RozprawaDoktorskaD BrowskiMarcinScalona2014!01!07

Warsaw University of Technology
Faculty of Electronics and Information Technology
Investigation of
Digital Terrestrial Television Receiver
Architectures for DVB-T2 Standard
Ph. D. Thesis
Marcin Dbrowski
Supervisor: Professor dr hab. in. Jzef Modelski
Warsaw, 2013
Acknowledgment
I would like to express my deepest grati-
tude to Professor Jzef Modelski for for-
mulation of the subject of this thesis, in-
spiration, encouragement, help, amend-
ments, many stimulating discussions, and
patience.
Marcin Dabrowski

3
Contents
Abbreviations 9
Designations 17
Abstract 21
1 Subject, scope, aims, and scientic thesis 23

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2 Subject, scope, and signicance of the work . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3 Aims and scientic thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4 Text structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2 Digital terrestrial television 27

2.1 DTT concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2 General DTT transmission scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 DTT Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.1 Video coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Audio coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3 Transport layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.4 Physical layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.5 Unied receiver architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 European DVB-T system 37

3.1 DVB history and future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 DVB-T basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4 DVB transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5 Encryption and metadata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 DVB Multimedia Home Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing 45

4.1 Mathematical relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 OFDM features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 OFDM receiver architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.4 Error correction coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5 Adaptive OFDM modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.6 OFDM based wide area broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7 Multiple access OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
5 Single frequency network technology 51

5.1 SFN principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.2 Wideband digital broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.3 SFN gain and self-interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5
CONTENTS
6 Overview and dierences between DVB-T and DVB-T2 59

6.1 DVB-T2 overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2 DVB-T and DVB-T2 technical comparison . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2.1 Transport layer capabilities and DVB-T2 gateways . . 61
6.2.2 Null packet deletion mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.3 Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.2.4 Constellation rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.5 PAPR reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.2.6 Pilot sub-carriers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.7 Signal bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2.8 MISO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.2.9 Time-Frequency Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.2.10 Channel coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.2.11 Symbol organization, framing and signaling . . . . . . 70
6.3 Benets of using DVB-T2 for broadcasters and network op-
erators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3.1 Higher bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3.2 Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.3.3 Usage of available channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 Next steps of DVB-T2 standard implementation . . . . . . . . 71
7 Propagation models and coverage calculations 73

7.1 Denitions and assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.1 Mobile channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.1.2 Log-normal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.1.3 Thermal noise and its inuence on the receiver . . . . 77
7.2 Field strength summation procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.1 Simple power-sum method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.2 t-LNM method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.3 ITU-R P.370 and ITU-R P.1546 models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.4 Other models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8 Specications for receivers 83

8.1 Role and need of specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2 Common guidelines of specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2.1 Receiver performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.2.2 Common receiver model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.2.3 Propagation channel assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.2.4 Image channel issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
8.3 ETSI EN 300 744 norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.4 Chester97 Coordination Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
8.5 Final acts o RRC06, GE06 coordination agreement . . . . 89
8.6 IEC 62216 norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.7 NorDIG specication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
8.8 DGTVi D-Book specication and AGCOM 216/00 Resolution 95
6
CONTENTS
8.9 PolSpec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9 Receiver architectures 97
9.1 Digital TV receiver elements and interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.2 Tuners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.2.1 Adjacent channel signals rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.2.2 Image channel signals rejection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.2.3 Direct conversion tuners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.2.4 Local oscillators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.2.5 Surface acoustic wave lters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9.2.6 Tuner parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.3 Demodulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.3.1 Channel estimation and equalization . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.4 Diversity, MISO, and MIMO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.5 SFN inuence on receiver operation and FFT window posi-
tioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.5.1 Symbol Timing Recovery (STR) and Symbol Timing
Oset (STO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.5.2 Impairments within receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.5.3 LDPC decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.6 CD3 algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.7 Diversity receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.8 Recommended DVB-T2 receiver architecture . . . . . . . . . . 114
10 Digital terrestrial television in Poland current state and future

trends 115
10.1 Beginning of DVB-T in Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.2 DVB-T in progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
10.3 DVB-T measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
10.4 DVB-T future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11 Conclusions 121
Bibliography 125
7
Abbreviations
128-QAM 128-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

16-APSK 16-state Amplitude and Phase-Shift Keying
16-PSK 16-state Phase-Shift Keying
2D Two-dimensional picture quality
32-APSK 32-state Amplitude and Phase-Shift Keying
3D Three-dimensional picture quality
3DTV Three-dimensional Television
8-PSK 8-state Phase-Shift Keying
8-VSB 8-level Vestigial Sideband Modulation
ABC American Broadcasting Company
AC-3 Audio Codec Dolby Digital 3rd generation
ACE Active Constellation Extension
AD Analog to Digital (conversion)
ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AGC Automatic Gain Control
AM Amplitude Modulation
APSK Amplitude and Phase-Shift Keying
ASI Asynchronous Serial Interface
ASO Analog Switch-O
ATSC Advanced Television Standards Committee
AVC Advanced Video Coding
AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise channel
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BBFRAME Baseband Frame
BCH Bose-Chaudhuri cyclic error-correcting codes
BER Bit Error Rate
BiCMOS Bipolar Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
C Central audio channel
CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
CCIR Comit Consultatif International
des Radiocommunications
or Comit Consultatif International pour la Radio
CCITT Consultative Committee for International
Telephony and Telegraphy
9
ABBREVIATIONS
CD3 (or CDDD) Coded Decision-Directed Demodulation

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CENELEC European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
CFO Carrier Frequency Oset
CFR Channel Frequency Response
CIR Channel Impulse Response
CM-3DTV Commercial Module for Three-dimensional Television
CMOS Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor
COFDM Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing
COST European Cooperation in Science and Technology
DA Digital to Analog (conversion)
DAB Digital Audio Broadcasting
DCA Dynamic Channel Allocation
DCII DigiCipher 2
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications
DGTVi Associazione per la Televisione
Digitale Terrestre Interattiva
DFT Discrete Fourier Transformation
DMB-T/H Digital Multimedia Broadcast
Terrestrial / Handheld
DMT Discrete Multitone modulation
DNP Deleted Null Packet
DSFN Dynamic Single Frequency Network
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
DSP Digital Signal Processor
DTMB Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast
DTG Digital TV Group
DTT (DTTV) Digital Terrestrial Television
DTTB Digital Terrestrial Television Broadcasting
DVB Digital Video Broadcasting
DVB-BCG Digital Video Broadcasting
Broadband Content Guide
DVB-C Digital Video Broadcasting Cable
DVB-C2 Digital Video Broadcasting Cable
(second generation)
DVB-CA Digital Video Broadcasting
Conditional Access
DVB-CI Digital Video Broadcasting
Common Interface
DVB-CPCM Digital Video Broadcasting
Content Protection
and Copy Management
DVB-CSA Digital Video Broadcasting
Common Scrambling Algorithm
DVB-DATA Digital Video Broadcasting Data
10
ABBREVIATIONS
DVB-H Digital Video Broadcasting Handheld

DVB-IPI Digital Video Broadcasting
Internet Protocol Interface
DVB-IPTV Digital Video Broadcasting
Internet Protocol Television
DVB-MC Digital Video Broadcasting
Microwave Cable
DVB-MHP Digital Video Broadcasting
Multimedia Home Platform
DVB-MS Digital Video Broadcasting
Microwave Satellite
DVB-MT Digital Video Broadcasting
Microwave Terrestrial
DVB-NPI Digital Video Broadcasting
Network Protocol Independent
DVB-RCS Digital Video Broadcasting
Return Channel Satellite
DVB-RC Digital Video Broadcasting
Return Channel
DVB-RCT Digital Video Broadcasting
Return Channel Terrestrial
DVB-S Digital Video Broadcasting Satellite
DVB-S2 Digital Video Broadcasting Satellite
(second generation)
DVB-SI Digital Video Broadcasting
Service Information
DVB-SH Digital Video Broadcasting
Satellite services to Handhelds
DVB-SMATV Digital Video Broadcasting
Satellite Master-Antenna Television
DVB-SUB Digital Video Broadcasting
Subtitling
DVB-T Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial
DVB-T2 Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial
(second generation)
DVB-TVA Digital Video Broadcasting TV-Anytime
DVB-TXT Digital Video Broadcasting Teletext
DVB-VBI Digital Video Broadcasting
Vertical Blanking Interval
DVD Digital Video Disc or Digital Versatile Disc
DVR Digital Video Recorder
EBU European Broadcasting Union
EIT Event Information Table
EPG Electronic Program Guide
EPT Eective Protection Target
11
ABBREVIATIONS
ETSI European Telecommunications

Standards Institute
EVM Error Vector Magnitude
FCA Fixed Channel Allocation
FCC Federal Communications Commission
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
FEC Forward Error Correction
FEF Future Extension Frame
FFT Fast Fourier Transformation
FIR Finite Impulse Response
FM Frequency Modulation
FTA Free-To-Air
GCS Generic Continuous Stream
GFPS Generic Fixed-length Packetized Stream
GI Guard Interval
GPS Global Positioning System
GS Generic Stream
GSE Generic Stream Encapsulated
GSM Groupe Spcial Mobile (primarily)
Global System for Mobile Communications (nowadays)
H.264 MPEG-4 part 10 or AVC standard
HD(TV) High Denition (Television)
HP (TS) High Priority (transport stream)
I In-phase
IBC International Broadcasting Convention
ICI Inter-Carrier Interference
IDFT Inverse Discrete Fourier Transformation
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IF Intermediate Frequency
IFFT Inverse Fast Fourier Transformation
(conceptually equivalent to FFT)
IIP3 Third order Input Intercept Point
IL Implementation Loss
IP Internet Protocol
IPTV Internet Protocol Television
IP3 Third order Intercept Point
IRD Integrated Receiver / Decoder
ISDB-T Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting Terrestrial
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
ISI Inter-Symbol Interference
ITU International Telecommunications Union
ITU-R International Telecommunication Union
Radiocommunication Sector
ITV Interactive Television
JTC Joint Technical Committee
12
ABBREVIATIONS
KIGEiT Krajowa Izba Gospodarcza Elektroniki

i Telekomunikacji
L Left audio channel
LDPC Low Density Parity Check codes
LFE Low Frequency Enhancement
LNA Low Noise Amplier
LNM Log-Normal Method
LO Local Oscillator
LP (TS) Low Priority (transport stream)
LUT Look-Up Table
MAC Media Access Control
MC-CDMA Multi-Carrier Code Division Multiple Access
MER Modulation Error Ratio
MFN Multi-Frequency broadcast Network
MHP Multimedia Home Platform
MIMO Multiple Input Multiple Output
MIP Mega-frame Initialization Packet
MISO Multiple Input Single Output
MLE Maximum Likelihood Estimation
MMDS Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service
MPEG Moving Pictures Expert Group
MPEG-1 MPEG 1st generation standard
MPEG-2 MPEG 2nd generation standard
MPEG-4 MPEG 4th generation standard
MPEG-TS MPEG Transport Stream
MRC Maximal-Ratio Combining
MUSICAM Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband
Integrated Coding And Multiplexing audio codec
MUX Multiplexer
MVDS Multipoint Video Distribution System
NBC National Broadcasting Company
NF Noise Figure
NorDig Nordic DVB-T2 system
NTSC National Television Standards Committee
OIP3 Third order Output Intercept Point
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
PAL Phase Alternating Line
PAPR Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
PC Personal Computer
PDF Probability Density Function
PER Packet Error Ratio
PID Packet ID
PLL Phase-Locked Loop
PLP Physical Layer Pipe
13
ABBREVIATIONS
PP Pilot Pattern
PPF Polyphase Filter
PPS Pulse Per Second
PRBS Pseudo Random Binary Sequence
PS Program Stream
PSI Program Specic Information
PSK Phase-Shift Keying
PSN Polskie Sieci Nadawcze
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
Q Quadrature
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QEF Quasi Error Free reception
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
R Right audio channel
RA6 Typical Rural reception with 6 paths
RC Return Channel
RCT Reserved Carrier Technique
or Return Channel Terrestrial
RCS Return Channel Satellite
RF Radio Frequency
RPC1, RPC2, RPC3 Reference Planning Congurations
RS Reed-Solomon decoder
S Single Surround channel
SAW Surface Acoustic Wave
SD(TV) Standard Denition (Television)
SECAM Squentiel Couleur avec Mmoire
SFN Single Frequency Network
SHF Super High Frequency
SI Service Information
SISO Single Input Single Output
SL Surround Left channel
SMATV Satellite Master-Antenna Television
SMPTE Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers
SNR Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SPI Synchronous Parallel Interface
SR Surround Right channel
SSI Signal Strength Indicator
or Synchronous Serial Interface
STB Set-Top Box
STO Symbol Timing Oset
STR Symbol Timing Recovery
T2-MI DVB-T2 Modulator Interface
T2-MIP DVB-T2 Mega-frame Initialization Packet
TCA Terrain Clearance Angle
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
T-DMB Terrestrial Digital Multimedia Broadcast
14
ABBREVIATIONS
TFS Time Frequency Slicing

t-LNM trilinear Log-Normal Method
TM-T2 Technical Module on Next Generation DVB-T
TPS Transmission Parameters Signaling
TR Tone Reservation
TS Transport Stream
TTL Transistor-Transistor logic
TU6 Typical Urban reception with 6 paths
TV Television
TVP Telewizja Polska S. A.
UHF Ultra High Frequency, 470862 MHz
UKE Urzad Komunikacji Elektronicznej
VDSL Very-high-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line
VHF Very High Frequency, 174230 MHz
VSB Vestigial Sideband Modulation
WCP-OFDM Weighted Cyclic Prex
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing
XML Extensible Markup Language
ZIF Zero Intermediate Frequency
15
Designations
1TR Vector with all entries equal to 0

except for some ones put under the indexes
where the reserved tones are located
5.1 5 standard + 1 LFE channel surround sound
A0 Additional protection ratio
ai Protection ratio against signal from i-th transmitter
Ai i-th interferer protection ratio
B Bandwidth
B3 dB 3 dB lter bandwidth
bi Receiving antenna discrimination
for the proper angle of arrival
c Speed of light in vacuum
C 48 GHz band satellite channel
C/ I Carrier to interferer ratio
C/ N Carrier to noise ratio
d Propagation path length
n Kronecker delta
Duration of OFDM guard intervals
fn Doppler shift of n-th wave in Rayleigh channel
f Frequency oset
t sampling temporal oset
Ei Field generated by the i-th transmitter
Emin Minimum required eld strength
Eu Resultant usable elds strength
f Frequency
f0 Resonant frequency
fc Carrier frequency
fd Doppler frequency shift
fD Maximum Doppler frequency shift
fIF Intermediate frequency
fim Image channel frequency
fLO Frequency of local oscillator
Fs Sampling rate in the frequency domain
G Power gain
h Plancks constant
H Screen height
H Parity check matrix
h1s Transmitter antenna height above sea level
h2s Receiver antenna height above sea level
he Eective antenna height above sea level
17
DESIGNATIONS
I Cumulated signal of all interferers

