Abstract

It is essential to have the geographical knowledge of any specific

area to understand its history very well. A country's history depends upon
its geography. To state in simple words, the geographical factors like land,
climate, rain etc. influence the history and culture of the specific place.
Human domiciliation, the economic, social and political life and other
humanitarian activities are fulfilled according to the geographical structure.
Scholars have accepted geography and chronology as the two eyes of
history, contrary the place. The geographical coalescence of history and
archaeology is the base point of studying the historical geography of any
specific place. Most of the scholars who have worked on Kashi have
limited themselves up to the expansion and demarcation of Kashi state in
the geographical chapter of their books. This research paper is an effort to
understand the geographical milieu of ancient Kashi in historical and
cultural context.

Keywords : Kashi, Ganga, Varuna, Assi, Rajghat, Gaharwal.

Author:
Dr. Anuradha Singh
Asst. Professor, Dept. of History, Faculty of Social Sciences,
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. (U.P.)
E-mail: dr.anuradha.bhu@gmail.com

1
 Geographical Milieu of Ancient Kashi :
Historical & Cultural Context
Under the natural geography of Kashi, the natural elements like
river, soil, climate etc. are the base points of perusal. The Kashi territory is
a part of the great Ganges plain. According to geologists, the place which
is renowned as the plain of Indus-Ganges plain, there was a deep bay in
ancient ages. After the exaltation of the Himalaya, many rivers deluged
this bay and converted it into its current prairie form.1 According to D.N.
Wadia, this was a meagre bay which has been deluged by the depositions
of Indus and Ganges rivers.2 Thus, according to the geographical structure,
the Kashi region is located in the mid Ganges basin. The soil laid by the
water sources flowing for thousands of years is the basis of the Gangetic
region. An area of 62000 square miles falls in the mid Gangetic plain in
extant time. The region located between the upper plains of Ganges and the
estuaries of the river in Bengal is also known as 'the transitional region'.
This region sees the rainfall from the 40 inches of the southern part to the
70 inches of rainfall of the eastern part. Before the erection of the
inhabitation, this much rainfall is sufficient for the growth of the dense
vegetation .

The land of Kashi is made by the soil brought by the rivers. The soil
deposit imported from Himalayan region has been recognized as the slaty
sand and loam at the left bank of the river Ganges, on the other hand the
soil deposit coming from the Vindhya Kaimoor region is recognised as red
deposit on the right bank of the river Ganges.3 In Kashi, the bank of
Ganges is around twenty five feet high from the water level and is

1 Ishwarsharan Vishwakarma, Kashi ka Aitihasik Bhoogol, (Ramanand Vidyabhavan, New Delhi, 1987) p.46
2 D.N. Wadia, Geology of India, (Mcmillan & Co. Ltd., London, 1935), p.386
3
Vidula Jaiswal, Aadi Kashi se Varanasi Tak, (Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 2011) p.7

2
procured by thick soil. There exist the layers of loam consisting of many
colours and densities. This basic inhabitation structure constructed by the
water flow is known as 'Uparwaar'. The modern and ancient cities of
Varanasi are inhabitated on this structure only. The modern soil structure of
this region is also alluvial which is known as 'Taari'. Taari is the deposit of
the loam spread by the inundation in the lower areas of Kashi on the right
bank of the Ganges. On the right bank of Ganges, the eastern part of
Ramnagar and on the left bank the structure between the confluence of
Assi-Ganges and Samne Ghat can be classifed under this category. 4 This
land has been deprived from the changes in the climate and soil. From
ancient times, this region has possessed tropical climate where all the
weathers were found uniformally. Due to the soil brought by the rivers and
plainy region, there were appropriate geographical conditions available for
cotton, rice, sugarcane, barley, wheat, chickpeas etc. therefore good crops
were grown. The southern part of the district is higher than the eastern one
and that is why the flow of the ponds and rivers is toward Ganges. The city
is structered over a high gravelly part which is spread around three miles
on the left shore of Ganges, therefore the city is secured from the
disadvantages of flood etc.5

