Capacitors

There are many kind of capacitors, they all do same thing: store electric charge. Simplest
capacitor is two conductors separated by an insulating material called the dielectric. The
dielectric can be paper, plastic, film, mica, glass, ceramic, air or vacuum.

When a voltage is applied across the two plates of a capacitor, a concentrated field flux is
created between them, allowing a significant difference of free electrons (a charge) to
develop between the two plates.

When the voltage across a capacitor is increased, it draws current from the rest of the
circuit, acting as a power load. Conversely, when the voltage across a capacitor is decreased,
the capacitor supplies current to the rest of the circuit, acting as a power source.

The ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an electric field (and consequently is
called capacitance. It is measured in the unit of the Farad (F).

1 Farad =1F
1 Microfarad = 1 uF
1 Nanofarad =1n
i Picofarad = 1 pF

Types of Capacitors

Following are some of the important types of capacitors used commonly in practical circuits.

1. Ceramic Capacitor

This is one of the most commonly and widely used capacitor in electronic components. A
ceramic capacitor is a capacitor constructed of alternating layers of metal and ceramic,
with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. They are well suited for use in high
frequency applications ranging up to couple of thousands of MHz. These capacitors are
available from fraction of a pF to 1uF (1000000 pF)

2. Electrolytic Capacitor
 Aluminum electrodes are used and they are separated by using a thin oxidation
membrane. This is a most common type, polarized capacitor. Cheap, readily available,
good for storage of charge. Not very accurate, leakage, drifting, not suitable for use in
HF (High Frequency) circuits, available in very small to very large values in uF. The most
important characteristic of electrolytic capacitors is that they have polarity. They have
a positive and a negative electrode. This means that it is very important that the
terminals are connected to the right poles.

3. Tantalum Capacitors

These capacitors are made of Tantalum Pentoxide. Superior to electrolytic capacitors,

excellent temperature and frequency characteristics. Like electrolytic, tantalum
capacitors are polarized so watch the '+' and '-' indicators. Tantalum capacitors are a
little bit more expensive than aluminum electrolytic capacitors. These capacitors are
very stable with temperature and frequency changes. Therefore, tantalum capacitors
are used for circuits which demand high stability in the capacitance values, e.g. analog
signal systems, and because the current-spike noise that occurs with aluminum
electrolytic capacitors does not occur here.

4. Metalized Polyester Film

 No polarity, dielectric made of Polyester.Good quality, low drift, temperature stable.
Because the electrodes are thin they can be made really small. Typically used in audio
and communication equipments.

5. Trimmer Capacitors

These use mostly plastic as a dielectric. The capacitance of this type of capacitors can
be adjusted using a screw driver. These capacitors are adjusted at the time of
manufacture of the electronic equipment.

6. Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are typically air-cored or sometimes uses plastic as a dielectric.

Typically connected to knobs to let the user tune the capacitance, so most of them are
designed to connect to a rotating knob. These capacitors are typically used in radios.

7. Polyester Film Capacitors

 This capacitor uses a thin polyester film as a dielectric. Not as high a tolerance as
polypropylene, but cheap and handy, temperature stable, widely used.

8. Polypropylene Capacitors

Mainly used when a higher tolerance is needed than polyester caps can offer. In these
capacitors polypropylene film is the dielectric.

9. Polystyrene Capacitors

In this Polystyrene is used as a dielectric. Constructed like a coil inside so not suitable
for high frequency applications. Well used in filter circuits or timing applications using a
couple hundred KHz or less.

10. Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors

Dielectric is made up of many layers. Small in size, very good temperature stability,
excellent frequency stable characteristics. Used in applications to filter or bypass the
high frequency to ground.

11. Silver-Mica Capacitors

 Mica is used as a dielectric. Used in resonance circuits, frequency filters, and military
RF applications. Highly stable, good temperature coefficient, excellent for endurance
because of their frequency characteristics, no large values, high voltage types available,
are relatively expensive.

