Tnternational Journal of Mine Water, vol.

5 ( 3 ) , ( 1 9 8 6 ) 47 - 74
P r i n t e d i n Madrid, Spain

S. M. Reed and R. N. Singh

lkg-.nt of Mining E h g h e d q
unlwcslty of Nottirsgham
University Park
NG72RD
united Kingdan

The paper presents the m i n findings of the research work conducted

over the past three years into the enviromntal effects associated with
surface mining. Especial considerations have been give to the
re-establishment of the natural groundwater regime, as a consequence of
opencast site restoration. A sumnary of the results of the research is
presented and two specific topics, namely, the stability of backfilled
msses and the pollution of groundwater are detailed. The project was
based on field and laboratory investigations, and details of this work
along with sane general conclusions are given.

The research project describes the enviromntal problems associated

with the re-establishment of the hydrological follming the
restoration of a surface coal mining operation. nlJo principal effects have
been established;
o The collapse settlement of opencast mine backfills as a consequence
of physical weathering from groundwater contact, and
o The pollution of groundwater fran contact with physically and
chemically weathered rockfill mterials.
Detailed investigations into groundwater recovery, backfill settlement
and groundwater quality have been conducted on a substantial numker of
both current and canpleted opencast mine sites in the United Kingdan, with
the w-operation of the National Coal Board, (recently r e n d British
Coal), Opencast Executive, (Reed 1986).
 During the l i f e of a surface mine excavating below the level of the
natural water t a b l e , the necessary s i t e dewatering operations, e i t h e r
passive o r active, depress the groundwater level. (Ngah, Reed and Singh,
1983). When m i e g terminates, pumping operations cease and the
groundwater t a b l e 1s allowed t o recover t o its natural level both i n the
s o l i d unmrked s t r a t a and the mine backfill. If a mine has not produced
enough waste f o r t h e excavated void t o be f u l l y restored, then the
p o s s i b i l i t y of the f o m t i o n of a f i n a l void lake e x i s t s . The generalised
sequence i s presented i n figure 1. The r a t e and degree of recovery i s
r e l a t e d t o a n m h r of s i t e specific f a c t o r s , (Singh, Denby and Reed,
1985).

o Areal extent and depth of mine s i t e .

o Local hydrological conditions and s o u r e s of recharge.
o Changes i n local hydrogeology owing t o excavation and backfilling.

The areal extent and depth of the s i t e a r e important because the larger
t h e volume of the site, the greater the volume of water t h a t w i l l be
required t o s a t u r a t e the f i l l t o a given level. The nature of the recharge
w i l l a f f e c t the quantity of water entering i n t o t h e f i l l over a specific
period of t&. A typical example of recharge m u l d be i n cases where old
deep mine workings, c m n l y excavated i n B r i t i s h opencast mines connect
w i t h t h e backfill mss. A standard masure t o protect both the surface
mine and any hydraulic l i n k t o a working deep mine i s t o apply clay s e a l s
t o t h e horizon of old workings i n the f i n a l excavated wall. If these s e a l s
a r e not 100%e f f i c i e n t then water may e i t h e r enter t h e f i l l ran the deep
mine workings o r conversely drain the backfill mass. Climate m y have an
important r o l e t o play depending on t h e permeability of the near surface
layers of f i l l . Both these points w i l l be discussed i n d e t a i l l a t e r . The
hydrogeology of t h e mining area has becorw disrupted with i n t a c t
rock s t r a t a transfornx3d i n t o a broken rock f i l l with a wide s i z e
d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e permeability of which may be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t t o
the original. Rock m s s permeabilities a s p a r t of t h i s research have
indicated variations i n f i l l permeability f r m being unable t o hold water
during a pumping-in t e s t t o being m r e impermeable than t h e original rock
strata.

Eminmental effects of backfill d i s p l a m t s

The s t a b i l i t y of a r o c k f i l l mss has a g r e a t importance i n deciding its

f u r t h e r use, e i t h e r f o r agricultural o r s t r u c t u r a l d e v e l o p n t purposes.
I n the case of agricultural d e v e l o p n t , standard restoration procedures
include the provision of adequate drainage f o r both subsurface water and
surface water by constructing water courses, drains and adequate surface
gradients. Differential settlements of backfill materials can occur t o
a l t e r these restored surface levels and m y a l s o a l t e r the surface flaw
patterns. A typical r e s u l t of t h i s would be the creation of ponds over the
restored s i t e s . Differential mvanents themselves m y occur f o r a variety
of reasons w i t h f a c t o r s such a s f i l l depth, f i l l boulder s i z e , degree of
saturation e t c . each having a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t .
Backfill
1
- Excavation
-Water-k v e l
-. -
-
1
-\--. - A /---

Pavement. Strata

a). Advancing I)owrrDip Surface Mine. Gmmdwiter Deplressed by Punping.

Backf ill
-. -.
\ -. --. -.+- -.-
/ '

-. -. _ ,

b). As Mine Progresses, water ~ e a m x sw i t h i n the ~ p o i l .

\ , . -. ___ _ - . __ . -.
\ Backill

to E q l u i l M m -1.
d). On Ocropletim, -ter

Direction of Advance
>
 B o t h v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l d i f f e r e n t i a l m o v a n t s a r e of importance t o
the construction of structures on opencast lands. I t i s generaily agreed
t h a t w h i l s t uniform movements i n one direction may be tolerated by a
structure, d i f f e r e n t i a l v e r t i c a l o r l a t e r a l m v m n t s may cause severe
s t r u c t u r a l damage.
The extraction of one tonne of coal may typically e n t a i l the removal of
20 m of overburden under B r i t i s h conditions, (Charles e t a l , 1977). This
spoil material i s c m n l y excavated by draglines and c a s t t o one s i d e of
the p i t t o form the advancing loosewall of the mine. Alternatively i n the
case of face shovel use, the overburden may be loaded onto dump trucks and
end tipped t o form the loosewall in high l i f t s . The backfilling
operation i n t h i s way i n f i l l s the area from which the coal has just been
extracted. A s a consequence of the backfilling operation, o p n c a s t mining
leaves areas where the depth of loose backfill materials can be
considerable. This unconsolidated m t e r i ,1 kas the capability t o undergo
s i g n i f i c a n t s e t t l m e n t , and the degree and timescale of such movements can
be of extreme importance i n cases where workings a r e required f o r surface
developnent. F r a n observations i n the 1 9 4 0 ' ~ ~the Department of Civil
Ehgineering a t Newcastle University undertook a prcgramne of research on
behalf of the Opencast Executive, investigating the s t a b i l i t y of restored
s i t e s , (Kilkenny 1968). The research presented s e t t l e n ~ e n tr e s u l t s from the
Ckibburn S i t e i n Northumberland reporting a sari-logarithmic relationship
between average s e t t l m n t s and t h e .

The Bulkage of Backfill Bterials.

Broken rock s t r a t a when used a s a b a c k f i l l i ~ g material can exhibit
considerable volume changes a s ccanpared with the original i n t a c t material.
S i l t s and p l a s t i c clays w i l l soften and expand considerablely when
excavated w t , whilst s o f t organic materials such a s p a t can m p r e s s on
dumping. On a normal surface mine s i t e , despite the f a c t t h a t 4-108 of the
excavated s t r a t a i s reroved a s coal, the overall bulkage of the backill
w i l l usually r e s u l t i n the f i n a l landscape being a t l e a s t the level of the
o r i g i n a l , i f not even higher. Examples of recorded b a c k f i l l bulkages for
ccanpleted s i t e s were recorded by Ferguson (19841, the range can be seen t o
be -3 t o +12.2% with The lower figures k i n g a t t r i b u t a b l e t o peaty s i t e s .

