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PII: S1751-6161(15)00449-X
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.11.031
Reference: JMBBM1704
To appear in: Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials
Received date: 17 September 2015
Revised date: 26 November 2015
Accepted date: 30 November 2015
Cite this article as: R.I.M. Asri, W.S.W. Harun, M.A. Hassan, S.A.C. Ghani and
Z. Buyong, A Review of Hydroxyapatite-based Coating Techniques: Sol-gel and
Electrochemical Depositions on Biocompatible Metals, Journal of the
Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.11.031
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A Review of Hydroxyapatite-based Coating Techniques: Sol-gel and Electrochemical
exploited for more than two decades. Currently, various experimental deposition processes
have been employed. In this review, the two most frequently used deposition processes will be
discussed: A sol-gel dip coating and an electrochemical deposition. This study deliberates the
responses of sol-gel dip coating as well as the electrochemical deposition for two different
sample conditions, with and without coating. The review shows that sol-gel dip coatings and
electrochemical deposition were able to obtain the uniform and homogeneous coating thickness
and high adherent biocompatible coatings even in complex shapes. It has been accepted that
both coating techniques improve bone strength and initial osseointegration rate. The main
Furthermore, the most significant challenges and critical issues are also highlighted.
Keywords: Biomaterials; Hydroxyapatite coating; Electrodeposition; Sol-gel Dip Coating.
1.0 Introduction
Metals and their alloys play an important role as biomaterials that can contribute to the
fixation or replacement of load-bearing bones that have been damaged [1-3]. This is due to the
scale that reported around 70-80% of implants are made of biocompatible metals [4, 5]. The
implants are made into various shapes including bone screws, pins, plates and others [6, 7].
There are large demands of the metal implants as the need for malfunction and fracture fixation
of hard tissues increases. Representative applicable implantable metals are restricted to stainless
steel, cobalt chromium molybdenum alloys, titanium (Ti) and its alloys (e.g. Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al7Nb
and shape memory TiNi alloys) [3, 6-8]. They have enjoyed clinical success due to their
immense mechanical features that satisfy the requirement of the human bone [9-11]. The high
mechanical strength and toughness of these biomaterials are the most significant benefits
compared to bioactive ceramics, which are inherently weak and brittle [1, 12, 13]. For example,
the Youngs modulus of an implant should be similar to that of human bone, so as to minimize
the stress shielding effect and to extend the quality of human life [8, 14, 15]. Due to their
physical nature, all the biocompatible metals have a long service life combined with a low elastic
modulus and low plasticity at body temperature. Moreover, they have excellent corrosion
However, there are some limitations of these metal materials involving the possible
release of harmful metal ions through wear and corrosion processes when they are exposed to
aggressive body environment [20-22]. The release of toxic ions might cause adverse effects to
the surrounding tissues [23-25]. For stainless steel metal, it might expose to a distinct shortage as
it does not form strong chemical bonds with natural bones [26-28]. It is significant in the
these materials [29-32]. The application of bioactive materials such as hydroxyapatite HAp
(Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2) coatings onto the surface of metallic implant devices have received enormous
mineralogical composition resemblance to human bone and tooth minerals [37-39]. Moreover,
their strong chemical bond creates its metal-implant coating to promote the new bone growth
[40]. Thus, coated alloys with a HAp coating are expected to overcome the weaknesses of
biocompatible metals along with the HAp coating deficiencies such as its brittleness and poor
mechanical properties [41-43]. HAp coating of biomaterials enhanced the corrosion resistance by
forming a barrier against the dissolution of metal ions from the substrate at the same time
promoting its bone bonding ability [44, 45]. Yang et al. [46] reported that HAp coatings can
develop clinical success with a failure rate of less than 2%. It was reported during a mean follow-
up study of 15 years [23, 34, 47-54]. Nevertheless, several attempts have been introduced to
enhance the bonding strength of HAp coating. Introducing a composite coating of HAp with
additional materials such as Ti [55], titania (TiO2) [56, 57], zirconia (ZrO2) [58], poly-(-
caprolactone) [59], calcium silicate (CaSiO3) [60] and others [45, 61-64].
