EnvironmentalGeology(1993) 21:256-269 9 Springer-Verlag !

993

G. M. Kondolf 9 M. L. Swanson

Channel adjustments to reservoir construction and

gravel extraction along Stony Creek, California

Received: 10 June 1992 / Revisionreceived:21 December 1992

Abstract Stony Creek (drainage area 1920 km2), a tribu- (Collins and Dunne 1990). Instream gravel mining involves
tary to the Sacramento River 200 km north of San Fran- the direct removal of streambed sediments by heavy equip-
cisco, has experienced channel adjustments to both dam ment, usually conducted during low water, resulting in
construction and instream gravel extraction. Black Butte a local depression in bed profile. During subsequent high
Dam, constructed in 1963, reduced flood peaks and trap- flows, bed material transported from upstream is deposited
ped the annual 100,000 m 3 of bedload sediment formerly in this pit, depriving downstream reaches of bedload sedi-
delivered from the upper watershed. The reach below the ment supply, potentially inducing incision downstream of
dam changed from an active braided channel to an in- the gravel mine. In addition, the upstream end of the pit is
cised, single-thread channel shortly after dam construc- a knickpoint in the bed profile, and this knickpoint typi-
tion. About 25 km downstream of the dam, large instream cally migrates upstream, inducing incision upstream of the
gravel mines annually extract 230,000-580,000 m 3 and gravel mine as well (Kondolf 1993).
have induced channel incision of over 5 m, necessitating Stony Creek has experienced channel adjustment to
bridge repairs costing US$1.4 million. both dam construction and instream gravel mining since
1963. The two effects can be distinguished by the temporal
Key words Instream gravel extraction--Channel incision and spatial patterns of the channel response. There is con-
--Downstream effects of reservoirs siderable practical importance to the determination of the
causes of these adjustments because incision has under-
mined a state highway bridge, necessitating repairs costing
Introduction over US$1.4 million by 1993.
Undermining of bridges, pipeline crossings, and other
Channel adjustments have occurred downstream of many structures is a serious problem statewide. Similarly, the
reservoirs (Williams and Wolman 1984) because reservoirs availability of gravel required for spawning by anadromous
trap all bedload and some suspended load, releasing rela- salmonids has been reduced in many rivers, contributing
tively clear water, whose excess stream power commonly to the decline in important fish stocks and necessitating
erodes the bed and banks. This excess stream power may costly programs of gravel importation to depleted chan-
be partially reduced by reduction in flood flows effected by nels (Kondolf and Matthews 1993). Understanding the role
the reservoir. Channel incision and bank erosion can also of instream gravel extraction and reservoir construction in
be produced by large scale removal of gravel and sand causing channel incision and gravel depletion is a prerequi-
from active river beds, as occurs in instream gravel mining site to rational management of aquatic and riparian re-
sources. In many rivers, both reservoir construction and
gravel extraction have occurred, and their effects are diffi-
G. M. Kondolf1 cult to distinguish. However, on Stony Creek, the temporal
Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California, and spatial patterns of channel response permit the two
Berkeley,California94720, USA effects to be distinguished.
M. L. Swanson
Mitchell Swanson and Associates, 1509 Seabright Ave, Suite B-l,
Santa Cruz, California95062, USA
1Joint appointmentwith the Universityof CaliforniaWhite Moun- Description of study area
tain Research Station, 3000 East Line Street, Bishop, California
93514, USA Stony Creek drains a 1920-km 2 watershed on eastern slope
Correspondence to: G. M. Kondolf of the Coast Range, flowing into the Sacramento River
 257

I ~ -,.....~..~ ~ - - ~

\ 32
N "~%tr _cr ~' RESERVOIR I~'
~'~'~ ('" C'~.~'~"" Orland ~ Hwy45 if_

'- ??/
( <?oe
"~ f-~..-~ (l RESERVOIR 1N

~. ~ ~ , ) ~ o ,o ~o~

) J --~ N .. l . . . . . . . DETAIL E l I
,," ~ ~('! EAST PARK jJ DRAINAGEBASIN \ ~-". k,
_f , ~ //~':t RESERVOIR 9 BOUNDARY \ ^ * SACRAMENTO
\l ~._~~ l ~ Ill il ~ STREAM SAN FRANCISCO/ -'~' ~ ' ~
,. \o
X, ~ ~'~ \ -\ ~ BRIDGE k~ ,,1/