Effect of Mining MeUlod.

In general the plant which operates on surface mine s i t e s i s large,
cumbersame and heavy, giving ccmplimentary canpaction t o the bacMMill
mass. S t r i p mining operations using draglines, o r tipping by truck and
shovel operations r e s u l t i n a limited m u n t of layering w i t h effective
ccsnpaction a t bench level. A t the other end of t h e scale, spoil handled by
m t o r i s e d box scrapers is given the most e f f i c i e n t system of canpaction
and consolidation excepting cases where same deliberate form of c a p a c t i n g
mchinery is used, (e.g. sheeps-foot r o l l e r ) .
Typical opencast mine b a c k f i l l s a r e l e f t reasonably canpacted on the
cunpletion of operations, even those deposited by draglines, and it is the
i n i t i a l bulkage of the f i l l material which a f f e c t s the t o t a l degree of
s e t t l m t which the rmss w i l l undergo i n time. The i n i t i a l bulkage i s i n
turn r e l a t e d t o i n i t i a l p a r t i c l e size. The larger the p a r t i c l e s i z e s
within t h e f i l l than the greater the degree of s i z e b r e a k d m t h a t can
occur and consequently the greater the degree of settlement which w i l l
a r i s e . An investigation conducted by Knipe, (1981). I n general both
scrapers and dump trucks were used t o l a y t h e f i l l , b u t i n scme area s p o i l
was l e f t loose dumped r e s u l t i n g i n a r e l a t i v e l y unconsolidated f i l l mss.
The curves i l l u s t r a t e well t h e d i f f e r i n g degrees of settlement which can
occur on a s i n g l e s i t e a s a r e s u l t of d i f f e r e n t b a c k f i l l i n g techniques.

The Physical Weatbering of Coal Measure Rockx.

The s t r e s s e s exerted by t h e a c t i o n of water m y have a g r e a t e f f e c t on

t h e b a c k f i l l p a r t i c l e s owing t o t h e a b i l i t y of water t o weaken rock
strength. The s t r e n g t h of a rock i s propc)rtional t o i t s surface energy,
and thus when t h e surface of the rock i s wetted then t h e surface energy i s
reduced and consequently i t s ccs-npressive s t r e n p h .
The physical weathering of rocks by water can be divided i n t o four
groups ;

a). Scouring Action of P a r t i c l e s .

b). Swelling.
c). Air Breakage.
d) . Freeze Thaw.

These being described by Huggins, (1975). Overall t h e breakdown of

b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l s by both chemical and physical weathering w i l l r e s u l t i n
t h e consolidation of t h e f i l l mass a s t h e l a r g e r p a r t i c l e s within t h e f i l l
a r e broken down.

Cansolidaticm Settlanents of Backfill mterials.

I n deep f i l l s self-weight i s o f t e n t h e principal source of s e t t l e n e n t ,
(Charles 19781, this p r h r i l y occuring on t h e inmediate placement of t h e
f i l l . (Along with cornpactive e f f e c t s from mining machinery) Collapse .
s e t t l m e n t s may then occur i n t h e presence of groundwater. Following t h e s e
e f f e c t s s i s n i f i c a n t mverwnts can s t i l l occur under conditions of constant
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s and moisture content - this being termed creep
settlement. Creep s e t t l e m n t s have been observed t o follow t h e logarithmic
decay such a s was indicated by Kilkenny (1968) i n h i s work on opencast
.
f ill s e t t l e m n t s

ale Effect of G ? x b d w a t e r Reoavery.

A recovering water t a b l e w i l l have t h e e f f e c t of accelerating t h e
processes of physical and chemical weathering a s it r i s e s through t h e
f i l l , (Charles e t a l , 1977, 1984). Results from a unique experiment on t h e
Horsley opencast mine s i t e i n N o r t h m h r l a n d have s h a m a s i g n i f i c a n t
influence on settlement induced by groundwater. The e x p e r h n t
investigated f i v e predaninant f e a t u r e s on t h e s i t e which could influence
t h e degree and nature of b a c k f i l l s e t t l m e n t s , namely;

.
i ) Oldest F i l l .
ii).Deepest F i l l .
iii).F i l l i n t h e v i c i n i t y of lagoons.
i v ) . F i l l previously overlain by a s p o i l heap.
v ) . ,.lost recent f i l l .

The most important r e s u l t s frcm t h e Horsley e-riment were a s f o l l m s .

a ) . Settlement c h a r a c t e r i s i c s a r e heavily influenced by such f e a t u r e s
a s lagoons, which presaturate the f i l l resulting i n ultimately l e s s
s e t t l a n e n t and by spoil heaps, which a c t a s f i l l surcharges. On the
removal of an overburden heap on the Horsley s i t e smll heaving movements
were observed.
b). A significant proportion of t h e measured settlement was found t o be
due t o compression i n the upper 10 m of f i l l which had not actually being
saturated by the water table.

Several cases of destructive damage t o structures constructed on

opencast mine s i t e s have been recorded. Leigh and Rainbow, (1979) report
on a factory b u i l t i n 1971 on f i l l which was 18 m deep and restored i n
1953. Substantial damage t o the factory occured i n 1977. Pumping i n the
area from uriderground mining had ceased by 1972, i n i t i a t i n g groundwater
recovery. Follming damage, a s i t e investigation revealed t h a t the 1-r
portions of the f i l l had been saturated resulting i n a canpression of 4.5%
of t h e f i l l depth.
Guest, (1975) reports damage i n f l i c t e d on a block of terrace houses
constructed i n 1973 on f i l l of 10 m thickness and 13 years old. S t r u c t y p d
damage was reported i n 1973. Investigations shuwed t h a t drain trenches had
f i l l e d with water indicating t h a t saturation had been a m j o r influence on
the degree of d i f f e r e n t i a l settlement.
Knipe (1981) presented r e s u l t s of backfill settlanents on f i v e opencast
mine sites i n the West Midlands. The project studied backfill settlements
on s i t e s on similar f i l l characteristics arid thus evaluated the e f f e c t of
mining mthod. The work however did not evaluate the e f f e c t of
groundwater on f i l l settlements.
Recent studies of backfill settlanents have been conducted by
SmytkOsbourne, (1984) who examined the settlement of a factory and mge
induced by s i t i n g the structure p a r t i a l l y on opencast backfill material,
i e over a highwall. Additionally, Buist, (1984) studied deformations in a
mtorway carriageway which had been constructed on a restored surface.
B o t h researchers reported t h a t changes i n groundwater levels m y have had
e f f e c t s on backfill settlements.