Ganges has the main role in natural creation of Kashi. According to

Puranic descriptions, due to the relentless penance and valour of Bhagirath,
the successor of Sagar, Ganges incarnated on earth and came to Kashi. The
sons of Sagar were liberated from their sins through its frigid blessings,
and along with this, it became life giving mother for innumerable people.6
In Srimadbhagwat Gita Lord Krishna has said 'Stronsamasmi Janhavi'
meaning, among all the water sources I am Janhavi (Ganges), and has
4
Same, p.8-9
5
Motichandra, Kashi Ka Itihas, second edition, (Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Varanasi, 1985) p.7
6
Steven G. Derian, The Ganga in Myth and History, (Motilal Banarasidas Publishers, New Delhi, 2001)
p.17-18

3
declared it as one of his forms. The emanation of Ganges residing in
sinners purifying Kashi is believed to be in Gomukh located in southern
side of Himalaya near the Indo-Tibet border. From Gomukh, through
Kashi, up to Bay of Bengal, it is measured 2525 kilometeres in length.7
The descriptions of Ganges flowing in Kashi district and Varanasi are
found in many tracts. In the Anushasanaparva and Vanaparva of
Mahabharata, Varanasi is said to be situated on the northern shore of
Ganges.8 This fact that the flow of Ganges river goes through Varanasi, has
been disclosed at many places in the Jataka. The Mahabhashya of Patanjali
also lets us perceive that Varanasi was inhabitated on the shore of Ganges.9
The confluence of Ganges-Varuna is mentioned in Buddhacharita also.10
The excessive magnanimousity of Ganges located in Kashi region has been
described in Puranas. The Kashi region described in Puranas was
surrounded by Varuna in the north, Ganges in the east and Asi in the south.
In Gaharwal inscriptions the particulars of the Ghats constructed for
bathing are given in religious context.11 With these extracts it is clear that
Ganges was main river of Kashi district in which many subsidiary rivers
confluenced.

Beside Ganges river, there is contribution of many other small rivers

and water sources in Kashi region, among which Varuna, Assi, Gomti are
worth mentioning. Varuna river which determines the north-eastern border
of Varanasi, confluences with Ganges between Adikeshava Ghat and
Sarayamohana. In early Vedic literature, the nearby area of Varuna is said
to be hygienic and flatulent. This is not just a mere coincidence that in
archaeological exploration of the ancient site of Akatha situated in the
7
Same, p.2-3
8
Anushasana Parva, 13.31.18
9
Perceived through the annotation of Patanjali 'Anuganga Varanasi, Anushonam Pataliputram' on the
percept of Ashtadhyayi 'Yasya Ayamah' (2.1.16)
10
Buddhacharita, Sarga 15, Shloka 18
11
Ishwarsharan Vishwakarma, Ditto, p.62

4
Varuna valley, the proof of oldest inhabitation in Varanasi has come into
our knowledge.12 In Atharvaveda Varuna has been mentioned as Varnawati.
Dr. Vimal Charan Lau equates the Varnawati of Atharvaveda with
Varuna.13 The 'Varanasi' river found in the river list of Bhismaparva14 of
Mahabharata is comparable with 'Varanasi' of Matsyapurana15 and 'Varuna'
of Teertha Chintamani16. Sanskrit scholars equate the meaning of these
words with Varuna river. Everywhere in Puranas Asi has been practiced in
the context of southern border while determinig the boundary of Varanasi
region. On the basis of Puranic mentions it is really hard to say that it is a
river. It has been mentioned as 'Shushka' (waterless) river everywhere.
Currently, Assi is not a river rather an ordinary rivulet. There are no such
evidences that in ancient times it was a river. Even the location of ancient
Varanasi does not support this opinion.17 The ancient antiques are found in
the high ground of Rajghat and the shores. Ancient remnants are sparsly
found on Assi side and those which are found are later meaning they are
medieval.

Three meritorious rivers have been discussed in Krityakalpataru.