Fig. 1. Location and basin map for Stony Creek, showing major divergentdrainagepatterns so there is virtuallyno increasein drain-
tributaries and reservoirs. Below Black Butte Dam, Stony Creek age area below Black Butte Dam
traverses its alluvial fan; the conical shape of the fan results in

near Hamilton City, about 200 km north of San Francisco, 8 km. Reach 2 (gradient 0.0018), extending 6 km down-
California (Fig. 1). The main tributary streams drain east- stream to seasonal road P crossing, is braided but nar-
ward from their headwaters into a broad north-south rower and more stable, probably due to the constraining
trending valley through which Stony Creek flows northerly influence of three bridges and a canal crossing. Reach 3
for about 50 km to its confluence with Grindstone Creek, (gradient 0.0021), extending 8 km downstream to Mills
thence flows northeasterly about 15 km to Black Butte Orchard (about 4 km below Highway 32), is wider and
Reservoir, operated by the US Army Corps of Engineers braided, with large medial gravel bars. Instream gravel
(USACE). The valley of Upper Stony Creek (the reach mining has been intensive in this reach. Reach 4 (gradient
above Black Butte Dam) is bounded on the east by a 0.0010) extends 11 km downstream to the Sacramento
narrow range of north-south trending hills composed of River confluence. Reach 4 is distinctly narrower, more
older alluvial deposits, tilted by Cenozoic uplift of the sinuous, and more stable than the other three reaches,
Coast Range. Black Butte and the surrounding ridges are reflecting the transition as Stony Creek leaves the alluvial
topographic highs within this range capped by young ba- fan deposits and flows through finer-grained floodplain
salt flows. At the site of Black Butte Dam, Stony Creek deposits of the Sacramento River. Modern alluvial gravels
passes through a gap in these basalt-capped hills. Lower (0-8 m thick) overlie a basal hardpan.
Stony Creek (the reach downstream of Black Butte Dam) The watershed is underlain by a variety of lithologies,
flows over its alluvial fan deposits southeastward towards including shattered metasedimentary and metavolcanic
its confluence with the Sacramento River at elevation rocks of the Franciscan Series of Cretaceous Age that
37 m (Fig. 2). produce abundant gravel-sized sediments (Fig. 3). Grind-
We distinguished four geomorphically distinct reaches stone Creek is a major contributor of gravel by virtue of
in Lower Stony Creek (Fig. 2). Reach 1, from Black Butte the lithologies underlying its watershed. Median diameter
Dam down to the Interstate 5 highway bridge, has an of surface bed material is about 16 mm over most of Lower
average gradient of 0.0024 as measured from current Stony Creek, decreasing to 1 mm about 1 km upstream of
US Geological Survey topographic maps. The channel is the Sacramento River confluence.
braided and is partly confined by terraces of older alluvium The climate is Mediterranean, with mild winters (mean
in the upper 5 km of the reach, unconfined in the lower monthly temperatures at Black Butte Dam range from
258
BLACK
BUTTE
DAM

JOHNSON
BLANCH
NORTH CANAL
DIVERSION

/
9 /

Hamilton

Orland
ORCHA:O
~ 7 MILLS

rr
~8

DISTANCE (KM) UPSTREAM

FROM SACRAMENTO RIVER
ROAD

CANAL
AREA PERMITTED FOR
GRAVEL EXTRACTION
1 2 3 KM
5 GRAVEL MINE NUMBER i i
IN TABLE 1
[] URBANAREA

Fig. 2. Map of Lower Stony Creek showingprincipal featuresmen- by Howard Chang of San Diego State University (Chang
tioned in text, bridge and canal crossings,areas permittedfor gravel
extraction, and delineationof reaches 1-4 as definedin this study 1992).

Channel surveys and sediment samples

7.5~ in January to 26.4~ in July) and distinctly seasonal We reoccupied 64 cross sections surveyed in 1967 (four
precipitation: nearly 90 percent of annual precipitation years after closure of Black Butte Dam) by Lee (1968)
falls in the months November to April, with highest runoff and established an additional 14 cross sections to provide
typically December through March. Precipitation patterns greater resolution for computer modeling in reaches of
show a strong orographic control, with average annual interest near bridges. All survey and sample points are
totals ranging from 1500 mm in the headwaters to 450 mm located in stationing upstream from the Sacramento River
on the alluvial fan (USACE 1987). confluence (along the centerline of the channel at bank-
full flow). Because most cross sections exceeded 150 m in
length, surveys were conducted with a total station theodo-
lite by field parties of three or four, communicating by
Aims and methods radio. Levels were carried from benchmarks. In some
reaches, the channel was covered with a dense growth of
native riparian vegetation and exotic bamboo (Arundo
Study objectives donax), which required lengthy manual clearing before
The objectives of this study were to determine the nature surveying was possible.
and causes of channel change along Stony Creek since 1963 Reoccupation of some of the 1967 cross sections was
through documentation of historic changes in the channel problematic because of channel changes between 1967 and
pattern and changes in the independent variables that 1990. The 1967 cross sections were located perpendicular
influence channel form. to flow in the 1967 channel configuration, but not necessar-
We conducted field surveys of channel cross sections, ily perpendicular to the 1990 channel. Because cross sec-
sampled bed and bank sediments, analyzed sequential tions were to be used for hydraulic modeling, the 1990
aerial photographs from 1950 to 1990, documented historic surveys were made perpendicular to flow, even where that
flood hydrographs, analyzed changes in hydrology, and differed from the 1967 orientation. Topographic surveys
interviewed landowners, gravel extractors, and resource of the channel below bridges were compiled from bridge
agency personnel responsible for regulating activities in the maintenance files held by the California Department of
channel. Our study was conducted in coordination with Transportation (Caltrans) and compared with current sur-
(and provided input data for) a computer modeling study veyed conditions.
 259