So far, a number of commercial techniques have been developed to create the HAp
coating on metallic implants, such as solgel dip coating [57, 65-73], electrochemical deposition
[56, 74-78], electrophoretic deposition [79-84], plasma spraying process [85-87], sputter coating
[46, 88], hot isostatic pressing [89, 90], pulsed laser deposition [37, 91] and biomimetic
deposition [92]. Amongst the techniques listed, only plasma spraying is commercially approved
by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), USA for biomedical coatings on implants [93]. It
is due to its excellent coating properties over other coating methods. Minimal requirements for
HAp coatings have been pronounced in the Food and Drug Administration guidelines as well as
in the ISO standards (Table 1) [46]. However, HAp coating by plasma spray technique is limited.
It is due to poor uniformity in coating thickness and its adherence to substrate, phase impurity,
and low crystallinity. Furthermore, the degradation of bending strength and fatigue life is caused
by the dissolution of HAp phase in long-term contact with body fluids [94, 95]. It is also
suffering from poor mechanical properties on tensile strength, wear resistance, hardness,
toughness and fatigue [96, 97]. Moreover, plasma spray deposition is not able to produce a
uniform HAp coating with complex geometry. Other than that, the electrophoretic deposition is
one of the electrodeposition methods and applies a high voltage of 90V to deposit coating [98]. It
is followed by high sintering temperatures to improve the adherence properties. However, the
crystal structures and coating compositions are changed after the deposition. The alternative
coating approaches have been extensively developed and tested to overcome the weaknesses of
Table 1
HAp coating requirements [46]
Comparing to the required sophisticated vacuum systems and apparatus of most methods
excluding plasma spray deposition, solgel dip coating and electrochemical deposition are
widely applied to metal implants. Both of the processes have some similarities and have been
classified to be relatively low-cost and easier methods compared to others. They show promise
due to their relative ease of production, ability to apply a uniform coating over complex
geometric shapes and can be set up easily at room temperature as shown in Table 2. Besides that,
these two methods have the potential to deliver exceptional mechanical properties, corrosion
Table 2
Different techniques to deposit HAp coatings
This review discusses the effect of HAp-based coatings deposited sol-gel dip coating and
electrochemical deposition techniques. Parameters affecting the high quality for both coating
Electrochemical methods are widely used for the preparation of thin films and coatings in
anodic or cathodic techniques. Thus far, anodic deposition has limited utility regarding possible
materials to be deposited on this method and substrates used for deposition. While cathodic
deposition has significant benefits for industrial and medical applications [102]. Two processes
are commonly used to prepare coatings by cathodic electrodeposition: the electrophoretic process
(EPD) based on the use of suspensions of ceramic particles, and the electrolytic process (ELD),
which starts from solutions of metal salts. Electrochemical deposition technique is a well-known
deposition method commonly used in titanium. The calcium and phosphate precursors act as
CaP ratio in distilled water. The resulting filtrate is used as the electrolyte in an electrochemical
cell [103, 104]. This technique is often performed from aqueous solutions similar to those used
in wet-chemical deposition. Most authors use the cathodic deposition since it has been
recommended that high anodic potentials may affect the substrate surface detrimentally [105,
HAp coating deposition by the electrochemical method has unique advantages due to its
quick process and capability of forming uniform coating [107]. The process can be operated at
relatively low temperature [108]. One of the significant capabilities provided by fine particle
electrophoresis is the ability to achieve ceramic particle impregnation into a porous substrate and
composite consolidation. It is now well established that the state of agglomeration of ceramic
made from fine close-packed particles can be densified at lower sintering temperatures [109]. A
sedimentation [110]. Moreover, owing to the insulating properties of the deposit, the electric
field provides a higher deposition rate in defect regions, resulting in better packing and
uniformity of the deposit. In recent years, a significant amount of work has been done on the
can produce homogeneous coating and can enhance the adhesion strength between implant and
coating layer. Kuo et al. [111] first reported the deposition of HAp on titanium using an
(CaHPO4.2H2O, DCPD) and b-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP, Ca3(PO4)2). This coating was
solution. Adhesion testing by shear testing showed that the HAp coating has stronger adhesion
strength (106.3 MPa) with the coating thickness (18.6 m). The cross-sectional SEM photograph
of HAp coating deposited at ten mA/cm2 for 30 minutes shown in Fig. 1(a) revealed a dense
underlayer coating. Fig. 1(b) shows the EDS line-scanning diagram of the straight line AB in
Fig. 1(a).
conventional techniques often used to control electrical current [112, 113]. Electrochemical
coating of HAp on metal substrates using conventional methods decreases their degradation;
unfortunately, it does contain defects onto the coating surfaces [113]. During the electrochemical
electrolyte. Initially, the hydroxide (OH-) ions are produced at the substrate (cathode) [114]. This
is due to the electrochemical reaction that is usually the reduction reaction of water, which is
consequential in the formation of a large amount of hydrogen gas [97]. Formation of the
hydrogen gas bubbles might adhere to the substrate as well as avoid nucleation and deposition of
calcium phosphate. Therefore, it might lead to the formation of non-uniform coating [113, 114].