I/ C Interferer to carrier ratio
Ii i-th interferer
Ii + Ai Nuisance eld
ik k-th bit in a 360-bit group
{z} Imaginary part of complex number z
j Imaginary unit
k Boltzmanns constant
Ka 26.540 GHz band satellite channel
Kmax Maximum boundary sub-carrier of DVB-T signals
Kmin Minimum boundary sub-carrier of DVB-T signals
Ku 1218 GHz band satellite channel
mod m Modulo m operation
Mean (expected) value
NFFT Number of sub-carriers
NLDPC LDPC code wordlength
NTR Number of reserved tones
(t) Complex-valued baseband signal
0 Resonant frequency (pulsation)
IF Intermediate frequency (pulsation)
LO Local oscillator frequency (pulsation)
u Frequency (pulsation) of desired signal
p Matched kernel vector
P Total power in bandwidth B
pi Parity bit
P(f ) Power density of the thermal noise
as a function of frequency
Px Power of additional noise source
0 Phase oset
Q Quality of a resonant circuit
R Code rate
S(f ) Normalized power spectrum of the received signal
Standard deviation
s(t) Physical (real-valued) transmitted signal
System A ATSC
System B DVB
{z} Real part of complex number z
t Continuous time
T Temperature in Kelvins
Td Symbol temporal oset
r TCA reference angle
Ts overall OFDM symbol duration time
TU Duration of useful parts of OFDM symbols
u Field strength variable
u mean value of variable u
v Speed of electromagnetic wave
18
DESIGNATIONS
W Screen width
W: H Screen aspect ratio
wi Useful signal versus interference weight
x datum, signal value
x[n] digital signal
x(t) signal in time domain
X Random variable
Xk k-th imaginary DFT component
z Complex number
19
Abstract
A subject of this thesis in analysis of the second generation European

Digital Video Broadcasting Terrestrial system (i.e., DVB-T2) published
in 2009 by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)
under the number EN 302 755. This new system is a successor of the
elder DVB-T system, which is also considered in this thesis, including its
implementation in Poland.
Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) is still the most important platform
for delivering television to households, despite the increasing importance
of non-linear and on-demand media consuming models and the already
observed, related to this trend, some fall of the need for traditionally orga-
nized broadcasting, i.e., the linearly transmitted programs. In result, DTT
remains continuously important to television broadcasters as a platform
that conserves traditional market division into big players.
DTT is also important to viewers, nowadays, mainly thanks to many
popular high quality live or near-live transmissions as well as due to rich
and interesting lm content in the high denition (HD) video standard.
With the matter of DTT transmission, the receiver design is a closely
related problem. However, most set-top box (STB) and television (TV)
set manufacturers do not pay too much attention to the proper design of
the radio frequency (RF) front-ends they mount on-board. It is thus an
important issue to investigate how the DVB-T and DVB-T2 RF front-ends
should be built properly in order to achieve robustness against various
eects, e.g. signal fading and multipath propagation, and in order to
achieve universal receivers capable to cope with dierent standards even
with a transparent, i.e., plug and play manner. This is just one of the
main subjects of this thesis.
Although a careful analysis and evaluation of the DVB-T2 receiver ar-
chitectures is the central problem, the author, who is an emission engineer
working for a television company, namely for the Polish National Televi-
sion (Telewizja Polska S. A.), decided to enlarge the scope of this thesis
and include analyzes of the process of the television digitization (especially
in Poland) and its impact on decisions about the broadcast modernization
in future, taking the impact of the respective decisions on appropriate or-
ganization of the whole system and on architectures the respective DVB-T
and DVB-T2 receivers.
A scientic aim of this thesis is the analysis of the process of the dig-
itization of the terrestrial television and estimation of future trends of
replacement of the contemporary DVB-T system by the second generation
DVB-T2 standard taking evaluation and proper choice of new receiver
architectures into account.
The aim of this work is also to investigate various architectures of
DTT receivers that may be adopted to the new DVB-T2 standard and to
indicate the most convenient architectures for the DVB-T and DVB-T2
21
ABSTRACT
xed reception.
The receiver is understood in this work mainly as the radio frequency
(RF) front-end, which consists of the tuner and the demodulator. Various
tuner and demodulator architectures were investigated. Adequate archi-
tectures for the DVB-T2 xed reception scenario were indicated.
A precise analysis of the process of television digitization in Poland (es-
pecially taking into account the experiments and measurements prepared
by the Author of this thesis and eorts and achievements of the Polish
National Television Company) together with the estimation of the future
trends in this process is an additional, practical, and technical aim of the
carried research.
22
Subject, scope, aims, and scientic
1
thesis
1.1 Introduction
In January 1992 the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), which
is a special agency of the United Nations, responsible for developing in-
ternational standards on wired and wireless communications (typically
referred to as agreements), formed a special task group (named Task
Group 11/3) to develop recommendations for advanced terrestrial television
broadcasting services [1]. The eorts were directed towards a completely
new family of digital standards named Digital Terrestrial Television Broad-
casting (DTTB) [2]. After four years of intensive works at the meeting
held in Sydney, Australia in November 1996, the complete recommenda-
tion was announced. The proposed DTTB system was adapted to both
50 Hz (European) and 60 Hz (American) environments and could be ap-
plied to broadcasting within all typical television channels, i.e., those of 6,
7, or 8 MHz bandwidth (Chapter 2). This achievement can be considered
as the beginning of a new era of digital terrestrial (and satellite) television.
In Europe the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and the Europe
concentrated consortium named Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) devel-
oped a digital broadcast transmission standard for the terrestrial television
that was rst published in 1997 [3]. The rst digital terrestrial broadcast
took place in the United Kingdom in 1998. The developed DVB-T system
was not only able to transmit compressed digital video but also digital au-
dio and other data in the MPEG transport stream format (Chapter 3) using
the so-called coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (COFDM
known also as OFDM) modulation (Chapter 4) and single frequency net-
work (SFN) technique (Chapter 5).
In 2009 the second generation of the DVB-T, i.e., DVB-T2 standard
was published by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute
(ETSI) under the number EN 302 755 [4].
Analysis of this standard and comparison to its predecessor DVB-T,
23
CHAPTER 1. SUBJECT, SCOPE, AIMS, AND SCIENTIFIC THESIS
taking special attention to the impact on the receiver architectures together

with considerations about the choice of the most preferable architecture, is
just the subject of this thesis.
Among new DVB-T2 features over and above the DVB-T are:
higher modulation orders
application of low density parity check codes (LDPC) [5] and Bose-
Chaudhuri (BCH) cyclic error-correcting codes [6] for channel coding
instead of convolution and Reed-Solomon codes [7]
higher number of transmission variants, i.e, more exible choice of

protection intervals and carriers
a possibility for immediate use of multiple radio channels for a single

transmission
modulation constellation rotation option
a possibility for modication of emission parameters during emission
a possibility of arbitrary multimedia data streams transmission in-

stead of MPEG-2 transport streams only
sending from two antennas using the Alamouti scheme [8, 9]
reduction of peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR).
For all these reasons the new DVB-T2 standard should in future replace
the elder, less ecient, and less convenient DVB-T standard.
1.2 Subject, scope, and signicance of the work

Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT), despite the increasing importance of
non-linear and on-demand media consuming model and related fall of the
need for traditionally organized linear programs, still remains the most
important platform for delivering television to households.
It also remains important to television broadcasters as a platform that
conserves traditional market division into big players. DTT is also impor-
tant for viewers, nowadays, mainly thanks to high quality live or near-live
transmissions as well as popular lm content in high denition (HD).
With the matter of DTT transmission, the receiver design is closely
related. Most set-top box (STB) and television (TV) set manufacturers do
not pay too much attention to the design of RF front-ends they mount on-
board. Indeed, many popular front-ends are substantially simplied and
usually do not take advantage of the state of the art in the standardization
and technology.
It is important to know, how to build the receiver front-ends prop-
erly in order to achieve robustness against various eects, e.g. multipath
24
1.3. AIMS AND SCIENTIFIC THESIS
propagation and signal fading. It frequently happens that signal power

indicator says it is enough power in the air, however reception is hardly
possible due to low signal quality [10].
That is why the careful analysis and evaluation of the DVB-T and
DVB-T2 receiver architectures is the main subject of this thesis. However,
during the research works, the Author, who is an emission engineer in
a television company, namely in the Polish National Television (Telewizja
Polska S. A.), decided to enlarge the scope of this thesis and include an-
alyzes of the process of the television digitization (especially in Poland),
including his own experiments and measurements and the impact on fore-
seeable decisions about the broadcast modernization in future, taking the
impact of the respective decisions on the appropriate system structure and
organization and on the architectures of the DVB-T and DVB-T2 receivers
[11, 12, 13, 14].
1.3 Aims and scientic thesis

A scientic aim of this thesis is the analysis of the process and estimation
of future trends of the replacement of the DVB-T (Digital Video Broadcasting
Terrestrial) system by the second generation DVB-T2 (Digital Video Broad-
casting Terrestrial 2nd generation) standard taking evaluation and proper
choice of new receiver architectures into account.
The aim of this work is also to investigate various architectures of DTT
(Digital Terrestrial Television) receivers that may be adopted to the new
DVB-T2 standard and to indicate the most convenient architectures for
the DVB-T and DVB-T2 xed reception.
The receiver in a narrow sense is mainly understood in this work as
the RF (radio frequency) front-end of the whole receiver, which consists of
the tuner and demodulator. Various tuner and demodulator architectures
were investigated. Adequate architectures for the DVB-T2 xed reception
scenario were indicated.
A precise analysis of the television digitization in Poland (especially
taking the Polish National Television Company into account) together with
the estimation of the trends of this process in future is an additional prac-
tical and technical aim of the carried research.
The scientic thesis can be formulated as follows: proper choice of the
receiver architectures of the DVB-T2 receivers together with the choice of
the technical / technological parameters and oered services is crucial for
the success of introduction of the new DVB-T2 standard into practice.
1.4 Text structure

This thesis begins with a description of the history and an analysis of the
future of the digital terrestrial television broadcasting in Chapter 2. Then
25
CHAPTER 1. SUBJECT, SCOPE, AIMS, AND SCIENTIFIC THESIS
the European DVB-T system is presented in detail in Chapter 3. The main

technical and technological DVB-T details, namely the OFDM technology
and the SFN concept are introduced in Chapters 4 and 5, respectively. A
detailed analysis of similarities and dierences between the DVB-T and
DBB-T2 standards is given in Chapter 6. Next Chapter 7 is devoted to the
description and analysis of the respective propagation models. Results of
calculations are also given.
The next and main part of this thesis starts with Chapter 8, which
contains the carefully prepared presentation and analysis of specications
for the receivers. In the Authors opinion, these are the most important
sources of requirements for the receiver front-end designers, as recom-
mendations included in the DVB-T and DVB-T2 standards dene only
the transmitted signal and say nothing about how the receiver shall be
built and what parameters it shall achieve.
It has to be stressed that also propagation calculations take into account
parameters dened in specications in order to assume and determine
such critical constants as the minimum signal level or the required carrier
to noise ratio C/ N. It is worth mentioning that engineers from seemingly
unrelated elds as radio frequency (RF) designers and propagation models
specialists, including the regulatory issues specialists, must rely on the
receiver requirements and actual receiver architectures.
After the previously mentioned important chapter, the leading and most
weighty part comes, namely evaluation of the receiver architectures in
Chapter 9. This is in fact one of the main parts of this thesis, in which var-
ious designs and ideas considered, analyzed, and simulated by the Author,
are described and evaluated.
The last part of this work is Chapter 10 containing presentation of
the Authors experiments and measurements supplemented with the de-
scription of the television digitization process in Poland together with the
forecast of the future trends and their impact on the technological de-
cisions, including receiver architectures and planned services. Thus the
author presents in this Chapter his practical and technical considerations
based on the results of his experiments and measurements.
The text is closed with the conclusions in Chapter 11 summarizing the
Authors achievement and with the list of references including the authors
publications on the subject of this thesis.
26
Digital terrestrial television
2
2.1 DTT concept
It was already mentioned in Chapter 1 that the rst stable standardized
concept of the contemporary digital terrestrial television (DTT or DTTV)
systems was announced in November 1996 during the ITU Task Group
11/3 meeting in Sydney, Australia. The main idea of the new terrestrial
television broadcasting technology was, on one hand, to use conventional
television transmission media including channel denitions (i.e., conven-
tional television antennas on both transmission link sides) but, on the other
hand, to win much more capacity and exibility for the information con-
tent (by means of very ecient data compression and substantially more
ecient use of spectrum), in addition to win better video and audio quality
and many new quite innovative services as e.g. electronic program guide
(EPG) or captions (including special services for hearing and viewing im-
paired people) [15]. Moreover, all these wonderful features were achieved
with lower emission and transmission costs for broadcasters (certainly after
the initial investments for the new technology) [2, 16].
The mentioned better video quality does not only mean larger image
resolution, i.e., high denition television (HDTV), or lower noise level
even for the conventional standard denition television (SDTV) present in
parallel with HDTV, nor the 16:9 panoramic screen aspect ratio (instead
of the conventional 4:3) the so-called screen aspect ratio is the ratio
of picture width W to height H, expressed as W:H)), but also a quite new
feature of visual spatial reality, namely the three-dimensional (3D) view
option in parallel to the conventional two-dimensional (2D) view.
Historically, the 4:3 (or 12:9) picture aspect ratio of the conventional
television systems was chosen from a collection of many various aspect
ratios used in the lm industry already in the 1930s. There were attempts
to modify it, e.g., the Japanese 5:3 (or 15:9) proposal for a wide screen
HDTV service, but only the 16:9 standard has really become popular.
High popularity of the new 16:9 wide (panoramic) screen aspect ratio
adopted by SMPTE and the ITU began in 1984 as a response to requests
27
CHAPTER 2. DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL TELEVISION
formulated by the lm industry (especially by the Hollywood community)

to adequately standardize the just bearing technology of electronic lm
production. On one hand, over decades of photo-chemical lm history,
the lm industry had become accustomed to use numerous incompatible
picture aspect ratios. On the contrary, the electronic production community
pursued to restrict to a few and preferably to only one properly chosen
aspect ratio. Thus a problem arose what single aspect ratio would be
the best for the needs of the electronic lm producers. In this way the
panoramic 16:9 aspect ratio was chosen.
As a compromise between 4 : 3 12 : 9 and 16:9 aspect ratios their
arithmetic mean equal to 14:9 was proposed in order create compromise
quality pictures using television sets with both 4:3 and 16:9 screen types.
Transmissions with 14:9 aspect ratio were quite popular in Great Britain,
Ireland, France, and Spain.
Better audio quality means broader bandwidth (according to the hu-
man hearing range approximately from 20 Hz up to 20 kHz), larger dy-
namic range, and better spatial reality, i.e., not only stereo sound but also
surround sound due to the possibility of multichannel audio reception.
The worldwide DTT competition resulted in various standards, which
now have been spread all over the world and divided it into disjoint
DTT areas. Nowadays the following DTT systems exist simultaneously in
dierent countries:
European DVB-T standard is used in Europe, Greenland, Russia,

New Zealand, Australia, Colombia, and in some parts of Africa and
Asia [17]
ATSC standard, developed in USA by the Advanced Television Stan-

dards Committee (ATSC), the successor of the National Television
Standards Committee (NTSC), is used in North and Central Amer-
ica (the United States, Canada, Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras) and
South Korea
Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting Terrestrial (ISDB-T) stan-

dard developed in Japan is used in Japan and Brazil
DTMB (Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast), the Chinas own

standard, is used in the Peoples Republic of China, Hong Kong,
Macau, and Cuba; this standard was rst known as DMB-T/H (Digital
Multimedia Broadcast Terrestrial/Handheld).
All DTT standardization activities of the ITU Task Group 11/3 were
based on an assumption that a real, practical success of the new technology
is directly related to inexpensive personal appliances that should merge
many functions. They shell namely not only be the television receivers but
also communication devices and even computers. Such receivers should
have clear, universal, and for many years stable architecture in order to
28
2.2. GENERAL DTT TRANSMISSION SCHEME
guarantee for a particular receiver to cope with many standards (possibly

with all existing ones and also with future DTT standards). Therefore
the Task Group 11/3 recommended to design and apply standard receiver
(decoder) architectures, which would make it possible to operate with
entire set of services dened in the ITU-R recommendation BS.1196 [18].
By this means the important request for low cost and universal consumer
appliances for all DTTB systems was fully met [19].
As already mentioned above, the main concept of the DTT transmission
is to apply the same radio frequencies (in both UHF or VHF ranges) and
exactly the same terrestrial channel denitions as those used before for the
analog television transmission but to exploit them much more eciently.
The respective technology, referred to as the TV program multiplexing,
consists in the transmission of multiple television programs (sub-channels)
in a single standard TV channel. The number of sub-channels that can be
multiplexed in a single channel depends on the channel capacity (i.e., on
the amount of digital data that can be transmitted in such channel) as well
as on the technology used for the sub-channel data compression.
Thus the channel capacity is dened, rst, by the digital data modu-
lation scheme and, second, by the radio signal modulation scheme. The
European DVB-T channels have capacity of 24 Mbit/ s. Data are sent us-
ing either 16 or 64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and
the radio signals are formed according the modulation method called the
Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM).
2.2 General DTT transmission scheme