12. Supercapacitor

An Electric double-layer capacitor, also known as supercapacitor, supercondenser,

pseudocapacitor, electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC), or ultracapacitor, is an
electrochemical capacitor that has an unusually high energy density when compared to
common capacitors, typically on the order of thousands of times greater than a high
capacity electrolytic capacitor. Whereas a regular capacitor consists of conductive foils
and a dry separator, the supercapacitor crosses into battery technology by using
special electrodes and some electrolyte. There are three types of electrode materials
suitable for the supercapacitor. They are: high surface area activated carbons, metal
oxide and conducting polymers. The high surface electrode material, also called Double
Layer Capacitor (DLC), is least costly to manufacture and is the most common. It stores
the energy in the double layer formed near the carbon electrode surface. To know more
about supercapacitor and ultracapacitor visit below links.
A diode is a two-terminal device, having two active electrodes,
between which it allows the transfer of current in one direction
only. Diodes are known for their unidirectional current property,
wherein, the electric current is allowed to flow in one direction.
Basically, diodes are used for the purpose of rectifying
waveforms, and can be used within power supplies or within
radio detectors. They can also be used in circuits where 'one
way' effect of diode is required. Most diodes are made from
semiconductors such as silicon, however, germanium is also used
sometimes. Diodes transmit electric currents in one direction,
however, the manner in which they do so can vary. Several types
of diodes are available for use in electronics design. Some of the
different types are:

Light Emitting Diode (LED): It is one of the most popular type of

diodes and when this diode permits the transfer of electric
current between the electrodes, light is produced. In most of the
diodes, the light (infrared) cannot be seen as they are at
frequencies that do not permit visibility. When the diode is
switched on or forward biased, the electrons recombine with the
holes and release energy in the form of light
(electroluminescence). The color of light depends on the energy
gap of the semiconductor.

Avalanche Diode: This type of diode operates in the reverse bias,

and used avalanche effect for its operation. The avalanche
breakdown takes place across the entire PN junction, when the
voltage drop is constant and is independent of current. Generally,
the avalanche diode is used for photo-detection, wherein high
levels of sensitivity can be obtained by the avalanche process.

Laser Diode: This type of diode is different from the LED type, as
it produces coherent light. These diodes find their application in
DVD and CD drives, laser pointers, etc. Laser diodes are more
expensive than LEDs. However, they are cheaper than other forms
of laser generators. Moreover, these laser diodes have limited
life.

Schottky Diodes: These diodes feature lower forward voltage

drop as compared to the ordinary silicon PN junction diodes. The
voltage drop may be somewhere between 0.15 and 0.4 volts at
low currents, as compared to the 0.6 volts for a silicon diode. In
order to achieve this performance, these diodes are constructed
differently from normal diodes, with metal to semiconductor
contact. Schottky diodes are used in RF applications, rectifier
applications and clamping diodes.

Zener diode: This type of diode provides a stable reference

voltage, thus is a very useful type and is used in vast quantities.
The diode runs in reverse bias, and breaks down on the arrival of
a certain voltage. A stable voltage is produced, if the current
through the resistor is limited. In power supplies, these diodes
are widely used to provide a reference voltage.

Photodiode: Photodiodes are used to detect light and feature

wide, transparent junctions. Generally, these diodes operate in
reverse bias, wherein even small amounts of current flow,
resulting from the light, can be detected with ease. Photodiodes
can also be used to generate electricity, used as solar cells and
even in photometry.

Varicap Diode or Varactor Diode: This type of diode feature a

reverse bias placed upon it, which varies the width of the
depletion layer as per the voltage placed across the diode. This
diode acts as a capacitor and capacitor plates are formed by the
extent of conduction regions and the depletion region as the
insulating dielectric. By altering the bias on the diode, the width
of the depletion region changes, thereby varying the capacitance.

