organics
Biodegradable
Those organics that can be utilized for food by micro-
organisms aerobically or anaerobically within a
reasonable length of time.

Examples are starch, fat, protein, alcohol, acid,


aldehydes and ester.

Non-biodegradable
Organics those can not be degraded biologically.

Examples: lignin, phenols, pesticides and chlorinated


hydrocarbons
34
Lumped Parameters Used for Determining
Organic Pollutants

S. No. Parameter Definition


1. BOD Oxygen consumed during microbial
utilization of biodegradable organic matter
In drinking water: BOD should be nil
Expressed as 5-day BOD at 20C
temperature
2. COD Oxygen required to decompose organic
matter (irrespective of its biodegradability)
present in the water.
3. TOC The total organic carbon present in water

BOD5/COD ratio indicates the biodegradability of the


wastewater.
In reality, BOD5/COD > 0.54 wastewater is biodegradable.
35
BOD and Oxygen-equivalent Relationship

L0 or UBOD
Oxygen equivalent and

BOD exerted
BOD, mg/L of O2

L remaining

Time, days
Lt = L0 e-kt 1
Lt = Oxygen equivalent of the organics at time t; k = rate constant
L0 = Total Oxygen equivalent of the organics at time t = 0

BODt = L0(1 e-kt) = BOD of water at t time 2


kT = k20 ()T-20, T = Temperature in C 3 36
BOD and..

k for any given organic compound is temperature


dependent.
k increases with increase in temperature.
kT = k20(T 20), T is in C

Typical values of k for various wastewaters

Water type k (d-1) (base e)


Tap water < 0.1
Surface waters 0.1 0.23
Weak municipal waste water 0.35
Strong municipal waste water 0.40
Treated effluent 0.12 - 0.23
37
Problems
A small town discharges 17360 m3/d of treated
wastewater into a small stream. The treated wastewater
has a BOD5 of 12 mg/L and a k (base e) of 0.12 d-1 at
20C. The stream has a flow rate of 0.43 m3/s and an
ultimate BOD of 5.0 mg/L. The dissolved oxygen (DO) of
the river is 6.5 mg/L and the DO of the wastewater is 1.0
mg/L. Compute the DO and initial ultimate BOD after
mixing.

Solution:
Qw = 17360 m3/d, Calculate L0w from equation 2 using BOD5
and k.
Qs = 0.43 m3/s (convert in m3/d), L0s = 5 mg/L
Apply mass balance: Qw.L0w + Qs.L0s = (Qw + Qs). L0m
and calculate L0m (i.e., ultimate BOD of mixed stream).
38
Similarly calculate DO of mixed stream
Characteristics of The Ideal
Pathogen Indicator
Would be applicable to all types of water.

Would always be present when pathogens


are present.

Would always be absent when pathogens are


absent.

Should not be a pathogen itself.

39
Preventive Measures for Water Borne
Diseases
The water supply of the city must be thoroughly
checked and disinfected before supplying to the
public.
Water pipe line should be frequently tested, checked
and inspected so as to detect any leakage.
Sewer lines and water supply lines should be laid as
far as possible.
The people should be advised to use boiled water
during the times of rains or floods or in low weather
flows.
The general habit of cleanliness must be inculcated
among the people.
40
Characteristics of Sewage
Total solids: Settleable solids,
suspended solids, dissolved solids

Grease, fats and oils are derived from the


kitchens, garages and discharges of
animals and vegetable matter.

41
Classification of Water Pollutants
Water pollution refers to the presence of
enough foreign material in water to render it
unfit for a specific beneficial use.

Water pollutants can be classified according


to the nature of its origin:
point source: confined and localized
source
non point sources: a broad, unconfined
area
42
Point and Non-Point Sources

43
Thermal Pollution
Heat is considered to be a water pollutant since
it can have adverse effect on oxygen levels and
the aquatic life in the river.

The discharge of warm water into a river is


usually called thermal pollution.

Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing


the heated water through a cooling pond or a
cooling tower after it leaves the condenser.
44
Groundwater Pollution
Sources of contamination

Industrial wastes

Subsurface sewage disposal systems

Municipal landfills

Agriculture

Saltwater intrusion

45
Thermal Stratification of Lakes

46
Stream Pollution and Self Purification

47
Fate of Organics in River Stream
Oxygen
sag curve

48
Water Treatment
The purpose of water treatment plants is to
produce hygienically safe and aesthetically
attractive water.

Various treatment processes adopted to treat


raw water depend on
the raw water characteristics,
the intended use and
the comparative economics

49
Engineering Systems for Water
Purification
Main conventional methods of purification of
water
Plain sedimentation
Sedimentation aided with coagulation
Filtration
Disinfection
Aeration
Softening
Adsorption

50
Plain Sedimentation
Heavy suspended particles having specific gravity
greater than 1.0 can be removed by settling at the
bottom of the tank.