A general DTT transmission scheme is shown in Fig. 2.1. It contains the
following four subsystems:
Source coding and compression
Service multiplexing and transport
Physical layer containing the channel coding and the modulation

scheme
Planning factors, which include transmission and receiver environ-

ments together with implementation strategies [20].
The source coding and compression subsystem refers to the data com-
pression and coding mechanisms designed to reduce large streams of data
created when particular images (frames) are represented in a natural way,
i.e., by individually quantized picture elements: pels (subpixels) and pixels
and when sound is represented by a stream of individually digitized sam-
ples. Source coding should also include error protection (detection and
correction) techniques that are appropriate for application to video, au-
dio, and ancillary digital data. Ancillary data are: system control data,
29
Figure 2.1: General DTT transmission scheme
conditional access control data, and data associated with additional pro-
gram services such as captions. Ancillary data can also be associated with
entirely new, innovative program services as e.g. the electronic program
guide (EPG).
The proper compression techniques of video, audio, and ancillary data
should be ecient, i.e., on one hand, should minimize the number of
bits needed to represent the relevant information but, on the other hand,
should be able to precisely recreate the multimedia information. Thus
they can or even should be lossy (especially for video) but transparent for
human perception in a sense that the perceived video and audio quality
degradation is either completely not noticeable by humans or is at least
fully acceptable.
The service multiplexing and transport subsystem rst divides streams
of individual sub-channels (television programs) and additional services
into information packets containing unique identiers of each packet and
packet type, then it merges (multiplexes) these video, audio, and ancillary
data stream packets into a single program (sub-channel) data stream and
nally combines particular program data streams into a single broadcast
channel stream for simultaneous emission. Multiplexing also provides the
transport mechanism, which is appropriate for the interoperability between
digital media such as the terrestrial or satellite broadcasting and the ca-
ble distribution, including interfaces with the receivers, computers, and
recording devices [21].
The physical layer module contains channel coding and modulation
schemes. The channel coding consists in adding supplementary bits to the
compressed data in order to detect and correct transmission errors. The
coding mechanisms have to be adjusted to the modulation scheme, which
is in turn adopted to the transmission medium. The modulation scheme
converts the error protected data stream into a modulated signal on one or
more carriers for nal physical transmission. Thus the transmission system
30
2.3. DTT RECOMMENDATIONS
is referred to as the single-carrier or multiple-carrier system, respectively.

Planning factors together with the implementation strategies include
organization of services and the whole broadcasting system (taking the al-
ready existing broadcast services into account) together with considerations
about the appropriate transmission media and receiver features (including
appropriate receiver architectures) in order to maximize the consumer sat-
isfaction and to reduce the consumer costs.
2.3 DTT Recommendations

The DTT recommendations published by the Task Group 11/3 were divided
into two subsets according to two standards, namely to: System A (ATSC)
for the use with 60 Hz environment and 6 MHz channels and System B
(DVB) for the use with 50 Hz environment and 7 or 8 MHz channels.
The necessary dierences between these two subsets were minimized with
respect to the video and audio coding and transport mechanisms and
harmonized in such a way that unied, low cost receivers with the same
architecture can operate in a plug and play manner and decode signals
from both systems.
2.3.1 Video coding

For broadcasting with both HDTV and SDTV qualities the MPEG-2 trans-
port stream is used [22, 23]. Although the video source coding is based on
the MPEG-2 standard, MPEG-4 coding mechanisms are possible. This op-
tion has been chosen in Poland. The applicable coding variants are highly
reduced as compared to the full standards. For instance, the originally ex-
pected spatial and temporal video scaling has nally been dropped out as
in the result of careful investigations and experiments performed by EBU
it occurred that this functionality is too complex with respect to the neces-
sary receiver architectures, thus inecient for the terrestrial broadcasting.
However, a number of video coding proles and levels has been included,
despite a relatively high impact on the cost and architecture complexity of
the consumer receivers and the costs of the broadcasting equipment.
The DTTB video subsystem tools are dened in the recommendation
ITU-R BT.1208 [24], which for the content producers makes it possible
to provide programs with both conventional and wide screen aspect ratios
as well as HDTV and SDTV quality formats. Despite this variety of op-
tions, single decoders with a unied architecture, capable of decoding all
options in the above recommendation are possible. According to the Au-
thors investigations and experience inexpensive and universal consumer
appliances are plausible and should be reality in near future.
The main standardized and internationally accepted HDTV format is
the 1080 line system. Other HDTV vertical resolutions, e.g., 1152 lines
/ 50 Hz (in Europe) and 1035 lines / 60 Hz (in Japan) are specic to
31
certain nations or regions. The 720 lines HDTV standard (USA) is usually
considered as too close in performance to the existing progressive scanning
versions of the 625 lines conventional broadcasting standard. Only the
1080 lines standard existing in 50 Hz, 60 Hz, and 24 frame per second
lm compatible versions is seen as providing sucient improvement over
all existing, conventional formats to form the basis for the international
agreement. The same approach can be implemented in the transmission
of multi-program signals or stereoscopic television services over existing
digital satellite or terrestrial links or cable television networks.
2.3.2 Audio coding

Selection of an appropriate audio source coding standard was a dicult and
controversial problem. There were two primarily considered candidates:
the European MUSICAM system and the United States supported Dolby
Digital AC-3 system. MUSICAM is a part of the MPEG-2 specication and
is backwards compatible with MPEG-1. AC-3 was already used in other
motion picture standards, e.g., on DVDs. Thus, both candidate standards
had already been popular and applied with wide acceptance n many media.
In the surround sound tests conducted by EBU to evaluate the per-
formance of these two systems, the AC-3 system was found to be more
ecient the AC-3 operating at 600 kbit/ s occurred to be equivalent in
performance to the MUSICAM system operating at 900 kbit/ s.
Nevertheless, the nal decision was to preserve both standards in the
receiver architecture in a form of appropriate arithmetic units and instruc-
tion sets placed in memory. In result, an appropriate instruction set is to
be selected for the desired level of audio performance: monaural, stereo, or
surround sound. Thus, from the receiver architecture point of view each
decoder can be considered as a series of resources with three resident in-
struction sets (for monaural, stereo, and surround sound). The appropriate
instruction set has to be selected for the desired level of service.
Furthermore, since the resources required to implement both standards
(MUSICAM and AC-3) are very similar, a dual decoder would not require
two separate decoder modules, but can be implemented with the same
architecture and with six resident instruction sets: three for MUSICAM
and three for AC-3. After discussing this architecture with manufacturers
of audio equipment, it was concluded that the additional cost to the con-
sumer purchasing a digital television receiver with a dual decoder would
be less than a 0.25 % increase over the cost of a receiver with a single
system decoder capability only. Thus this eect is negligible and the ITU-
R recommendation BS.1196 includes both MUSICAM and AC-3 standards
[18].
Again an existence of a single decoder architecture, capable of decoding
the entire set of options and tools dened in the mentioned recommenda-
tion is feasible. This fully meets the requirement of the World Broadcasting
32
Union for unique, inexpensive, and universal consumer appliances.

Among various audio transmission possibilities are: one (monaural),
two independent (stereo) sound channels, as well as matrix services, which
may include L, C, R (Left, Center, Right) channel, and the surround sound.
The surround sound options include a single surround channel (S) or a
surround sound pair: Surround Left (SL) and Surround Right (SR). In
addition, a low frequency enhancement (LFE) or a sub woofer channel
capability may be added to any of the matrix services. The LFE channel is
dened as having a limited frequency range (20 Hz to 120 Hz) and allows
the listener to extend the low frequency content of the sound format in
terms of both frequency and level. It essentially duplicates the sub woofer
channel used in digital lm sound formats. Since the LFE channel is
coded at a lower bit rate, it does not constitute an additional rightful sixth
channel but the somehow fractional channel, indicated as .1 channel in
the 5.1 notation.
Therefore a commonly accepted agreement was reached that any new
television service should provide a full range of multi-channel audio op-
tions from a single (monaural) channel to 5.1 channels for each service. In
order to accommodate existing services to this requirement, they are com-
prised of some (from 1 up to 5.1) audio channels, depending on the data
capacity of the multiplexed bit stream. In result, the digital television sys-
tems provide audio compression mechanisms that produce bit streams as
low as 32 kbit/ s for voice / dialog services up to 384 kbit/ s for 5.1 channel
surround sound reproduction.
2.3.3 Transport layer
The so-called transport layer is based on the service multiplex and the
MPEG-2 transport stream. Since the MPEG-2 standard had originally
been developed for video recording and storage applications such as DVD,
it required some minor simplications and additions to allow for its use
in the television broadcast environments.
The respectively modied and constrained subset of the MPEG-2 stan-
dard tool set is dened in the ITU -R recommendation BT.1299 [25]. Due
to the use of the Descriptor Tags, the Table ID assignments, and the assign-
ment of the Packet Identication (in a harmonized way between Systems
A and B) a single device with a unied architecture can be capable of
decoding the entire set of the dened tools. As it was already stressed
an existence of such a single decoder architecture meets the main request
of the World Broadcasting Union for denition of globally harmonized
broadcasting systems leading to single universal plug and play appli-
ances for the use by consumers without any need to consider the specic
situation.
33
2.3.4 Physical layer

Recommendations concerning the DTTB physical layer (channel coding
and modulation scheme) are dened in the ITU-R recommendation BT.1305
[26] and take into consideration the existing 6, 7, and 8 MHz allocation of
channel assignments and the need to accommodate diering environments
and planning factors.
The major obstacle to agree on a unique worldwide standard for the
unied modulation system is the lack of uniformity in the use of the
broadcast spectrum throughout the world. Countries that had adopted the
NTSC system developed spectrum plans employing 6 MHz wide channels.
Countries that had adopted the PAL and SECAM systems developed spec-
trum plans with channel bandwidths that range from 6 MHz to 8 MHz (in
Poland 8 MHz channels are used only). Therefore, the nally standardized
systems and the available bit capacity vary geographically.
Some countries: United States, Canada, and Australia developed na-
tional broadcasting systems that are focused on local broadcasting. In
these environments, one or more national broadcasters produce and dis-
tribute programs nationally to local service providers, but allow for local
insertion of commercials and locally generated programming such as news
throughout the broadcast day.
Other countries developed their national broadcasting systems that are
truly national in their content. In these environments, one or more national
broadcasters produce and distribute programs that are distributed nation-
ally without any local modication. The local broadcaster is simply a
re-transmission tower.
Such national broadcasters are interested in the ecient use of the spec-
trum in the national basis. Therefore a new technique named SFN was
introduced that allows for the use the single frequency network (SFN)
throughout the whole country. SFN is insensitive to reections and de-
ployment of receivers that respond to the strongest SFN signal in the local
environment.
Thus, it was impossible to agree on a single approach to the transmis-
sion standard and two dierent approaches were documented:
Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM) in Eu-

rope (Fig. 2.2)
8-level vestigial sideband modulation (8-VSB) in the United States

(Fig. 2.3).
COFDM modulation is less susceptible to interference and is capable

to accommodate national single frequency networks. Thus, as already
mentioned above, it is used in Europe. On the contrary 8-VSB is slightly
more bit ecient (carried more bits per MHz) and was designed for use
with 6 MHz bandwidth. Thus 8-VSB modulation was adopted for use in
the North American System A (ATSC), where SFN concept is irrelevant.
34
Figure 2.2: COFDM modulation concept
Figure 2.3: 8-VSB modulation concept
35
Although a set of COFDM parameters was also proposed for use in

System A by a group of broadcasters including ABC and NBC in the United
States and the CBC in Canada, the FCC Advisory Committee deemed the
proposal as coming too late in the testing schedule, and the system was
never accepted for testing.
2.3.5 Unied receiver architecture

The Task Group 11/3 paid particular attention to constructing a digital re-
ceiver architecture that could accommodate both HDTV and SDTV services
in the terrestrial broadcasting environment and that could also be inter-
operable with cable delivery, satellite broadcasting, and recording media.
The approach taken provides harmonization between services by using a
unied, common method of video and audio source coding and a unied,
common service multiplex and transport techniques. As noted above, two
dierent subsets of this unied set are dened; System A (ATSC) and Sys-
tem B (DVB). The two subsets are compatible and single decoders can be
provided that can extract either subset from the data stream. This unied
transport data stream is then provided with a framing structure, error pro-
tection mechanism, and modulation scheme appropriate to the distribution
media. The common transport is seen as a container and facilitates the
interoperability of the signal through dierent delivery media. This results
in a common data stream after demodulation in the receiver, which sim-
plies the receiver architecture. Thus reduces complexity and costs of the
consumer receiver appliances.
36
European DVB-T system
3
3.1 DVB history and future trends
As it was already mentioned Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) is a suite
of internationally accepted but Europe oriented open standards for digital
television. These standards are maintained by the DVB project, an interna-
tional industry consortium with more than 270 members. The standards
are published by the Joint Technical Committee (JTC) of the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), European Committee for
Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), and European Broadcasting
Union (EBU). The interaction of the DVB sub-standards is described in
the DVB Cookbook [27]. Many aspects of DVB are patented, including
elements of the MPEG video coding and audio coding.
DVB-T is an abbreviation for Digital Video Broadcasting Terres-
trial. It is the DVB European-based consortium for standardization of
the broadcast transmission of digital terrestrial television. It was rst pub-
lished in 1997 [3].
This system transmits compressed digital video, digital audio, and other
data in the MPEG-2 transport stream, using coded orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing (COFDM or OFDM for short) modulation scheme
and the single frequency network (SFN) [28, 29].
The DVB-T standard is published as specication EN 300 744 (Framing
structure, channel coding, and modulation for digital terrestrial television)
[3]. This is available from the ETSI website as ETSI TS 101 154 specica-
tion [30] for the use of video and audio coding in broadcasting applications
based on the MPEG-2 transport stream. Many countries that have adopted
DVB-T system have published standards for their implementation. These
include the D-book in Great Britain [31], the DGTVi in Italy [32], the ETSI
E-Book [33], and the Scandinavian NorDig [34, 35, 36].
DVB-T has been adopted for digital television broadcasting by many
countries, using mainly VHF 7 MHz and UHF 8 MHz channels whereas
Taiwan, Colombia, Panama, Trinidad, Tobago, and Philippines use 6 MHz
channels.
37
CHAPTER 3. EUROPEAN DVB-T SYSTEM
DVB-T has been further developed into such standards as DVB-S,