Research i n t o backfill settlements has resulted i n t e n s i t e s of

d i f f e r e n t mining characteristics being evaluated f o r groundwater recovery
and associated b a c k f i l l displacements. The objectives of t h e research were
a s follows;
a ) . Observe and characterise backfill movments i n the presence of a
recoverying water table.
b ) . Observe the e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t types of f i l l , thicknesses etc.
c ) . Evaluate the e f f e c t of mining m e m d on the degree of backfill
settlexwnt.
d). Observe and record degrees and r a t e s of groundwater recharge.
e ) . E'valuate the e f f e c t of time on backfill sett1aWnt.
f ) . Evaluate backfill p e r m a b i l i t i e s and r e l a t e these t o backfill
settlanents.
A s m r y of the s i t e s investigated, i n s t m n t a t i o n and observations
are presented i n t a b l e 1.
 Table 1.
Sitelksmi@im
S i t e A. Ruck-Shovel Operation.
Shallow mdstone f i l l , average depth
=17 m, maximum depth = 33 m. W e t s i t e
with recharqe ran o l d deep mine
workings.
S i t e B. Dragline operaticm, m r k i n g
sandstone-mudstone overburden.
Average depth of f i l l i n i n s l x m e n t a t i o n
area = 70 m. Final void i n f i l l e d by dunnp
trucks.
S i t e C. Truck-Shovel operation working
synclinal basins. S a n d s t o n m d s t o n e
f i l l , 40 - 70 m deep.
S i t e D. Dragline site, 15 -30 rnetres
depth of f i l l . Sandstone- mudstone.
of S i t e Investigatims. - Backfill Settleooent Wseazch.
DWmmmtation Details.
5 Magnetic extensomters/Piezomters t o
m n i t o r settlement and groundwater recovery
i n the f i l l . 4 p i e z m t e r s monitoring recharge
i n t h e s o l i d . Instmxwnts i n two p r o f i l e s ,
one d m - d i p , one along s t r i k e .
4 Piezaneters m n i t o r i n g recharge i n t h e
s o l i d . 2 multi-point p i e z m t e r s , ( 5 t i p s i n Substantial v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l
i n each), m n i t o r i n g water behaviour i n f i l l .
2 tension wire extenscmeters monitor s e t t l m t Average p a r e a b i l i t y akin
and shear i n f i l l , a l s o used f o r penreabilty
t e s t i n g of horizons within the f i l l .
4 mgnetic extensmters/piezmters
monitoring d e f o ~ t i o n salong t h e l i n e of a
road constructed on variable thickness b a c k f i l l .
I n s t m n t depths of 30, 40, 60 and 70 metres.
'Ibp 15.5 metres of f i l l canpacted.
23 Surface l e v e l l i n g s t a t i o n s and 3 magnetic
extensanetws/piezcmeters monitoring t h e l i n e
of a sewerage pipe constructed over t h e f i l l .
Cksavatims.
Water recovery rapid, 24 m in 144 days.
Collapse s e t t l m t found t o occur
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o groundwater position
Mudstone swelling following s a t u r a t i o n
resulted i n heave moverrwts. Differential
settlements resulted i n p n d e d areas.
Settlement over canpacted haul road
much reduced. Settlement = 1.1%of f i l l
depth.
Slow groundwater recovery, 5 m/year.
w m t s i n f i l l over 2 years old.
t o i n t a c t coal m s u r e s t r a t a .
Perched water t a b l e s present i n f i l l .
P e n r e a b i l i t i e s much g r e a t e r with depth
surface p e r m a b i l i t i e s very 1m.
F i l l saturated t o 5 metres below base
of carrpaction a t start of monitoring.
Cosrrpacted zone appears unseceptible t o
collapse settlement. Small mavements
~ a s u r e dnormally occuring i n t h e base of
t h e f i l l . F i l l depth governing proportior
of settlement. No severe d i f f e r e n t i a l
v e r t i c a l movement.
Instnrmentation ccrrmenced 7.5 years
a f t e r restoration. Negligible movements
i n t h e f i l l . Fluctuating water t a b l e had
no e f f e c t on settlement patterns.
 Table l.(Ctmt.)
S i t e Ilescription
S i t e E. Dragline S i t e , sandstone-
mudstone f i l l .
S i t e F. Dragline S i t e , sandstone-
mudstone f i l l . Depths i n area of
i n s t n m m t a t i o n up t o 35 metres.
S i t e G. Shallow truck-shovel s i t e .
Sandstone-mudstone f i l l . No water.
S i t e H. Fenmnent spoil heap mud.
S i t e I. Dragline S i t e , sandstone-
mdstone f i l l . Concrete l i n e culvert
and lake constructed on restored f i l l
surf ace.
S i t e J. Truck-shave1 s i t e on side of
h i l l s i d e . Shallow depth 11 m, sandstone-
mdstone f i l l .
Sumnary of Site Investigations. - Epckfill Settlenent Research.
Instrimentation Details
3 traverses t o t a l l i n g 30 surface levelling
s t a t i o n s over f i l l area. Correlated t o
local piezawters f o r groundwater levels.
8 surface levelling stations i n s t a l l e d over
highwall area. Correlated t o local
p i e z m t e r s f o r groundwater levels.
9 surface levelling s t a t i o n s mnitoring
v e r t i c a l and l a t e r a l f i l l movements.
1 tension wire extensaneter mnitoring
settlement and shear. 1 p i e z m t e r
monitoring groundwater.
None
None
CXsenatians
Water recovery related collapse
settlements were observed. S l m time
period for recovery, 7 years. Secondary
recovery induced secondary collapse
settlements. Settlemmt not canpletely
related t o f i l l thickness.
Groundwater recovery related settlement
observed follmed by long term creep
displacments. Settlement inde~endentof
f i l l depth and affected by presence of
highwall. 8.5 years a f t e r i n i t i a l
recovery, s e t t l e m n t still occuring.
Groundwater levels still recovery~ng
slowly.
Smal 1 v e r t i c a l mvemmt observed i n dry
f i l l . Larger l a t e r a l movements recorded
and found t o be d i f f e r e n t i a l i n both
mqnitude and direction. Highwall had
significant e f f e c t on movanents .
Small displacenents i n dry spoil. Water
levels s l i g h t l y fluctuated a t base of
heap.
2 years a f t e r culvert constructed on f i l l
14 years old a sudden structural collapse
occured m u n t i n g t o 3.4% of the f i l l
depth.
Bowl- l i k e depressions of up t o 0.5 m
occured i n f i l l of 24 years age over an
unknm period. No water issues.
S e t t l m t w u n t s t o 4.5% of f i l l depth.
Summary of Backfill Settlenrent and Gmmdwater F&meq Results.
This paper aims t o highlight the principal findings from the work
presented i n d e t a i l i n these previous publications. The s i t e s involved i n
each paper i s a l s o indicated by the reference.
Groundwater recovery has been seen t o occur over various time
i n t e r v a l s ; an e x t r m l y short time i n a case of a shallow s i t e m s u r a b l e
i n days, o r over a period of years i n a much deeper larger s i t e . Recovery
has seen t o be s t i l l occuring within one f i l l over eight years a f t e r the
sequence of recovery was i n i t i a t e d .
Instantaneous collapse settlement has been observed i n f i l l s and
d i r e c t l y related t o the groundwater table. Following these large movements
the fill can continue t o settle a t a slow even rate of
millimetres per year magnitude o r even i n the cases of mdstone f i l l s
e x h i b i t heaving m o v m t s . On one s i t e a recovered water t a b l e lowered i n
the f i l l over a sunm-er period t o recover once again i n the winter months.
Secondary collapse settlements were observed.
On one s i t e the compaction of a haul road by continuous running of
plant resulted i n negligible v e r t i c a l movements canpared with uncmpacted
ground. On a s t r i p mine, p e r m a b i l i t y t e s t k g showed the f i l l t o be much
more permeable with depth. The near surface layers which had been restored
by scraper operations were very impernaeable. The r e s u l t s reflected a
p a r t i c l e d i s t r i b u t i o n through the v e r t i c a l section of the f i l l with the
l a r g e s t boulders a t the base and t h e smallest rocks near surface.
The monitoring of the displacements occuring within a f i l l destined f o r
road construction indicated how f i l l s can be stable following groundwater
recovery. The depth of f i l l under the road varied from 30 t o 70 metres.
No severe d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l m e n t s were recorded despite the significant
depth variation.
On two s i t e s the importance of l a t e r a l i n addition t o v e r t i c a l f i l l
m v m n t s were gnphasised. On one dry s i t e the l a t e r a l movement of a point
on t h e surface of the f i l l exceeded its v e r t i c a l settlement.
On one s i t e the construction of a concrete-lined culvert carrying water
f r a n a restored lake caused a sudden s t r u c t u r a l collapse i n the f i l l which
had been s t a b l e i n position f o r 1 4 years. The collapse settlement m u n t e d
t o 3.4% of t h e f i l l depth. The cause i s presumed due t o a leakage of water
out of the culvert.
The creation of three large h l - l i k e depressions over the surface of a
surface mine which had been restored 24 years previously resulted i n
maximum surface displacements of 4.5% of the t o t a l f i l l depth. This i s one
of t h e l a r g e s t v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c m n t s i n such f i l l s recorded.

