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The major task in oil exploration is

to locate sites where there are right
kind of rocks and right geological
Exploration Methods structures in which oil might have
been trapped.

To acquire
information accurately, various
exploration techniques are used.

No. of disciplines like geology,

geophysics, and geochemistry are
required to analyze a prospective area.
The objective of any exploration
On average, even in very mature areas
(where exploration has been ongoing for venture is to find new volumes of
years), only every 3rd exploration well hydrocarbons at a low cost (i.e.
encounters hydrocarbons (1:3). economically viable) and in a short
period of time.
In wildcat areas (basins which have not
been drilled previously), only every 10th
well is, on average, successful (1:10).

The usual sequence of technical activities

in petroleum exploration are : But, eventually, only the drilling of an
Seepage exploration well will prove the
geological validity of the concept.
Geochemical
gravity First a wildcat well is drilled in a
magnetic region.
2 - D Seismic
3 D Seismic Wells either result in discoveries of
. to define leads (areas which might oil and gas (wet well) , or they may
contain hydrocarbon accumulation). turn out to dry well.

1

Average Surveying Cost
The cost of a 2D seismic survey in
South America approximately US
$20,000 per km profile.
The cost of 3D seismic survey
approximately is between 2 and 3
million dollars 250 km2 .
3 - D data processing typically
requires $5000$15,000 per km2 .
The first facet for HC exploration
considers :
The seeps or seepages of oil or gas
and then,
to speculate where from the
hydrocarbons are reaching to the
surface.
e.g. In 1882. the discovery of a big
oil seepage in Digboi during the
construction of Dibrugarh Ledo
Railway Line eventually led to the
discovery of Digboi oilfield, the first
commercial discovery in India (1890) .
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Average Drilling Cost
Exploratory drilling costs at least
$ 4 - 5 million on land (assuming a
well depth of 5,000 feet) & >$28 - $80
million at sea.
In case of very deep or difficult
drilling operations (very deep water,
extreme climate conditions, etc.), this
can rise to >$135 million.
A look at the exploration history of
the important oil areas of the world
proves conclusively that oil and
gas seeps gave the first clues to
most oil producing regions like :
North America, the Middle East (Iran
and Iraq), Indonesia, India, North
Sea, Bass Strait, the Gulf of Mexico
etc.
Many great oil fields are the direct
result of seepage drilling.
A number of techniques have been developed for
mapping offshore seepage:
SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar): A satellite
mounted radar is used to detect the oil slick on
the ocean surface.
ALF (Airborne Laser Fluorosensor): An aircraft
mounted ultra-violet Laser is pulsed at 50Hz
onto the sea surface and any fluorescence
caused by a thin oil film is detected \ and
recorded.
Hyperspectral scanner: An aircraft mounted
detector records an image of the sea surface
for a selected range of light wavelengths, which
are selected to highlight any oil slicks.
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Petroleum geologists spend much of

their time in the field doing surface
geology.
Geological Methods
Surface geology focuses on the
study of outcrops (surface
exposures of the underlying rocks).

Thus, geological exploration for oil would

When an outcrop is located, its location is
surveyed so that the data from it can be used to look for evidences for presence of :
map the area. 1.Suitable source rocks
The rock is examined to determine lithology. 2.Reservoir rock
Samples are taken for laboratory examination. 3.Traps
The dip ( angle of inclination of rocks bedding .. Geology helps to
planes with the horizontal) and strike
(continuity of bed) are measured with Brunton find out whether the region has the right
compass. type of rocks and trap where petroleum
can be found.
Folds and faults are identified, (they being the
signature for exploratory drilling). find the buried reservoir.

Geological study includes: to make inferences on :

1. Interpretation of rocks
2. Measurement of attitude of beds fluid content
3. Structures
4. Stratigraphy porosity
5. Geologic history permeability
6. Determination the location of points
age
where observations are made.
7. Preparation of Geological maps and sequence of formation
Geological Cross Sections. (stratigraphy)

Stdies help

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Preparation of Geological Map of the area Preparation of Geological Map of the Area

What are Geological Maps? At present, GIS has brought new aspects in
preparing Geologic Maps by providing
Depiction of 3-D Geological software tools (e.g.Rockware Software) that
Features from surface or Ground help in giving the geometry (disposition) &
Geology in a 2 - Dimensional characteristics of rock bodies, structures
etc. quickly for larger area.
plane.
Remote Sensing Products are used as
Geological maps depict tools to provide information of large areas
observations and interpretations in less time.
using symbols and colours.