To overcome the imperfections, this means that HAp coating performance should be further
improved and solved by applying higher current density. Several adjustments are suggested to
make the direct current electrochemical deposition method more suitable in the following way.
During the deposition process, H2O2 was added to the electrolyte. H2O2 can substitute for
H2O, which in turn lowers the deposition current and change the mechanism of the whole lot of
electrochemical reaction [115]. The effects of H2 evolution may be removed due to the addition
of peroxide. Consequently, a dense and uniform coating may be formed [108]. Chandrasekar and
during pulse-electrodeposition and the ions are allowed to diffuse toward the substrate. This
would contribute to a more even diffusion of ions. As a result, the hydrogen evolution may not
increase with coating time. Furthermore, Blackwood et al. [115] reported galvanostatic pulse
electrodeposition of HAp on titanium. Periodic pulsed current densities gave a stronger adhesion
of HAp coatings deposited on the substrate surface compared to the continuous current density.
Besides that, the pulsed current is applied for the HAp deposition on 316L stainless steel
substrate [117]. The pulse current holds a relaxation time paralleled with the continuous, direct
current. In the pulsed electrodeposition process, the ions become closer to the cathode adequately
deposited when the current is applied. During the relaxation time, the ions are diffused from the
bulk solution to the surface of the cathode, which is a solution to improve the physical-chemical
properties of coatings [118]. Gopi et al. [119] reported that the coating and cell morphologies
have been profoundly influenced by the increment of pulse off time. Encouragement for the
adhesion and proliferation of cells was obtained at 4 s pulse off time followed by enhancement of
Wang And Luo et al. [120] have generated HAp coating on CoCrMo substrates with the
thickness about 200 nm and bonding strength about 17.5 MPa. This is the minimum requirement
for the adhesion strength of CaP coating on metallic biomaterials [121]. Popa et al.[114] have a
similar idea with [120], Ti, and Ti6Al4V alloy proved that HAp coating is more suitable for cell
adherence compared to the uncoated material and brushite coating. This statement is supported
by SEM micrographs in Fig. 2. The morphology of the coatings deposited on the Ti and Ti6Al4V
in Fig. 3 alloy became denser, lower rugosity and less spallation areas after soaking times are
changed for 1 h, 24 h and 48 h. The deposited coating was continuous with isolated remaining
pores of ~1 m after immersion for 48 h, thought to be a favourable structure for cell adhesion
and proliferation. Fig. 4 shows the XRD spectra of electrochemical deposition CoCrMo after
immersion in supersaturated calcification solution (SCS) for 2h, 12 h and 72 h. The addition of
Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of primary and final coatings in comparison with uncoated supports of
Ti and Ti6Al4V alloy [114].
Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of hydroxyapatite coating deposited on Ti and Ti6Al4V alloy after 48
h soaking in Ringers solution (pH=7.1) [114].
Fig. 4. XRD spectra of CoCrMo after different immersion terms in Supersaturated Calcification
Solution (SCS) and Octacalcium Phosphate (OCP) standard data, JCPDF 26-1056; HAp
standard data, JCPDF 09-0432; S-substrate [120].
been introduced [122]. This is called anodization process that is helpful in forming mechanical
interlocks between the metal substrate and the HAp coating [48, 122, 123]. It is demonstrated
that pure and homogeneous HAp coating can be obtained by the anodization and without any
post-treatment. He et al. [124] deposited a thin Al film on Ti substrate and then applied
anodization and hydrothermal treatment, after which the calcium phosphate grew from the holes
of anodized aluminum oxide during the coating process. Yang et al. [125] prepared the bioactive
titanium metal via anodic oxidation treatment. Although the electrochemical HAp coating and
pre-treating routes become more and more important, the investigation on electrochemical
deposited HAp coating on the porous anodized Ti substrate has not been reported to date [104].