Op~cast mine backfill materials can occasionally contain weathered

minerals which a r e able t o r e a c t with groundwater t o produce a polluted
discharge. A notable example i s the oxidation of p y r i t i c material t o form
acidic and iron r i c h , (ferruginous) drainages. On saw s i t e s a problem has
been created by t h e inclusion of highly p y r i t i c c o l l i e r y s p i l material
within t h e f i l l .
The r e s u l t a n t waters i n cases of pollution problems a r e l m i n organic
matter and high i n dissolved mtal s a l t s . pH values from the presence of
sulphuric acid may be a s l c w a s 2. The e n v i r o m n t a l and econanic e f f e c t s
of these drainages a r e currently of g r e a t concern, and over recent years
the legal constraints applied t o such discharges have becaw increasingly
severe. Successful prosecutions have been made against the National Coal
Board f o r the pollution of watercourses draining restored mine s i t e s .

The various types of water pollution rmy be divided i n t o four

categories, narrutly:
a ) . Chemical; Organic and Inorganic.
b ) . Physical; Colour, Turbidity, Temperature, Suspended
Solids, Foam,
Radioactivity.
c ) . Physiological; Taste and odour.
d ) . Biological; Bacteria, Viruses, Animals and Plants.
Of these it i s the chemical o m of pollution which give r i s e d i r e c t l y
t o physical and physiological e f f e c t s t h a t a r e of g r e a t e s t importance.

Chemical Pollution.
a). Ckgadc-
Organic pollutants, (carbon cmpounds), have three main harmul
properties :
i ) . They i n t e r f e r e with natural water self-purification.
ii).They prevent re-aeration of water forming a t h i n
surface film.
iii).Toxicity.
Examples of organic pollutants include f a t s , soaps, waxes, rubber,
coal, o i l , phenol, dyes, detergents and cyanides.

Inorganic pollutants can be subdivided i n t o three groups;

i ) .Acids and Alkalis; These corrcde both m t a l s and concrete. They
destroy bacteria, f i s h and other l i f e forms.
ii). Dissolved Toxic Compounds; Free chlorine, amnonia and soluble
sulphides a r e classed amongst many others a s dissolved toxic c q u n c C s .
Heavy metal s a l t s a r e particularly toxic.
iii). Soluble S a l t s ; the chlorides, sulphates, n i t r a t e s , bicarbonates
and phosphates of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, iron and
manganese a l l induce s a l i n i t y i n t o t h e water.

Physical pollution can manifest i t s e l f i n one o r a combination of the

f o l l m i n g ways; colour changes, t u r b i d i t y , temperature, suspended s o l i d s ,
foam o r contamination by radioactivity.

Physiological Pollution.
Physiological pollution manifests i t s e l f i n the form of t a s t e s and
cdours. Dissolved sulphur a m p u n d s invariably give r i s e t o the presence
of hydrogen sulph.de within a water course producing t h e familiar a c r i d
'rotten eggs ' odour.
Biological Pollution,
A form of pollution which i s not associated with the mining industry
but is included f o r canpleteness. Bacteria and viruses can be transmitted
through water. The problem i s of particular importance i n t h e disposal of
sewerage plant effluents.

The l e g i s l a t i o n regarding the pollution of natural waters by mining

e f f l u e n t s has become increasingly stringent over the past few years, with
the National Coal Board being prosecuted and fined on a number of
occasions.
Since 1951, a l l the groundwater pumped off a surface mine has been
required t o canply with various River Pollution Acts passed i n t h a t year.
The most recent legislation has been the Control of Pollution A c t 1974,
(H.M.S.O. 1974), designed t o bring the law i n t o l i n e with E;E.C.
directives on water pollution relevant t o f i s h and drinking water
abstraction.
-ing off surface mine sites requires a discharge corlsent obtained
from e l t h e r the River Board o r Local Authority. The 1974 Act mkes no
exemptions t o the period of abandomnt of a mine and thus &es the
operator l i a b l e f o r post-mining pollution.

XXDIC AND D-
Iron and Sulphur minerals a r e widespread within coal bearing s t r a t a .
Pyrite, and Siderite, a r e typical sources. A severe water pollution
problem i n the opencast mines of Scotland has arisen f r m the presence of
ironstone bands associated with the excavated s t r a t a , (Norton 1983).

The Effects on Ehvirarnrrent of Acid and FCZ-IS Dkhrges,

The most obvious e f f e c t of an acid discharge i s the deposition i n a

watercourse of f e r r i c hydroxide. The r a t e of hydroxide deposition i s
enhanced by the presence of neutral ferrous oxidising bacteria i n the
natural waters which oxidise ferrous s a l t s and t r a p the precipitated
f e r r i c hydroxide t o form a slime blanket i n the bed of the affected stream
around the discharge point. This blanket engulfs the plankton and
micro-organisms which form the basis of the natural food chain. Fish are
particularly affected by levels of a c i d i t y with natural breeding
cycles being affected a t pH values l w r than 5, (Norton 1983).

The formation of acid mine water occurs when sulphide minerals within
the excavated s t r a t a a r e exposed t o t h e atmosphere. Oxidation of these
minerals has been shown t o be bacterially catalysed, (Atkins and Pooley
1982). I n general the p y r i t i c m t e r i a l i n the presence of oxygen oxidises
t o form a s e r i e s of soluble hydrous iron sulphates. These c m n l y appear
a s yellow o r white c r u s t s on weathered rocks. When natural waters f l m
over these s a l t s , hydrolysis occurs t o form acidic drainages of high
sulphate and ferrous iron concentrations. The ferrous iron may be
subsequently oxidised t o the f e r r i c s t a t e ccmplexing with ferrous and
f e r r i c oxyhydroxides which impart deep red and yellow colours
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of acidic drainages.

Bacterial Catalysis.

The oxidation of i r o n pyrites has been shuwn t o be catalysed by

micro-organisms t e r m d iron bacterium, (Atkins and Singh 1982, Rawat
and Singh 1982). The generally accepted formulae a r e a s follows;

Pyrites + Oxygen + Water - b -----* Ferric Sulphate + Sulphuric Acid.

where - b --+denotes bacterial catalysis.

The reaction once i n i t i a t e d i s self-catalysing. It i s considered t h a t

i f the pH of affected waters f a l l s t o below 4.5 then a l l acid soluble iron
ccnpunds w i l l becaw available f o r reaction, (Henderson and Norton 1983).
Contrary t o t h i s , i f pH values r i s e t o above 5 then the reaction i s
severely inhibited.
The red, ochreous deposit of iron hydroxide previously mentioned a s a
c l a s s i c e f f e c t of such drainages forms a s a r e s u l t of the d i l u t i o n of
f e r r i c sulphate i n a natural water course. The mchanism can be described
by t h e following equation;
Fe2(SO4I3 + 6H2O -2Fe(OHI3 + 3H2S04 (2
Thus t h e f i n a l products of the reaction consists of f e r r i c hydroxide
p r e c i p i t a t e am3 sulphuric acid.