These are - Pitamahasrotika, Mandakini and Matsyodari.18 All three of
them used to become rivers in the rainy season. Among them, Matsyodari
has been mentioned as a big river of Kashi. In the Tirthavivechana Kanda
of Lakshmidhara, Assi is believed to be Pingala Nari (bloodvessel), Varuna
as Ila and between them Matsyodari is believed to be the Sushumna Nari.
The religious importance of these small extincted rivers has been described

12
Vidula Jaiswal, Ancient India : An Archaeological Perspective, (Aryan Books International, New
Delhi, 2003) p.36-37
13
Vimal Charan Lau, Historical Geography of Ancient India, (Society Asiatic De Paris, France, 1954)
p.95
14
Bhismaparva, 6.10.30
15
Matsyapurana, 183.61-62, 184.40-41
16
Teertha Chintamani, p.151-152
17
Motichandra, Ditto, p.2
18
Lakshmidharakrita Tirthavivechana Kanda, p.34, 58, 69

5
throughtly in Sthalpurana. Another archaeologically important water
source is the Rajpur rivulet. It confluences with Ganges in the east of
Varuna. This almost extinct water source of today would have been very
useful for the inhibitants of the ancient Kashi. On the bank of this rivulet
there are many small archaeological sites are located which were villages
of the craftsmen. Due to the connection with Sarnath and the main water
flow of Ganges river, there were many ancient stone centres at the bank of
Rajpur rivulet. From Mauryan age to the medieval times, stone statues and
engraved architectural pieces were in constant demand in Sarnath. These
were supplied from the town of craftsmen situated on the bank of Rajpur
rivulet.19 Gomti is the main subsidiary river of Ganges. Before
confluencing with the Ganges in Kaithi, it marks the northern boundary of
the district. According to Mahabharata, Markandeya Tirtha was situated on
the confluence of Ganges-Gomti, which is still present near Kaithi.
Through the story of Divodas mentioned in Brahmapurana,
Harivanshapurana and Vayupurana we come to know that the second
Varanasi was founded by Divodas on the bank of Gomti. 20 Another
speciallity of the Kashi region is ponds and water reservoirs. There are
plenty of these water reservoirs on the both banks of Ganges. Small ponds
are filled with rain water and their water disaapears in the summer, on the
other hand the bigger ponds provide water through out the year. In the
same form of aforesaid ponds there are many water sources still residing
all over Varanasi.21 Durgakunda, Lolarkakunda are such reservoirs which
are the center of the faith and rituals of this city and are indifferent part of
culture of Varanasi. In the same manner, Saranga Tala which is a small
natural lake, is the basis of the commencement of two water sources

19
Vidula Jaiswal, Aadi Kashi se Varanasi Tak, Ditto, p.25-26
20
Kubernath Sukul, Varanasi Vaibhava, (Bihar Rashtrabhasha Parishad, Patna 1971) p.3
21
Motichandra, Ditto, p.14

6
known as Akatha rivulet and Rajpur rivulet. Possibly, the development
process of the university buddhist pilgrimage Sarnath came in vogue due
to this specific geographical milieu.

Varanasi is the ancient inhabitated city of the Kashi region. The

outer areas of the periphery of the city were in constant touch with
Varanasi. For example, the mountaineous region located at the outer
periphery of the city, to name modern Chakiya, Chandauli and Mirzapur's
contribution in Varanasi and other dwellings of Kashi is salient. These
areas were basic sources for the availability of metals, minerals, timber and
stone. The capital region of the channel dependant Kashi was the main
medium of the income of these areas. Thus this interdependant intimacy of
the city and peripheral area can be accepted as the cultural region of Kashi.
The Vindhya and Kaimoor hills were the region of supply for Kashi's
mineral demand. The stone useful for the architectures and crafts was
obtained from Chunar (Vindhya series), whereas iron required for
instruments and weapons was obtained from Chakiya (Kaimoor series). In
archaeological explorations these places have been identified as the hills of
Chunar in Mirzapur and many old sites at the hilly region of Chakiya
Tehsil. These mountaineous regions are also source of semi-precious stone
ores, which have been used for beads and other ornamental things from the
ancient times.22

The present city of Varanasi is situated on the left shore of Ganges

river in crescent form. The geographical situation of the city is 28 18'
norther latitude and 83 1' eastern longitude. Whereas, current Varanasi
district is located between 25 18' northern latitude and 83 0' eastern
longitude. The whole Varanasi district is spread in 1525 square kilometers.