DVB-C, and DVB-H (handheld). The latter was a commercial failure and
now is practically no longer oered.
DVB-S and DVB-C were ratied in 1994. DVB-T was ratied in early
1997. The rst commercial DVB-T broadcasts were performed by the
United Kingdoms Digital TV Group in late 1998. In 2003 Berlin, Ger-
many was the rst area, in which analog TV broadcasting was completely
stopped. Most European countries are fully covered by digital television
and many have switched o PAL / SECAM services.
In result the DVB is used in Europe, as well as in Australia, South
Africa, and India. This is also true for cable and satellite transmission in
most Asian, African, and many South American countries. However, many
of these countries have not yet selected the format for the digital terrestrial
broadcast (DTTB). Some countries including the United States, Canada,
Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, South Korea have already chosen ATSC
instead of DVB-T. In Japan and Brazil ISDB-T system is used. China,
Hong Kong, Macau, and Cuba use DTMB system.
In March 2006 the decision was made by the DVB group to study a
concept of a new DVB-T standard. In June 2006 a formal study group
named TM-T2 (Technical Module on Next Generation DVB-T) was estab-
lished and the works in order to develop the new generation of the digital
terrestrial television, namely the DVB-T2, were started.
According to the commercial requirements for a low cost end user
equipment (receivers with unied, optimized, and universal architectures),
the call for respective technologies was issued in April 2007.
The rst phase of the DVB-T2 works was devoted to provide the op-
timum reception for stationary (xed) receivers (i.e., those, which in prin-
ciple can move but slowly, i.e., rather with a walking person speed than
with a speed of a moving car). The next phases delivered methods for
higher payloads (with new aerials) and the mobile reception issues. An
assumption was made that the novel system should provide a minimum
30 % increase in payload under similar channel conditions already used
for the DVB-T. Thus, the DVB-T2 standard gives more robust TV recep-
tion and increases the possible bit rate by over 30 % for single transmitters
(as in the UK) and should increase the maximum bit rate by over 50 % in
large single-frequency networks (as in Germany and Sweden).
The DVB-T2 draft standard was ratied by the DVB Steering Board
on June 26, 2008 and published on the DVB homepage as the DVB-T2
standard BlueBooks [37, 38]. The DVB-T2 specication was approved by
the DVB Steering Board and sent to ETSI for adoption as a formal stan-
dard. ETSI adopted the standard on September 9, 2009. It was handed
over to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) on
June 20, 2008. The ETSI adopted the DVB-T2 standard on September 9,
2009.
NorDig published a DVB-T2 receiver specication and performance
38
3.1. DVB HISTORY AND FUTURE TRENDS
requirement on the July 2009 [36]. In March 2009 the Digital TV Group
(DTG), the industry association for digital TV in Great Britain, published
the technical specication for high denition services on digital terrestrial
television (Freeview) using the new DVB-T2 standard in D-book, 6th
edition [31].
The DVB-T2 standard was nalized in August 2011. This system also
transmits compressed digital video, audio, and other data in but in so-
called physical layer pipes (PLPs), also using OFDM modulation with
concatenated channel coding and interleaving. The higher oered bit rate,
with respect to its predecessor DVB-T, makes it a suited system for carry-
ing HDTV signals on the terrestrial TV channel (though many broadcasters
including Poland still use elder DVB-T for this purpose) [39]. PLPs are
very convenient for broadcasters, who want to form a joint signal in a
shared frequency band, as by this means it is possible to organize a num-
ber of individual statistical groups within one DVB-T2 signal.
The rst DVB-T2 test modulator was developed by the BBC Research
and Innovation Center using 8 MHz Channel. BBC had developed and
built the modulator / demodulator prototype in parallel with the DVB-T2
standard being drafted. The rst test from a real TV transmitter was per-
formed by the BBC Research Innovation in the last weeks of June 2008
using channel 53 from the Guildford transmitter (southwest of London).
The BBC, ITV, Channel 4, and Channel 5 decided to convert one of
the UK multiplexes (namely B or PSB3) to DVB-T2 to increase capacity
for HDTV. The rst TV region to use the new standard was Granada in
November 2009. The expectations are that over time there will be enough
DVB-T2 receivers among the end users to switch all DTT transmissions
to DVB-T2 (thus to H.264 although with the MPEG-2 transport stream).
Up to this time both systems will be used in parallel.
DVB-T2 was also tested in October 2010 in Geneva region using the
UHF band and Channel 36. A mobile van was testing BER, strength,and
quality reception, with special PCs used as spectrum analyzers and con-
stellation testers. This van was moving in Canton Geneva (Switzerland),
and France (Annemasse, Pays de Gex). Many test broadcast transmissions
using DVB-T2 standard are being in process in France near Rennes.
Prototype receivers were shown in September 2008 and more recent
version at the IBC 2009 in Amsterdam. A number of other manufacturers
demonstrated DVB-T2 at IBC 2009 including Albis Technologies, Arqiva,
DekTec, Enensys Technologies, Harris, Pace, Rohde&Schwarz, Tandberg,
Thomson Broadcast and TeamCast. Since 2012 Appear TV also produce
DVB-T2 receivers, DVB-T2 modulators and DVB-T2 gateways. Other
manufacturers that plan DVB-T2 equipment production are Alitronika,
CellMetric, Cisco, Digital TV Labs, Humax, NXP Semiconductors, Pana-
sonic, ProTelevision Technologies, Screen Service, SIDSA, Sony, ST Micro-
electronics, and T-VIPS. Other companies like ENKOM or IfN develop
software (processor) based decoding [40].
39
Lately, the DVB has established a 3D TV group (CM-3DTV) to identify

what kind of 3D-TV solution does the market want and need, and how can
DVB play an active role in the creation of such solution. The CM-3DTV
group held a DVB 3D-TV Kick-o Workshop in Geneva on January 25,
2010, followed by the rst CM-3DTV meeting the next day. Just now the
DVB is working on a denition of a new standard for 3D video broadcast,
namely the DVB 3D-TV.
Besides digital audio and digital video transmission, DVB also denes
data connections (DVB-DATA EN 301 192 specication) with return
channels (DVB-RC) for several media (DECT, GSM, PSTN/ISDN, satellite,
etc.) and protocols (DVB-IPTV: Internet Protocol; DVB-NPI: network
protocol independent) [41].
Elder technologies such as teletext (DVB-TXT) and vertical blanking
interval data (DVB-VBI) are also supported by the standards to ease con-
version. However, for many applications more advanced alternatives like
DVB-SUB for subtitling are available.
3.2 DVB-T basics
DVB-T oers three dierent modulation schemes (QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-

QAM) [42, 43]. Rather than carrying one data carrier on a single radio
frequency (RF) channel, COFDM works by splitting the digital data stream
into a large number of slower digital streams, each of which digitally
modulate a set of closely spaced adjacent sub-carrier frequencies. In the
case of DVB-T, there are two choices for the number of carriers known as
2 K or 8 K modes. These are actually 1705 or 6817 sub-carriers that are
approximately 4 kHz or 1 kHz apart, respectively.
DVB-T as a digital transmission delivers data in a series of discrete
blocks at the symbol rate. DVB-T is a COFDM transmission technique,
which includes the use of the so called guard intervals. They allow the
receiver to cope with strong multipath transmission circumstances. Within
a geographical area, DVB-T also allows single-frequency network (SFN)
operation, where two (in practice many more) transmitters carrying the
same data operate on the same frequency. In such cases the signals from
each transmitter in the SFN need to be accurately time-aligned, which is
done by synchronization of stream timings at each transmitter with the
reference to GPS.
The length of the guard interval can be controlled (i.e. changed and
chosen). It is a trade o between data rate and SFN capability. The longer
the guard interval the larger is the potential SFN area without creating
an intersymbol interference (ISI). It is possible to operate SFNs, which do
not fulll the guard interval condition if the self-interference is properly
planned and monitored.
40
3.3. SOURCE CODING AND MPEG-2 MULTIPLEXING
3.3 Source coding and MPEG-2 multiplexing

The compressed video, compressed audio, and data streams are multi-
plexed into MPEG program streams (PSs). One or more PSs are joined
together into a transport stream (TS). This is the basic digital stream,
which is being transmitted and received at homes by TV sets or so-called
set top boxes (STBs). Allowed bitrates for the transported data depend
on a number of coding and modulation parameters (they can range from
about 5 to about 32 Mbit/ s).
Two dierent MPEG-TSs can be transmitted at the same time, using a
technique called hierarchical transmission. It can, e.g, be used to transmit
an SDTV signal and a HDTV signal on the same carrier. Generally, the
SDTV signal is more robust than the HDTV one. At the receiver, depending
on the quality of the received signal, the STB may be able to decode the
HDTV stream or, if the signal strength lacks, it can switch to the SDTV
one. By this means, all receivers that are in proximity of the transmission
site can lock the HDTV signal, whereas all others, even the farthest ones,
can still be able to receive and decode the SDTV signal.
The MPEG-TS is a sequence of data packets of the xed length of
188 bytes. This sequence is decorrelated by a technique called the energy
dispersal. Then the error correction method is applied to the transmitted
data, using the Reed-Solomon (RS) code. This makes it possible to correct
of up to a maximum of 8 wrong bytes for each 188-byte packet.
Moreover, the convolutional interleaving is used to rearrange the trans-
mitted data sequence, in such a way that it becomes more rugged to long
sequences of errors. Thus a second level of the error correction is given by
a punctured convolutional code, which is often denoted in STBs menus as
the forward error correction (FEC). There are ve valid coding rates: 1/2,
2/3, 3/4, 5/6, and 7/8.
Then, the data sequence is rearranged again, aiming to reduce the
inuence of burst errors. This time, a block interleaving technique is
adopted, with a pseudo-random assignment scheme (this is really done
by two separate interleaving processes, one operating on bits and another
on groups of bits). Next, the resulting digital bit sequence is mapped into
a baseband modulated sequence of complex symbols (in fact represented
with harmonic signals). There are three valid modulation schemes: QPSK,
16-QAM, 64-QAM. In a process named frame adaptation, these complex
symbols are grouped into blocks of constant length (1512, 3024, or 6048
symbols per block). In this way a 68 blocks long frame is generated and
a superframe is built with 4 frames.
Pilot and TPS (Transmission Parameters Signaling) information is added
in order to simplify the reception of the signal being transmitted on the
terrestrial radio channel. Pilot signals are used during the synchronization
and equalization phase, while TPS parameters are transmitted to unequiv-
ocally identify the transmission cell. The receiver must be able to synchro-
41
nize, equalize, and decode the signal to gain access to the information held
by the TPS pilots. Thus, the receiver must know this information before-
hand, and the TPS data is only used in special cases, such as changes in
the parameters, resynchronizations, etc. [44].
3.4 DVB transmission

DVB systems distribute data using a variety of approaches, including:
Satellite: DVB-S, DVB-S2 and DVB-SH [4, 45, 46], DVB-SMATV for
distribution via SMATV [47]
Cable: DVB-C, DVB-C2 [48]
Terrestrial television: DVB-T, DVB-T2 [3, 49, 50]
Digital terrestrial television for handhelds: DVB-H, DVB-SH [4, 45,

51, 52, 53]
Microwave: using DTT (DVB-MT), the MMDS (DVB-MC), and/or

MVDS standards (DVB-MS).
These standards dene the physical layer and data link layer of the
distribution system. Devices interact with the physical layer via a syn-
chronous parallel interface (SPI), synchronous serial interface (SSI), or
asynchronous serial interface (ASI). All data is transmitted in MPEG trans-
port streams with some additional constraints (DVB-MPEG). A standard
for temporally-compressed distribution to mobile devices (DVB-H) was
published in November 2004 [54].
These distribution systems dier mainly in the modulation schemes
used and error correcting codes used, due to the dierent technical con-
straints. DVB-S (SHF) uses QPSK, 8-PSK or 16-QAM. DVB-S2 uses QPSK,
8-PSK, 16-APSK or 32-APSK, at the broadcasters decision. QPSK and
8-PSK are the only versions regularly used. DVB-C (VHF/UHF) uses
QAM: 16-QAM, 32-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM or 256-QAM. Lastly, DVB-
T (VHF/UHF) uses 16-QAM or 64-QAM (or QPSK) in combination with
(C)OFDM and can support hierarchical modulation [55].
A resulting, characteristic at-top DVB-T signal power spectrum is
discussed in Chapter 4 [56].
3.5 Encryption and metadata

The conditional access system (DVB-CA) denes a Common Scrambling
Algorithm (DVB-CSA) and a physical Common Interface (DVB-CI) for
accessing scrambled content. DVB-CA providers develop the conditional
access systems with reference to these specications. Multiple simultaneous
42
3.6. DVB MULTIMEDIA HOME PLATFORM
DVB-CA systems can be assigned to a scrambled DVB program stream

providing operational and commercial exibility for the service provider.
DVB has also developed a Content Protection and Copy Management
(DVB-CPCM) system for protecting content after it has been received. It is
intended to allow exible use of the recorded content at home and beyond,
while preventing unconstrained sharing if using the Internet. DVB-CPCM
has been evaluated as controversial, however, in the technical literature it
is usually considered as the European answer to failures in this matter in
the rashly organized American broadcast.
DVB transport includes metadata called Service Information (DVB-SI),
described in recommendations ETSI TR 101 211, ETSI TS 101 211, and
ETSI EN 300 468 [57, 58], that links various elementary streams into co-
herent programs and provides human-readable descriptions for electronic
program guides as well as for automatic searching and ltering. The dat-
ing system used with this metadata suers from a year 2038 problem,
in which due to the limited 16-bit words and modied Julian day oset
used, will cause an overow issue similar to the year 2000 problem. By
comparison, in the American rival DigiCipher 2 (DCII), based on MPEG-2
transmission in the ATSC system, this problem will not occur until the year
2048 due to the 32-bit format used there.
Recently, the DVB has adopted a prole of the metadata dened by the
TV-Anytime Forum (DVB-TVA, ETSI TS 102 323) [59] to control digital
video recorders (DVRs). This is an XML based technology and the DVB
prole is tailored for enhanced personal digital recorders. DVB lately also
started an activity to develop a service for Internet Protocol Television
(IPTV), i.e., DVB-IPI (ETSI TR 102 033, ETSI TS 102 034, ETSI TS 102
814) [60, 61, 62], which also includes metadata denitions for a Broadband
Content Guide (DVB-BCG), ETSI TS 102 539 [63].
3.6 DVB Multimedia Home Platform

The DVB Multimedia Home Platform (DVB-MHP), which is a Java-based
environment, has been designed to dene and realize many innovative con-
sumer applications. Among them are return channels, developed in order
to create bi-directional communication, which makes the so called interac-
tive television service possible. DVB has standardized a number of return
channels that work together with DVB-S, DVB-T, or DVB-C technologies,
e.g.: Return Channel Satellite (DVB-RCS) in C (48 GHz), Ku (1218 GHz),
and Ka (26.540 GHz) frequency bands with return bandwidth of up to
2 Mbit/ s and Return Channel Terrestrial (DVB-RCT) specied by ETSI EN
301 958 [64].
DVB-MHP realizes also many other DVB and MPEG-2 concepts and
provides interfaces for other features like network card control, application
download, and layered graphics.
43
Orthogonal frequency division
4
multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), or more strictly, the

coded orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (COFDM) due to for-
ward error correction codes, which are typically added to the scheme in
order to protect data [65], is a channel modulation technique applied in
the DVB-T system but also in many other wide-band communication stan-
dards [66, 67].
Figure 4.1: OFDM modulation scheme
Figure 4.2: OFDM demodulation scheme
OFDM is a multi-carrier, or in or in other words, a multi-tone mod-

ulation method. Its principle is illustrated in Fig. 4.1. First, a unique
high rate data stream (or more precisely, a stream of symbols) is divided
(decimated) into multiple, parallel low rate symbol streams. Next, to each
45
CHAPTER 4. ORTHOGONAL FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
of these low rate streams a typical digital modulation technique [10] is ap-
plied (a 64-state or 16-state quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) in
the case of the DVB-T). Next, to each of the QAM constellations of the low
symbol rate streams a unique frequency (the so-called sub-carrier) from
the uniformly distributed baseband sub-carrier frequencies is assigned by
connection to consecutive inputs of the inverse discrete Fourier transfor-
mation (IDFT) block [68, 69]. Finally, the multifrequency digital complex
valued signal occurring at the outputs of the IDFT block is converted to
the analog form in order to modulate the analog sinusoidal carrier signal
of, say, frequency fc , according to the respective television channel used
e.g., for the DVB-T transmission [70].
The corresponding receiver scheme, which is just inverse of the OFDM
transmitter from Fig. 4.1, is shown in Fig. 4.2.
4.1 Mathematical relationships

Let us assign the number of sub-carriers by N. If each sub-carrier is
modulated with a constellation of M symbols, then the OFDM low rate
streams at the IDFT block inputs represent an alphabet of MN symbols.
The hypothetical analog (continuous-time) OFDM sub-carrier signals,
i.e., components (harmonics including the DC component) of the IDFT
block output signal after the AD converter but before the carrier (of fre-
quency fc ) modulation, can be expressed as
ej 2kt/ TU k 0, 1, . . . , N 1 , (4.1)
where TU is the OFDM useful symbol duration. These hypothetical complex-

valued analog sub-carrier signals, spaced in frequency by multiples of
f 1/ TU , are the AD converted versions of the DFT discrete-time com-
ponents and are therefore orthogonal, i.e.
TU
ej 2kt/ TU ej 2lt/ TU dt 0 (4.2)
0
for k l, k, l 0, 1, . . . , N 1 and
T
1 U
ej 2kt/ TU ej 2lt/ TU dt 1 (4.3)
TU 0
for k l, k, l 0, 1, . . . , N 1, i.e.,
T
1 U
ej 2kt/ TU ej 2lt/ TU dt kl (4.4)
TU 0
where k, l 0, 1, . . . , N 1, and kl is the Kronecker delta dened as

0 for n 0
n . (4.5)
1 for n 0
46
4.2. OFDM FEATURES
Figure 4.3: DVB-T and DVB-T2 OFDM symbol structure
The hypothetical analog baseband complex-valued OFDM signal (t)

can then be expressed as

N1
(t) Xk ej 2kt/ TU , 0 t TU . (4.6)
k0
To avoid intersymbol interference in multipath fading channels, a guard

interval of length has to be inserted prior to the just described theoretical
OFDM block [71]. During this interval, a cyclic prex is transmitted such
that the signal in the interval t 0 equals the signal in the interval
TU t TU . The practical OFDM signal with cyclic prex is thus given
by

N1
(t) Xk ej2kt/ TU , t TU (4.7)
k0
The overall symbol duration is thus equal to Ts TU + (Fig. 4.3).

