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negative patient
Bonnie Wong
Division of Infectious Diseases
Department of Medicine and Therapeutics
Prince of Wales Hospital
History
• Mr Au, 49 year‐old security guard
• Good past health
• Presented with one week history of right
sided pleuritic chest pain with SOBOE
• Weight loss of 10lbs in the past two months
Physical Examination
• Febrile, 39C
• CVS: NAD
• Chest: RLZ crepitations
• Abdomen: NAD
• CNS: NAD
• No palpable lymphadenopathy
Investigations
• CXR: increased cardiothoracic ratio and
minimal right pleural effusion
• WCC 13, neutrophil predominant
• CRP 160, ESR 120
• ALT 104, ALP 360, Alb 26
• INR 1.3
• RFT normal
• Managed as chest infection with para‐
pneumonic effusion and was treated with
amoxicillin‐clavulanate empirically
• Fever did not respond
• Noticed to have diarrhoea ~3 times/day after
admission
Investigations
• USG abdomen: right pleural effusion,
gallstones, prominent hepato‐duodenal node
• Failed bedside tapping
• USG guided tapping yielded 50ml of straw‐
coloured pleural fluid, exudative, WCC 3900,
neutrophil 72%, Gram stain and ZN stain –ve
(pleural biopsy not done)
• Pleural fluid cytology: mainly polymorphs,
histiocytes and reactive mesothelial cells
Investigations
• Bedside echocardiogram: no valvular defect,
satisfactory ejection fraction, loculated
pericardial effusion, no constriction nor
tamponade
Investigations
• HIV negative
• HbsAg, anti‐HCV negative
• Fasting glucose 4.8
• ANA 1:40 homogenous, ENA: anti‐Ro +ve,
ANCA –ve
• Normal C3/C4
• Stool for C. diff toxin negative
Investigations
• Stool culture: Gp D Salmonella
• Blood culture: Salmonella Enteritidis
– Sensitive to cefotaxime, chloramphenicol
– Resistant to ampicillin, ciprofloxacin,
cotrimoxazole
• Antibiotic was changed to i.v. ceftriaxone 2g
Q24H
Progress
• Fever persisted
How would you proceed?
• No more diarrhoea
• No joint pain/bone pain
Further investigations
• Repeat CXR: blunted right CP angle
• Bronchoscopy was arranged
– No endobronchial lesion
– BAL : C/ST: oral commensals
Gram stain and ZN stain negative
Amplified TB direct test negative
fungal/legionella culture negative
cytology: negative for malignant cells
Further imaging
• CT thorax with contrast
– 1.4 cm thick pericardial effusion
– Multiple enlarged mediastinal lymph nodes
– Right lower basal segment patchy consolidation
Surgeons called in…
• VATS pericardial window and biopsy
• Open and close procedure: failed to obtain
biopsy due to dense adhesion between the
heart and pericardium
Empirical anti‐TB treatment
• HRMZ + prednisolone were started in view of
the clinical suspicion of TB pleuritis and
pericarditis
Progress
• Fever settled nicely and the overall well being
improved
• Ceftriaxone was given for 14 days and repeat
blood culture had documented clearance of
bacteraemia
• Patient was discharged and referred to Chest
Clinic for DOT and was scheduled for re‐
admission to the CTS ward for
mediastinoscopy in a week’s time
Another story begins…
• Cervical mediastinoscopy was performed a
week later
• Biopsy was taken but the procedure was
complicated with profuse venous bleeding
requiring manual compression for 45 minutes
• Haemodynamics were stabilized eventually
However…
• The patient developed high fever up to 40C
and shock with BP 70/40mmHg soon after
being transferred back to ward
• Admitted to ICU requiring inotropic support
• Blood culture showed Salmonella Enteritidis x
2 sets
– Same sensitivity profile as the previous culture
• Antibiotics were changed to iv ceftriaxone
• Mediastinal “LN” biopsy
– benign fibroadipose tissue with haemorrhage and
fibrin exudate
– No significant inflammatory infiltrates or
granuloma formation
– No lymphoid tissue
– No evidence of malignancy
– Staining for organisms all negative
Repeat CT
• No aneurysm identified in aorta and major
branches
• Enlarged mediastinal LNs, slightly decreased in
size as compared to last scan
• Mild collapse/consolidation in right lower lobe,
resolved pleural effusions and pericardial
effusion