Rockware Software
Contour maps
A Regional Geological Map gives the
Cross- sections spatial distribution of sedimentary
Three- dimensional models rocks or sedimentary basins and
geologic maps
other essential features that help in
trapping the hydrocarbons after its
Site characterization and
formation and migration (in a large
visualization of subsurface data and
area).
surface features such as building,
tanks, property boundaries and
aerial photos etc.

Geological Maps can be on different

scale like : A Geological Map is prepared by field
surveys involving fixing of the
1:1000000 (Larger Area - Smaller or Fewer
Details - Small Scale ) observation point on to a base map
1:250,000 usually a Survey of India toposheets
1:50,000 or through surveying instruments like
1:25,000 theodolite , Total Station with GPS
1:10000 etc. (Smaller Area - Larger Details etc.
- Large Scale )

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Preparation of Geological Cross

Sections
The Geologist tracks strike continuity
of lithologies and structural features
by taking traverses and record data
(strikes & dips, rock - soil
characteristics etc.) on the base map
and diaries.
A Geological Section depicts the
continuity and pattern of lithologies
and Structures vertically below ground
Surface.
Geological Cross Section is a vertical
Depth Continuity based on Surface
Geology or by indirect means like
Geophysical Surveys (Seismic, gravity,
aeromagnetic) , Drilling etc.

So, what information is required for GEOCHEMICAL METHODS

preparation of Geological Cross
Geochemical exploration is the
Section?
search for chemically identifiable
surface or near surface
Depth occurrences of HCs which serves as
Rock Types clues to locate undiscovered oil &
gas accumulations.
Thickness of Beds
Attitude of Beds Traces of HCs in soil & water are
often good indications of the
Structures proximity of a petroleum trap.

GEOCHEMICAL METHODS (CONT..) GEOCHEMICAL METHODS (CONT..)

These leaks can be deducted by :

clearly visible oil & gas seepage
Allsurface geochemical methods macroseepage.
assume that HCs generated & trapped
minute traces of HCs
at depth leak in varying but
(microseepage)
detectable quantities to the surface.
HC induced changes at the other
end.

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GEOCHEMICAL METHODS (CONT..)

Geochemical exploration can be: (a) Direct techniques analyze small

quantities of HCs that occur in the
(a) direct pore spaces of soil. The HCs are
adsorbed on the fine grained soil.
or
(b) indirect.

b. Indirect techniques detect

seepage induced changes to Common spacing for reconnaissance
soil, sediment or vegetation. soil sampling are 200m or 400m.

In this, samples of waters and soils For detailed anomaly detection,

are taken, analyzed in the lab.
Geochemical exploration data are
very useful when integrated with
geological and geophysical data.
samples are commonly collected at
100m interval.
Depth is usually from <50m.

GEOCHEMICAL METHODS (CONT..)

In offshore area, crude oil seeps out from the

reservoir through the fractures and faults
present in the sea floor.
The crude oil with the marine water forms
oil plumes which float at the surface of
water.
The oil plumes have different reflectivity
from water, thus they are detected by Geophysical Methods
satellites and are used as an indicator for the
presence of crude oil .
Ships towing water sampling equipment
and shipboard HC sensing devices called
Sniffer are used to detect HC locations.

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Basic Concepts of Geophysical Methods : The Geophysical method of exploration can be

categorized into three types:
The geophysical methods measure the
physical properties like magnetism,
It employs a
density etc. of minerals and rocks (as gravimeter to
below) to suggest the presence or GRAVITY METHOD record the
absence of economic mineralization or acceleration due
petroleum concentration. MAGNETIC METHOD to gravity at a
location.
1. Gravity : Respond to Density SEISMIC METHOD The variation of
2. Magnetic : Respond to susceptibility this value gives us
idea of presence
3. Seismic : Respond to Velocity of petroleum trap.