22
Vidula Jaiswal, Aadi Kashi se Varanasi Tak, Ditto, p.3

7
In the north of Varanasi district Jaunpur, in the northeast Ghazipur, in the
south Mirzapur and in the southeast Chandauli districts are situated.23

In ancient times, different cultural names of Kashi have been

conceptualized. Among these five names are very famous - Kashi,
Varanasi, Avimukta, Anandakanan, Mahashmashan. The purport of these
various names has been indicated in Puranas and many other tracts. From
the very beginning these names have been used for political power, region
and religious forms. These names are the basis of the religious changes and
religious authority time by time. Among these names, the name of Kashi is
above all. In present time, Kashi and Varanasi are considered as synonyms
but in those times they were not. Kashi's expansion was much more than
that of Varanasi. In literature Kashi has been known as the Mahajanapada
while Varanasi is the capital city. According to Shivram Vaman Apte, the
word 'Kashi' is derived from 'Kash' which means shining. According to
Puranas wherever there is god's light is glittering, it is Kashi. According to
Skandapurana, this city enlightens the path of salvation. According to
Diana L. Eck, when the sun's ray fall on the water of Ganges, and with the
reflection of that light the whole ghats of Ganges become incredibly
radiant.24 On the basis of Vedic and Puranic texts it is said that in the royal
dynasty of Kashi, in the seventh generation from the early ancestor Manu,
there was a king named 'Kash', and due to it, this place was known as Raja
and the region as Kashi. Vedic scholar Hawell believes that an Aryan tribe
named 'Kasis' used to live in northern India. About three and a half
thousand years ago, this tribe moved to the eastern valley of Ganges and
inhabitated in the nearby areas of the modern Banaras city. This region is

23
Ramlochan Singh, Banaras: A Study of Urban Geography, (Nandkishor and Brothers, Banaras, 1955)
p.14
24
Diana L. Eck, Banaras: City of Life, (Penguin India, New Delhi, 1982) p.25-26

8
known as Kashi because of this tribe's name. 25 It is also said that the origin
of the name Kashi is because there was a lot of water accumulation due to
the bank of Ganges and therefore there were lots of foliage of Kash and
Kush trees. That is why the land of Banaras is called Kashi. The word
'Kaswar' is still in vogue in Banaras.26 Whatever may be the reason for the
origin of the word Kashi, it has cultural significance. There are many
opinions prevalent about the naming of Varanasi. The word 'Varanasi' has
been mentioned in the Shaunakiya branch of Atharvaveda.27 On the basis
of this word, some scholars equate the modern Varuna river with
Varanawati and also believe that the city was named Varanasi only because
it was inhabitated on the bank of Varanawati river. The 'Varanasi' river
found in the river list of Mahabharata's Bhishmaparva is also equated with
modern Varuna. Through these literary extracts it is clear that the ancient
Varanasi city was inhabitated on the bank of Varuna river. By chance, some
recent archaeological excavations confirm this. According to the renowned
historian Vasudev Sharan Agrawal, 'Varana' is also the name of a tree. The
city was surrounded by Varana trees and thus the river was called Vranasi
or Varanasi and the city as Varanasi. Evidences are found that in ancient
times cities were named after trees. Like Kaushambi from Kaushamb tree
and Rohitak from Rohit tree.28 The most prevalent opinion about the
naming of Varanasi is found in later Puranas and literary tracts. According
to this opinion, the basis of the name Varanasi is the land lying between the
Varuna and Assi rivers. According to Motichandra, giving the name of city
to a land lying between two rivers is an imagination of later times. This
imagination would have come at that time when the religious significance
of the city increased and the population in the southern part started