Zhao et al. [107] prepared HAp coatings directly on anodized titanium by electro-deposition
method in a modified simulated body fluid (SBF). Fig. 5. shows XRD patterns of pure HAp
Fig. 5. XRD patterns of the HAp coating on Ti substrate show homogeneous coating deposition
[107]
Therefore, HAp coatings showed excellent bioactivity and increment of the coatings
thickness after immersion in SBF for four days as indicated in Table 3. SBF that has similarities
Table 3
The ratio of n(Ca)/n(P) and thickness of HAp coatings after immersion in SBF [107]
In vivo investigations in rabbits reported that the bonding of a bone with an implant after
such procedure is extensive but not principally high. The cause may be low porosity and
precipitation of apatite-like deposits inside the pores of an oxide layer [126]. After an application
of the electrolyte containing 0.025 M Ca biphosphate, 0.75 M Ca acetate, 0.12 M NaEDTA and
NaOH, the coating with Ca/P = 1.3 is formed, lower than in conventional electrolytes. Such
coating has better mechanical stability and is composed of totally dissolved CaP phase in the
matrix of amorphous and crystalline anatase [127]. The application of micro-arc oxidation results
phosphatase in osteosarcoma cells and a decrease in proliferation [128]. The in vivo tests show a
of HAp by reinforcing materials carbon nanotubes (CNTs), ZrO2, TiO2 [83, 129]. In fact, the
HAp-based coating has been reported the improvement in adhesion strength nearly 70% higher
than pure HAp coating [130]. The incorporation of single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) into HAp
coating leaded to the formation of homogeneous, high crystallinity and crack-free coatings with
Yuan and Golden [131] have used electrodeposition to deposit a double layer of HAp
coating on 316L stainless steel (SS) substrate and sintered in the air (600oC) or vacuum (800oC).
The result showed a more uniform HAp coating with excellent adhesion compared to one layer
coating of HAp. The intermediate layer acts as an oxide layer to keep the oxidative metal ions in
the SS substrate from migrating into coating surface to prevent HAp decomposition [79]. High-
temperature sintering or annealing has been mentioned and exposed to create a denser and
uniform CaP coating post-electrodeposition [62], with greater adhesion properties [103].
Albayrak et al. [132] have applied the same method as [131] by introducing titanium oxide
(TiO2) as a buffer layer for HAp coated on Ti6Al4V substrate. The coated substrates with the
thickness about 30 m were immersed for 1 min with different voltages as 10, 20, and 50 V
showed increasing adhesion strength with decreasing voltage value. Table 4 displays the
Table 4
Adhesion strength of electrodeposition HAp coatings.
To conclude this part, HAp coatings achieved by electrochemical deposition method has
a uniform structure since they are formed gradually through a nucleation and growth process.
The electrochemical deposition process has a broad range of coating thickness. The process
undergoes at relatively low temperatures which effectively reduces corrosion of the substrate
during coating. Correspondingly, the sintering phase for this technique improves densification
and bonding properties of the coating. However, HAp may decompose during the process. An
interlayer between coating and substrate can be used to overcome the problem of HAp
decomposition. As such, the electrochemical deposition method shows great promise of future
Solgel route combined with the dip-coating technique has been widely investigated to
coat metallic biomaterials for enhancement of adhesion [66, 133]. Calcium and phosphorus are
most commonly used as CaP precursors for the solution (sol) preparation with the addition of
two solvents, often water and ethanol [134-136]. The phosphorus precursor, frequently
some preparations, a minute amount of water is added to the solution to achieve hydrolysis of the
subsequent sol [139]. The selected calcium precursor, most often calcium nitrate, is also
dissolved in ethanol and then added to the hydrolysed phosphorus sol in a dropwise approach
[140, 141]. The mixed solution is then refluxed at various temperatures and solvents are
evaporated off until a more viscous solution is obtained to achieve a solgel [142, 143].
The chemical activity and the temperature required to form the apatite phase that depends
mostly on the chemical nature of the precursors. The solgel route, as shown in Fig. 6., consists
of producing a homogeneous solution of CaP precursors in an organic solvent that can be mixed
with the reagent used in the next step or water. Secondly, the sol is changed to a gel by
processes [144-146]. Solgel preparations are well-known as being cost-effective and simple to
set up, besides having the ability to coat complex shapes, similar to biomimetic coatings. The
prior research, is in the strength of the coatingsubstrate adhesion [147, 148]. Roest et al. [43]
investigated sol-gel derived HAp nanoscale coating to enhance osseointegration and adhesion
strength. It reported the preparation of solgel solutions in a glove box comprising of purified
dry nitrogen by applying previous work [33, 140, 141]. The substrates were coated for 20 s at
2000 rpm with the solution and sintered at 550 C for 2 h. The thickness of the HAp coatings
was about 100 nm after the sintering process and was measured by SEM and ellipsometry. Fig.