Fadmrs affecting the rate of Bacterial Catalysis.

The f a c t o r s which a f f e c t the r a t e of bacterial leaching can be
s m i s e d a s follows, (Atkins and Singh 1982, Granger 1984).
a ) . pH.
b). Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Concentrations.
c ) . Temprature.
d ) . Bacterial Concentrations.
e l . Nutrients.
f). P a r t i c l e Sizes.
g ) . Mineralogical Factors.
h ) . Metal Toleranax.
i ) . Secondary Mineral Formtion.
j). Pressure and Light.
These f a c t o r s have been investigated by many authors i n addition t o
those above and a detailed analysis i s not presented here.

Owing t o recent stringent legislation, research i n t o groundwater

pollution f m opencast mine sites was held by the National Coal Roard,
Opencast Ekecutive with g r e a t reserve. After a degree of persuasion
however samples of water were obtained from sites i n a l l areas of the
Executive. These regions conveniently subdivided geographically i n t o six,
Scotland, North-East, North-West, Central East, Central West and South
Wales. I n i t i a l l y a questionnaire was circulated around each area t o obtain
som basic background informtion- d e t a i l s of current water samples, water
treatment methods e t c . The next stage of the research was t o sample waters
which e r e inflowing i n t o mines through old yorkings, highwalls and
b a c k f i l l s and t o supplement these r e s u l t s by obtaining samples f r m
p i e z w t e r s i n s t a l l e d i n backfill. A l l water analyses were p e r f o m d i n
Mining Engineering Department a t Nottingham University and a f u l l analysis
consisted of t h e following determinations;

Na, Ca, K, Mg, Fe (ferrous and f e r r i c ) , Mn, Al

The equipment u t i l i s e d i n these t e s t s consisted of a F'ye Unicam PU8600

W/Vis S p e c t r o p h o t m t e r , (Fe, Al, P h , NO3), a Jenway PFF7 Flame
Photaneter, ( N a , Ca, K ) and other standard chemical laboratory equiprrent.
Iron oxidation s t a t e s were s t a b i l i s e d i n the f i e l d by acidifying a second
water sample with HC1.

Scuttish Region
Opencast mine waters in the Scottish region a r e typified by
exceptionally l o w pH and high dissolved iron contents forming a very r e a l
environmental hazard. Problems a r i s e frcan ironstone bands interbedded
with the excavated s t r a t a . These a r e weathered e i t h e r on the surface of
the exposed s l o p o r i n the backfill a s broken rock. The problem of acid
waters i s widespread i n the region and successful prosecutions have been
m d e against the National Ccal Board f o r the pollution of water courses.
milst the f i n e s paid a s a r e s u l t of these prosecutions have been
r e l a t i v e l y small, (100-200), the public h g e of surface mining i n the
region has been severely tarnished. I n particular i n a t t i t u d e s t o consents
f o r proposed opencast mine s i t e s .
To i l l u s t r a t e t h e type of problems which have been encountered i n the
region, surface springs which have ermerged frcan underneath t i p material
have been recorded a s having pH values of 2.8 and dissolved iron contents
of 8,000 - 30,000 ppn, (Norton 1983).
Referring t o S i t e C ran the settlement research, which i s located
i n t h i s area scme specific pollution problems can be detailed.

-ter Qualities on Site C.

The s t r a t a encountered on S i t e C was very argillaceous having a high
degree of p y r i t i c material. Sane of t h e worst discharges emrged from the
base of overburden dumps with analyses of pH 2.8 and 12-30,000 mg/l iron.
A water sample taken a backfilled synclinal basin, showed a pH value of
3.5 and a dissolved t o t a l iron content of 5,000 mg/l. Boreholes elsewhere
i n s t a l l e d i n t h e backfill of t h e site shcwed waters a t shallow depth of pH
3.9 with i r o n contents of up t o 7500 q / l . During the i n s t a l l a t i o n of the
instruments i n t h e road deformation monitoring scheme, it was noticed t h a t
the f i l l was very susceptible t o spontaneous canbustion. In the section of
the f i l l just above the level of the water table, rock tgnperatures were
very high i n i t i a t i n g the f o r m t i o n of steam within the borehole. A nwlber
of other boreholes over the s i t e were inspected and found t o be on f i r e .
The natural water t a b l e i n the area, previous t o mining operations was
close t o surface and there i s a strong p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t streams w i l l
emerge from t h e backfilled area. An analysis of the backfill mass has
indicated a potential iron source of 6,600 t o m e s per million tonnes of
b a c k f i l l , producing a possible 12,600 tonnes of f e r r i c hydroxide. Given
t h a t the sole discharge p i n t on the s i t e i s one smll burn, the
environmental e f f e c t s of such chesnical loads are expxted t o be
considerable.
This s i t e was an extension t o a s i t e which had excavated similar s t r a t a
t o a depth of 250 metres. The s i t e a t present has only been p a r t i a l l y
backfilled and the f i n a l void area r a i n s empty. The coal t o overburden
r a t i o was r e l a t i v e l y low and a s a consequence there i s not s u f f i c i e n t
m t e r i a l t o restore the s i t e . P o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t t o f i l l the void with
domestic refuse. A t the base of this void i s an 40 metre deep acid lake of
pH of around 2. Pumping i s currently keeping water levels t o a constant
horizon, however s a w time i n the pumping must cease and recovery take
place. The original groundwater levels around the area were a s on the
Extension), a t o r near surface, there i s concern t h a t i f the premining
equilibrium levels a r e matched then spring of elctremely toxic material
m y emmate from surface. The presence of the void w i l l l m r the natural
water l e v e l s f o r the present and thus postpone the problems. In the
meantime a solution t o what m y be the m s t potentially serious pollution
problem ever encountered i n the United. Kingdm must be found.

Pbllutim of G m l m i w a t e r frnm Restared opemast Sites.

The restoration of an ironstone t i p i n t o the void of a surface mine

resulted i n a local stream exhibiting pH values of 4.5 and dissolved iron
contents of 650 mg/l when t h e groundwater recovered t o emanate out of the
f i l l a t surface. Analyses of the p i t heap material indicated t h a t the
potential iron source was 3,125 tonnes. The emanation of the groundwater
occured practically next t o the stream and thus a minimum of dilution
occured prior t o mixing with the clean water. The subsequent pollution led
t o t h e prosecution of the National Coal Board under the regulations of the
Control of Pollution Act 1974, (Norton 1983). An atterrpst t o remedy the
s i t u a t i o n by lime injection i n t o the f i l l subsequently f a i l e d , resulting
in the construction of a small water treatment plant.

other Areas.
Scotland has been isolated a s having by f a r the worst a c i d i c and iron
drainage problem. The other regions have raised the following
observations.

North-East.

Many s i t e s i n t h e North-East a r e excavating old deep mine workings. I n

the Northern area of Northunberland especially, these wrkings tend t o
drain the opencast f i l l s a s they a r e d i r e c t l y linked t o a deep mine
c o l l i e r y pump. This obviously i s temporarily reducing recovery r a t e s and
levels i n a n-r of restored opencast s i t e s i n the area despite a
standard restoration policy of applying clay s e a l s t o excavated
underground workings. The pumping i s expected t o terminate i n 10 years
time and f u r t h e r recovery w i l l be i n i t i a t e d over the e n t i r e area. This m y
be of importance i f streams r e e s t a b l i s h out of backfill, (although the
f i l l i s not unduly p y r i t i c ) o r f r m the induced collapse settlement of
unsaturated f i l l s . Typical water analyses f r m three backfilled s i t e s a r e
presented i n t a b l e 2.