Particle settling rate is affected by


particles size and its density,
velocity of flow and
water temperature

The nature of the sedimentation process also varies


with the concentration of suspended particles and
their tendency to interact with one another.
51
Plain Sedimentation.

Classification based on characteristics


of particle
Discrete particles
Do not change size, shape and specific
gravity with time.

Flocculating particles
Change size, shape and specific gravity
with time upon contact with other particles.

52
Plain Sedimentation..
Settling velocity (vt) of a spherical discrete
particle (mass density = p, diameter = d) in a
dilute suspension can be calculated using the
following formula:

For laminar flow: vt = g.(p w).d2/ 18.


For Re < 1.0; Re = vt. w. d/ (for circular particles)
The equation is known as Stokes equation.

53
Some Terms Related to Sedimentation Tank
Detention period: Average theoretical time required for the water to
flow through the tank length.
Detention time = (volume of tank)/ (rate of flow)
2- 4 hours Discrete particles and 4 6 hours for flocculants

Overflow rate or surface loading: It is defined as the ratio of flow


rate to plan area of the tank.

Short circuiting: Short circuiting is the term used for a situation in


which part of the influent water exits the tank too quickly.

Flowing through period: Actual average time which a batch of


water takes in passing through a settling tank.

54
Circular Sedimentation Tank

55
Pictorial View of a Circular Sedimentation Tank

56
Sedimentation Aided with Coagulation
The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to
remove fine particulate impurities (< 50 m) from the
water being treated.

In water treatment plants, chemical coagulation is


accomplished by the addition of certain chemical
compounds (called coagulants).

These coagulants on thorough mixing form a gelatinous


precipitate called floc.

Very fine mud particles and colloidal matter present in


water get attracted and absorbed in these flocs, forming
the bigger sized particles. 57
Chemical Coagulants Commonly used in
Treatment Processes

Coagulant Formula pH

Aluminum sulfate Al2(SO4)3.18H2O 6.0 7.5


(alum)
Poly aluminum {Al2(OH)2.7Cl3.3}15 -
chloride
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O 4.5

Ferrous sulfate FeSO4 Above 8.5

58
Filtration
Filtration is often a polishing step to remove small flocs
not removed in the settling process.

Although filtration also removes many pathogenic


organisms from water, filtration should not be relied
upon for complete health protection.

Filtration process involves passing the water through


the beds of fine granular medium such as sand.

It helps in removing colour, odour, turbidity and


pathogenic bacteria from the water.

59
Theory of Filtration
Filter purify the water under different processes:
Mechanical straining
Particles having bigger size than the size of the voids in
the sand layers get arrested in voids.

Flocculation and sedimentation


Void spaces act like tiny coagulation flocculation
tanks.

Biological metabolism
Organisms present over sand grains or caught during
the initial process of filtration consume organic
impurities for their survival. As a result, harmless
compounds are formed developing a layer on the top.
60
Classification of Filters

Filters

On the basis of rate of filtration


Slow rate of filtration
Preferred at warm places
Land is easily available

Fastest rate of
Slow Rapid filtration
Preferred at industrial
plants and swimming
Faster rate of filtration pools
Used for large municipal
supplies

Gravity Pressure

61
Schematic of Rapid Sand Filter

62
Advantages of Rapid Sand Filters
Less efficient in bacteria removal (80 to 90%), but highly efficient in
removing colour

Require smaller area and less expensive compared to slow sand


filters

High filtration rate

Disadvantages of Rapid Sand Filters


Requires skilled supervision

Complicated design and large amount of wash water is required

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation is must before


filtration
63
Pressure Filters
Small rapid gravity filters placed in closed vessels.

Rate of filtration is 2 to 5 times that that rapid gravity


filters.

The pressure developed may vary between 30 to 70


m head of water, i.e., 3 to 7 kg/cm2.

These may be installed either in horizontal or in a


vertical position

The cleaning of the filter is carried out by back


washing.

64
Other Types of Filters
Dual Media Filters
These are constructed of silica sand and anthracite
coal.

The depth of sand may range from 0.15 to 0.4 m with


the coal depth ranging from 0.3 to 0.6 m.

Mixed Media Filters


Mixed media filters consist of three or more types of
media

A typical installation might consist of a 0.75 m bed with


60% anthracite, 30% silica sand and 10% garnet sand.
65
Characteristics of Different Filters
Characteristic Slow Sand Conventional High-Rate filters
Filters Rapid Sand Filters

Filtration rate 100 200 l/h/m2 3000 - 6000 l/h/m2 6000-15000 l/h/m2
Media Sand Sand Sand and coal or
sand, coal, and
garnet
Media distribution Stratified: fine Stratified: fine to Stratified: coarse
To Coarse coarse to fine
Filter runs 20-60 days 12-36 hours 12-36 hours
Loss of Head 10-15 cm 30 cm (initial) to 30 cm (initial) to
(initial) to 1.2 m 2.5-3.5 m 2.5-3.5 m final
Amount of Backwash not 2-5% of water 6% of water
backwash water used filtered filtered
used
66
Disinfection
Filtered water may still contain harmful disease
producing bacteria.