• Gallstones
• Fever settled promptly
• Discharged and continued with daily
outpatient intravenous ceftriaxone for
another 6 weeks
• Referred to surgeon for elective
cholecystectomy
And things go on…
• Readmitted at around week 5 of the second
course of iv ceftriaxone with spike of fever
and dizziness
• In shock on presentation
• Marked leukocytosis on admission, WCC 36
(neutrophil 85%)
• Antibiotics were switched to meropenem and
azithromycin
• ESR 119
• WCC 36.5
• Repeat echo: NAD, pericardial effusion
resolved
• Sudden onset of right facial asymmetry
• Vesicles over right auricle
• No other focal neurological deficit
• CT brain (plain): NAD
• LP performed
– OP 22cmH2O
– WCC 129, lymphocyte predominant, RBC 2
– Glucose 3, TP 0.33
– VZV PCR positive
– Cytology: large no. of lymphocyte
• MRI brain
– Small infarct at left MCA and ACA territory
• Put on i.v. acyclovir for two weeks then
switched to valacyclovir for another week
• Fever persisted
• WCC 17
• CRP 133
Bone marrow examination
• Normocellular marrow with trilineage
haematopoiesis
• Lympho‐histiocytic infiltration and focal necrosis
• No granuloma seen
• No clonal TCR or IgH gene rearrangement
• Grocott and ZN stain negative
• MTB DNA sequence negative
• Ddx: severe infections and lymphoma
PET‐CT
• Multiple patchy air‐space consolidation in
posterior segment of right upper lobe
(SUVmax 7.5), rest of lungs clear
• SUVmax 2.6‐9.5 over multiple jugular,
supraclavicular, paratracheal, subcarinal,
para‐aortic, cardiophrenic, axillary,
peripancreatic and portal LNs
• Spleen showed mild diffuse increased in FDG
uptake of SUVmax ~4.1
Supraclavicular LN
• USG guided FNAC: QI
• Incisional biopsy:
– reactive lymphoid hyperplasia
– No necrosis or granulomatous inflammation
– No vasculitis
– Immunohistochemical stains confirm the reactive
pattern
– No light chain restriction
– No evidence of lymphoma
– Gram, Grocott, Ziehl‐Neelsen, Wade‐Fite, PAS and
Warthin‐Starry stains are all negative
• Developed high fever the day after incisional
biopsy of supraclavicular LN
• Blood culture grew Salmonella Enteritidis
AGAIN!
• Given two months of meropenem
• Switched to daily outpatient iv ertapenem
• Anti‐TB meds with HRMZ continued
• ESR > 130 despite receiving 5 months of HRMZ
and un‐interrupted treatment with
ceftriaxone/meropenem
elbow
forehead
Face and neck
forearm
forearm
Gram stain on aspirates of skin lesions
Budding yeast
• Umbilicated skin rash: biopsy: features of
fungal infection
• Penicilliosis serology was positive, blood
culture negative
• Æ itraconazole was added
• Positive melioidosis serology and positive PCR
from the LN sample
• Æ put on septrin and doxycycline
maintenance therapy
• Cholecystectomy performed
• Bile and gallbladder specimen: culture
negative, histology: features compatible with
chronic cholecystitis
• Repeat HIV and HTLV‐1 serology negative
• CD4/CD8 ratio: 0.9
• Natural Killer cells (CD56) :1.5% (6‐35%), 0.04
x 10^9/L (0.11‐0.89)
• Total B cells (CD19): 2.4% (5‐21%), 0.07 x
10^9/L (0.08‐0.45)
• Neutrophil function comparable with control
• No interferon gamma receptor deficiency by
detection of CD119
• Mitogen‐stimulated cytokine profile (ELISPOT
assay) showed a normal response
Blood C/ST +ve for SE
Stool C/ST +ve
Facial nerve palsy
VZV meningitis
Mediastinoscopy on
15/11
Blood C/ST +ve for SE
on 15, 17/11
Incisional Bx of
ICU admission
SCF LN on 19/4
Marked Blood C/ST +ve
leukocytosis for SE Cholecystectomy
+ shock
C/ST all ‐ve
Oct Nov Dec Jan07 Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Latest progress
• Just completed 6 months’ eradication therapy
with doxycycline and Septrin
• ESR, CRP and WCC normalized
• ALP normalized
• Hb level on normalizing trend
• Pending FU CT for monitoring of
lymphadenopathy
Recurrent
Salemonella enteritidis bacteraemia
Route of acquisition
• Mainly foodborn
• Intensive epidemiological and laboratory
investigations identified shell eggs as the
major vehicle for SE infection in humans
Salmonella enterica serotype Enteritidis and eggs: a national epidemic in the United States.
Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Aug 15;43(4):5127.
Turtle associated human salmonellosis
• In 1970s, 14% of all nontyphoidal salmonellosis
was attributed to transmission by turtles in US
• 7% in the past decade
– Increasing popularity of turtles and other pet reptiles
• Infected by faecal‐oral route, by claw scratches
and bites, indirect contact
• Highest risk in young children, elderly persons, in
immunocompromised hosts, those with impaired
gastric acid secretion (RR 2 for those on antacids)
Turtle‐Associated Human Salmonellosis
CID 2003;37:e167‐9
Risk factors
• HIV
• Malignancy
• Sarcoidosis
• Autoimmune disease
• Concomittant infection
– TB or NTM infection
– Disseminated histoplasmosis
– Schistosoma mansoni infection
Factors predisposing Salmonellosis
• Deficiencies in components of the innate
immune system
– Gastric secretion
– Defect in neutrophil and macrophage functions
• Antibody deficiencies
• Defects in cell‐mediated immunity
• Deficiencies in Th1 cytokines (IL‐12, IFN‐
gamma) or cytokine receptors (IL‐12R‐beta‐1
subunit, IFN‐gamma‐R chains 1 and 2
Resistance and susceptibility to Salmonella infections: lessons from
mice and patients with immunodeficiencies. Reviews in Medical
Microbiology. 14(2):53‐62, April 2003.
The interacting cytokine and receptor pathways that regulate the resistance to
and killing of mycobacteria and Salmonella.
MSMD
• Mendelian susceptibility to mycobacterial
disease (MSMD; Mendelian susceptibility in
Man 209950)
• Extraintestinal nontyphoid salmonellosis
diagnosed in less than one‐half of patients
with MSMD
• Altered IL‐12/IFN‐gamma axis
Clinical Tuberculosis in 2 of 3 Siblings with Interleukin‐12 Receptor
beta1 Deficiency. CID 2003;37:302‐6
Clinical spectrum
• Pericarditis
Salmonella enteritidis pericarditis: case report and review of the literature.
Ann Ital Med Int. 2002 Jul‐Sep;17(3):189‐92
• Peritonitis
• Empyema
• Endocarditis
• Meningitis
• Osteomyelitis, septic arthritis
• Abscess: lung, liver, brain, skin and soft tissue
Postulation
• Widespread contamination of poultry good by
salmonella species
• Antibiotic usage in food animals contribute to
human salmonellosis
Illegal use of nitrofurans in food animals: Contribution to human salmonellosis.
Clin Microbiol Infect. 2006 Nov;12(11):1047‐9.
Antibiotic resistance in SE
• From the National Antimicrobial Resistance
Monitoring System, during 1996‐2003, SE had a
relatively low proportion of resistance to any of
the individual antimicrobial agents
• One exception: resistant to quinolones,
represented by nalidixic acid, increased from
0.9% to 5.1%
• Also observed in Campylobacter species in
humans and poultry
• FDA withdrew its approval of the use of
fluoroquinolones in poultry in 2005
Melioidosis
Burkholderia pseudomallei
• Aerobic gram‐negative bacillus
• Endemic in southeast Asia and north Australia
• Soil‐dwelling, esp. rice paddy fields, also found
in surface water
Pathogenesis
• Percutaneous inoculation
– Local ulcer
• Inhalation
• Ingestion
• Case of venereal transmission reported
• Acquisition at work (laboratory technicians)
Melioidosis in Hong Kong
• First reported in Hong Kong in 1975 when 24
dolphins in Ocean Park died of melioidosis
• Soil sampling and a small serological survey done in
1980s suggested that melioidosis in endemic in Hong
Kong
– 5 out of 22 (23%) elderly patients admitted to general
medical wards had haemagglutinating antibodies against
Burkholderia pseudomallei
Successful treatment of melioidosis caused by a multiresistant
Strain in an immunocompromised host with third generation
Cephalosporins. Am Rev Respir Dis 1983;127:650‐654.