Fig. 3. Geologicmap of Stony

Creek drainage basin and
alluvial fan, adapted from
CDMG (1960), Gowans (1967),
and aerial photography

We did not survey a detailed longitudinal profile, but Sample size for the coarser six of seven channel samples
developed a profile from bed elevations at our cross sec- (median diameters 13.5-26 mm) averaged 62 kg; for the
tions and plotted this together with a profile drawn from finer bank samples (median diameters 0.022-0.06 mm)
the cross sections of Lee (1968). We measured cross-section sample size averaged 1.7 kg. A pebble count (Wolman
stationing for both surveys from a reference bankfull center- 1954) was conducted on the cobble bed 1 km below Black
line, so positioning of points was constant between surveys. Butte Dam in lieu of a bulk sample.
Interpretation of the superimposed profiles is problematic
because increased sinuosity in reaches 1 and 2 resulted in
Analysis of aerial photography
increased channel length from 1967 to 1990, and channel
features (gravel bars, pools) have migrated between 1967 Sequential aerial photographs were obtained for 13 dates
and 1990, so that the survey points may not represent the from 1950 to 1990. For eight of these photo sets, channel
same channel features. As a result, some local changes in features were mapped using a zoom transfer stereoscope
bed elevation may be due to migration of channel features on base maps at a scale of 1 : 6000 (enlarged and adapted
rather than net change in bed elevation. from standard 1:24,000 topographic maps published by
Sediment samples were collected from bar tops adjacent the US Geological Survey). The resulting maps show limits
to the low flow channel one fourth of the total distance of the active channel, location of thalweg, alluvial terraces,
from the upstream to downstream end of the gravel bar and extraction sites for each year mapped. Large portions
(seven samples) and from exposed banks (six samples). of these maps were entered into a computer-aided design
Samples were generally sieved in the field down to 8 mm, (CAD) system to permit analysis of changes in specific
with the finer fraction sieved by an analytical laboratory. features over time. For example, postdam bank erosion in
260
the reach below Black Butte Dam was measured from
changes in limits of the active channel from 1950 to 1990,
and changes in the extent of active gravel pits were ana-
lyzed over time.
For selected flights, we prepared details to illustrate
changes in four reaches. The flights selected (and original
scales) were a 1950 flight by the USACE (1:9600), a 1956
flight by USACE (1 : 12,000), a 1965 flight by the US Bureau
of Reclamation (1:9600), a 1967 flight by the USACE
(1:6000), and a 1990 flight by Caltrans (1:6000). No com-
plete coverage was available immediately before construc-
tion of Black Butte Dam, so pre- and post-dam compari-
son relied on the 1950 or 1956 photography for predam
conditions.
Hydrologic data
From gauge records for the US Geological Survey (USGS)
stream gauge below Black Butte Dam, we identified all
major floods (with peak flows exceeding 3000 ma/s in mean
daily discharge), obtained hourly stage height values from
the US Federal Archives, computed instantaneous dis-
charge values from discharge rating curves, and digitized
and plotted these data to develop hourly hydrographs
for outflow from Black Butte Dam. Inflow hydrographs on
a daily time step (computed from storage changes and out-
flow) were provided by the USACE, Sacramento Distict.
Changes in flood hydrographs resulting from the dam were
evaluated from a comparison of the inflow and outflow
flood hydrographs. We also reviewed flood data reported
by USACE (1987) and Lee (1968).
Historical sediment yield
Historic rates of sediment yield from the watershed were
computed from reservoir sedimentation data for Black
Butte Reservoir (USACE 1987) and upstream reservoirs
(Knott and Dunnam 1969). To account for suspended load
passing over Black Butte Dam, measured sediment accu-
mulation in the reservoir was adjusted for trap efficiency,
based on the ratio of reservoir capacity to annual runoff,
using the trap efficiency curves of Brune (1953). From the
size analyses of bed material samples, we estimated the
probable percentage of bedload and the portion thereof in
the gravel range. We also quantified post-1963 sources and
sinks of sediment downstream of the dam and developed
sediment budgets for Lower Stony Creek for pre- and
postdam conditions.
Review of extraction permits, interviews
Under existing regulations, instream gravel mines estab-
lished before 1976 may operate without a county use
permit but must file a reclamation plan; gravel mines estab-
lished since 1976 require both (Kondolf 1993). Gravel ex-
traction use permits filed with the Glenn County Planning
Department and reclamation plans filed with the Califor-
nia Department of Mines and Geology were reviewed to
document the extraction quantities permitted, ultimate
planned configuration of the mine site, and any environ-
mental standards imposed by regulating agencies.
We also interviewed local landowners, gravel extrac-
tors, and resource agency personnel to obtain documenta-
tion of historical changes on Stony Creek, its history of
flooding and bank protection, and aggregate extraction
practices and regulation.
Results and discussion
Dam-induced changes in flow regime and
sediment transport
The flow regime of Lower Stony Creek has been pro-
foundly altered by water resources development in this
century, with the closure of East Park (1910), Stony Gorge
(1928), and Black Butte (1963) reservoirs (Fig. 1). East Park
and Stony Gorge reservoirs (62 x 106 m 3 each) impound
water for irrigation and have no flood control capacity;
while they probably attenuate flood peaks from the upper
watershed somewhat, their main effect has probably been
to increase summer baseflow in downstream channels.
Moreover, these reservoirs did not significantly reduce the
sediment yield from the upper basin because they did not
intercept sediment from tributaries with the greatest sedi-
ment yield, notably Grindstone Creek (Fig. 3). Grindstone
Creek drains a basin underlain by shattered Franciscan
Formation, evidently the most prolific gravel producer in
the drainage basin, based on litholgies in Lower Stony
Creek.
EXCEEDENCE FREQUENCY PER 100 YEARS
90 80 7060504030 20 10 5 2 t 0.5
i L i i i i i i i ~ i L i ]
5000
/
/,,,,//
2000
"~ 1000
/ o //
o
500
O9
c", 200
100 ~~
5O
20
1.5 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
RECURRENCE INTERVAL IN YEARS
Fig. 4. Flood frequencyanalysisfor Lower Stony Creek for pre- and
post-Black Butte Dam. Adapted from USACE (1987)
 261
700- about 1 x 10 6 m3/yr from the Upper Stony Creek catch-
ment. Averaged over the 1120-kin 2 contributing drainage
600-
~ -- OUTFLOW FROM DAM area below Stony Gorge reservoir, this was 930 m3/kmZ/yr.
'\ \ -- INFLOW TO RESERVOIR Downstream of Black Butte Dam, the only source of bed-
t \
500.
!
\
\ load sediment to the channel is erosion of its bed and
%-
E banks.
o 400