Finally, the complex-valued baseband signal (t) is converted into the
transmitted signal s(t) (Fig. 4.1) with the carrier frequency fc . The physical
(real-valued) transmitted signal s(t) is given by

s(t) (t)ej2fc t

N1

|Xk | cos 2(fc + k/ TU )t + arg Xk . (4.8)
k0
4.2 OFDM features

The most important advantage of the OFDM technique, which makes it
very practical for the DVB application over and above single-carrier mod-
ulation schemes, is insensitivity to narrowband interference and frequency-
selective fading caused by the unavoidable multipath transmission phe-
nomenon. Due to many narrowband and thus slowly modulated OFDM
signal components instead of a single quickly modulated wideband signal
of a single-carrier modulation technique, complex time-domain adaptive
equalization lters are not necessary. Instead of them a simple technique
of cyclic prexes and guard intervals between symbols is sucient to elim-
inate the intersymbol interference [72]. This makes it possible to achieve
a diversity gain, i.e. a large signal-to-noise ratio [73]. This feature makes
47
design and realization of the very spectrum ecient single frequency net-
work (SFN) feasible as several adjacent transmitters producing a large
bunch of slowly modulated narrowband signals with the same frequencies
interfere constructively, rather than destructively as it occurs in the case of
the fast-modulated single-carrier system [74, 75].
Although during the guard intervals redundant data are transmitted
only, which causes reduction of the system capacity, in the OFDM-based
broadcasting systems, such as in the DVB long guard intervals are used
in order to allow the transmitters to be spaced a long way apart in the
SFN. The longer guard intervals the larger the SFN cell-sizes. The maxi-
mum distance between transmitters in the SFN is equal to the distance the
electromagnetic signal travels during the guard interval [76].
Summarizing, the sub-carrier orthogonality allows for high spectral ef-
ciency, with a total symbol rate near to the theoretically maximal Nyquist
rate. Moreover, the OFDM spectrum is nearly white. This feature reduces
the negative electromagnetic co-channel interference.
However, the OFDM requires very accurate frequency synchronization
between the receiver and the transmitter. Otherwise, with some fre-
quency deviation the sub-carriers will no longer be orthogonal, causing
inter-carrier interference (ICI) (i.e., cross-talk between signals among the
sub-carriers). Such a frequency deviation can be caused by mismatched
transmitter and receiver oscillators, or by Doppler shift due to moving
objects. The Doppler shift is typically combined with a multipath trans-
mission phenomenon. Thus, various signal interferences and reections
can appear with various frequency osets, which can be quite dicult to
correct. This limits the use of the OFDM in vehicles moving with high-
speed [77].
4.3 OFDM receiver architecture

On one hand, the described principle of the OFDM scheme is advantageous
for the DVB transmitter and receiver architectures as the IDFT and DFT
blocks are very eciently realized with fast and computationally lossless
(i.e., computationally very precise) IFFT and FFT algorithms. The respec-
tive optimized architectures are based on the reverse addressing technique
and are typical building blocks of many digital signal processors (DSPs).
On the other hand, the Doppler shift together with the multipath
transmission result in the interference (overlapping) of shifted, i.e., non-
orthogonal sub-carriers. A solution can be the scheme referred to as WCP-
OFDM (Weighted Cyclic Prex Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplex-
ing). However, it complicates the receiver architecture, because it consists
in using short FIR lters at the transmitter output in order to get weighted
(non-rectangular) signal windows [78]. Such signal shaping results in a
merely near perfect reconstruction, using a single-tap per sub-carrier equal-
ization. More sophisticated ICI suppression techniques increase drastically
48
4.4. ERROR CORRECTION CODING
the receiver architecture complexity.
4.4 Error correction coding

A classical type of error correction coding used with OFDM-based systems
is convolutional coding, often concatenated with Reed-Solomon coding.
Usually, additional interleaving (on top of the time and frequency inter-
leaving mentioned above) in between the two layers of coding is imple-
mented. The choice for Reed-Solomon coding as the outer error correction
code is based on the observation that the Viterbi decoder used for inner
convolutional decoding produces short errors bursts when there is a high
concentration of errors, and Reed-Solomon codes are inherently well-suited
to correcting bursts of errors.
Newer systems, however, usually adopt near-optimal types of error
correction codes that use the turbo decoding principle, where the decoder
iterates towards the desired solution. Examples of such error correction
coding types include turbo codes and LDPC codes, which perform close to
the Shannon limit for the Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel.
Some systems that have implemented these codes have concatenated them
with either Reed-Solomon (for example on the MediaFLO system) or BCH
codes (on the DVB-S2 system) to improve upon an error oor inherent to
these codes at high signal-to-noise ratios.
4.5 Adaptive OFDM modulation

Due to division the transmission to many sub-carriers, the OFDM tech-
nique is robust against disadvantageous communication conditions. How-
ever, this feature can be further improved using a return (or in other words
a feedback) channel with the so-called adaptive modulation.
This adaptivity consists in the following mechanism. In dicult chan-
nel conditions, the relevant information is transmitted back over a return-
channel. It causes appropriate changes in the channel coding and power
allocation across all sub-carriers or to individually chosen sub-carriers.
If in particular instants particular ranges of frequencies suer from in-
terferences or large attenuation, the sub-carriers within these ranges can
be disabled or be slower or even more robustly modulated by means of
additional error correcting coding.
For example, the so-called bitrate adaptive DSLs (ADSLs and VDSLs)
are based on the real time bitrate control in such a way that larger band-
width is dynamically allocated to those subscribers, who momentary need
it most. This is achieved by means of the so-called discrete multitone
modulation (DMT), i.e., the adaptive OFDM, which individually controls
each sub-carrier according to the channel conditions and reacts with the
respective bit loading technique. Thus, the upstream and the downstream
49
speeds can be continuously varied according to the needs by allocating

either more or fewer carriers for each of these streams.
4.6 OFDM based wide area broadcasting

Due to the structure of the OFDM symbols (Fig. 4.3) it is possible to realize
DTTB by covering a large area (even an area of a whole country) with
many spatially dispersed transmitters sending simultaneously the same
but suitably delayed signal. This is the so-called single frequency network
(SFN), which is benecial with respect to conventional multi-frequency
broadcast network (MFN) as it:
rst, utilizes the available spectrum much more eectively
and, second, the fading probability is much less in comparison to that

obtainable with the MFN.
The SFN technology is described in detail in Chapter 5.
4.7 Multiple access OFDM

OFDM is typically considered as a single channel modulation scheme for
transmission of one bit stream over a communication (television) channel
with a sequence of OFDM symbols shown in Fig. 4.3. However, it can be
extended to to a multi-user technology by combining it with some time,
frequency, or even code division multiple access techniques.
The frequency division multiple access (FDMA) can be realized by
assigning dierent OFDM sub-channels to dierent users. This is the so-
called orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA). OFDMA
supports dierentiated quality of service by assigning dierent number of
sub-carriers to dierent users in a similar way as in CDMA (code division
multiple access). Thus sophisticated packet scheduling or media access
control (MAC) algorithms can be avoided.
In the technique called OFDM-CDMA or MC-CDMA (multi-carrier code
division multiple access) OFDM is combined with CDMA and the spread
spectrum transmission schemes in order to separate dierent users. By
this means, complex dynamic channel allocation (DCA) algorithms are not
necessary. Moreover, the neighbor channel interference can be reduced
with the optimally chosen xed channel allocation (FCA) technique.
50
Single frequency network
5
technology
5.1 SFN principle

A single-frequency network or SFN is a broadcast network where several
transmitters simultaneously send the same signal over the same frequency
channel [79, 80].
Analog AM and FM radio broadcast networks as well as digital broad-
cast networks can operate in this manner. SFNs are not generally compat-
ible with analog television transmission, since the SFN results in ghosting
due to echoes of the same signal [81].
A simplied form of SFN can be achieved by a low power co-channel
repeater, booster or broadcast translator, which is utilized as gap ller
transmitter [82, 83, 84].
The aim of SFNs is ecient utilization of the radio spectrum, allowing
a higher number of radio and TV programs in comparison to traditional
multi-frequency network (MFN) transmission. An SFN may also increase
the coverage area and decrease the outage probability in comparison to
an MFN, since the total received signal strength may increase to positions
midway between the transmitters [85, 86].
SFN schemes are somewhat analogous to what in non-broadcast wire-
less communication, for example cellular networks and wireless computer
networks, is called transmitter macrodiversity, CDMA soft hando and
Dynamic Single Frequency Networks (DSFN) [87].
SFN transmission can be considered as a severe form of multipath
propagation. The radio receiver receives several echoes of the same sig-
nal, and the constructive or destructive interference among these echoes
(also known as self-interference) may result in fading. This is problematic
especially in wideband communication and high-data rate digital commu-
nications, since the fading in that case is frequency-selective (as opposed
to at fading), and since the time spreading of the echoes may result in
intersymbol interference (ISI) [88]. Fading and ISI can be avoided by
51
CHAPTER 5. SINGLE FREQUENCY NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
means of diversity schemes and equalization lters [89].
5.2 Wideband digital broadcasting

In wideband digital broadcasting, self-interference cancellation is facilitated
by the OFDM or COFDM modulation method. OFDM uses a large number
of slow low-bandwidth modulators instead of one fast wide-band modu-
lator. Each modulator has its own frequency sub-channel and sub-carrier
frequency. Since each modulator is very slow, we can aord to insert a
guard interval between the symbols, and thus eliminate the ISI [90]. Al-
though the fading is frequency-selective over the whole frequency channel,
it can be considered as at within the narrowband sub-channel. Thus, ad-
vanced equalization lters can be avoided [91]. A forward error correction
code (FEC) can counteract that a certain portion of the sub-carriers are
exposed to too much fading to be correctly demodulated [92, 93].
OFDM is utilized in the terrestrial digital TV broadcasting systems
DVB-T and DVB-T2 (used in Europe and many other areas) as well as
ISDB-T (used in Japan and Brazil). OFDM is also widely used in digital
radio systems, including DAB, HD Radio, and T-DMB. Therefore these
systems are well-suited to SFN operation [94].
In DVB-T a SFN functionality is described as a system in the imple-
mentation guide. It allows for re-transmitters, gap-ller transmitters (es-
sentially a low-power synchronous transmitter) and use of SFN between
main transmitter towers [95].
The DVB-T SFN uses the fact that the guard interval of the COFDM
signal allows for various length of path echoes to occur is not dierent
from that of multiple transmitters transmitting the same signal onto the
same frequency. The critical parameters is that it needs to occur about in
the same time and at the same frequency. The versatility of time-transfer
systems such as GPS receivers (here assumed to provide PPS and 10 MHz
signals) as well as other similar systems allows for phase and frequency
coordination among the transmitters [96]. The guard interval allows for
a timing budget, of which several microseconds may be allocated to time
errors of the time-transfer system used. A GPS receiver worst case scenario
is able to provide 1 s time, well within the system needs of DVB-T SFN
in typical conguration [97, 98].
In order to achieve the same transmission time on all transmitters, the
transmission delay in the network providing the transport to the trans-
mitters needs to be considered. Since the delay from the originating site
to the transmitter varies, a system is needed to add delay on the output
side such that the signal reaches the transmitters at the same time. This is
achieved by the use of a special information inserted into the data stream
called the Mega-frame Initialization Packet (MIP) which is inserted using
a special marker in the MPEG-2 Transport Stream forming a mega-frame
[90]. The structure of DVB-T frames, super-frames and mega-frames is
52
5.2. WIDEBAND DIGITAL BROADCASTING
Figure 5.1: Structure of DVB-T frames, super-frames and mega-frames
shown in Fig. 5.1. The MIP is time-stamped in the SFN adapter, as mea-
sured relative the PPS signal and counted in 100 ns steps (period time of
10 MHz) with the maximum delay (programmed into the SFN adapter)
alongside. The SFN adapter measures the MIP packet against its local
variant of PPS using the 10 MHz to measure the actual network delay and
then withholding the packets until the maximum delay is achieved [99].
In DVB-T MIP packets consist of 4 bytes of header and 184 bytes of
the useful part. Each mega-frame has one MIP. The PID value of MIP
in the transmitted Transport Stream equals 0x15 (decimal 21). The useful
part of MIP consists of elds. The most important elds in MIP are:
pointer, length: 16 bits, denes the number packets between MIP

and the rst packet of the next megaframe, it helps to precisely locate
MIPs in the stream
maximum_delay, length: 24 bits, multiples of 100 ns, denes maximum

time in SFN between the beginning of the megaframe in the SFN
controller (in the head-end) and the beginning of the megaframe in
the SFN adapter (at transmitter site); this value is set up manually
by the administrator of the broadcasting network, the default value
is around 900 ms and in most cases is sucient, i.e. usually the
maximum delay in the whole network is much lower
synchronization_time_stamp, length: 24 bits, multiples of 100 ns, for

mth MIP packet it species the time between the last 1PPS pulse and
53
Figure 5.2: 1PPS signal
the beginning (the rst bit) of the mth + 1 MIP.

