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Universal Gravitation
Planetary Motion
A large amount of data had been collected by 1687.
There was no clear understanding of the forces related to these motions.
Isaac Newton provided the answer.
Newtons First Law
A net force had to be acting on the Moon because the Moon does not move
in a straight line.
Newton reasoned the force was the gravitational attraction between the
Earth and the Moon.
Newton recognized this attraction was a special case of a general and universal
attraction between objects.
Introduction
Universal Gravitation
This chapter emphasizes a description of planetary motion.
This motion is an important test of the laws validity.
Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion
These laws follow from the law of universal gravitation and the principle of
conservation of angular momentum.
Also derive a general expression for the gravitational potential energy of a
system
Look at the energy of planetary and satellite motion.
Introduction
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
Every particle in the Universe attracts every other particle with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the distance between them.
m1m2
Fg G
r2
G is the universal gravitational constant and equals 6.673 x 10-11 Nm2 / kg2.
Section 13.1
Finding the Value of G
In 1789 Henry Cavendish measured G.
The two small spheres are fixed at the
ends of a light horizontal rod.
Two large masses were placed near
the small ones.
The angle of rotation was measured by
the deflection of a light beam reflected
from a mirror attached to the vertical
suspension.
Section 13.1
Law of Gravitation, cont
Section 13.1
Notation
Section 13.1
More About Forces
Section 13.1
Gravitational Force Due to a Distribution of Mass
Section 13.1
G vs. g
Section 13.1
Finding g from G
The magnitude of the force acting on an object of mass m in freefall near the
Earths surface is mg.
This can be set equal to the force of universal gravitation acting on the object.
ME m ME
mg G g G
RE2 RE2
If an object is some distance h above the Earths surface, r becomes RE + h.
GME
g
RE h
2
Section 13.2
Variation of g with Height
Section 13.2
Johannes Kepler
1571 1630
German astronomer
Best known for developing laws of
planetary motion
Based on the observations of
Tycho Brahe
Section 13.3
Keplers Laws
Section 13.3
Notes About Ellipses
F1 and F2 are each a focus of the
ellipse.
They are located a distance c from
the center.
The sum of r1 and r2 remains
constant.
The longest distance through the center
is the major axis.
a is the semi-major axis.
Section 13.3
Notes About Ellipses, cont
The shortest distance through the
center is the minor axis.
b is the semi-minor axis.
The eccentricity of the ellipse is
defined as e = c /a.
For a circle, e = 0
The range of values of the
eccentricity for ellipses is 0 < e <
1.
The higher the value of e, the
longer and thinner the ellipse.
Section 13.3
Orbital Eccentricity Examples
Section 13.3
Keplers First Law
Section 13.3
Keplers Second Law
Is a consequence of conservation of
angular momentum for an isolated
system.
Consider the planet as the system.
Model the Sun as massive enough
compared to the planets mass that it is
stationary.
The gravitational force exerted by the
Sun on the planet is a central force.
The force produces no torque, so
angular momentum is a constant.
L = r x p = MPr x v = constant
Section 13.3
Keplers Second Law, cont.
GMSunMPlanet v2
Fg M pa MP
r2 r
2 r
v
T
4 2 3
T
2
r KS r
3
GMSun
Section 13.3
Keplers Third Law, cont.
This can be extended to an elliptical orbit.
Replace r with a.
Remember a is the semi-major axis.
4 2 3
T
2
a KS a
3
GMSun
Ks is independent of the mass of the planet, and so is valid for any planet.
If an object is orbiting another object, the value of K will depend on the object
being orbited.
For example, for the Moon around the Earth, KSun is replaced with Kearth.
Section 13.3
Example, Mass of the Sun
Using the distance between the Earth and the Sun, and the period of the Earths
orbit, Keplers Third Law can be used to find the mass of the Sun.
4 2r 3
MSun
GT 2
Similarly, the mass of any object being orbited can be found if you know
information about objects orbiting it.