7. shows the SEM view of the example of the HAp coating thickness for commercially pure Ti
substrate [149].
Fig. 7. High magnification, SEM image showing the thickness of HAp coating on commercially
pure Ti from a fractured section [149]
Dip coating is a technique that involves three stages: dipping, withdrawing, and drying,
as shown in Fig. 8. The substrate is successively dipped into the solution and withdrawn at a
constant speed, offering a good control of the thickness and producing no waste. Some models
have been proposed to describe the formation of a homogeneous fluid layer by dip coating [150].
HAp can be homogeneously coated onto substrates by this method to obtain coating thickness in
the range 0.05-15mm [95, 151]. However, the coating thickness varies according to the viscosity
of the application approaches used. Even though most researchers have attempted high-purity
HAp nanocoatings, others concentrated their research efforts on improving properties by the
Sol-gel dip coating technique is able to produce adhesive thin coating layer without
severe cracking by using lower annealing temperature. Severe cracking of the coating layer is
frequently observed due to the rapid temperature fluctuations and solidification of the coating
[152]. Normally extreme temperature for example 6000-10 000oC was used for plasma spray
deposition techniques. Thus, it can easily destabilize the crystal structure of the HAp.
Furthermore, it can decompose into a mixture of HAp, CaO, tricalcium phosphate, tetracalcium
phosphate, and a considerable amount of amorphous phases [153, 154]. D.-M. Liu et al. [155]
have compared the bonding strength of the HAp coatings on the 316L stainless steel substrates at
constant at about 44 5MPa with the uniform coating thickness of about 0.6m as shown in Fig.
9. The adhesion strength between HAp coating and substrate increases with increasing annealing
temperature from 375oC to 450oC, but decreases slightly for 500oC. Even though annealing at
400oC to 500oC proved relatively denser coatings, however, some surface microcracks are visible
A. Stoch et al. [156] deposited HAp coating onto commercially pure Ti and Ti-6Al-4V
alloys and then cured it at temperatures 460750oC. Immersion observed the biological activity
of sol-gel HAp coatings in simulated body fluid (SBF) for 19 days, heated at 750oC reported that
the HAp layer can induce the surface in vitro growth of hydroxyapatite deposit. Higher
temperatures are necessary to achieve better crystallization of HAP and higher density of the
layer. Other than that, HAp-coated onto sandblasted and etched acid substrates have been
compared to HAp-coated followed by heat treatment at 550C for 5 min in air undergo dip
coating deposition by Bryington et al. [157]. Both of the coated substrates were implanted for 12
weeks and showed that heat treated surface demonstrated an increase in bone-in-contact (BIC) in
the cortical bone. Also, heated treated substrates have a better bone area within the implant
threads as compared to sandblasted, and acid etched HAp coating as shown in Table 5.
Table 5
Mean bone-to-implant contact (BIC) and bone area (BA) in threads [157]
In recent years, the sol-gel dip coating technique has developed some modifications to
enhance the quality of coating surfaces. Yusoff et al. [158] introduced the effect of poly-(-
caprolactone) (PCL) concentration (0, 10, 30, 50 wt%) on HAp coating properties at a fixed
withdrawal speed of 200 mm/min for 5 dips. The addition of PCL to the HAp caused the
formation of surface level pores, which are considered to promote osseointegration. Ti6Al4V
substrate with 30% PCL/HAp was considered as a good combination since it provided a high
thickness of the coating (184 m); no cracks were observed, and the coating/substrate adhesion
was enhanced. The absence of cracks on the coating is considered essential to protect the
substrate from corrosion and releasing harmful metal ions into body fluid [159]. Several
improvements have been introduced to enhance corrosion resistance and adhesion strength
Besides that, the formation of the oxide layer is one of the modern modifications that
have been applied before sol-gel dip coating process. For example, Titania (TiO2) is one of the
oxide layers that is commonly used to improve the bonding between HAp and Ti substrate [160].
Furthermore, the addition of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to HAp is to enhance the mechanical
successfully fabricated and had excellent bonding strength, exhibiting values up to 35.2 MPa.
The solgel combined with dip coating technique has been effectively investigated as a
simple and viable coating method for coating biocompatible implants. Also, this method can coat
complex shapes, similar to spontaneous precipitation methods. Further, adhesion and corrosion
resistance of metallic clinical implants and for industrial applications are enhanced by using the
sol-gel dip coating method. This approach shows the potential of using relatively low
temperatures and short incubation times to achieve HAp coatings on metallic substrates. This
metallic biomaterials.