Rectifier Diode: These diodes are used to rectify alternating

power inputs in power supplies. They can rectify current levels
that range from an amp upwards. If low voltage drops are
required, then Schottky diodes can be used, however, generally
these diodes are PN junction diodes.

Small signal or Small current diode - These diodes assumes that

the operating point is not affected because the signal is small

Large signal diodes - The operating point in these diodes

get affected as the signal is large.

Transient voltage supression diodes - This diode is used to

protect the electronics that are sensitive against voltage spikes.

Gold doped diodes - These diodes use gold as the dopant

and can operate at signal frequencies even if the forward voltage
drop increases.

Super barrier diodes - These are also called as the rectifier

diodes. This diodes have the property of low reverse leakage
current as that of normal p-n junction diode and low forward
voltage drop as that of Schottky diode with surge handling
ability.

Point contact diodes - The construction of this diode is

simpler and are used in analog applications and as a detector in
radio receivers. This diode is built of n type semiconductor and
few conducting metals placed to be in contact with the
semiconductor. Some metals move from towards the
semiconductor to form small region of p- tpye semiconductor
near the contact.

Peltier diodes - This diode is used as heat engine and

sensor for thermoelectric cooling.

Gunn diode - This diode is made of materials like GaAs or

InP that exhibit a negative differential resistance region.

Crystal diode - These are a type of point contact diodes

which are also called as Cats whisker diode. This didoe
comprises of a thin sharpened metal wire which is pressed
against the semiconducting crystal. The metal wire is the anode
and the semconducting crystal is the cathode. These diodes are
obsolete.

Avalanche diode - This diode conducts in reverse bias

condition where the reverse bias volage applied across the p-n
junction creates a wave of ionization leading to the flow of large
current. These didoes are designed to breakdown at specific
reverse voltage in order to avoid any damage.

Silicon controlled rectifier - As the name implies this diode

can be controlled or triggered to the ON condition due to the
application of small voltage. They belong to the family of Tyristors
and is used in various fields of DC motor control, generator field
regulation, lighting system control and variable frequency drive .
This is three terminal device with anode, cathode and third
controled lead or gate.


Vaccum diodes - This diode is two electrode vacuum tube

which can tolerate high inverse voltages.

Diodes are used widely in the electronics industry, right from

electronics design to production, to repair. Besides the above
mentioned types of diodes, the other diodes are PIN diode, point
contact diode, signal diode, step recovery diode, tunnel diode and
gold doped diodes. The type of diode to transfer electric current
depends on the type and amount of transmission, as well as on
specific applications.
Types of Resistors
There are many different types of resistors and they each vary in their composition, characteristics, and
functions.

Some resistors are composed of carbon. Others are composed of metal-film. Some resistors are used as
light sensors. Others are used to measure heat.

We will first go over the different types of resistors based on their composition, what materials they are
internally composed of. Then we will go over all the different types of resistors classified by the functions
they perform.

Types of Resistors by Composition

There are 3 main types of resistors based on their composition: carbon-composition resistors, carbon-
film resistors, and metal-film resistors.

Carbon-composition Resistors

Carbon-composition resistors are resistors that

are made of finely divided carbon or graphite
mixed with a powdered insulating material as a
binder in the proportions need for the desired R value.

More carbon produces less resistance, while more binder equals greater resistance. The resistor element
is enclosed in a plastic case for insulation and mechanical strength. Joined to the two ends of the carbon
resistance element are metal caps with leads of tinned copper wire for soldering the connections into a
circuit. Carbon-composition resistors normally have a brown body and are cylindrical.

Carbon-composition resistors are commonly available in resistance values of 1 to 20M. The power
rating is generally 0.1, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5, 1, or 2W.

Carbon-film Resistors

A carbon-film resistor is a resistor in which a thin film of

carbon is deposited onto an insulated substrate and then cut into a spiral body.