<
300
Channel changes I950-1990
Channel changes along Lower Stony Creek are discussed
200 by reach, proceeding downstream (Fig. 2).

100-
Reach 1
0-
10 t'2 14 16
Sequential aerial photographs show that this reach under-
18 20 22 24
went a change in pattern from a wide braided channel to a
DATE, JANUARY 1980
more sinuous, mostly single-thread channel, as illustrated
Fig. 5. Hydrographfor flood of January 1980. (Outflowdata from
USGS gauge records, inflowdata calculatedby USACE.) by the reach about 4 km downstream of the dam (Fig. 6).
Much of the adjustment probably occurred only a year
after closure of the dam during the flood of December
Black Butte Reservoir (197 x 106 m 3) was built for 1964. Aerial photographs show the channel had adopted
flood control and irrigation. For floods up to the 50-year a single-thread by 1967 (Fig. 6). From 1956 to 1990, the
inflow (2270 m3/s), outflows are 570 m3/s or less. The flood channel became more sinuous (with sinuosity increasing
frequency analysis (Fig. 4) shows the Q2 was reduced from from 1.08 to 1.18).
410 m3/s to 280 m3/s, Qlo from 1270 m3/s, to 425 m3/s, and Bed elevation changes in this reach are poorly docu-
Q2o from 1640 m3/s to 425 m3/s. Thus, flood peaks have mented because the first survey was conducted in 1967,
been reduced to a fraction of their predam value (from 70 four years after closure of Black Butte Dam, and after the
percent for Q2 to 25 percent for Qso). These flood flows are December 1964 flood, which produced the dam's second-
then released in prolonged discharges of 280-425 m3/s, largest outflow. Other studies of channel incision below
corresponding to the flows identified as the channel capac- reservoirs indicate that channel adjustments are typically
ity by Lee (1968) and USACE (1987). These flows also greatest during the first high flows after dam closure and
correspond to the predam Q1.5-Q2. Taking the Q1.5-Q2 immediately downstream of the dam, decreasing over time
as bankfull flow (Wolman and Miller 1960; Andrews 1980), and with distance downstream of the dam (Williams and
regulation has effectively eliminated most large floods, Wolman 1984). The 1967 cross sections show a low-flow
while increasing the duration of bankfull flows. channel with its bed 3 m below the formerly active braided
The effects of regulation by Black Butte Reservoir are channel. While some incision of a single low-flow channel
illustrated in the hydrographs for the flood of January 1980 within such a broad active channel could be expected in be-
(Fig. 5). While outflow hydrographs were available on an tween floods, field evidence, cross-section form, and aerial
hourly basis from primary computation sheets provided photographs suggest that part of this incision is attrib-
by the USGS, inflow hydrographs (computed from reser- utable to effects of the dam. An armor layer has developed
voir storage changes and outflow by the USACE) were in the reach directly below the dam. At our sampling point
available on a mean daily basis only, so the instantaneous 1 km below the dam, bed material has a median diameter
peak inflow is unknown. Nonetheless, the effects of regula- of 85 mm, compared to a median diameter of 16 mm at
tion are clearly seen, with a reduction in peak flow from 5 km below the dam and typical of most of Lower Stony
592 m3/s to 344 m3/s, while the duration of flows exceeding Creek. The Lemon Home Diversion Dam, a 5-m-high
280 m3/s increased from 72 h to 127 h. concrete weir 6 km downstream of Black Butte Dam built
Black Butte Dam has eliminated all bedload and most in 1910 (USACE 1987), has also served to limit incision;
suspended sediment transport from the upper watershed the downstream face has been undercut by scour, but the
to Lower Stony Creek. From 1963 to 1984, 19.9 x 106 m 3 dam's integrity has not been threatened. Thus, channel
of sediment accumulated in Black Butte Reservoir (USACE incision was largely limited to a reach about 5-km in length
1987). Reservoir trap efficiency, drawn from the median below the dam.
curve of Brune (1953) and the calculated ratio of reservoir The long profiles show no overall incision or aggrada-
capacity to inflow for each year from 1963 to 1984, fell tion in reach 1 between 1967 and 1990, with local changes
between 93 and 98 percent for every year but 1983. Thus, attributable to migration of channel features relative to
suspended sediment passing over the dam typically did not survey points. This indicates that channel incision was
exceed 10 percent of the volume deposited. Adjusting the largely complete by 1967, within the first four years after
rate of reservoir sedimentation upwards by 10 percent dam construction.
yields 21.9 x 10 6 m 3 over the 21-year period, or an average Lateral migration of the postdam-incised, single-thread
annual sediment yield (bedload and suspended load) of channel resulted in net erosion of about 90 ha of terrace in
262
Fig. 6. Sequential aerial
photographs for the Johnson
Ranch reach of Lower Stony
Creek, about 4 km downstream
of Black Butte Dam for 1956,
1967, and 1990. Flow is from
left to right