Besides synchronization purposes, MIPs may be also used for trans-
mitter conguration, e.g. one may change modulation variant, obviously if
this option of remote conguration is enabled in the transmitter.
A typical GPS receiver produces at its output the following signals:
sinusoid of frequency 10 MHz (100 ns period) and RMS 0.5 V
1PPS (Pulse Per Second)
The 1PPS (Pulse Per Second) signal is shown in Fig. 5.2. In a standard
GPS receiver the PPS signal has the following characteristics:
signal level: TTL
slew time: 10 ns
pulse width: 5 ms
accuracy: 100 ns, understood as accuracy of the rising edge instant
synchronization to the beginning of the UTC second
It should be understood that the resolution of the mega-frame format
is being in steps of 100 ns, whereas the real accuracy needs can be in the
range of 15 s. The resolution is sucient for the needed accuracy. There
is no strict need for an accuracy limit as this is a network planning aspect,
in which the guard-interval is being separated into system time error and
path time-error. A 100 ns step represents a 30 m dierence, while 1 s
represents a 300 m dierence. These distances needs to be compared with
the worst case distance between transmitter towers and reections. Also,
the time accuracy relates to near-by towers in a SFN domain, since a
receiver is not expected to see the signal from transmission towers being
geographically far apart, so there is no accuracy requirements between
these towers.
The so-called GPS-free solutions exists, which essentially replaces GPS
as the timing distribution system. Such system may provide benet in
integration with transmission system for the MPEG-2 Transport Stream. It
does not changes any other aspect of the SFN system as the basic require-
ments can be met.
54
5.3. SFN GAIN AND SELF-INTERFERENCE
Figure 5.3: An example of a measured channel impulse response in SFN

with the guard interval shown below
Reected paths as well as signals coming from dierent transmitters

in SFN are shown in Fig. 5.3). If the delayed paths are within the
guard interval, they are correlated on each sub-carrier and they interfere.
For some sub-carriers the interference is positive and the power rises and
form some there are selective fades in the spectrum. En example of this
phenomenon for two paths is depicted in Fig. 5.4. If two paths of arrival
time dierence T interfere, the resultant spectrum is a multiplication the
OFDM rectangle with a periodical fade pattern of period in frequency
domain F 1/ T. A simulated example for inuence of delayed paths
on a DVB-T2 signal spectrum is shown in Fig. 5.5.
5.3 SFN gain and self-interference

SFN gain is observed when signals coming from a number of transmitters
add up in the receiver. SFN gain is one of the most important reasons
why SFNs are built. Assume there are two transmitters of equal power
operating in MFN mode. Assume also that somewhere between there
is an uncovered area because power level from both transmitters is not
sucient for the receiver. The receiver can make use just of one of the
transmitted signals at the same time as both transmitter produce their
signals in dierent channels. Now if assume they can transmit identical
and synchronized signals in the same channel, the receiver will see the
power gain provided. This may change the the are out of coverage to
a covered region. Obviously provided the time dierences between the
incoming signals are not exceeding a given limit, which depends on the
length of the guard interval.
55
Figure 5.4: An example of a measured channel impulse response in SFN

with the guard interval shown below
Figure 5.5: An example of a simulated DVB-T2 signal, unaected signal

on the left side and inuence of SFN on the spectrum on the right side
56
5.3. SFN GAIN AND SELF-INTERFERENCE
Figure 5.6: Large SFN for theoretical calculations
The other side of the coin is the eect of self-interference. As due to

SFN gain some regions get higher signal level, some other regions observe
higher noise level due to self-interference, which emerges when incoming
signals time of arrival dierence is high. In such a case for OFDM mod-
ulation, another uncorrelated OFDM signal behaves like additive Gaussian
noise. In terms of a single sub-carrier phase-shifted sinusoid still interfere,
however if you take into consideration thousands of sinusoid of dierent
amplitudes and phases, you may treat it as Gaussian noise.
In Fig. 5.6 a theoretical SFN network is shown with a number of
transmitters distributed over hexagonal cells. The maximum SFN gain
observed in such a network is reaching 5 dB in the points where signals
coming from three transmitters arrive at the same time (as shown in Fig.
5.7). At the same time at such points self interference is low because signal
levels from far transmitters are relatively low compared to the closest three
with zero relative delay (Fig 5.8).
57
Figure 5.7: SFN gain for transmitter network from Fig. 5.6
Figure 5.8: SFN self interference level for a transmitter network from Fig.
5.6
58
Overview and dierences between
6
DVB-T and DVB-T2
6.1 DVB-T2 overview

The DVB-T standard (numbered ETSI EN 300 744 [3]) along the past
decade has shown thaT it may be successful and thanks to itS SD, HD,
and interactive services appeared in many households throughout Europe.
DVB-T has been widely adopted in Europe as well in Poland in particular.
Over recent years it has been replacing the analog PAL / SECAM trans-
mission. As it was already mentioned in Chapters 2 and 3 the rst edition
of this standard was published as early as in 1997. Thus DVB-T does not
cover the latest achievements of in the eld of digital transmission, namely
in space-time coding, channel coding, and others [100, 101]. Indeed, from
the odays perspective the physical and the transport layers dened in the
DVB-T standard seem to be rather outdated [102].
DVB-T has also turned out to be insuciently exible for a number of
dierent use cases and transmission variants. This is why the DVB project
consortium in cooperation with EBU and ETSI proposed the new standard
DVB-T2 (numbered ETSI EN 302 755 [49]), which was issued in 2009.
As it was already mentioned in Chapters 2 and 3 the DVB forum has
approved the DVB-T2 standard proposal as a DVB BlueBook [37, 38],
which was published in June 2008. After that this document has been sent
to ETSI in order to be approved and published as a European standard.
This workow enabled development of broadcast and receiving equipment,
which was even being done before issuing the formal standard [103, 11,
104].
DVB-T and DVB-T2 are physical and transmission layer standards
designed for carrying television streams in terrestrial environment [105].
This assumption however does not prevent from using these standard,
e.g., in cable television or to other than broadcast purposes. Note, e.g., that
DVB-T is used also for wireless cameras links because of proved robustness
against multipath propagation. Both standards, i.e. DVB-T and DVB-T2,
59
CHAPTER 6. OVERVIEW AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
use OFDM modulation, which is suitable for terrestrial channels, in which

deep selective fades are observed because of multipath propagation and the
single-frequency networks (SFNs) operation [106, 107]. Both standards use
two stages of channel coding [108].
DVB-T2 introduces many changes relative to its previous generation
DVB-T. It is more exible and has much more transmission modes. These
changes concern modulation variants, channel coding, utilization of space-
time codes, signaling of transmission parameters, and many more. The
price for them is much more complex signaling and much more com-
plicated implementation. This is why many receivers implement only
portions of the new standard.
In order to provide more exibility and more options for trade-os
between throughput and robustness, new constellation 256-QAM and new
numbers of sub-carriers of 1 K, 16 K and 32 K, so called FFT sizes, have
been specied in the DVB-T2. Note that in order to preserve throughput,
the bigger the number of sub-carriers the shorter the frame duration. Thus
the new FFT sizes allow longer channel impulse response, thus more
robust single frequency networks (SFNs) [12].
The DVB-T option of hierarchical transmission of independent high-
priority and low-priority TSs is no longer supported in the DVB-T2. Thus
non-uniform constellations of DVB-T are no longer an option in the DVB-
T2. Note that in the newer standard we may use dierent PLPs to transmit
separate TSs. Those PLPs may be transmitted using dierent constellations
and coding schemes, which is signaled in the base-band headers [71].
As it was already mentioned in the Introduction the DVB-T2 standard
diers from the DVB-T by the following features:
higher modulation orders
LDPC and BCH channel coding instead of convolutional code and

Reed-Solomon code in DVB-T
operation in frequency blocks, even discontinuous
constellation rotation
possibility of changing modulation parameters during transmission
carrying generic streams, not only MPEG-2 Transport Stream
broadcasting from two antennas using a space-time code called the

Alamouti scheme
reduction of PAPR (peak to average power ratio).
All the above mentioned features are optional and are activated by proper
signaling parameters [109].
There are more changes introduced in the DVB-T2. Only the most
signicant have been described in this chapter.
60
6.2. DVB-T AND DVB-T2 TECHNICAL COMPARISON
6.2 DVB-T and DVB-T2 technical comparison

6.2.1 Transport layer capabilities and DVB-T2 gateways
The most important functional dierence between the DVB-T and DVB-T2
standards is that in the DVB-T one signal carries only one transport stream
(TS) whereas a single DVB-T2 signal may transport a number of transport
streams or generic streams. In order to preserve DVB-T2 transparency to
upper layers, Physical Layer Pipe (PLP) concept has been introduced. Note
that through DVB-T we can transmit one TS in non-hierarchical mode and
HP TS and LP TS in the hierarchical mode [110].
A new layer above TS and Generic Streams was introduced. Each PLP
may take a form of:
transport stream
GSE (Generic Encapsulated Stream) for transport of generic packe-

tized streams
GCS (Generic Continuous Stream) where packet boundaries are not

known by the modulator
GFPS (Generic Fixed-length Packetized Stream), another option for

packetized streams, dened to preserve compatibility with DVB-S2.
The signaling of stream type is dened in base-band headers. This

PLP mechanism introduced a new layer of multiplexing. In addition to
multiplexing services into TS in DVB-T, one may multiplex entire transport
streams or generic streams into DVB-T2 signals using PLPs. Modulation
and FEC mode is congurable for each PLP. Thanks to this the modulation
and FEC may change over time in DVB-T2 signals as many PLPs may be
transmitted. In the DVB-T the user could use statically only one system
variant.
In the multiple PLP scheme, PLPs are divided into their separate and
common parts, called PLP(n) and Common PLP, respectively. The Com-
mon PLP may be useful for PSI/SI transport of multiple transport streams
in order to prevent repetition of e.g. electronic program guide (EPG)
transmitted in EIT tables. In consequence of introducing the PLPs a new
multiplexing layer emerged. Note that for traditional TS-carrying systems,
like DVB-T, multiplexing is performed in the TS layer only. With PLPs we
may decide which stream shall go through which PLP, thus a new layer
of multiplexing emerges. Note that the above-mentioned multiplexing ca-
pabilities may be implemented in transmitters with multiple TS and IP
inputs.
Today Common PLP concept is not widely used as the throughput gain
is low. Instead of this, in a PLP the network operator may transmit PSI/SI
tables relevant for TS inside the PLP.
61
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Organization of the OFDM framing resembles that from the DVB-T.

Again we have frames consisting a specied number of OFDM symbols. A
number of frames constitutes a superframe. OFDM symbols contain useful
parts of duration TU and guard intervals of duration , which are cyclic
continuations of useful parts and are placed before the useful part. How-
ever, in the DVB-T2, some combinations of FFT sizes and guard interval
durations are not allowed, whereas in DVB-T all combinations are pos-
sible. In completely non-multipath propagation environments there is no
point of using guard intervals, which causes throughput losses. Thus the
DVB-T2 broadcasting network may be precisely tailored to the assumed
propagation conditions.
In the DVB-T the only signaling data is transmitted within the dedi-
cated signaling sub-carriers TPS (Transmission Parameters Signaling). In
the DVB-T2 the signaling mechanism is much more complex as there are
more transmission parameters.
The new feature of DVB-T2 is the need of inserting so called DVB-T2
gateway into the transmission chain. This kind of equipment is absent in
DVB-T because the Transport Stream generated by the multiplexer in the
head-end is directly passed to transmitters, in the case of SFNs through
SFN controllers and adapters. Thus in DVB-T the transmitter interface
is the Transport Stream. DVB-T2 introduced a new layer or sublayer in
the physical layer. Transport Streams or generic streams are wrapped in
PLPs (Physical Layer Pipes). In the simplied variant A, there is just one
PLP in one DVB-T2 signal. Thus this is a legacy mode resembling the
traditional DVB-T case. In variant B there are possibly multiple PLPs
with a special Common PLP within one broadcast. In DVB-T setting up
a bouquet of services could only be done using multiplexers whereas in
DVB-T2 it may done by multiplexers as well as by gateways. Gateways
play the following roles:
the interface head-ends with transmitter through T2-MI (DVB-T2
Modulator Interface)
they insert synchronization packets for SFNs called T2-MIP
they encapsulate Transport Streams and map them into suitable PLPs
they generate signaling for modulator set-up
Signal in T2-MI format after being generated by gateway is then trans-

mitted over the distribution network instead of Transport Stream.
In DVB-T2 dierent PLPs may be transmitted in dierent system vari-
ants, including dierent code rates and modulations. It is one of the most
important dierences between DVB-T2 and DVB-T in which system vari-
ant is assumed constant in one radio channel. Although one may take
advantage of hierarchical modulation of DVB-T, where constellation point
subsets constitute signal of higher robustness against noise, however hier-
archical mode is rarely used in practical situations.
62
Figure 6.1: Laboratory set-up showing dierent PLP coverages
Modulator present on the market support T2-MI with all modulation

variants including number of sub-carriers and guard intervals. Most of
them support MISO as well.
It is worth mentioning that dierent PLPs in one DVB-T2 signal may
have dierent coverages. A laboratory setp-up showing this feature shown
in gure 6.1.
6.2.2 Null packet deletion mechanism
The DVB-T carries transport streams without analyzing, nor changing its
contents. Whereas in the DVB-T2 the null packets may be deleted to
improve the bandwidth eciency. Clearly the deleted null packets shall be
recovered in the receiver in order to preserve original throughputs of the
transmitted services. Null packets may be recovered by the receiver thanks
to a 1-byte counter of null packets called DNP (Deleted Null Packet), value
of which is transmitted in the DVB-T2 signal. The counter data is added
after every useful packet informing how many null packets were deleted
after it.
6.2.3 Modulation
In order to provide more exibility and more options for trade-os be-
tween throughput and robustness, new constellation 256-QAM and new
numbers of sub-carriers of 1K, 16K and 32K, so called FFT sizes, have
been specied in DVB-T2. Note that in order to preserve throughput,
the bigger the number of sub-carriers, the shorter frame duration. Thus
the new FFT sizes allow longer channel impulse response, thus more ro-
bust SFN networks. The DVB-T option of hierarchical transmission of
independent high-priority and low-priority TSs is no longer supported in
DVB-T2. Thus non-uniform constellations of DVB-T are no longer an
option in DVB-T2. Note that in the newer standard we may use dier-
ent PLPs to transmit separate TSs. Those PLPs may be transmitted using
dierent constellations and coding, which is signaled in base-band headers.
63
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Figure 6.2: Constellation rotation in a QPSK example. Here the Q channel

is faded badly and using constellation rotation the Euclidean distance be-
tween points in the rotated case (b) is bigger than in the non-rotated case
(a)
6.2.4 Constellation rotation

Constellation rotation by a constant angle is a new feature in DVB-T2. Ro-
tation enlarges Euclidean distance between constellation points for faded
symbols, as shown in gure 6.2. Assuming that I and Q channels expe-
rience independent fades, usually only one channel is faded badly within
one symbol. In order to achieve such independence, data for I and Q paths
are additionally interleaved. It has been shown that constellation rotation
provides gain for channels with fades. Assuming a Gaussian channel, is
has been shown, that constellation rotation gives no gain.
6.2.5 PAPR reduction

OFDM signals suer from high Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR). For
a signal x(t) PAPR is dened by equation 6.1.
PAPR max[x(t)x (t)]/ E[x(t)x (t)] (6.1)

in dB scale it is given by 6.2
PAPR dB 10 log PAPR (6.2)

For a signal x(t) sin(2f t) within period T 1/ f , PAPR 2 whereas
for x(t) ej2f t withing period T 1/ f , PAPR 1. Mean PAPR dB values
for single carrier QPSK modulation is 3.5 dB and for 64-QAM it equals
7.7 dB. In the worst case PAPR of the OFDM signal with N uniformly
powered sub-carriers equals N.
PAPR is an unwanted eect that causes uncontrolled non-linear dis-
tortions of the signal, which manifest as higher out-of-band power, which
must be ltered out. This distortion may be modeled as a higher noise
64
Figure 6.3: Typical DVB-T signal in time domain, 8 K mode, 64-QAM;

timeline includes successive RF signal samples
level. A signal of high PAPR may cause clipping in modulators and also
may be aected by high power ampliers in transmitters.
In gure 6.3 a couples of frames of ETSI EN 300 744 compliant signal
in 8K mode and in 64-QAM variant is shown.
Nothing special is visible in gure 6.3 until we zoom it around the
maximum value, which is shown in gure 6.4.
Distinctive peaks in gure 6.4 may be observed. The reason for this is
that many sub-carriers may occur in phase within a given symbol. In the
DVB-T there are no mechanisms protecting from high PAPR, which is a
drawback of this standard. In DVB-T2 four modes of operation have been
standardized (three of them cause the PAPR reduction):
no PAPR reduction
ACE (Active Constellation Extension), designed for lower modulation

orders
TR (Tone Reservation) or RCT (Reserved Carrier Technique), de-

signed for higher modulation orders
both above methods at the same time.