The resistance value of the resistor is controlled by varying the proportion of carbon to insulator. More
carbon gives less resistance, while more insulating material gives greater resistance.
Compared to carbon-composition resistors, carbon-film resistors have the following advantages: lower
and tighter tolerances, less sensitivity to temperature changes and aging, and less noise generated
internally.

Metal-film Resistors

A metal-film resistor is a resistor in which a thin film

of metal is sprayed onto a ceramic substrate and then cut into a spiral body.

The length, thickness, and width of the metal spiral determine the exact resistance value.

Metal-film resistors offer more precise resistance values than the other type of film resistors, which are
carbon-film resistors. Like carbon-film resistors, metal-film resistors are affected very little by
temperature changes and aging. They also generate very little noise internally.

Between the three types of resistors based on composition, carbon-composition resistors, carbon-film
resistors, and metal-film resistors, in overall performance, metal-film resistors are the best, carbon-film
the next best, and carbon-composition resistors last.

Types of Resistors by Function

Power Wirewound Resistors

Power wirewound resistors are resistors that

can handle a large amount of power, usually up
to 50 watts.

Typical resistors normally can handle between 0.25W to 2W of power. Power wirewound resistors can
handle much, much more and are suitable for use in high-power applications.

Precision Resistors

Precision Resistors are resistors that have very

low tolerance values, so they are very precise (closely near their nominal value).

All resistors come with a tolerance value, which is given as a percentage. The tolerance value tells us how
close to the nominal value a resistance can vary. For example, a 500 resistor that has a tolerance value
of 10%, may have a resistance that is somewhere between 10% above 500 (550) or 10% below 500
(450). If the same resistor has a tolerance of 1%, its resistance will only vary by 1%. Therefore, a 500
resistor can then vary between 495 and 505. This is tolerance as an example.

A precision resistor is a resistor that has a tolerance level as low as 0.005%.

This means a precision resistor will only vary 0.005% from its nominal value.
Precision resistors have very low tolerance percentage values, making them ultraprecise to their nominal
values. They will vary very little from their nominal values, so they are used in applications where high-
precision is necessary in terms of resistance
values.

Fusible Resistor

A Fusible Resistor is a wire-wound resistor that is designed to burn open easily when the power rating of
the resistor is exceeded.

In this way, a fusible resistor serves dual functions. When the power isn't exceeded, it serves as a resistor
limiting current. When the power rating is exceeded, it functions as a fuse, burning up, and becoming an
open in the circuit to protect components in the circuit from excess current.

Cement Resistors

Cement resistors are power resistors that are

heat and flame resistant.

Cement resistors are made to handle a large amount of power flowing through it with it being
undamaged by heat or flames. If you are designing a circuit where a lot of current is being passed
through a resistor and with it needing to be resistant to high heat and flame, cement resistors is a good
design choice.

Typical power ratings range from 1W to 20W or more.

Tolerances from the stated resistance value are around 5 percent.

Potentiometers

A potentiometer is a 3-terminal variable resistor. By adjusting the wiper

terminal, it can be used to represent a wide range of resistances in a
circuit from anywhere near 0 to the specified resistance rating of the
potentiometer. Therefore, for example, a 10K potentiometer can be
adjusted to give the resistance range from almost 0 to 10K by
adjusting the potentiometer knob.

Potentiometers are in wide use in circuits for a variety of uses, but their
main fuction remains the same: to increase or decrease the amplitude
of a signal in a circuit. When the resistance of the potentiometer is
decreased, the amplitude of the signal increases. When the resistance is increased, the amplitude of the
signal decreases. This can be used in circuits to control volume levels such as on speakers or for any
adjustable controls.

Rheostats
A rheostat is a 2-terminal variable resistor.

As a variable resistor, it serves to vary the

amount of voltage or current in a circuit.