this reach by 1990, as measured from sequential aerial Reach 2

photographs of 1956 and 1990.
Since closure of Black Butte Dam in 1963 and concomi-
tant reduced frequency of scouring flows and increased
summer baseflows, much of the formerly active channel of
Stony Creek has been colonized by vegetation, both native
and exotic species.
Three bridges (Interstate Highways 5 and 99, and the
Southern Pacific Railroad) and a canal crossing artificially
constrain the channel's lateral migration, and all but the
Interstate Highway 5 bridge were present prior to 1950.
Channel pattern in reach 2 evolved from generally braided

Fig. 7. Sequential aerial
photographs for Lower Stony
Creek near the Interstate
Highway 5 bridge crossing for
1950, 1967, and 1990. Flow is
from left to right
to more single-thread from 1950 to 1990, although the
change was less pronounced here than in reach 1. Aerial
photographs for the reach near Interstate Highway 5 (Fig.
7) show the transition from a wide, unvegetated, braided
active channel in 1950 (before construction of Interstate
Highway 5) to a narrower active channel, within which
multiple braids and a proliferation of vegetation are evi-
dent in 1990.
The large, dark feature west of Interstate Highway 5 in
1967 (at the top of the scene) is a gravel pit used to provide
aggregate for construction of the highway. By 1968, a
meander bend had migrated northward into this old gravel
pit, causing flow to strike the bridge at an angle, and
resulted in local scour under the north end of the bridge;
the structure was repaired and no further incision has been
observed at the bridge (Ervin Neilson, Caltrans, personal
communication 1990).
Comparison of 1967 and 1990 longitudinal profiles indi-
cates that this reach aggraded about 1 m. This is a surpris-
263
ing result, given the reduced supply of sediment from up-
stream since 1963. Because the aggradation is so uniform
over a discrete reach, an error in carrying survey elevations
is a possible explanation. However, review of our 1990
survey notes did not yield evidence for such an error, and
the documentation of the 1967 survey now available is not
adequate to resolve the issue. If the aggradation is real,
it may have been caused by backwater effects from the
numerous bridges and other constrictions in this reach.
Reach 3
Channel incision of 1-5 m occurred over this reach from
1967-1990, resulting in a distinct departure from the over-
all trend of the longitudinal profile (Fig. 8). The incision
was centered on two large-volume gravel mines located
immediately upstream and downstream of the Highway 32
bridge. Since its construction in 1973, incision of over 5 m
has occurred beneath the bridge, undermining the five
264
Fig. 8. Longitudinal profile of 120
Lower Stony Creek plotted
from thalweg elevations along /"
110-
channel cross sections surveyed
in 1967, four years after closure
of Black Butte Dam (Lee 1968) 100-
and resurveyed in 1990 (this
study) 90-
g
z 80-
o
<
> 70-
LIA
-J
llJ
60-

50-

40-

30
0 1'o l's 2'o ~s a'0 3's 40
DISTANCE UPSTREAM SACRAMENTO RIVER (km)