3.0 Conclusion
continuously being investigated. Overall, those deposition techniques, namely sol-gel dip
coating, and an electrochemical deposition are mostly applied to deposit hydroxyapatite (HAp)-
based coating on metal substrates. Advantages of both techniques were discussed, and a
substrates. Based on this review, sol-gel dip coating method can form better coating surface
has been introduced in an electrochemical deposition to enhance the adhesion strength and
Acknowledgement
This facilities and resources for this research are fully supported by Universiti Malaysia Pahang
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Sputter coating 0.53 m Uniform coating Line of sight technique; [46, 88]
thickness on flat expensive, time-
substrates; dense consuming; produces
coating; high adhesion amorphous coatings
Hot isostatic 0.22.0 Produces dense Cannot coat complex [89, 90]
pressing mm coatings; no substrates; high
dimensional or shape temperature required;
limitation thermal expansion
mismatch; elastic
property differences;
expensive;
removal/interaction of
encapsulation material
Pulsed laser 0.055 m Coating crystalline and Line of sight technique; [37, 91]
deposition amorphous; coating splashing or particle
dense and porous deposition; needs
surface pre-treatment;
lack of uniformity
Biomimetic < 30 m Low processing Time-consuming; [92]
coating temperatures; can form requires replenishment
bonelike apatite; can and a constant pH
coat complex shapes; simulated body fluid
can incorporate bone
growth stimulating
factors
Table 3
The ratio of n(Ca)/n(P) and thickness of HAp coatings after immersion in SBF [107]
n(Ca)/n(P) Thickness/m
Before soaking 1.6156 16
Day 1 1.6698 16
Day 2 1.6723 19
Day 3 1.6722 32
Day 4 1.6727 76
Table 4
Adhesion strength of electrodeposition HAp coatings.
Composition Thickness Adhesion Reference
(m) Strength (MPa)
CoCrMo + HAp 0.2 17.5 [120]
1. Ti6Al4V + spherical HAp (sHAp) 10 10.7 [83]
2. Ti6Al4V + flake-shaped HAp 10 6.8
(fHAp) 10 8.5
3. Ti6Al4V + needle-shaped HAp 10 10.6
(nHAp)
4. Ti6Al4V + sHAp/ CNT-Ti
1. Ti + HAp 10 15.3 [130]
2. Ti + SWNTs/ HAp 10 25.7
1. Ti + HAp without oxidation 3 5.0 [104]
2. Ti + HAp with oxidation 3 7.3
1. Ti6Al4V + HAp 30 13.8 [132]
2. Ti6Al4V + TiO2 (50 V) + HAp 30 11.9
3. Ti6Al4V + TiO2 (20 V) + HAp 30 13.1
4. Ti6Al4V + TiO2 (10 V) + HAp 30 21.0
Table 5
Mean bone-to-implant contact (BIC) and bone area (BA) in threads [157]
Implant Micro Macro Total Micro BA% Macro Total
BIC% BIC% BIC% BA% BA%
Heat Treated 62.8 (20.2) 41.5 (25.1) 57.1 (21.0) 77.6 (13.0) 46.1 (27.8) 72.4 (14.0)
(control)
HAp (test) 39.9 (18.9) 27.8 (16.2) 38.7 (17.7) 66.0 (14.2) 31.9 (18.5) 59.7 (12.5)
Fig. 1. (a) Cross-sectional SEM photograph of HAp-coated specimen deposited at 10 mA/cm2
and annealed at 500 oC for 1 h, and (b) EDS line scanning spectrum of line AB in (a) [111]
Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of primary and final coatings in comparison with uncoated supports of
Ti and Ti6Al4V alloy [114].
Fig. 3. SEM micrographs of hydroxyapatite coating deposited on Ti and Ti6Al4V alloy after 48
h soaking in Ringers solution (pH=7.1) [114].
Fig. 4. XRD spectra of CoCrMo after different immersion terms in Supersaturated Calcification
Solution (SCS) and Octacalcium Phosphate (OCP) standard data, JCPDF 26-1056; HAp
standard data, JCPDF 09-0432; S-substrate [120].
HAp; Ti
Fig. 5. XRD patterns of the HAp coating on Ti substrate show homogeneous coating deposition
[107]
CaP precursor
(pH~10)
Sol-gel (pH~9)
Aging (ambient
temperature)
Drying
Sintering
Drying
Solvent
evaporation