25
E.B. Hawell, Benaras The Sacred City, (Blacky & Sons Limited, London, 1905) p.2-3
26
Motichandra, Ditto, p.2-3
27
Atharvaveda, 4-1-7-1
28
Vasudev Sharan Agrawal, Kashi ke Itihas ki Bhumika, p.3-4

9
increasing. However, in ancient tradition, Varanasi was used to indicate the
city whereas Kashi was used to indicate the region or state. The name
'Benaras' became prevalent in the British era which is found in the tracts
and documents published in the same era or later. A few decades ago, the
Government of India formally named Benaras as 'Varanasi'. This name was
sanctioned not only for the city but also for the administering unit and the
Varanasi district as well.

'Avimukta', another name of Kashi is mentioned in Puranas.

According to Matsyapurana, the reason behind this name is because lord
Shiva never forfeited this city (A+Vimukta). There is another origin of this
name : 'Avi' = sin; thus Avimukta = liberating from sin. Four clay seals
found in the archaeological excavation of Rajghat are inscribed with
Avimukteshwara. These clay seals are from Gupta age. Thus the antiquity
of this name is prooved itself. In Jabalopnishada, the Avimukta region is
said to be the abode of gods and a place of eternal bliss for all the living
beings. According to Padmapurana, the Avimukta area expands up to two
hundred dhanushas or four hundred yards around the Vishweshwara
temple. As per scholars, ancient Avimukteshwara was located at the same
place as the current Jnanavapi mosque but due to the destruction during the
Muslim reign the significant place was occupied by Vishweshwara.29

The verdure land of Kashi is famous with the name of Anandavana

from ancient times. In Puranic literature, Kashi is mentioned as the first
city after the great apocalypse and later it developed into Ananda Kanana,
the city which most adorable to Shiva. As this city gives pleasure to Shiva,
it is called as Ananda Kanana or Anandavana. It is clearly said in
Matsyapurana that when lord Shiva brought Parvati to Kashi, he showed
her his garden and grove, immensly beautiful and detailed description of

29
Kubernath Sukul, Ditto, p.30

10
this is also found in this Purana.30 One thing is clear by the name
Anandavana that the Varanasi region was pre-eminent with forests and
groves. It is confirmed by the descriptions of Fa Hien and Huen Tsang. The
reason mentioned in Puranas for calling Varanasi as Mahashmashana is
that at the time of the great apocalypse all the elements slept here into form
of corpse. Possibly the Mahashmashana was situated at the current
Manikarnika Ghat. King Harishchandra sold himself to a Chandala for
protection of truth. In early indian Sanskrit and Buddhist tracts, a
description of traditional five parts of India is found. India has been said to
be a country of five parts in the official documents of the seventh century
Thung dynasty. These five names are Prachya, Pratichya, Udhichya,
Dakshina and Madhyadesha. Collectively, these names are also called
Panchabharata. The chinese pattern of partition in five parts was grasped
tangibely from Brahmin tradition described in the Puranas. The literatures
present different descriptions about the geographical situation of ancient
Kashi. Sometimes Kashi is placed under Prachya otherwise under
Madhyadesha and sometimes it is accepted as the center of the parting
point of both the parts.The Aryadesha of Sutragranthas or Aryavarta and
the Madhyadesha of Manu and Majhim country of Pali tracts present the
description of the same geographical unit. According to these, the land to
the west of Kalakavana situated at the bank of Prayag and to the east of
Vinashana region of Saraswati river is said to be Madhyadesha. In other
words, the ancient Kashi region was out of the boundaries of Madhyadesha
which was influenced by Brahmin culture. But the eastern boundary of
Madhyadesha, as the time progressed, grew gradually and thus even those
places which were sanctified by the influence of Brahmin religion came
under it. Prachyadesha was situated in the east of Madhyadesha, but as the

30
Diana L. Eck, Ditto, p.29

11
eastern boundary of Madhyadesha kept on changing, the western boundary
of Prachyadesha started decreasing. According to Dharmasutras,
Prachyadesha was situated in east of Prayaga, whereas according to the
annotation of Vatsyayana sutra it was situated in the east of Angadesha.
According to the historions, Madhyadesha came into influence of Aryan
culture in the post Vedic era and by the time Kashi emerged as the centre
of this culture.