The ACE consists in recursive distorting constellation of useful symbols
until the desired level of PAPR is reached. This algorithm is described in
Section 9.6.1. of [22]. The time domain OFDM signal obtained by mod-
ulation of the base-band symbols by IFFT operator is oversampled, then
low-pass ltered and then thresholded. After thresholding it is low-pass
65
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Figure 6.4: Typical DVB-T signal of high PAPR zoomed in time domain,
8 K mode, 64-QAM; timeline includes successive RF signal samples
ltered again and then downsampled. As the ACE method is distorting

constellations, it shall not be used to pilot sub-carriers, nor to the reserved
carriers. From the receiver point of view it adds additional noise, however
the benet is that the noise level has lower peaks and is better distributed
over time.
If this method is used, all modulators within an SFN must use exactly
the same constellation modications all SFN sited shall transmit identical
signals.
The ACE is usually not implemented in devices present on the market.
Reserved Carrier Technique

In RCT special PAPR reducing sub-carriers called dummy carriers are
inserted. Their values are calculated in a way that minimizes PAPR. They
do not carry any useful information and may be omitted by the receiver.
This PAPR reduction is not aecting receiver operation except for the fact
that the signal may be amplied without serious non-linear distortion.
Obviously this worsens throughput because reserved tones do not carry
useful information.
In this method a special kernel is dened as in (6.3)

NFFT
p IFFT(1TR ) (6.3)
NTR
where NFFT is the number of sub-carriers, NTR is the number of tones
reserved and 1TR is a vector with all entries equal to 0 except for some
66
ones put under the indexes where the reserved tones are located.
The modulator searches for a peak in the signal in time domain x(t),
which is produced by the IFFT block of the modulator.
The kernel vector is then shifted and t in amplitude and phase to the
found peak in x(t). Then the matched kernel is subtracted from x(t) and
PAPR for such dierence is calculated.
One above mentioned iteration can reduce one peak. However thanks to
repeating iteration and linear combinations of kernels, a number of peaks
can be decimated using this method.
6.2.6 Pilot sub-carriers

Due to multipath propagation selective fading occurs. In order to estimate
channel frequency characteristics, pilot carriers are inserted. In DVB-T
continual pilots are transmitted on xed sub-carrier positions and scattered
pilots are transmitted on dierent sub-carriers according to the dened
pattern. In DVB-T there is only one pattern for scattered pilots and the
pattern repeats every four symbols [3]. In DVB-T2 [49], there are a lot
pilot patterns from which the broadcasting network operator can choose.
The pilot patterns are named PP1, PP2, PP3, PP4, PP5, PP6, PP7, and PP8.
They dier for SISO and MISO modes. In MISO, inverted scattered pilots
are inserted. DVB-T pilots seem to take too much overhead. An algorithm
facing this problem was presented in [15]. It was based on a feedback in
channel equalization. In this approach every symbol constellation on every
sub-carrier is regenerated in the receiver, after the channel decoder block.
After the FEC we may reconstruct constellation points that have been likely
transmitted. Comparing those with received constellation points, we may
estimate channel characteristics for every sub-carrier. In [84] a method for
reduction number of pilots was proposed. In DVB-T2 the CD3 algorithm
has been applied leading to reduction of number of pilots. What is more,
contrary to DVB-T, many pilot patterns with dierent pilot density may
be used. The currently used pilot pattern is signaled in DVB-T2.
6.2.7 Signal bandwidth

The nominal bandwidth, which is the frequency dierence between the
boundary sub-carriers Kmax and Kmin for DVB-T signals equals 7.61 MHz
in 8 MHz channels and 6.66 MHz in 7 MHz channels.
In DVB-T2 the set of possible bandwidth options is wider: 1.7 MHz,
5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz. Focusing on the most popular
8 MHz bandwidth, the nominal bandwidth of so called normal carrier mode
of DVB-T2 signal is the same as in the DVB-T case, i.e. 7.61 MHz for all
FFT modes.
In extended carrier mode, which is available for 8 K, 16 K and 32 K
modes, the nominal bandwidth is 7.71 MHz or 7.77 MHz.
67
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Figure 6.5: Power spectral densities of DVB-T (a) and DVB-T2 (b) signals
in 8 MHz channels all possible FFT sizes
Figure 6.6: Modied Alamouti scheme in DVB-T2
Comparison between DVB-T and DVB-T2 spectrum masks are shown

in Fig. 6.5.
6.2.8 MISO
In DVB-T2 a MISO method based on Alamouti scheme has been applied.
In this mode there are two outputs from the modulator and they have to
be passed to two transmitters. There are several dierences to the origi-
nal Alamouti scheme. The signal passed to the rst transmitter remains
unchanged and instead of processing two symbols adjacent in time, the
DVB-T2 MISO processes two adjacent sub-carrier cells of a single OFDM
symbol. This operation is shown in Fig. 6.6.
6.2.9 Time-Frequency Slicing

In DVB-T only one RF channel could be reserved for one broadcast and
that channel must be a continuous segment of spectrum. In DVB-T2 quite
a revolutionary idea of Time-Frequency-Slicing has been standardized. It
is a new to the broadcast technology method of frequency hoping and
reserving more channels for a single TV broadcast. In TFS the reserved
channels may not be adjacent. In this mode PLPs are divided into subslices
and those are sent over a number of radio channels. Thus one input stream
is interleaved both over time, OFDM sub-carriers and now additionally
over RF channels. Minimum frequency hoping time must be preserved in
68
order to get AGC and PLL locks in the receiver. If the number of tuners in
the receiver equals the number of frequencies used, no such restrictions are
necessary. However it is expected that practical tuners will have two tuners
when the manufacturers decide to build devices supporting this mode.
One shall notice the today there is no device on the market that im-
plements full DVB-T2 standard, especially the TFS mode. This is due to
complexity of the norm and because some mechanisms were not important
from a practical point of view, which was quick rollout of HD channels in
the UK. TFS mode requires reserving at least two coverages when the
regulatory practice is to reserve only one per multiplex, as OFCOM did for
Freeview.
6.2.10 Channel coding

In DVB-T2 as well as in DVB-T two-stage inner and outer channel coding
is used. In DVB-T the Reed-Solomon code protects a 188-byte TS packet
producing a 204-byte RS codeword and then the punctured convolutional
coding is applied. By standardization of puncturing of a basic code of
R 1/ 2, other values of R may be achieved. In DVB-H, an extension of
DVB-T for mobile receivers, additional layer of coding was employed the
MPE-FEC.
The idea of inner and outer coding is continued in DVB-T2 but in this
case BCH and LDPC are the outer and inner codes respectively. The new
codes in DVB-T2 resulted in much longer codewords comparing with
DVB-T, equaling either NLDPC 16200 or 64800. A systematic LDPC
code is used in DVB-T2 both for preamble protection as well as for useful
frame. LDPC codes belong to a class of Shannon-limit approaching codes.
In [65] the denition of LDPC codes has been given in a form of simple
explanation:
the parity check matrix H has constant row and column weights,
row and column weights are small compared with the length of the
code,
the number of 1s common between any two columns is no greater

than 1.
LDPC code dened in DVB-T2 is identical to that in DVB-S2 standard.

The code is dened in such a way, that the information bits are divided
into groups of 360 bits. For every rst bit in such 360-bit groups, i.e., for
i0 , i360 , . . . there are parity bit equations dened in the form of table.
For all other bits in the 360-bit groups i.e. i1 , i2 , , i361 , i362 , ,
the same equations are used but with shifted indexes by a specied value
given in the norm. After applying the above mentioned rules, the nal
values of parity bits are obtained by pi pi pi 1. This kind of parity bit
accumulation equations regularity enabled compact LDPC code denition.
69
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Without such a property, huge matrices or huge number of equations must

have been published as a part of the standard. The code was designed in
such a way that the parity check matrix is lower triangular, which makes
encoding easier.
6.2.11 Symbol organization, framing and signaling

Organization of OFDM framing resembles that from DVB-T. Again we
have frames consisting a specied number of OFDM symbols. A number
of frames constitute a superframe. OFDM symbols contain useful parts
of duration TU and guard intervals of duration , which are cyclic con-
tinuations of useful parts and are placed before the useful part. However
in DVB-T2, some combinations of FFT size and guard interval durations
are not allowed, whereas in DVB-T all combinations are possible. In
completely non-multipath propagation environments there is no point of
using guard intervals, which causes throughput losses. Thus. A DVB-T2
broadcasting network may be precisely tailored to assumed propagation
conditions. In DVB-T the only signaling data is transmitted within dedi-
cated signaling sub-carriers TPS (Transmission Parameters Signaling). In
DVB-T2 the signaling mechanism is much more complex as there are more
transmission parameters.
6.3 Benets of using DVB-T2 for broadcasters and

network operators
6.3.1 Higher bandwidth
It is estimated that in an average case, the throughput gain of DVB-T2
over DVB-T will equal around 30 %. However in [15] it is expected that a
DVB-T single-frequency network transmitting a 19.91 Mbit/ s stream with
64-QAM, 8 K, / TU 1/ 4, R 2/ 3 may be replaced by a DVB-T2 broad-
cast of a 33.3 Mbit/ s stream with 256-QAM, 32 K, R 3/ 5, / TU 1/ 16.
In this case the throughput improvement would equal 67 %. However net-
work planning criteria, including the required eld strengths, are still not
known for DVB-T2. For that we have to wait until consumer tuner and
demodulator chips show up in the market.
The motivation for introducing DVB-T2 for broadcasters in the coun-
tries where the test or regular transmissions take place are such factors
as:
need for transmitting FTA HD channels in DTT
former usage of MPEG-2 in DVB-T, which caused lack of free spec-

trum for the needed number of HD channels or unacceptable potential
costs of HD transmission.
70
6.4. NEXT STEPS OF DVB-T2 STANDARD IMPLEMENTATION
6.3.2 Flexibility
Assume a broadcaster produces two types of television channels: general
channels to cover a wide target group and a number of thematic channels
for small and atomized groups of consumers. Usually the general channels
for historical reasons are distributed free of charge with as wide coverage as
possible. Whereas thematic channels are targeting specic groups usually
located in vicinity of agglomerations. In order to fulll requirements of
such a scenario a broadcaster may choose a robust transmission variant
for general channels and a high-bandwidth but exposed to propagation
phenomena variant for a number of thematic channels. In DVB-T in
order to transmit signals of dierent modulations schemes, two multiplexes
with separate distribution networks must be built. It means that costs of
separate broadcasting networks are doubled. Among these costs we nd
frequency reservation fee paid to the regulator and costs of distribution
network and transmitter sites.
6.3.3 Usage of available channels

In DVB-T2 broadcaster may also use discontinuous bundles of channels
(TFS mode), however this feature will be rather used in the future, when
VHF and UHF band will be utilized by non-broadcasting services and this
spectrum will become valuable. See the section on Time-Frequency Slicing
for detailed information.
6.4 Next steps of DVB-T2 standard implementa-

tion
Time Frequency Slicing (TFS) method of transmission consists in combin-
ing a number of radio channel in order to make a single virtual channel.
In this mode sub-slices of PLPs of one T2 frame are sent over multiple
radio channels. The DVB-T2 standard denes how PLPs are distributed
over a number of RF channels in parallel using TFS. The norm limits the
number frequencies and it can take the values from 2 to 6. Through TFS
technique also frequency diversity has been introduced in DVB-T2. The
signal is transmitted using several frequency channels thus it is spread over
a wide spectrum that may be aected by frequency-selective fading. In this
sense it is an extension of OFDM concept where sub-carrier interleaving is
performed. TFS mode requires at least two tuners for frequency hoping
without signal interruptions. The main advantage is more ecient statisti-
cal multiplexing as the statistical group is wider. The average gain is 20 %
increase in number television services and 4 dB average gain in C/ I, which
improves the link budget. There are two receivers proles standarized in
DVB-T2 for TFS support. In so called single prole only one tuner is
mandatory.
71
DVB-T AND DVB-T2
Most RF front-ends manufacturers considered TFS mode as too compli-

cated and unnecessary. Therefore in the standard it was moved to Annex E
as a feature for future implementations in multi-tuner front-ends. It is not
required that a receiver with a single tuner shall support TFS. Note that
there is no commercially available TFS supporting tuner on the market.
72
Propagation models and coverage
7
calculations
7.1 Denitions and assumptions

In the eld of radio planning for DVB-T2 [49] many planning parameters
were taken from DVB-T [3], particularly from GE06 [111] coordination
agreement. The required C/ N values were determined theoretically for
the new standard and the rest of assumptions were preserved. Not only
eld strengths themselves are inuencing reception quality. The following
elements of the receiver inuence signal coverage and thus radio planning
methods in DTT:
tuner, which selects the desired channel and converts it to the stan-
dard intermediate frequency in a way it rejects unwanted signals,
especially in adjacent and image channels
demodulator, where the intermediate frequency signal is sampled,

OFDM symbols are synchronized, demodulated and the convolutional
code is decoded
By choosing in the wealth of modulation, code rate, PLP and other trans-
mission variants, one may get a wide spectrum of network designs. As-
suming that the density of transmitter sites and their powers are hardly
changeable, the price for high throughputs is low coverage and the price
for good coverage is low throughput. It is assumed is most cases, that
the wanted coverage of new DVB-T2 multiplexes for xed reception shall
be the same as DVB-T. Thus usually the design rule a trade-o between
obtaining coverage similar to previous DVB-T coverages with a moderate
growth of throughput at the same time. Propagation models are crucial
in DTT for network planning and coverage calculations. Formulas and
curves dened in such models determine the results of coverage calcula-
tions and because of fundamental dierences in the models, the results of
calculations may dier highly. E.g. the model ITU-R P.1546 [112, 111] is
known to smoothen the border of the coverage area and it hardly shows
73
CHAPTER 7. PROPAGATION MODELS AND COVERAGE
CALCULATIONS
gaps inside the coverage area. In extreme cases the dierence between sim-
ulated eld strength and measured can exceed 15 dB. Propagation models
can be divided into three groups:
physical, which use physical principles and equations only
empirical, which compute the eld strength using data derived from
measurements in the form of curves or formulas
mixed, which use physical equations as well as corrections based on

measurements.
We can also divide popular channel models into two groups:
taking into account the Doppler eect
neglecting the Doppler eect.
We shall bear in mind, that there are two channel types referred to as
the Rayleigh channel. In Jakes approach, the Rayleigh channel is also
incorporating the Doppler shift. Jakes assumes that n-th wave is shifted
in frequency by fn fd cos n . In COST 207 [113] the Rayleigh channel
is introducing the Doppler shift as well. On the contrary, the Rayleigh
channel dened in ETSI 300 744 [3] neglects the Doppler shift. We observe
Rayleigh fading when there is no dominant path. If the Doppler eect
is omitted, the fading does not change with time. Doppler shift causes
inter-carrier interference (ICI). When Doppler shift increases above the
Doppler limit, demodulation is impossible [114]. In the so-called Doppler
channel, we assume that reected waves arrive from dierent directions
and each of them has a dierent Doppler shift. We further assume that
angles of arrival are uniformly distributed and we have innite number
of incoming waves. This results in a characteristic shape of sinusoid after
the Doppler channel in the frequency domain. The maximum Doppler
frequency shift is equal to fD fc (v/ c). For a particular incoming wave
the shift equals f fc (v/ c) cos fD cos . The Doppler channel is
causing fades and frequency shifts. The shifted components likely fall
close to fc + fd and fc fd , however no components are of shift greater than
fd [71]. Assuming that a sinusoidal wave is transmitted, reected waves
propagate horizontally, angle of arrival distribution is uniform and the
receiving antenna is omnidirectional, the normalized power spectrum of
the received signal equals
1
S(f ) , | f | fd (7.1)
fd 1 (f / fd )2
74
7.1. DEFINITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
7.1.1 Mobile channels