No water t r e a t m n t f a c i l i t i e s save lagoons a r e currently being u t i l i s e d

i n the North-West region. Samples of water obtained from sites however do
indicate t h a t the region suffers s l i g h t l y ran waters of poorer quality.
This i s a trend which has k e n observed over a few years, when i n 1981 the
ccmpliance with water discharge consent conditions, (governing the
q u a l i t y of t h e discharged water), f o r the North-west was 59%ccanpared with
66% f o r Scotland and a nationwide average of 75%. Samples taken on several
sites shawed l o w pH values and high iron contents w i t h other dissolved
metal s a l t s showing high concentrations a s well. Whilst the region has no
where near t h e problems of Scotland same enviromnental problems m y occur
i f voids a r e considered f o r the disposal of c o l l i e r y spoil materials.

Central E3st/west Regions.

All s i t e s i n these regions discharge water of satisfactory nature.
Cne s i t e had water i n f l m s a r i s i n g from three seams, one of which was high
in iron contamination. The i r o n deposits on the walls of the mine
iridicated t h a t acid water was present although it was much diluted i n the
general p i t environment. This particular site w i l l be used t o reclaim
c o l l i e r y s p o i l and thus there i s a p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t water from t h i s seam
m y encourage pH values t o drop i n t h e restored f i l l and thus catalyse the
acid forming reaction.

Solrth wales Area,

The geotechnical settings of opencast mine s i t e s i n the South Wales

region a r e such t h a t many s i t e s form p a r t s of h i l l s i d e s o r m y be adjacent
t o restored c o l l i e r y s ~ o i l heaps. No water pollution has been so f a r
recorded f r m opencast sites although recently a water t r e a k ~ e n tplant
with 1i.m neutralisation f a c i l i t i e s has been constructed on one s i t e . It
has proved i n the past almost impossible t o t r a c e water flow through s i t e s
owing t o t h e extremely ccmplicated hydrology and hydrogeology of the area.

Basis for Design.

The basis f o r the design of control measures against polluting

discharges i s the inhibition of the pyr5te oxidation mechanism. This can
be d i r e c t l y , i e bacteriacides o r i n d i r e c t l y by controlling oxygen and
water access t o the polluting s t r a t a . Wasures can e i t h e r be preventative
o r i n cases where a pollution problem e x i s t s , remedial.
 -A C&mical Cbpsiticms of Waixx s a p l e d frcm bombles an S i t e B.
north-East Area).

P4 Pi- in Fil'
on a local site.
pH. .................. 8.6 8.6 8.0 7.7 7.8
Total Hardness
as Cam3.
Total Alkalinity.. .. 78 408 507 264 326

Alkalinity to phenolphthalein
as Cam3.. ..... 0
Sodium. ............. 27
Potassiurn...... 5
Calcium. ............ 117
Iron Total.. .... 5
Aluminium. .......... 5
Chloride............ 2860
Sulphate ............ 216
Oxidised Nitroqen.. . 0
Preventative F&asmes.

Preventative methods f o r avoiding t h e f o m t i o n of p o l l u t i n g d i s c h r g e s

include t h e following;
.
a ) Water Diversion.
.
b) Compaction of F i l l .
c ) . Surcharge of Less permeable f i l l on r e s t o r e d surface.
d ) . S e l e c t i v e Overburden Placement.
e ) . Limestone Placement.
f ) . Biological Inhibition.

a). Water Diversion.

This method e n t a i l s t h e d e f l e c t i o n of surface water away f r m a mining

excavation/backfilled mine s i t e , by t h e use of surface drainage d i t c h e s
around t h e p r i p h e r y of t h e mine. The water i s then discharged away f r a n
t h e mine s i t e with normally no t r e a t r w n t required.

b). Fill Cunpaction.

The canpaction of b a c M i l l i n t o t h i n l a y e r s during t h e f i l l i n g process

produces a waste with a much lower degree of permeability. This r e s t r i c t s
not only t h e quantity of water t h a t may pass through t h e f i l l i n a given
time, b u t a l s o t h e q u a n t i t i e s of oxygen and carbon dioxide t h a t t h e f i l l
holds t o perpetuate t h e acid forming reaction. The method i s however
marred by t h e f a c t that a s water flow r a t e s a r e reduced, s o a r e contact
times between weathered rock s t r a t a and water.

c). fill Sur-.

The f i n a l restored surface i s recontoured t o induce springs a t selected

places on t h e mine s i t e using a surcharge of a l e s s p e m a b l e f i l l
material. The flow r a t e and volume through t h e b a c k f i l l can be controlled
by inducing springs t o emerge o u t s i d e of t h e restored mine area.

d). Selective Overburden Plaseruent.

Any material within an overburden of p a r t i c u l a r p o l l u t i n g a b i l i t y may

be segregated within t h e b a c k f i l l and sealed off fom water by c l a y caps.
I t i s obviously d e s i r a b l e t o have t h e c l a y a v a i l a b l e a t t h e mine r a t h e r
than having t h e expense of importing, (Miller 1981) The c l a y cap i s .
intended t o d i v e r t t h e water f r m t h e material and should be constructed
from a smectite type c l a y which w i l l expand and c o n t r a c t on t h e processes
of drying and wetting, t o c r e a t e a f o m t i o n which tends t o be i m p e m a b l e
when wet. I f t h e c l a y source i s dry then it must be i r r i g a t e d i n order t o
achieve an optimum water content of 14.6% by weight. The c l a y should cover
t h e material i n an unbrella shade fashion, f i g u r e 2 , and must be t h i c k
enough t o withstand any rupture e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e case of dragline
spoiling. The noxious overburden must be buried deep enough t o prevent any
f u t u r e contact with t h e surface e n v i r o m n t and should a l s o be positioned
above t h e l e v e l of t h e a n t i c i p a t e d r e s t o r e d water t a b l e .
 Restored Ground Surfdce. Surface Run-off.
- - - - --+
/
--- 1
- - --
--

S u r f a c e Infiltration.

Fill. 1
1

Water Flow deflection

by Clay Seal.

Clay Seal.

Potentially Polluting Material.

Restor& Grourdwater Level k l w TOXIC Mass.

-. .-- -- ---

Figure 2 Selective Overburden P l a c e m a t

(Miller 1981)

Restored Surface.

Deflected Water Flow

under Seal.

