10 Anticommuting Variables

Because fermion fields obey canonical anticommutation relations, we need a

theory of integration over classical anticommuting variables, so as to be able
to treat fermion field theories functionally.
Anticommuting or Grassmann numbers anticommute

so that 2 = 0 and hence the Taylor expansion of f () is

f () = a +

where a is a commuting or c number and , are Grassmann numbers.

To define an integral, consider the normal Gaussian case. With limits to
+ this is translationally invariant. Demand this here, i.e. under +
Z Z
d(a + ) = d(a + + )

The constant term is shifted, so take

Z
d = 0
Z
d = 1 normalisation (55)

Under a change of variables

1
= c d = d
c
R R
so that d = d c 1. Thus under a change of variables the Jacobian
is now J 1 ) rather than J.

We also take the convention

Z Z Z
d d = d = +1

Differentiation is defined as
Z

d or = +1 (56)

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This is consistent as
Z

d(a + ) = and (a + ) =

For N variables we have

i1 . . . iN = i1 ...iN 1 . . . N 1...N = +1
and so
Z
dN . . . d1 i1 . . . iN = i1 ...iN

Now generalise the above to pairs of real or equivalently complex Grassmann

variables ,
= 1 + i2 = 1 i2

(sometimes taken with a 1/ 2). In integrations we regard , as indepen-
dent variables and then we have
Z
d d = 1

This requires
1
d d = d1 d2 , = 2i1 2
2i
so the 2is simply cancel
Z Z
1
d d = d1 d2 2i1 2 = 1
2i
Thus again under a change of variables Jacobian is now J 1 rather than J
as for complex variables we would have dz dz = 2idxdy

It is also convenient to define complex conjugation with the convention that

() = =
so that is real.

Gaussian type integrals give

Z Z
b
d de = d d(1 b)
= b

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(b real for real exponent). Compare with the c number case, where we have
2
b
, ie essentially b1 rather than b.

For N variables consider

Z Y

dk dk ei Aij j
k

[A Hermitian for real exponent (i Aij j ) = j Aij i = j Ajii .] Expanding,

remembering there is only one term that is non-zero, gives
Z
1     
d1 d1 . . . dN

dN i1 Ai1 j1 j1 i2 Ai2 j2 j2 . . . iN AiN jN jN
N!
Z
1
= dN . . . d1 d1 . . . dN jN . . . j1 i1 . . . iN Ai1 j1 . . . AiN jN
N! | {z }
j1 ...jN

1
= i ...i j ...j Ai j . . . AiN jN
N! 1 N 1 N 1 1
= det A
where on the second line we have first interchanged each i Aij j = j i Aij ,
then used the general ordering result (twice)
1 1 2 2 N 1 N 1 N N = N 1 1 N
(pull N through pairs of Grassman numbers until on the left, then N 1 until
behind N etc..) and noted that d1 . . . dN jN . . . j1 = dN . . . d1 j1 . . . jN .
Hence Z Y

d d e A = det A

Contrast this with the c number case when we would have obtained (2)N / det A

Note that as proof did not require A to be Hermitian then

Z Y
ddeA = det A

as well.

Similarly we have (A Hermitian)

Z Y Z Y
A+ + 1 1 1

d de d de(A ) A(A )+ A

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(but again there is no need for A to be hermitian, can take , as indepen-
dent variables and write
Z Y
T 1 T 1 1
d de( A ) A(A )+ A

)
Z Y
A+ + A1
d de = det Ae+

Also
Z Y
A+ +
d d k l e
  Z Y

= d de A+ +
k l
  
1
= det A
e A
k l

A1
= det A A1 1 1
kl ( A )l (A )k e

giving
Z Y
A
d d k l e = det AA1
kl (57)

Similarly for higher moments

Z Y
 
d d k l m n e A = det A A1 1 1 1
kl Amn Akn Aml

Thus the important points are that we have det A rather than det1 A together
with the occasional negative sign in moments in Grassmann (Gaussian) func-
tional integrals. [Occurs when have to interchange a pair of Grassmann vari-
ables here l and m .]

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