In order to kill these bacteria, disinfectants are added


to the water and the process is called disinfection or
sterilization.

An disinfectant must
be able to give residual sterilizing effect for a long period,
it should be harmless,
unobjectionable to tongue,
economical and measurable by simple tests
67
Disinfection
Chlorine is considered the most ideal
disinfectant all around the world. The process
is called chlorination.

Other methods are as follows:


Boiling of water
Treatment with excess lime
Treatment with ozone
Treatment with ultra-violet rays
Treatment with KMnO4

68
Disinfection with Ozone
Ozone gas is an excellent disinfectant.

The nascent oxygen present in O3 is a powerful


oxidizing agent and removes the organic matter.

As ozone is chemically unstable, therefore it must be


produced on-site and used immediately.

Since no residual remains, it will be necessary to use


a small amount of chlorine after ozonation to provide
continued protection against re-growth in distribution
system.
69
Disinfection with Chlorine
Chlorine in its various forms is used as disinfectant.

Chlorine can either be applied as free chlorine or as


combined chlorine.

Free chlorine includes hypochlorous acid and


hypochlorite ions.

Chloramines or chlorine combined with nitrogen is


called combined chlorine.

The disadvantage is that when it is used in greater


amounts, it impart bitter taste to the water.
70
Disinfection with
Use of chloramines or use of chlorine with ammonia
Chloramines are weaker disinfectant in comparison
to free chlorine.

These are formed by the reactions between ammonia


and chlorine.

These are quite stable and can remain in water as


residuals for a sufficient time.

Chloramines also do not cause bad tastes and


odours when left as residuals.

These are very useful when phenols are present in


water.
71
Breakpoint Chlorination
Break-point chlorination is a term that gives
an idea of the extent of chlorine added to the
water.

Any further addition of chlorine after break-


point will appear as free residual.

Breakpoint chlorination also indicates the


oxidation and removal of organic compounds
present in the water.

72
Breakpoint Chlorination

73
Softening
Removal of reduction of hardness from water
is known as water softening.

Temporary or carbonate hardness can be


removed by
boiling or
by adding lime

Permanent or non-carbonate hardness is


removed by
lime-soda process
base-exchange process
74
Lime Soda Process
The method is suitable for removing temporary as
well as permanent hardness.

In this process, lime and soda ash are added to the


hard water, which react with the Ca and Mg salts, so
as to form insoluble precipitates of CaCO3 and
Mg(OH)2 at pH of 9.0 9.5 and 11, respectively.

A little quantity may still remain as finely divided


particles and may cause troubles by getting
deposited on the filter or in the pipes of the
distribution system.

To prevent this, water is recarbonated by passing


CO2 as it leaves sedimentation tank.
75
Base Exchange Process

Also known as Zeolite or cation exchange process

The zeolite process results a water of zero hardness

No sludge is formed

No problem of incrustation of pipes of the


distribution system, as is there in lime soda process.

Process is not suitable for treating high turbid


waters.

76
Aeration
Aeration may be used to remove undesirable gases
dissolved in water or to add oxygen to water to convert
undesirable substances to a more manageable form.

Aeration is more often used to treat groundwater.

Groundwater may contain appreciable amounts of gases


such as CO2 and H2S.

Persistent compounds such as phenols can also be


removed by aeration, but the removal rates are too slow.

Aeration also helps in precipitating Fe and Mn present in


water.
77
Adsorption
Adsorption can be defined as the accumulation of
substances at the interface between two phases.

The adsorbent most commonly used in water and


wastewater treatment is activated carbon.

Activated carbon possesses the property of absorbing


and attracting gases, liquids and finely divided solids,
thus removes colour, taste and odour from water
supplies.

This may be added to the water in powdered form before


or after the coagulation, but before filtration.

In granular form, it may be used as filter media (instead


of sand) in gravity or pressure filters. 78
Dissolved Solids Removal
Dissolved solids removal processes may include:
by processes employing the use of semi-permeable
membranes (e.g., cellulose triacetate and polyamide)

Reverse Osmosis is the most commonly used method


In this process, the water molecules and the impurities (e.g.
bacteria, colloidal particles, organics, ions etc) are separated
by forcing the salt solution against a semi-permeable
membrane barrier, which permits the flow of water itself but
stops the salt.

Thin film membranes can operate at wider pH range. Normally


pH of the water is maintained from 5.5 to 6.5.

79
Grey Water, Brackish Water and Black
Water
Grey Water
Grey water is generated from domestic activities such as
laundry, dishwashing, and bathing

Black water
The wastewater containing faeces and urine

Brown water
The wastewater containing faeces

Brackish Water
The water more saline than domestic water but less than sea
water.

80

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