Fig, 3 Sealing of the Final Highall using

Clay Seals. (Norton 1983).
 .
e) Clay Seals.
On opencast mine workings i n the United Kingdcm it i s a stipulation
t h a t old deep mine workings must be sealed by clay seals. This operation
has two e f f e c t s , principally water cannot drain i n t o the deep mine
mrkings and come i n t o contact w i t h current extraction and secondly water
cannot enter ran the deep mine workings i n t o the surface mine. This water
m y have acid and ferruginous characteristics. Clay s e a l s can also be
used i n a restoration progr- t o prevent water entering i n t o a surface
mine b a c k f i l l , especially i n cases of mines with impemable f i r e c l a y
floors.
Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s h m the toxic mass can be isolated from the
passage of water by the application of clay s e a l s t o the surface and
western edges of the mass. This woulu induce a spring i n the position
sham which could have been channelled i n t o t h e water course. In t h i s way
the the r e l a t i v e l y cleaner water flowing through the f i l l would have
avoided contact with the noxious ironstone material. It may be wise t o
seal the ironstone waste on a l l sides thus preventing water from any
source entering the f i l l . I t i s mst important t h a t the surface i s made
f r e e draining and a clay seal placed on top of the f i l l . This ensures t h a t
the enclosed f i l l w i l l not saturate with water gained over time by surface
i n f i l t r a t i o n and thus produce a marshy area of land with polluting water
covering t h e surface.

f) . Limestone Placerrrent.
The alkaline nature of limestone not only i n h i b i t s the acid producing
reaction but can neutralise, p a r t i a l l y a t l e a s t any acid which naturally
occurs i n t h e mine waters. The most effective limestones have been found
t o be those which approach pure calcium carbonate i n composition. Stones
with a r e l a t i v e l y 1cw calcium content but contain c a l c i t e and have a high
surface area a r e equally effective. Magnesites are the l e a s t effective
f o l l m e d closely by dolomitic limestones, (Geidel and Caruccio 1980,
Calhoun 1970). The application of limestone i n t o a backfill can occur i n
two ways a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 4 .
a ) . Interbedding of limestones with a l t e r n a t e layers of f i l l .
b ) . Placement of bulk limestone a t surface.
The prediction of l h s t o n e quantity i s of considerable import-ance.
This prediction may be made following an analysis of s t r a t a o r backfill
cores using simulated weathering t e s t s .

g ) . Biological Inhibitim.

The method of Biological inhibition r e l i e s on disrupting the catalysis

of the acid reaction by iron bacterium. This can be performed by one of
two methods ;
a ) . Inhibition by other bacteria.
b ) . Inhibition by anionic detergents.
Electron microscopy has revealed s t r a i n s of bacteria called Caulobacter
i n the neutral waters of c e r t a i n coal mines (Shearer e t a1 1968). These
waters were found t o i n h i b i t acid production i n streams passing througl-
pollution producing wastes. The bacteria a r e i n f a c t harmless t o l i f e anc
have often been isolated ran lakes, streams and other such watercourses.
Laboratory t e s t s have sham t h a t the f i e l d neutralisation costs could k
reduced by 5 t o 10 tines i n successfully i n s t a l l e d i n practice.
 Basal Strata.

a ) . Limestone applied as a Surface Layer.

inal Highwall.

Basal Strata.
i

b ) . Interbedded Limestone/Fill Arrangement.

Fig-4 Prevention of (;raundwater& l l u t i o n utilising

Limestone Placanent .
 Many biological inhibitors are unselective and could possibly cause
dangerous side effects if introduced into natural waters. One class
however, anion detergents are inexpensive and environmentally safe at l w
concentrations, (Kleinman 1980, et a1 1981).
Laboratory simulations of coal refuse piles have shown that
concentrations of Sodium Lauryl Sulphate of 10 - 20 p p reduces acid
production by up to 40%. At concentrations in excess of 25 ppn conditions
beccme bacteriacidal, resulting in a 90% reduction in acid production.
Anionic detergents have the further advantage of only being bacteriacial
at low pH values.
The addition of such detergents to elastomer materials has enabled a
control release mechanism to be devised. The detergent is slwly released
from an elastmr pellet to be washed away by the natural waters. The rate
of release has been sham to decrease slowly until about 60% of the
detergent has been discharge. The rate then assumes an exponential
decrease. The application of this technique to a backfilled surface mine
site requires careful consideration - the pellets can only have a certain
lifetime and may require a form of replenishment. The technique could
undoubtably reduce effluent concentrations and be used to meet local
discharge requirements.

Remedial techniques are devised with an aim to contolling a pollution

problem which has already manifested itself. Techniques include limestone
neutralisation, biological treatments and treatment by Reverse Osmosis or
Ion Exchange roethcds. All these methods require the construction of a
plant and are thus undesirable.

Settlanent Research.
This study has involved investigations into backfill stability and
groundwater recovery on 10 sites in 3 geographical regions of opencast
coal mining in the United Kingdom. Investigations have shown that rates of
recovery are extremely variable and m y even be delayed awing to external
influences, (other pumping operations). The review work has shown that a
numker of workers have reported investigations of a similar nature, and it
is the authors' opinion that these should ultimately be supplemented by
further observations into a statistical model. An attempt thereby being
made to predict likely post-restoration movements. The measurement of
shear displacements as well as vertical settlement have been of value in
indicating that lateral movements may actual1y exceed vertical
displacements in mgnitude - of importance in post-mining structural
developnt. The study has also shown the timescales which may be involved
in time-dependent backfill settlements. Fills have been reported to still
be roving up to 24 years after placement, and may substantially move even
after groundwater recovery has ccmpleted. Of great importance has been to
show that sane sites do not exhibit substantial movement at all and are in
fact quite stable under the n o m l conditions of no surface structural
load.
Water recovery rates an magnitudes can be predicted qualitatively frcan
a knowledge of the follawing criteria;
67
 i ) . Pre-mining piezcmetric surface.
i i ) . Depth and a r e a l extent of s i t e .
.
iii ) Position of o l d deep mine workings and whether they a r e
discharging o r draining water, o r lined with c l a y
seals.
i v ) . Knmledge of external influences, e.g. adjacent o p n c a s t
mines, underground mines e t c .
v l . Degree of f i l l ccxnpaction - r e l a t e d t o b a c k f i l l
placement method. Less permeable f i l l s w i l l reduce t h e
r a t e but not necessarily t h e t o t a l degree of groundwater
recovery.

b ) . Phgnitudes and r a t e s of b a c k f i l l settlements have been observed

t o be influenced by t h e following;

i ) .The recovery of t h e natural groundwater t a b l e . The level

of t h e water t a b l e has been observed t o be associated
with collapse settlement.
i i ) . Backfill depth, (although o f t e n n u l l i f i e d i n cases
where significant recovery has occvred o r where some
form of campction o r restraint, (e.9. highwall), has
been involved 1.
iii).Composition of b a c k f i l l and mining method. Mudstone
f i l l s have been observed t o undergo collapse s e t t l e m n t
followed by smll non-differential settlements.
Sandstone, dragline f i l l s tend t o contain l a r g e r
boulders a t t h e base of t h e f i l l than truck-shovel
f i l l s , and consequently may undergo greater magnitudes
of settlement.
i v ) . S i t e features. Plonitoririg of s e t t l m e n t of a compacted
haul road, ( s i t e A ) , showed t h a t the f i l l i n t h i s area
was unaffected by t h e presence of t h e r i s i n g water
t a b l e . In addition, settlements were s u b s t a n t i a l l y
lower i n t h i s area than on any o t h e r p a r t of t h e s l t e .
v ) . Time. The tirwspan of b a c k f i l l settlement has been
observed t o be very variable. Settlements have been
recorded i n a f i l l 11 metres deep, 2 4 years o l d , f o r
which no adequate explanation can be proffered. The
d a t a presented i n t h i s t h e s i s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t t o
construe any firm conclusions a s t o t h e time e f f e c t of
t o t a l backf ill movement.

Factors to be considered in the prediction of backfill settlarrent.