In Jatakas, the expansion of Kashi nation is said to be 300 Yojanas.

According to Dr. Hemchandra Roy Chowdhuri this expansion was up to
900 miles (1 Yojana = 3 miles).31 Generally, the value of Yojana is
accepted between 7 to 8 miles per Yojana. On this basis, the expansion of
Kashi nation was around 2400 miles. The stories found about the
expansion of Kashi, Varanasi and other Janpadas are so exaggerated that in
reality there is no value of Yojana which can be accurate.

Ancient Varanasi was connected with the major roots (land and
water) of this country. The geographical situation and transportation
facilities established this city as the centre of trade. Most of the
information about Varanasi's trade relations with other cities is found in
Buddhist literature. The traders trading through the inland roots were
known as Thalapathakambhika whereas the traders using the water roots
were known as Jalapathakambhika. From sixth century B.C.E. to the later
eras, the major root was the one which connected east to west. This root
started from the Rajgriha, the capital of Magadha and reached up to
Takshashila, the capital of Gandhara nation in northwest. This root was
known as Uttarapatha. Varanasi was a major bivouac of this root where the
Ganges was crossed. The importance of this root prevailed in medieval and
modern times also. Because of being inhabitated on the bank of Ganges,

31
Hemchandra Roy Chowdhuri, Prachin Bharat Ka Rajnaitik Itihas, (Kitabmahal, Allahabad, 1971) p.57

12
Varanasi had the facilities of water-course from the ancient times. Varanasi
had relations with those large trade cities which were situated on the shores
of rivers or sea.

In historical geography, exploration of the changing forms of the

dwellings situated in ancient cities is an important field of study. Cowell,
the scholar of Jataka tales says that Varanasi name has been changed many
times in tales.32 There are two possibilities enclosed with the list of names.
First, along with time the name of the city and dwelling kept changing,
secondally, in the peripheral region of the city there were many dwellings
which bore different names. The second possibility seems to be more
logical, because the word Varanasi used in Janpada era is constantly
prevalent till today. The proofs are available in both archaeological and
literary evidences as well. There are evidences of one or more dwellings
inhabitated in Varanasi in different eras. While some of these desolated
while others get inhabitated. Under this circumstance it is obvious that the
list of the names of dwellings will be lengthy. Around one hundred and
fifty years ago, even Sherring indicated the possibility of the nature of the
changing residential history of Varanasi. On the basis of the archaeological
remnants and Varuna situated in the north of the city, he assumed that this
area was the initial dwelling. He believed that the periphery of Varanasi
city moved from north to southeast and from east to southwest, which can
be seen in form of three forts. Rajghat, Shivala and Ramnagar were
considered as three center points of this layout.33 On the basis of the
archaeological remnants available today, scholarly Prof. Vidula Jaiswal has
clarified the respective development of the periphery of Varanasi city and
systematic shift of the four centres of the population density. These centres

32
E.B. Cowell, Editor The Jataka are Story of Buddha's Former Birth, (Munshiram Mahoharlal, Delhi,
1990) Section1, p.7-8
33
M.A. Sherring, Benares: Sacred City of the Hindus, (Tribber & Company, London, 1868) p.32

13
are recognized up to Akatha, Rajghat, Chowk (the center of Varanasi city
Pakka Mahaal), Shivala and Assi.34 The expansion of the last centre is
medieval. In continuation, the periphery of modern dwelling is situated in
form of Samne Ghat and Banaras Hindu University. The expansion of
Varanasi city and selection of changed centre was inspired by
contemporary economical and cultural necessities and its contribution has
assisted in presenting Varanasi and its long life.

34
Vidula Jaiswal, Aadi Kashi se Varanasi Tak, Ditto, p.150-151

14