Gravity Methods Gravity Methods (Cont)

This method is based on the study of the
gravitational field of the earth and its Gravity method can be made on land
variations which is caused due to density and at sea with a device called
contrast in various rock masses. gravimeter.

The gravity method is used to determine

the presence of gravity anomalies
Can be used over a typical area of
(abnormally high or low gravity values) earths crust with 5000ft (1524m) of
which can be related to the presence of sedimentary rocks underlain by
dense igneous or metamorphic rock or dense basement rocks.
light sedimentary rock in the subsurface.

Gravity Methods (Cont)

Gravity Method
A mass of relatively lighter rocks
can be detected by the gravity meter
because of lower than normal
The gravimeter is
connected to gravity values over it.
computer to generate
graph of acceleration A mass of heavy rocks near the
due to gravity. surface such as basement rock in
the core of a anticline can be
http://www.gwrinstruments.co
m/ detected by higher than normal
gravity values.

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Gravity Method (Cont) Gravity Method (Cont..)

Dense igneous or metamorphic rocks Salt domes generally produce
close to the surface will read much higher negative anomalies because salt is
on a gravimeter because the gravitational less dense than the surrounding
force they exert is more powerful than the
rocks.
lighter sedimentary rocks.
Uplifts can bring denser rocks nearer
The folds, faults, and salt domes trap
the surface and thereby create positive
gravity anomalies. oil, and so the detection of gravity
anomalies associated with them are
Faults that displace rocks of different
crucial in petroleum exploration.
densities also can cause gravity
anomalies.

Gravity Methods (Cont..) Gravity Methods (Cont)

Gravimetric surveys are conducted
Airborne gravity surveys are a
in ..
more recent addition to the
exploration toolbox, and can map 1. Line survey called profiles
structures represented by density 2. Grid survey
variations to characterize entire
basins, linking together more sparsely In Line surveys, measurements are
distributed seismic data. taken 1 5 km apart throughout
the region with gravimeter.

The Geophysical method of exploration

can be categorized into three types:
It employs a
magnetometer to
GRAVITY METHOD record the strength
of the earths
magnetic fields at a
MAGNETIC METHOD location.
The variation of the
SEISMIC METHOD field intensity gives
us idea of
presence of
Fig. Gravity meter measurements over an area.
petroleum trap.

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Magnetic Methods (Cont) Magnetic Methods:

A magnetometer is used for
measuring the earths magnetic field In this method, anomalies in the
in units called gauss or nanoteslas. earth's magnetic field are mapped
It can be operated in an airplane to
and co - related with underground
conduct an aeromagnetic survey. rocks and structures, where oil &
gas might be found.
It can also operate while being
towed behind a boat .

Magnetic Methods:
Magnetic Method
The magnetometer is very sensitive
to rocks containing a very magnetic
mineral called magnetite.
An actual
If a large mass of magnetite bearing magnetometer.
rock occurs near the surface, it is
http://rwg-tag.bravehost.com/
detected by a large magnetic force
than normal value ( regional value) .
It can be also used to locate faults
that displace basement rock.

Magnetic Method

Magnetic
Field
Variation
graph

http://www.spir
itcaller.net/

Fig. Magnetometer measurements over an area

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Fig. Gravity and Magnetic anomalies over a salt dome

(Many salt domes in the coastal areas of Texas and Fig. Gravity and Magnetic anomalies over a dome
Louisiana were discovered in the 1920s by gravity or anticline.
survey)

Seismic Methods

Fig. Gravity and Magnetic anomalies over a fault

Seismic Method

The seismic method uses a sound energy

Seismic exploration method which is put into the earth. On the subsurface
rock layers it gets reflected and returns to the
plays a crucial role in surface to get recorded. The recorded data is
exploring HCs both on shore used to detect the sedimentary rock structures
and petroleum traps.
and offshore.
The source can be a explosive or Vibroseis for
on shore explorations and air gun for off shore.

The detectors are geophones (onshore) and

hydrophones (offshore).