I n assessing t h e s u i t a b i l i t y of a s i t e f o r s t r u c t u r a l development t h e
above general conclusions i n addition t o t h e observations presented i n
t h i s p a p r and o t h e r works must be home i n mind.
It i s t h e opinion of t h e authors t h a t t h e following measures must be
taken for any surface development on b a c k f i l l material.
a ) . A comprehensive instrumentation scheme consisting of a t l e a s t
piezometers and surface l e v e l l i n g s t a t i o n s . Both l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l
displacements must be measured. The scheme should caranence a t l e a s t one
year p r i o r t o construction t o enable a f u l l p i c t u r e of t h e f i l l movements
t o clarify.
b ) . A thorough investi-ation i n t o t h e position of t h e water t a b l e and
the determination of any external influenms e.g. deep mine pumping which
n a y result in a delayed recovery phenorenon.
c ) . An investigation into the location of deep mine workings frcxn which
subsidence nmvenlents m y be mistaken for fiil displacements.
d). Props& ski-uctures should not be constructed over solid
ground/fill interfaces, e.g. highwalls, nor over fill areas where
substantial fill depth changes occur, i.e. benches or seam limits. If
possible structures should lie over bacMill of a uniform thickness. This
suggestion nBy be modified for service lines which can contain flexible
joints.

Pollution Research.
The application of clay seals to noxious overburden within the backfill
of a mine is considered the m s t effective and reliable m e t h o d of water
pollution control. Other techniques such as limestone placement/ injection
have k e n found to be too speculative and unsatisfactory. The key to
pllution prevention lies in either reducing water flow or oxygen supply
to the backfill rrass. Clay seals will prevent both, however fill
compaction may be considered! as this will lower oxygen supply and reduce
water flowrates, thus inhibiting the acid forming reaction. A case for the
investigation of bacteriacides may exist, if these could inhibit the
readion until a rich vegetative cover could be established. m c e this is
done then the vegetation would again deprive the spil of oxygen. This use
of bacteriacides, providing the initial dosage and application to the fill
was successful would not require bacteriacide replenishment.
Studies throughout the United Kingdom have sham that the Scottish
region has a severe problem with the acidity of waters associated with
pyrite oxidation. The technique of advance dewatering has been used
successfully to enable mining in dry conditions with the advantages of
increased slope stability, lower blasting costs etc, with the minimisation
of groundwater pollution during mining. Great care must be taken on all
sites however to evaluate likely stream re-establishrents and the possible
qualities of the discharge.
The quality of waters being pumped to settlement ponds elsewhere in
the U.K. appears to be quite acceptable. What has been noticed is that- as
the mines tend to use passive (sump)pumping techniques, the water pumped
from the base of the mine may be a mixture of waters f r m two or three
sources, (old workings, run-off etc). The net quality of these waters may
well be acceptable but in cases where one small discharge from and old
workings horizon is acidic then figure 5 illustrates the problems which
occur as sites throughout England and Wales are selected for the
Zzposal of more pyritic colliery spil.
The following ideas are suggestions for possible future implentation.
They are aimed at predicting a possible pollution problem and at
evaluating pssible preventative or remedial techniques.
a). Tk.e conduction of a premining geochemical survey to assess
existing water qualities. In addition to sampling streams, rivers and
lakes in the area of the mine, samples of water ram exploration drilling
boreholes auld also be taken. On sites where a pollution problem has
occurred or envisaged, than regular water sampling could occur over the
life of the mine. This mnitoring program can serve as and "early
warning" system against local water pollution. The results may also be
able to be used in cases where a surface mine has been b l m d for causing
 Inflow A, pH = 7 .O, F l c w r a t e = 20 l/s
+--
i Highwa 11
Inflow B, pH = 4.5, Flcrwrate = 1 l/s

Inflow C, pH = 7.0, F l c w r a t e = 30 l/s

.f-c--

O v e r a l l Funping Requirement = 51 l/s

O v e r a l l pH of Pumped Water = 6.14.

a). Dilution of Acid Drainage in Natural Mine Ehvirorrrwt.

Restored F i l l S u r f a c e .

Undiluted A c i d i c Water r e a c t s
w i t h p y r i t i c overburden/
colliery spoil t o i n i t i a t e d Final
acid reaction i n f i l l . '
-
e Highwall

.
b) Dilution effects remwed on Restoration.

figure 5 Possible Scenario for PEid M i n e mter Productim

following Restoration in a Mine previously imrplne to Water
Pollution
water p o l l u t i o n which has i n f a c t originated f r m another source.
b ) . For s i t e s which a r e t o be used t o reclaim c o l l i e r y s p o i l o r rmre
p y r i t i c overburden a f u l l geochemical a n a l y s i s of t h e inflowing waters
must be conducted. To supplemnt these analyses, sane form of leaching
t e s t s should be c a r r i e d o u t on representative s p o i l samples i n order t o
determine a p o t e n t i a l p o l l u t i n g load. S i t e s containing a c i d i n f l m s a r e
considered unsuitable f o r reclaiming c o l l i e r y s p o i l , a s a p o l l u t i o n
problem may manifest i t s e l f which by c < x e f u l planning nay have been
avoided c m p l e t e l y .
c ) . Ori surface mines which a r e known t o have a p o l l u t i o n problem, an
e s t i r m t i o n should be m d e of t h e p s i t i o n s and chemical nature of any
spring which may m t e o u t of t h e b a c k f i l l on recovery. On s i t e s where
such springs a r e predicted t o ocm-, t h e design of c l a y b a r r i e r s should be
considered i n order t o f o r c e springs t o emcrge a t surface before contact
wit.h t h e contaminating material.
d ) . On mines o ~ r a t i n g with advance dewatering methods, samples of
s p o i l should be taken f o r anal-ysis f o r p o l l u t i n g materials. Thus it w i l l
be known i f any s e r i o u s p o l l u t i o n problem may occur a f t e r t h e water t a b l e
has recovered.
e ) . Care should be taken when t h i n c m l seams o r ironstone bands a r e
reclaimed i n t o t h e s p o i l . Such measures should be examined f o r t h e i r
p o l l u t i o n p o t e n t i a l , and i f need be, s e l e c t i v e l y r e c l a h d and i s o l a t e d
form water with c l a y s e a l s .
f ) . Some work has been p e r f o m d i n t h e S c o t t i s h Region with t h e aim of
predicting p o l l u t i o n p t e n t i a l s from exploration clrilling s t r a t a cores.
This technique i f f u l l y developed could prove an e x c e l l e n t method. f o r
determining t h e o v e r a l l q u a l i t y of t h e water which t h e mine w i l l have t o
pump, a s well a s t h e f i n a l q u a l i t y of t h e water i n a b a c k f i l l . These
s t r a t a cores could a l s o be used f o r a weathering a n a l y s i s , monitoring rock
d q r a d a t i o n with time under laboratory conditions.
g ) . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o t h e use of bacteriacides i n both t h e
reduction of p o l l u t i o n during operations and i n t h e b a c M i l l may enable
t h e design of a cheap and e f f e c t i v e m t h o d of water p o l l u t i o n control t o
be devised. This work could be supplemented by an i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n t o
changes i n groundwater g e m h e n i s t r y with time i n a r e s t o r e d b a c k f i l l site.
P a r t i c u l a r l y with respect t o t h e e s t a b l i s h n t of t h e vegetative cover.

The authors would l i k e t o thank M r . J. Tomlinson and M r . A. Mclean of

B r i t i s h Coal, Opencast Executive f o r t h e i r co-operation and continual
support f o r this p r o j e c t . Gratitude i s extended t o Prof. T. Atkinson, Head
of Department of Mining Ehgineering, Nottingham University f o r h i s
support. This work could n o t have been c a r r i e d o u t without t h e kind and
e n t h u s i a s t i c support from m y rwnbers of B r i t i s h Coal. S p c i f i c thanks
a r e due t o Geotechnical m g i n e e r s , Geologists and S i t e S t a f f . Opinions
expressed a r e those of t h e Authors and do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h e
opinions of B r i t i s h Coal.

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