Just like potentiometers, rheostats can be used to vary AC or DC signals. They differ from potentiometers
in the fact that they only have two leads of which potentiometers have 3. However, the two still achieve
the same function. While a potentiometer uses a third terminal to serve as the adjustable part, the
rheostat uses a slider to vary resistance. If the slider isn't moved, the rheostat functions as a fixed
resistor.

A rheostat is connected in a circuit by having the two leads connected in series with the load.

Thermistors

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor whose resistance value changes with changes in
operating temperature.

Because of the self-heating effect of current in a thermistor, the device changes resistance with
changes in current.

Thermistors exhibit either a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) or a negative temperature

coefficient (NTC). If a thermistor has a positive temperature coefficient, its resistance increases
as the operating temperature increases. Conversely, if a thermistor has a negative temperature
coefficient, its resistance decreases as the operating temperature increases.

How much the resistance changes with changes in the operating temperature depends on the size and
construction of the thermistor. It's always best to check the datasheet of the thermistor in use to find out
all the specifications of the thermistors.

Thermistors are frequently used in electronic circuits that handle temperature measurement,
temperature control, and temperature compensation.

Photoresistors
Photoresistors are resistors whose resistance values change according to the light
striking the surface of the resistor. In a dark environment, the resistance of a
photoresistor is very high, possibly several M, depending on the resistance rating of
the specific photoresistor in use. When intense light hits the surface, the resistance of
the photoresistor drops dramatically, possibly to as low as 400.

Thus, photoresistors are variable resistors whose resistance values change in regard to
the amount of light hitting its surface.

The above list is an extensive list of the types of resistors which exist today. The last 4
resistors are variable resistors which change according to knob adjustments, heat, and
light, respectively.

The Inductor, also called a choke, is another passive type electrical component which is just a coil of wire
that is designed to take advantage of this relationship by inducing a magnetic field in itself or in the core
as a result of the current passing through the coil. This results in a much stronger magnetic field than
one that would be produced by a simple coil of wire.

Inductors are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a solid central core which can be either a straight
cylindrical rod or a continuous loop or ring to concentrate their magnetic flux.

Air Core Inductor

Ceramic core inductors are referred as Air core inductors. Ceramic is the most
commonly used material for inductor cores. Ceramic has very low thermal co-
efficient of expansion, so even for a range of operating temperatures the stability
of the inductors inductance is high. Since ceramic has no magnetic properties,
there is no increase in the permeability value due to the core material. Its main
aim is to give a form for the coil. In some cases it will also provide the structure to
hold the terminals in place. The main advantage of these inductors are very low
core losses, high Quality factor. These are mainly used in high frequency
applications where low inductance values are required.

Iron Core Inductor

In the areas where low space inductors are in need then these iron
core inductors are best option.These inductors have high power and
high inductance value but limited in high frequency capacity. These are
applicable in audio equipments. When compared with other core
indictors these have very limited applications.

Ferrite Core Inductor

Ferrite is also referred as ferromagnetic material. They exhibit magnetic properties. They consist of
mixed metal oxide of iron and other elements to form crystalline structures . The general composition of
ferrites is XFe2O4. Where X represents transition materials. Mostly easily magnetized material
combinations are used such as manganese and zinc (MnZn), nickel and zinc (niZn).

Ferrites are mainly two types they are soft ferrites and hard ferrites. These are classified according to the
magnetic coercivity. Coercivity is the magnetic field intensity needed to demagnetize the ferromagnetic
material from complete saturation state to zero.

Soft Ferrite

These materials will have the ability to reverse their polarity of their magnetization without any
particular amount of energy needed to reverse the magnetic polarity.

Hard Ferrite

These are also called as permanent magnets. These will keep the polarity of the magnetization even after
removing the magnetic field.
Ferrite core inductor will help to improve the performance of the inductor by increasing the permeability
of the coil which leads to increase the value of the inductance. The level of the permeability of the
ferrite core used within the inductors will depend on the ferrite material. This permeability level ranges
from 20 to 15,000 according to the material of ferrite. Thus the inductance is very high with ferrite core
when compared to the inductor with air core.