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Seismic Method Seismic Method

1. Impounding the surface with sound energy

The seismic survey is completed in 3
steps
1. Impounding the earths surface with sound
energy
2. Acquiring the sound reflections
3. Processing the acquired data
On land sound energy is impounded by
explosives or Vibroseis.
Vibroseis is a concept developed by Conoco.
Its a vibrator truck with hydraulic motors
mounted on it. It is driven to the shot point and
the pad is lowered and the full weight of the
truck is shifted onto the pad.
The hydraulic motors are used to shake the
ground for a sweep length of 7 to 20 seconds.
The sound is of a frequency 8 to 120Hz .

Seismic Method Seismic Method

2. Acquiring the sound reflections

3. Processing
The reflected sounds are acquired by
Computer processing of data is required as
geophones on land and hydrophones on the acquired data has a lot of noise and
water. some known errors which needs to be
rectified.
Geophones are arranged in specific
patterns depending on types of survey (2D
/ 3D)

4D seismic surveys: 4D seismic method enables

An advance on the premise of 3D companies:
seismic is called 4D seismic.
Also called time - lapse seismic 1. To track depletion in a field
survey.
and
This is nothing but 3D survey 2. Allows the identification of areas in
that is carried out at regular a mature field that have not yet
intervals to plan the development been tapped.
of the field.
Hence the fourth dimension
becomes time.

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Through 4D method, the flow of the

hydrocarbons within a reservoir,
over a given period of time, can be
traced and better understood eg. As
hydrocarbons are depleted from a
field, the pressure and composition
of the fluids may change.

Mapped with 2-D seismic Mapped with 3-D

seismic
Additionally, geologists are
interested in understanding how the
reservoir reacts to gas injection or
water flooding.

Furthermore, 4-D seismic can help

to locate untapped pockets of oil or
gas within the reservoir.

Figure showing 2D vs 3D survey output. Note the details mapped by 3D

DEFORMATION OF A BLOCK BY P AND S WAVES

(A) P WAVES-BOTH VOLUME AND SHAPE CHANGE, SEISMIC WAVES
(B) S WAVES VOLUME REMAINS UNCHANGED.
P-waves are Primary waves. A P-wave is a longitudinal wave or a compression wave
with the force applied in the direction that the wave is travelling.
These waves compress and expand and are called primary waves because they are
the first waves to reach the seismometer.
S-waves are secondary waves that vibrate in a transverse direction (from side and
P-waves are side as well as up and down).
compression waves. S-waves are not able to travel through liquids unlike P-waves.
They can propagate in
solid or liquid material. P and S-waves are known collectively as body waves because they travel within
S-waves are shear materials.
waves. They only Surface waves on the other hand travel along the outer surface of a material and are
propagate in solid split into two main types, the Love wave and the Rayleigh wave.
material.
Surface waves cause high amplitude motions of the Earth's surface and are the
most damaging to buildings.

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SURFACE WAVES PRINCIPLE OF SEISMIC EXPLORATION

Important parameters - Density and Velocity
Physical property measured Acoustic Impedance (
density Velocity) Contrast.
Generation of seismic waves
The waves gets refracted or reflected from the surface
of two layers due to the acoustic impedance contrast.
Refracted and reflected waves are received by the
Receiver.
Knowing the travel time of the waves from the surface to
the target depth and back to various recievers and the
velocity of seismic waves the pathways of seismic waves
are reconstructed to build the image of the subsurface.

SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION

SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION

Seismic data acquisition consists of gathering

and recording of continuous seismic signals
from seismic stations.

Artificial Source ( generates seismic waves)

Onshore Offshore
Wave Propagation ( P, S ,R & L waves)
Receiver ( Geophone , Hydrophone, OBC Ocean 1. Signal emitted by source.
Bottom Cable) 2. Reflected waves received by
receivers.
3. Data transmitted to laboratory truck

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ARRAY TYPES- ARRANGEMENT OF SOURCE

AND RECEIVERS I.E.- GEOPHONE 2D LAYOUT

Source
geophone

Offset distance b/w source and receiver FOLD COVERAGE

F is the fold.
NC is the number of channels
Fmax = maximum frequency expected
Fold Coverage: Each source position yields a
certain amount of subsurface coverage.
For flat layers, the sampled point is half the
distance from source to receiver.
The subsurface sampling is half the interval of the
surface coverage.
Foldage is defined as the number of times a
particular sub-surface sampling point (CMP) is
covered by different sources receiver locations.
The maximum fold of coverage is given by
S is the number of units of group interval in source spacing and NC is no of channels