.......... 1967 Profile - - 1990 Profile

62

,,,,,,
........... ...................\ . j

E
vr-- 58
O
, . . 1 _ . . . : i t.................................
"v /

>
UJ
Fig. 9. Channel cross section
below the downstream face of 54
the Highway 32 bridge based
upon surveys in 1973 (Caltrans)
and surveys in 1990. Spikes in [ "-'7" 1974 - - 1990 -]
1990 cross section are remnants
of bars deposited in lee of
bridge piers during 1986 flood, 50
subsequently excavated by 0 260 ' 460 600 ' 800
gravel extraction Distance from Left Bank (m)

eastern piers (Figs. 9 and 10). Extension of footings into
the streambed to stabilize the bridge will have cost US$1.4
million by 1993, with no assurance that further stabiliza-
tion measures will not be needed.
Channel pattern changed from a wide, predominantly
braided channel to a narrower active channel consisting of
extensive scraped surfaces of active gravel mines (Fig. 11).
The channel pattern was essentially unchanged from 1950
to 1967; the low-flow channels simply shifted position
within the braided active channel. From 1967 to 1990,
the active channel narrowed, abandoned surfaces became
vegetated, and natural low flow channels were obliterated
by large-scale gravel extraction. The narrowing of the active
channel probably resulted from the incision and changed
flow regime. The area of channel bed in active gravel mine
increased from 51 ha in 1965 to 146 ha in 1990, as illus-
trated by maps of gravel pit area near the Highway 32
bridge (Fig. 12).
Reach 4
The channel pattern in this reach remained stable from
1950 to 1990, as illustrated by sequential aerial photo-
graphs of the reach near Highway 45 (Fig. 13). The only
channel changes evident in these photographs is a nar-
rowing of the active channel (and reclaiming of formerly
active channel bed for agriculture and the gravel pro-
cessing plant) and increased density of riparian vegetation
in the channel.
Also evident in these photographs is a small instream
gravel mine downstream (east) of the Highway 45 bridge.
West of the Highway 45 bridge is the seasonal crossing of
 265

the Glenn-Colusa Canal. Each summer, bulldozers form

an earthen berm across the channel to prevent canal water
from leaking downstream as it crosses the channel, and
capturing all baseflow in Stony Creek. Also evident on Fig.
13 is the change in alignment of Highway 45 that accom-
panied construction of the new bridge in 1974.
The upper 3 km of this reach (immediately downstream
of the large gravel mines in reach 2) incised about 2 m from
1967 to 1990, and a deep pool developed about 7 km above
the Sacramento River confluence (Fig. 8). Up to 1 m of
incision occurred beneath the Highway 45 bridge during
the first four years after its construction in 1974, which
is interpreted as adjustment to the new structure (Ervin
Neilson, Caltrans, personal communication 1990). Other-
wise, bed elevations have experienced no net change over-
all in this reach, although 1967 and 1990 profiles are not
identical due to changes in cross-section locations and thus
possibly different geomorphic features surveyed (Fig. 8).

Fig. 10. Photograph of scour beneath the Highway 32 bridge. (Photo
by Kondolf, May 1990)
Instream gravel mining
Instream gravel mines active on Stony Creek in 1990 are
shown in Fig. 2; extraction rates as reported in reclamation
plans are presented in Table 1. The largest extractors were

Fig. 11. Sequential aerial

photographs of Lower Stony
Creek near Highway 32 bridge
for 1950, 1967, and 1990. Flow
is from left to right
266

access to them at the Glenn County Tax Assessor's Office

in 1990.
HIGHWAY32 The other gravel mines operating on Stony Creek in
1990 were smaller and employ bar skimming, in which
gravel bars above the "water level" (undefined) are har-
vested, but the channel is not excavated below the existing
thalweg. The extraction rates reported for these other
1965 GRAVELPITS W ~ ' x ~ mines ranged from 2000 to 85,000 m 3, excluding data for
(51 HA) Jaxon Enterprises, which were not reported in the recla-
mation plan (Jaxon Enterprises 1986, Orland Sand and
Gravel 1986, Redding Contractors 1986, Calvin Cement
1989, Jasper 1989, Martin Sand and Gravel 1986).
HIGHWAY32
Changes in sediment budget
In this study, we are concerned primarily with bedload
sediment (typically sand and gravel) because of its influence
1977 GRAVELPITS on channel form and because its transport in Lower Stony
(73 HA)
Creek has been so profoundly altered by construction of
Black Butte Dam and by instream gravel mining. From
reservoir sedimentation rates, we computed a total sedi-
ment yield from the upper watershed of 1 x 106 m 3. No
HIGHWAY32 direct measurements of bedload transport or size analyses
of the sediment trapped in Black Butte Reservoir are avail-
able, so we estimated bedload as a fraction of total load.
1990 GRAVELPITS Knott and Dunnam (1969) collected suspended sediment
(146 HA) samples and estimated bedload at the Black Butte damsite
from three empirical bedload equations and concluded
N
that bedload constituted only 1-6 percent of suspended
0 ~ 1 2tKM 1 load. However, for rivers draining mountainous terrain,
bedload commonly constitutes 8-16 percent of suspended
load (Collins and Dunne 1990). Here we have assumed
Fig. 12. Map of area covered by active gravel mines in 1965, 1977, that bedload constituted 10 percent of the total predam
and 1990. (Map prepared by Steve Grove.)
sediment yield from Upper Stony Creek, or 100,000 m 3.
Viewed in a long-term geomorphic perspective, the allu-
those flanking the Highway 32 bridge, Valley Rock Prod- vial fan of Stony Creek is a locus of aggradation, as streams
ucts and Baldwin Construction, both of which were estab- debouch from steep bedrock canyons onto the lower gradi-
lished before 1976 and do not require a county use permit. ent valley floor. In a diagrammatic illustration of the pre-
They operate by excavating large borrow pits below the dam sediment budget (Fig. 14), an unknown fraction of the
stream bed. Under terms of its reclamation plan, Baldwin 100,000 m3/yr from the upper watershed is shown as de-
Construction is allowed to excavate up to 7.6 m below the positing on proximal reaches of the alluvial fan, the re-
"land surface." Annual extraction rates reported in recla- mainder being transported downstream to the Sacramento
mation plans were 190,000-380,000 m 3 for Valley Rock River.
Products and 38,000-190,000 m 3 for Baldwin Construc- Since 1963, Black Butte Dam has trapped sediment and
tion, although they are permitted to extract 380,000 and released clear water. Such clearwater releases below dams
460,000 m 3, respectively (Valley Rock Products 1986, are termed "hungry water" because they possess stream
Baldwin Construction Company 1980). power in excess of their sediment load and so tend to erode
These extraction rates are supplied by the operators bed and banks. In reach 1 below the dam, the channel
and reported in broad ranges. Operators are reluctant to appears to have incised and migrated laterally, resulting in
report exact quantities extracted and state law protects this bank erosion of nearly 90 ha. Field inspection suggests 1.2
"proprietary" information from disclosure (M. Sandecki, m as an average value for bank height and that 50 percent
California Division of Mines and Geology, personal com- of the bank material consists of coarse sand and gravel,
munication 1991). No independent data are collected to which would move as bedload. Using these values, bank
determine extraction rates. Thus, actual extraction rates erosion contributed an annual average of 20,000 m3/yr
are unavailable under the present system of regulation and of bedload since 1963. This value is in close agreement with
reporting in California. One possible source of extraction the 15,000 m 3 calculated for annual bed and bank erosion
data would be values for total sales contained in tax rec- in reach 1 by Chang (1992), who used the FLUVIAL-12
ords in the county assessors office, but we were told that model (Chang 1988) to simulate sediment transport in
these data were not publicly available when we requested the reach. Thus, bedload-sized sediment contributed from