Iron Powder Inductor

These are formed from very fine particles with insulated
particles of highly pure iron powder. This type of inductor
contains nearly 100% iron only. It gives us a solid looking
core when this iron power is compressed under very high
pressure and mixed with a binder such as epoxy or phenolic.
By this action iron powder forms like a magnetic solid
structure which consists of distributed air gap. Due to this air
gap it is capable to store high magnetic flux when compared
with the ferrite core. This characteristic allows a higher DC
current level to flow through the inductor before inductor
saturates. This leads to reduce the permeability of the core.
Mostly the initial permeabilitys are below 100 only. Thus
these inductors posses with high temperature co-efficient
stability. These are mainly applicable in switching power supplies.

Laminated Core Inductor

These core materials are formed by arranging many number of

laminations on top of each other. These laminations may be made
up of different materials and with different thicknesses. So this
construction has more flexibility.These laminations are made up of
steel with insulating material between them. These are arranged
parallel to the field to avoid eddy current losses between the
laminations. These are used in low frequency detectors. They have
high power levels so , they are mostly used at power filtering
devices for excitation frequencies above several KHz.

Bobbin based inductor

These are wounded on cylindrical bobbin so these are named as

bobbin based inductors. These are mainly used for mounting on
printed circuit boards.

It consist of two types of leads they are axial lead and radial
lead. Axial lead means lead exits from both sides of the core for
horizontal mounting on PC board. Radial lead means lead exits
from both sides of the core for vertical mounting on PC board.
These are shown below

Toroidal Inductor
Wire wounded on core which has ring or donut shaped surface. These are generally made up of different
materials like ferrite, powdered iron and tape wound etc. This inductor has high coupling results
between winding and early saturation. Its arrangement gives minimum loss in magnetic flux which helps
to avoid coupling magnetic flux with other devices. It has high energy transferring efficiency and high
inductance values at low frequency applications. These inductors mainly used in medical devices,
switching regulators, air conditioners, refrigerators, telecommunications and musical instruments etc.

Multi-layer Ceramic Inductors

The name itself indicates that it consist of multi layers. Simply by adding additional layers of coiled wire
that is wound around the central core to the inductor gives multi-layer inductor. Generally for more
number of turns in a wire , the inductance is also more. In these multi-layer inductors not only the
inductance of the inductor increases but also the capacitance between the wires also increases. The
most advantage of these inductors is by giving the lower operating frequencies also we can get higher
inductance results. These are having applications at high frequencies to suppress noise, in signal
processing modules like wireless LANs, Bluetooth etc. These are also used at mobile communication
systems.

Film Inductor
These uses a film of conductor on base material. Thus
according to the requirement this film is shaped for
conductor application. Film inductors in thin size are
suitable for DC to DC converters that serve as power
supplies in smart phones and mobile devices. The Rf thin
film inductor is shown below:

Variable Inductor

It is formed by moving the magnetic core in and outside of

the inductor windings. By this magnetic core we can adjust
the inductance value. When we consider a ferrite core
inductor , by moving its core inside and outside on which
the coil is wounded , variable ferrite core inductor can be
formed. These type of inductors are used in radio and high
frequency applications where the tuning is required. These
inductors are typically ranged from 10 H to 100 H and in
present days these are ranged from 10nH to 100 mH.

Coupled Inductors

The two conductors connected by electromagnetic induction are

generally referred as coupled inductors. We already seen that
whenever the AC current is flowing in one inductor produces voltage in
second inductor gives us mutual inductance phenomenon. Coupled
inductors will work on this phenomenon only. These can isolate two
circuits electrically by transferring impedance through the circuit. A
transformer is one of the type of coupled inductor.

Molded inductors

These inductors or molded by plastic or ceramic insulators. These

are typically available in bar and cylindrical shapes with wide
option of windings.