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3D LAYOUT For 3-D data the bin is the basic building block for the rest of the survey

Bin size depends upon target size , spatial resolution and

economics
Traces for which the surface reflection point falls within the bin are treated as
CDP and corrected and summed to represent that bin position

GATHER TYPES

PROCESSING

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MULTIPLEXER

Multiplexer is an electronic device which reads,

amplifies and record the all channels data at real
time in SEG D format.
Multiplexer is the interface b/w recording and
receiver.
The multiplexed data has to be Demultiplexed so
that we get individual traces for further processing.
After the processing data is in SEGY format.

AMPLITUDE CORRECTION

As we know that with depth and distance

energy decreases this decrease in the energy
should be compensated than only we get the
real properties of the medium.
Recovery function is used for trace equalization
and trace balancing.
Editing and muting:
Remove dead traces.
Remove noisy traces.

AMPLITUDE CORRECTION DECONVOLUTION

Seismograms are the result of a convolution between the source and the subsurface
reflectivity series (and also the receiver).

source wavelet reflectivity series output series

seismogram = source reflectivity ,

Mathematically, this is written as:

where the operator denotes convolution.

In order to remove the source effect, one needs to apply deconvolution:

reflectivity = seismogram source ,
where
the operator denotes deconvolution.

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STATIC CORRECTION
Time-shift of traces in order to correct for surface topography and weathered
layer.
Static correction is done to bring the source and geophone in same datum.

Corrections:
E s E r 2E d
where: t ,
Es is the source elevation V
Er is the receiver elevation
Ed is the datum elevation
V is the velocity above the datum

NMO CORRECTION Step 3: The arrivals are aligned in a process called normal moveout correction
(NMO), and the aligned records are stacked.
NMO correction is done in such a way that the source and detector are at the same
point while taking the recording so that we get the real data of the subsurface.

Step 1: The data is organized into common mid-point gathers at each mid-point location.

If the NMO is done correctly, i.e. the velocity and depth are chosen correctly, the stacking
operation results in a large increase of the coherent signal-to-noise ratio.
Step 2: Coherent arrivals are identified, and a search for best fitting depth and velocity
is carried out.

STACKING
MIGRATION All the reflections from the various offsets
associated with CMP are summed or
Migration- There are two main types of migration ; stacked to give one trace for each CMP; this
Prestack( before stacking) and Post stack(after leads to an improvement in the Signalto
stacking). The first involves migrating the seismic noise ratio.
data prior to the stacking sequence, the second is Signals from spurious noise tend to vary
after stacking is appeared. between the different traces and will
If the geological years are almost flat and the therefore, get cancelled out or at least
seismic velocities are uniform a simple post stack suppressed. True geological signals from
migration will give a good result, if the seismic the different traces tend to be similar and
velocity varies a little or dips are small than pre are thus boosted during the stacking
stack time emigration will give good solution. process.

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S- Source
D- Detector

INTERPRETATION

HORIZONTAL BED ANTICLINE

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UNCONFORMITY FAULTS

Seismic Method
Seismic Method

The principle of
Seismic method.
(L) Air gun (R) A Hydrophone
SOURCE DETECT
OR http://www.reson.com/
SURFACE http://www.offshore-technology.com

SUBSURFACE
LAYER

AIRGUN

The Seismic Method on Land

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The transit time of the reflected

energy from the reflecting horizon to
the surface is calculated. 1. Seismic vessel
2. Hydrophones
The data (reflected signals) are
stored on a seismograph.
Then, it is processed using In offshore, seismic methods are used systematically. In
fact, Seismic measurement is easier at sea than on land
software to produce seismic images as ships can travel easily in all directions in sea.
of subsurface structure. The seismic ship uses a large air gun, which releases
The images are subsequently used by bursts of compressed air under the water, creating
seismic waves that travel through the Earth's crust and
geophysicists to visualize the generate the seismic reflections.
subsurface. The seismic energy is powerful enough to penetrate the
ocean bottom.

1. Seismic vessel
2. Hydrophones

The returning reflections are recorded on hydrophones

(2040) , contained in a long , plastic tube (streamer)
that is towed behind a boat.