Fig. 13. Sequentialaerial
photographs of Lower Stony
Creek near Highway45 bridge
for 1950, 1965, and 1990. Flow
is from left to right
bank erosion in reach 1 makes up for about 20 percent of
the bedload sediment yield from the upper watershed now
trapped behind Black Butte Dam (Fig. 14).
The total permitted annual extraction for instream gravel
mines in Lower Stony Creek is 1.3 x 10 6 (Table 1), over 10
times the predam bedload sediment supply to the reach
and over 50 times the present rate of bedload supply (from
bank erosion in reach 1). Actual extraction rates reported
in reclamation plans (excluding Jaxon Enterprises) are
260,000-730,000 m3/yr, or 10-30 times the total current
bedload sediment supply (from bank erosion in reach 1).
Most of this gravel is removed in the pits upstream and
downstream of the Highway 32 bridge, which together
report extraction of 230,000-580,000 m3/yr.
Extraction from Stony Creek is diagrammatically illus-
trated in Fig. 14, with reported extraction rates shown in
m 3 x 103. Heavy arrows above the channel indicate gravel
flux (deposition, erosion, or extraction), while small arrows
below the channel signify incision or aggradation.
Conclusions
The changes observed in Lower Stony Creek can be attrib-
uted to two primary causes: channel adjustment to closure
of Black Butte Dam, and effects of gravel extraction. The
267
spatial and temporal occurrence of channel changes is
distinctive, with dam-induced changes in channel pattern
and incision (from 1963 to 1967) occurring in reach 1, no
incision in reach 2, extraction-induced incision (post 1972)
in reach 3, and no incision in reach 4 downstream of the
influence of the mines (Fig. 14).
On Stony Creek, the erosive effects of "hungry water"
are observed in reach 1, which changed from a wide braided
channel to a single-thread, incised meandering channel;
lateral migration of this channel has resulted in erosion of
bedload-sized sediment equivalent to about 20 percent of
the natural predam bedload yield from the watershed.
With distance downstream, dam-induced incision become
less apparent. The effects are absent near Interstate High-
way 5 and in reach 2, where bed elevations were unchanged
or increased from 1967 to 1990. The dam-induced elimina-
tion of sediment supply from upstream has been partially
compensated by reduction in flood peaks and concomitant
reduction in sediment transport capacity in Lower Stony
Creek.
Another striking channel adjustment in reach 1 is the
change from a braided channel pattern to a more sinuous,
meandering channel, probably reflecting an adjustment to
abruptly reduced rates of bedload sediment supply from
the watershed, to the decrease in flood peaks and sediment
transport capacity, and possibly to prolonged bankfull
flows.
268