Section 13.3
Example, Geosynchronous Satellite
Section 13.3
The Gravitational Field
Section 13.4
The Gravitational Field, 2
Section 13.4
The Gravitational Field, 3
Section 13.4
The Gravitational Field, final
The gravitational field describes the effect that any object has on the empty
space around itself in terms of the force that would be present if a second object
were somewhere in that space.
Fg GM
g 2
r
m r
Section 13.4
Gravitational Potential Energy
Near the Earths surface, the gravitational potential energy function was U = mgy
for a particle-Earth system.
This was valid only when the particle is near the Earths surface, where the
gravitational force is constant.
The gravitational force is conservative.
The change in gravitational potential energy of a system associated with a given
displacement of a member of the system is defined as the negative of the internal
work done by the gravitational force on that member during the displacement.
rf
U U f U i F r dr
ri
Section 13.5
Gravitational Potential Energy, cont.
Section 13.5
Gravitational Potential Energy for the Earth, cont.
Section 13.5
Gravitational Potential Energy, General
For any two particles, the gravitational potential energy function becomes
Gm1m2
U
r
The gravitational potential energy between any two particles varies as 1/r.
Remember the force varies as 1/r 2.
The potential energy is negative because the force is attractive and we chose the
potential energy to be zero at infinite separation.
An external agent must do positive work to increase the separation between two
objects.
The work done by the external agent produces an increase in the
gravitational potential energy as the particles are separated.
U becomes less negative.
Section 13.5
Binding Energy
The absolute value of the potential energy can be thought of as the binding
energy.
If an external agent applies a force larger than the binding energy, the excess
energy will be in the form of kinetic energy of the particles when they are at
infinite separation.
Section 13.5
Systems with Three or More Particles
The total gravitational potential energy
of the system is the sum over all pairs
of particles.
Each pair of particles contributes a term
of U.
Assuming three particles:
U total U12 U13 U23
mm mm mm
G 1 2 1 3 2 3
r12 r13 r23
Section 13.5
Energy and Satellite Motion
Assume an object of mass m moving with a speed v in the vicinity of a massive
object of mass M.
M >>m
Also assume M is at rest in an inertial reference frame.
The total energy is the sum of the systems kinetic and potential energies.
Total energy E = K +U
1 Mm
E mv G
2
2 r
In a bound system, E is necessarily less than 0.
Section 13.6
Energy in a Circular Orbit, cont
Section 13.6
Energy in an Elliptical Orbit
GMm
E
2a
The total mechanical energy is negative.
The total energy is constant if the system is isolated.
Both the total energy and the total angular momentum of a gravitationally bound,
two-object systems are constants of the motion.
Section 13.6
Escape Speed from Earth
Section 13.6
Escape Speed From Earth, cont
2GME
v esc
RE
Section 13.6
Escape Speed, General
The Earths result can be extended to
any planet.
2GM
v esc
R
Section 13.6
Escape Speed, Implications
Section 13.6
Black Holes
A black hole is the remains of a star that has collapsed under its own
gravitational force.
The core of the star must have a mass greater than 3 solar masses.
The escape speed for a black hole is very large due to the concentration of a
large mass into a sphere of very small radius.
If the escape speed exceeds the speed of light, c, radiation cannot escape
and it appears black.
Section 13.6
Black Holes, cont
There is evidence that supermassive black holes exist at the centers of galaxies.
These have masses much higher than the mass of the Sun.
For example, there is strong evidence of a supermassive black hole at the center
of the Milky Way that has a mass of 2 3 million solar masses.
Section 13.6
Dark Matter
Section 13.6
Dark Matter, cont.
Section 13.6
Dark Matter, final
This result means there must be additional mass in a more extended distribution.
Scientist proposed the existence of dark matter to explain the objects to orbit so
fast.
The dark matter is proposed to exist in a large halo around each galaxy.
Since it is not luminous, it must be either very cold or electrically neutral.
Therefore, you cannot see dark matter, except through its gravitational
effects.
The proposed existence of dark matter is also implied by observations made on
galaxy clusters.
The galaxies in the cluster also have orbital speeds too high to be explained
by the luminous matter in the cluster alone.
Composition of Dark Matter
Section 13.6