Wires run from the hydrophones through the streamer

to the recording equipment kept in the ship.

The Seismic Method at Sea

SEISMIC SURVEY

Hard or rigid formations will result in

a high speed , while soft or loosely
packed layers will slow the waves
down.
Typical speeds:
1. 2000 m/s for soft layers
2. 4000m/s for rigid formations.

Geophone

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COMMERCIAL SEISMIC BOAT

On- land, seismic shooting produces Specialised for one thing only..
acoustic waves at or near the surface
by energy sources such as :
dynamite,
a Thumper (a weight dropped on
ground surface).
a Vibroseis (which literally
vibrates the earths surface).
a Dinoseis (a gas gun).

Today, about 70% of the of the

seismic exploration run on land is
done by VIBROSEIS a technique
developed by Conoco.

In Vibroseis, a vibrator truck is

mounted with hydraulic motor on
the bed of the truck and a plate
called a pad or baseplate is
located below the motor.

The vibrator truck drives to the shot

point and lowers the pad until most
of the weight of the truck is on the
pad.

The hydraulic motor use the weight

of the truck to shake the ground
usually for 7 20 seconds.

Vibroseis is very portable and can

be run in populated areas.

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Seismic waves which travel at
varying velocities depend upon the
kinds of rocks through which they
pass (Density).
The speed of sound waves through
the earths crust
varies directly with density
& due to its denser character (less
inversely with porosity.
Some typical average velocities
are:
shale = 3.6 km/s (highly porous)
sandstone = 4.2 km/s;
Compact limestone = 5.0 km/s.
varies directly with density
& spaced 1 - 5 or more kilometres
inversely with porosity.
2D seismic survey is the most basic
of the seismic surveys and is carried
out during the exploration phase.
In 2D seismic survey, , only a single
array of shot holes is used along
with receivers.
It gives two-dimensional picture
(length and breadth) of the
subsurface formations.
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Through soil, the waves travel as
slowly as 1,000 feet per second,
which is comparable to the speed
of sound through air at sea level.
Some metamorphic rocks transmit
seismic waves at 20,000 feet
(approximately 6 km) per second
porosity).
2D seismic surveys
When exploring a new area where
little is known of the subsurface
geology, a 2D survey is usually
performed.
This consists of survey lines
apart.
3D seismic surveys:
3-D seismic techniques is essential
to have adequate and detailed
image of subsurface.
In 3-D seismic survey, the
geophones are closely spaced for
real data collection.
The receivers are laid in parallel
lines and the shot points run in
perpendicular direction.
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3D seismic surveys (cont.) Average Surveying Cost

3D method is more costly and is The cost of a 2D seismic survey in
used during the delineation phase South America approximately US
of the project. $20,000 per km profile.
The shot holes and receivers are The cost of 3D seismic survey
arranged in a bin formation approximately is between 2 and 3
which gives a three - dimensional million dollars 250 km2 .
picture of the subsurface
formations. The third dimension is 3D data processing typically
depth. requires $5000$15,000 per km2 .

Average Drilling Cost 4D seismic surveys:

Exploratory drilling costs at least Also called time - lapse seismic
$ 4 - 5 million on land (assuming a survey.
well depth of 5,000 feet) & >$28 - $80
million at sea. This is nothing but 3D survey
that is carried out at regular
In case of very deep or difficult intervals to plan the development
drilling operations (very deep water, of the field.
extreme climate conditions, etc.), this
can rise to >$135 million. The fourth dimension becomes
time.

A seismic Record in the Wind River Basin of Wyming. Well Layered

A seismic Record in the Big Horn Basin of Wyoming. Note fold
sedimentary rocks are seen dipping down to NE. Unlayered
and fault.
Basement rock is located below the sedimentary rocks

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A seismic Record in the Gulf Coast over a gas field. Note the
A seismic Record in the Gulf of Mexico. Note the Salt Dome. Bright Spot on the gas sand.

Seismic Survey provides good

indication of Subsurface structures, Pl. remember
the structures thereby indicating the The only way to determine
presence of possible traps which whether a prospect contains
would be the target of drilling.
commercial quantities of
hydrocarbons is through drilling.

Thanks

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