Table 1. Gravel extraction rates reported in reclamation plans Gravel operations near Interstate Highway 5 and High-
(in thousands of cubic meters) a
way 45 are relatively small, and these reaches have re-
mained stable. However, the mines immediately up- and
Range of
annual extraction downstream of Highway 32 together extract 230-580 m 3,
Maximum equivalent to 2-6 times the natural predam sediment sup-
Extractor Low High permitted ply from the upper watershed, and 10-30 times the present
sediment supply (from bank erosion in reach 1). These
1 Jaxon Enterprises b 0.0 0.0 115.4 tremendous extraction rates have directly lowered the
2 0 r l a n d Sand & Gravel 2.1 21.2 192,3 channel bed within the boundaries of the gravel mines
3 Redding Contractors 21.2 84.6 84.6
4 Calvin Cement ~ 0.0 0.0 21,2 and induced channel incision immediately upstream and
5 Charles Jasper 4.2 4.2 42.3 downstream (Fig. 8). Even if extraction were to cease today,
6 Valley Rock Products 192.3 384.6 384,6 the channel will continue to adjust to this catastrophic re-
7 Baldwin Contracting 38.5 192.3 461.5 moval of sediment, probably for decades. Further incision
8 Martin Sand and Gravel 3.8 38.5 38.5
is predicted by the computer simulation of Chang (1992).
Total 262 725 1340
At present, extraction rates are poorly defined. Only
broad ranges reported in reclamation plans or use permits
aMines located by bold italic numbers on Fig. 2 are available, and even these data are not available for all
b Data not available operators. Moreover, there is no monitoring program un-
c Mine inactive in 1990 der which reported rates are verified. Proper management
of Stony Creek and other California rivers with instream

100 FROM REMAINDERTRANSPORTED

WATERSHED TO SACRAMENTORIVER
~ PRE 1963
~ ~ ~ UNKNOWNFRACTION
DEPOSITEDONALLUVIALFAN

/-_. i-

~-/~ "/~ Orland

t REACH, t REAOH2-~ REACH3 t REACH4 "t

loo DEPOSITED 1990
IN RESERVOIR
, / ~ 230 - 580 EXTRACTED 4 ~38 EXTRACTED
~.- 20 SUPPLIEDFROM 20 -110 EXTRACTED ~ ~%, , ~ .,~
~ BANK EROSION [ / -if"
.ack

J ..

"'7 ,~i llr~/....,..~y . ~ ~ " II.- 5 NOINCISION INCISION NO INCISION ? t / t . ~ ~"

~'

,,.a BEDLOADTRANSPORT,DEPOSITION BRAIDEDCHANNEL ~ BRIDGE

OR EXTRACTION (m3x 103)
0 1 2 3 KM
SINGLE-THREADCHANNEL i SEASONALCROSSING
I ~ I ~q INCISIONOR AGGRADATION

Fig. 14. Diagrammatic illustration of bedload sediment budget for 1963 and after construction of Black Butte Dam in 1990. All values
Lower Stony Creek prior to construction of Black Butte Dam in of gravel flux are in m 3 103

extraction will be impossible without accurate extraction
data.
In m a n y rivers, bedload sediment supply has been af-
fected by upstream reservoirs and instream gravel extrac-
tion. These effects m a y be difficult to distinguish in m a n y
cases, but on Stony Creek, the temporal and spatial pat-
terns of the channel response permit the two effects to be
distinguished.
Incision and channel instability caused by instream
gravel mining is widespread in California but generally
undocumented because of the difficulties in assigning cause
(a result in part of the lack of reliable extraction data) and
because the state's existing regulation of these activities is
largely ineffective. D a m a g e to bridges because of instream
gravel mining in California probably exceeds US$1 million
annually, but costs have never been systematically com-
piled. A partial compilation covering a 15-year period
through 1984 estimated bridge damage costing at least
US$13 million was caused by instream extraction (Cal-
trans, unpublished m e m o 1984). Caltrans has initiated a
systematic survey of scour problems under the 15,000
bridges over water in the state. Of the 150 (1 percent of the
total) considered threatened by scour, a large but as yet
undetermined number are associated with instream gravel
extraction (C. Crossett, Caltrans, personal communication
1991).
The effects of instream gravel extraction are often exac-
erbated when carried out downstream of reservoirs. Prop-
er management of these activities must be conducted with-
in a larger watershed framework, in which the cumulative
effect of other extractions, trapping of sediment by reser-
voirs, and other changes in the sediment budget can be
evaluated in context (Kondolf and Matthews 1993).
Acknowledgments This research was funded by the Cali-
fornia D e p a r t m e n t of Transportation under a contract
administered by San Diego State University Foundation.
Manuscript preparation was supported by a grant from
the Beatrice Farrand Fund of the Department of Land-
scape Architecture of the University of California. We are
indebted to Ray Kiah, Bill Lindsay, Carroll Harris, Cathy
Crossett, Ervin Neilson, Peter Wilcock, Brett Emery, and
H o w a r d Chang for stimulating conversations and relevant
information. Assistance in field work was provided by
Brett Emery, Karl Mertz, Janet Parrish, Aditya Advani,
and Gilbert Mendez. Brett Emery and Karl Mertz m a p p e d
channel features from aerial photograhs, and Steve G r o v e
digitized channel maps showing changes in active channel
and extent of gravel mining over time.
269
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