Melioidosis – An Overlooked Problem In Hong Kong
The Hong Kong Practitioner. March 1985
Burden of disease
• 20% of community‐acquired septicaemic
cases in northeast provinces in Thailand
• Accounts for 39% of fatal septicaemia and
36% of fatal community‐acquired pneumonia
• Commonest cause of fatal community‐
acquired bacteraemic pneumonia in Northen
Territory of Australia
Clinical presentation
• Subclinical infection
– May be reactivated years later when the host is
immunocompromised either by disease or drugs
• Acute infection
– Indistinguishable from ordinary gram‐negative
septicaemia
• Subacute and chronic infections
– Follow or precede, or appear in the absence of acute
infection
– Mimick pulmonary tuberculosis, histology can also
show caseating granuloma
Site of infection
• Primary bloodstream infection
• HEENT: acute suppurative parotitis (especially in
children), lymphadenitis
• Lung: acute necrotizing pneumonia, subacute
cavitating apical pneumonia, accompanied
by weight loss (often mimicking tuberculosis)
• Intraabdominal: liver/splenic abscess, pyelonephritis
• SSTI: disseminated pustules, subcutaneous
abscess
• Bone: osteomyelitis
• CNS: delirium, confusion, stupor, brain abscess
Risk factors
• DM
• Thalassaemia
• Aboriginality
• Male gender
• Soil/water exposure
• Renal disease
• Excessive alcohol consumption
Diagnosis
• Isolation of organism from blood, sputum, pus and other body fluids
– Gold standard
– Selective culture media for better isolation (Ashdown medium)
• Antigen detection
– Done on specimen or on culture supernatant
– Not widely available
• Serological test
– 4 fold rise in antibody titre with paired sera
– A high single titre
– Indirect haemagglutination (IHA), enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA)
– Limited by high rates of background antibody positivity
• Molecular methods
– 16S mRNA sequencing
– Not widely available
High index of suspicion in endemic areas
Treatment principle
• Treatment should consist of combination of
drugs for prolonged period, except in mild
cases, in order to prevent relapses
• Drain all the drainable collections
• Surgical intervention necessitated if failed
medical treatment, e.g. lobectomy in
unresolving pneumonia
• Monitoring of antibiotic sensitivity serially
Treatment
Induction therapy Maintenance therapy
(Intensive‐phase) (Eradication‐phase)
• Preferred • Preferred
– TMP‐SMX + Ceftazidime – TMP‐SMX +/‐ doxycycline
– Meropenem • Alternatives
– Imipenem – Chloramphenicol +
• Alternatives doxycycline + TMP‐SMX
– Ceftazidime (a/w 50% of (conventional therapy before
relapse) 1989, bacteriostatic rather
– Amoxicillin‐clavulanate than bactericidal)
– Amoxicillin‐clavulanate +
amoxicillin (associated with
higher Rx failure rate)
Melioidosis: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management
Clinical Microbiology Reviews, Apr. 2005, p.383‐416
Follow up monitoring
• Antibody level is not a good guide of response
to treatment
• Close monitoring for relapse
Relapse
• Occurs in 13 to 23% of cases and a medial of 6 to
8 months (can be up to years) after apparently
successful treatment
• Mortality similar to that of the initial infection
• Relapse vs reinfection
– 4 to 7% are reinfection cases in Thailand and Australia
– One out of 5 recurrent cases is reinfection in the
cohort in Malaysia
– No difference in acute outcome
Risk factors associated with
relapse
• Poor adherence to therapy
• Use of doxycycline monotherapy or
amoxicillin‐clavulanate in the eradication
phase
• Severe disease (RR 4.7 c.f. localized disease)
• Eradication therapy < 8 weeks (RR 2.5)
Relapse in melioidosis: incidence and risk factors.
J. Infect. Dis. 168:1181‐85.
Melioidosis: acute and chronic disease, relapse and re‐activation.
Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 94:301‐304.
Risk factors for recurrent melioidosis in Northeast Thailand
CID 2006;43: 979‐86.
Prevention
• No effective vaccine available
• Education in endemic areas
– Minimize exposure to soil, surface water, esp. for
patients with DM
– Footwear and gloves for gardening
• Avoid travel to high risk areas for at risk
population
Weapon of bioterrorism
• Category B bioterrorism agent as classified by
CDC
Porphyria cutanea tarda and
melioidosis
• Porphyria cutanea tarda
– Metabolic disorder in the haem biosynthetic pathway
– Inherited, more commonly acquired
– Cutaneous lesions, often associated with systemic
disease
• Case report of recurrent photosensitive vesicles,
blisters and skin fragility over forearms and
hands, 6 months after being put on doxycycline
and amoxycillin
Porphyria cutanea tarda and melioidosis.
Hong Kong Med J. 2001 Jun;7(2):197‐200.
Thank You