P1 and F1 channels
In ETSI 300 744 [3], a channel with 20 paths has been dened in order
to describe portable indoor and outdoor reception. This model does not
include the Doppler shift. This model because of its complexity is often
approximated by only 6 paths calculated as a result of low-pass ltering
of the original channel and selecting dominant paths. Path amplitudes,
delays, and phases are shown in table 7.1. Both the original 20-path and
6-path versions preserve signal power, which means that the signal power
before and after the channel is the same.
Table 7.1: F1 channel approximation
Path number Delay Amplitude Level Phase

s dB rad
1 0.050 0.36 8.87 2.875
2 0.479 1 0 0
3 0.621 0.787 2.09 2.182
4 1.907 0.587 4.63 0.460
5 2.764 0.482 6.34 2.616
6 3.193 0.451 6.92 2.863
Typical Urban (TU6) channel

The COST 207 [113] specication described channels of bandwidths from
10 MHz to 20 MHz around 900 MHz center frequency. Channel proles
dened in COST 207 were adopted to mobile DVB-T reception within
the Motivate project. Urban reception is usually modeled using the so
called Typical Urban (TU6) COST 207 channel prole with 6 paths. This
severe channel have paths of relatively high power are relatively high time
dispersion. The respective model for the transmission in typical rural areas
Table 7.2: TU6 channel denition

Path number Delay Level
s dB
1 0.0 3
2 0.2 0
3 0.5 2
4 1.6 6
5 2.3 8
6 5.0 10
also assumes six paths and is dened by the Typical Rural (RA6) COST
75
CALCULATIONS
207 prole. The so called 0 dB echo with Doppler is prole which consists
of two paths of the same power and the delay equal to the half of the
Guard Interval (GI).
7.1.2 Log-normal distribution

Log-normal distribution is a distribution of a random variable, logarithm
of which is normally distributed. This means that if random variable X is
log-normally distributed, then loga X is normally distributed. Certainly, the
logarithm base a is not important for the above denition. The probability
density function (PDF) is given by formula (7.2)
(ln x)2
1
f (x) e 22 , x>0 (7.2)
x 2
In television broadcasting network planning it is assumed that eld

strengths are log-normally distributed. In the domain of propagation mod-
els and coverage calculations a couple of denitions were agreed:
nuisance eld strength eld strength of an unwanted signal (in-

terference) with the adequate protection ratio added,
usable eld strength eld strength required to serve a given re-

ception quality in the presence of noise, which comes from natural
thermal noise as well as man-made interference,
minimum median eld strength eld strength required to obtain

reception for 50 % locations and 50 % time 10 m above ground level.
It is always assumed that the receiving antenna is directed toward the

wanted transmitter. This antenna pattern for DVB-T or DVB-T2 services
is dened e.g. in recommendation ITU-R BT.419 [115] or in GE06 [111].
However the consumer antenna gain and directional pattern in the above-
given recommendation is rather poor and usually viewers install better
antennas when located close to the coverage area border.
In order to determine reception probability or the minimum required
eld strength, a procedure of adding all interferences in the point of re-
ception must be performed. The wanted signal is the eld strength of the
wanted transmitter. I is the cumulated signal of all interferers Ii . A proper
protection ratio Ai is determined for each interferer. A0 is an additional
protection ratio.
C C
(7.3)
I A0 + Si Ii + Ai
where Si (x) is a function representing a summation method of interfering
signals. The term Ii + Ai is called the nuisance eld and the cumulated
interference level is called the usable eld strength.
76
7.1. DEFINITIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS
The majority of models assume that eld strength is a random variable

of a log-normal distribution. It means that the result of propagation calcu-
lations just give mean values. Deviations and reception probabilities may
be derived. E.g. in ITU-R P.1546 [112] propagation curves dene eld
for 50 % of area and 50 % of time for a given point. There are then spe-
cial correction factors dened to get other probability of the eld strength
exceeding a given threshold.
In order to determine whether reception is possible in a given point in
space, interference levels from other transmitters and other services must
be done. Every source of interfering eld must be taken into account as
well as protection ratios from those interfering transmissions and noise.
There is a number of ways how the accumulated eect of interfering elds
can be determined.
Some of the methods use simplications in order to minimize computa-
tional complexity. Obviously those simplications cause loosing accuracy.
However there are so many simplications and assumptions made in the
whole process of radio planning and simulations that the power summing
method is not introducing relevant inaccuracy [116].
7.1.3 Thermal noise and its inuence on the receiver

According to John Bertrand Johnsons and Harry Nyquists works of 1928
([117, 118]), thermal noise, or Johnson-Nyquist noise, is produced by all
conductors regardless of their resistance. This noise is a manifestation
of blackbody radiation of the conductor [119]. The power density of the
thermal noise as a function of frequency is given by formula
hf
P(f ) hf
df (7.4)
e kT 1
where k is the Boltzmanns constant, T is temperature in Kelvins, h is the
Plancks constant. Formula (7.4) can be expanded into a series, which
gives
hf
P(f )

2

3
df (7.5)
hf hf hf
kT + kT
1
2! + kT
1
3! +
If we keep the rst order term only we obtain
P(f ) kT df (7.6)
thus the total power in a bandwidth B equals
P kTB. (7.7)
Assuming the noise temperature T0 290 K we can calculate thermal noise

level in DVB-T and DVB-T2 tuners. Receiver noise bandwidth B can take
the following values for DVB-T:
77
CALCULATIONS
6.66 MHz for a 7 MHz channel
7.61 MHz for a 8 MHz channel.
For DVB-T2 B can take one of the following values:
1.54 MHz for a 1.7 MHz channel in normal carrier mode
1.57 MHz for a 1.7 MHz channel in extended carrier mode
6.66 MHz for a 7 MHz channel in normal carrier mode
6.80 MHz for a 7 MHz channel in extended carrier mode
7.61 MHz for a 8 MHz channel in normal carrier mode
7.71 MHz for a 8 MHz channel in extended carrier mode.
7.2 Field strength summation procedures

It is important to sum up elds impinging the receiver coming from dif-
ferent transmitters. Both wanted and unwanted levels must be taken into
consideration with proper protection ratios, depending e.g. on frequency
or type of interference. In propagation calculations it is assumed that
not only each nuisance eld has log-normal distribution, but the resultant
sum distribution of the wanted and unwanted elds are log-normally dis-
tributed too. Note that the noise generated in the receiver may be seen
as yet another source of interference with protection ratio equal to the
required C/ N. As it is not trivial to obtain sums of a number of log-
normally distributed random variables, a couple of simplifying methods
were developed. For example the simplest is to take into account just the
strongest interferer. In this method the minimum required eld strength is
also taken as an interfering eld due to noise. This method however does
not oer sucient accuracy and would give too optimistic results. In the
following subsections some more sophisticated methods will be discussed.
7.2.1 Simple power-sum method

This simple method is based on the sum of squares of nuisance elds and
the minimum required eld strength. Then the usable elds strength is
approximated by the square of the square sums as given in equation (7.8)

N
2
Eu Emin + (ai bi Ei )2 (7.8)
i1
where Eu is the resultant usable elds strength, Emin is the minimum

required eld strength, ai is the protection ratio against signal from i-th
transmitter, bi is the receiving antenna discrimination for the proper angle
78
7.3. ITU-R P.370 AND ITU-R P.1546 MODELS
of arrival, Ei is the eld generated by the i-th transmitter. The drawback

of this method is that it neglects the fact, that eld strengths are random
variables of log-normal distribution. Usually the interference level is lower
than in reality and the usable eld strength is underestimated.
7.2.2 t-LNM method

The t-LNM stands for trilinear log-normal method. It is an approximation
for simplied calculation of a sum of a number of log-normally distributed
random variables. It is more accurate than its predecessors (LNM and
k-LNM) and it is able to take dierent standard deviations into account
for individual elds. In this method noise is treated as interference of 0 dB
standard deviation. The summation process may be made cumulatively in
pairs as a sum of two log-normally distributed variables remains a log-
normal variable. Assuming u1 and u2 are such variables, the sum eld is
given by 7.9.
1
u1 u2 u1 u2
u ln eu1 + eu2 (u1 + u2 ) + ln e 2 + e 2 (7.9)
2
The mean value of the new variable u equals
1
u1 u2 u1 u2
u (u1 + u2 ) + ln e 2 + e 2 (7.10)
2
and the standard deviation of f equals
u2 u2 u2 (7.11)
Now an approximation can be made based on equation (7.12)

1
ln e 2 + e 2 | | + CeA| |B
2
(7.12)
2
With properly calculated A, B, and C the mean value and variance can be
approximated in a simplied way.
7.3 ITU-R P.370 and ITU-R P.1546 models

The eld strength prediction of this family of models is based on sets
of curves derived from measurements. Additional correction factors are
included and they dierentiate the versions of the recommendation. In
ITU-R P.370 [120] propagation curves were given for frequency ranges
30 250 MHz and 450 1000 MHz and they are valid for distances grater
than 10 km. This was improved by ITU-R P.1546 [112], were the curves
are given for three frequencies and shall be interpolated for other fre-
quencies. In ITU-R P.370, because ranges of frequencies were dened, no
interpolation is used.
In ITU-R P.370 values were not given in tabular form, whereas in the
ITU-R P.1546 model beginning from version 2 contains tabulated values
79
CALCULATIONS
of propagation curves in the form of predicted eld strength expressed

in dBV/ m as a function of frequency and eective antenna height. These
curves are dened assuming the transmitter power ERP 1 kW, the receiv-
ing antenna height is 10 m over terrain level and the eld strength exceeds
the given value for 50 % of locations for 50 %, 10 % or 1 % of time. ITU-R
P.370 takes only the eective antenna height he neglecting the absolute
height of the antenna, whereas in ITU-R P.1546 the higher the absolute
antenna height, the better the eld level.
The ITU-R P.1546 recommendation is valid in the range of frequencies
from 30 MHz to 3000 MHz, however curves were given just for 100 MHz,
600 MHz, and 2000 MHz and values from curves shall be interpolated as
well. The recommendation gives propagation curves in form of numerical
tables as were as plots. Curves were dened for distances from 1 km to
1000 km. For distances out of this range, interpolations are done. Curves
are dened for a number of possible transmitter antenna heights h1 : 10,
20, 37.5, 75, 150, 300, 600, and 1200 m, also are extrapolated for real val-
ues. The higher the antenna, the higher the eld strength. En example of
selected curves from ITU-R P.1546 for climatic Zone 1 (temperate and sub-
tropical) are shown in Fig. 7.1. In the range 1 km15 km, Okumura-Hata
curves from ITU-R P.529 are used. For 15 km1000 km scope the curves
are based on ITU-R P.370. The ITU-R P.1546 model give more realistic
results than ITU-R P.370, which, e.g., for mixed land and sea paths could
cause a weird and incorrect recovery eect (eld strength rises if signal is
propagated over land and then over sea). Compared to the ITU-R P.370,
the land-sea path method of ITU-R P.1546 predicts less eld strength. The
recommendation is valid for distances from the transmitter greater than
1 km. For smaller distances usually propagation software extrapolates the
curves, however limited to the free space loss. The idea of Terrain Clear-
ance Angle (TCA) was introduced in ITU-R P.370 and was improved in
ITU-R P.1546. The latter utilizes terrain data more precisely than ITU-R
P.370. TCA is a correction using digital maps for detecting obstacles near
the receiver that signal from the transmitter encounters. In order to calcu-
late TCA, an angle must be calculated rst. It is measured relative to the
line from the receiving antenna that clears all terrain obstacles in direction
of the transmitter up to the distance of 16 km, but not further than the
transmitter is located. This idea is shown in Fig. 7.2. Having , the terrain
clearance angle may obtained using 7.13

h1s [m] h2s [m]
TCA r tan (7.13)
1000d [km]
where r is the so called reference angle, h1s and h2s are the transmitter
and receiver antenna height above the sea level, respectively; d is the
propagation path length. Inuence of TCA on eld strength is shown
in Fig. 7.3. The most eld strength spoiling case is when TCA is negative,
i.e. the receiver is located higher than the transmitter. ITU-R P.370 model
gave wrong results, e.g. for mixed land and sea paths could cause a weird
80
7.3. ITU-R P.370 AND ITU-R P.1546 MODELS
Figure 7.1: Example of ITU-R P.1546 curves for 100, 600, and 2000 MHz
in climatic zone 1
Figure 7.2: Procedure for calculating angle
81
CALCULATIONS
Figure 7.3: TCA correction
and incorrect recovery eect - eld strength rises if signal is propagated

over land and then over sea. ITU-R P.1546 is precise enough to detect
the coverage boundary, however it gives too optimistic results withing the
calculated coverage area as such reasons grow too smooth. This is because
the model is based only on statistical curves and is not using besides
calculating he and TCA.
7.4 Other models

There is a number of models implemented in commercially available soft-
ware, which were not adopted in the form of recommendation for ocial
use between regulators, nonetheless some of them give most realistic re-
sults. Some of them implement diraction and reections from terrain
obstacles, even using a method similar to ray-tracing in 3D eld simula-
tion technique.
82
Specications for receivers
8
8.1 Role and need of specications
Standards such as DVB-T and DVB-T2 give only denitions of transmit-
ted signals. They do not tell the designers how to build a receiver and
what architecture shall be implemented. However the receiver architecture
inuences the receiver parameters such as the noise gure (NF), sensitiv-
ity, robustness against interference, etc. In order to design a receiver, some
requirements must be dened to fulll. Such requirements are written in
a form of specications. Thanks to specications, a designer is therefore
able to assess whether the design is fullling certain requirements or not.
Specications usually dene receiver characteristics in all layers from
physical and transport layer to application layer and human factors such
as the remote control layout. For the purpose the of this work the physical
and transport layer requirements are relevant [121].
In most catalog cards of commercial RF front-ends, NorDig compliance
is declared. However receiver parameters are also dened in coordination
agreements but these touch only radio parameters and neglect upper layer
behavior. It shall be mentioned that Chester97 and RRC06 aimed at
describing typical receiver parameters in order to make assumptions for
radio planning, whereas NorDig [34, 35, 36] or IEC 62216 (called the
E-Book) dened minimum requirements . Most network planning is done
now under RRC06 and until 2006 it was done using Chester97.
Most important specication requirements are gathered in Table 8.1.
Detailed explanations on the cited values are given in the following sections
of this chapter.
8.2 Common guidelines of specications

8.2.1 Receiver performance
The most important parameter of the receiver operation quality is BER
(bit error rate), in DVB-T measured before the RS decoder. BER is the
83
CHAPTER 8. SPECIFICATIONS FOR RECEIVERS
Table 8.1: Comparison of cited specications
Minimum Permissible
oset [kHz]
Px [dBc]
NF [dB]
input level
IL [dB]
Maximum
Maximum
and I/ C [dB]
[dBm]
maximum in a channel
required type:
C/ N [dB]
adjacent
image
other
ETSI EN
3.520.2
300 744
Chester97 3.120.1 7 40 40 40
RRC06 4.922.3 7 30
IEC 62216 5.623.0 8 2.5 33 166.67 35 2729 40 2939
VHF:
NorDig 2.0 5.122.5 7 50 35 28 38
UHF: 28
DGTV
D-Book EN 300
8 3 166.67 28 25 50 30
and 744+IL
AGCOM
5.6
KIGEiT
lack for 8 2.5 33 50 35 30 40 30
project
R 7/ 8
in Gauss channel the data are valid for QPSK R 1/ 2 and for 64-QAM R 7/ 8
according to the system variant
84
8.2. COMMON GUIDELINES OF SPECIFICATIONS
primary parameter, which describes the quality of the digital transmission

link. The BER is dened as the ratio between erroneous bits and the total
number of the transmitted bits.
All of the presented specications and other documents refer to the
same denitions of quasi error-free reception (QEF) from EN 300 744 [3].
For DVB-T Quasi Error Free (QEF) reception is dened as occurrence of
less than one uncorrected bit error per hour in the entire Transport Stream
or in the elementary stream of a service. It corresponds to BER 1011
after Reed-Solomon decoder at the input of the MPEG-2 Transport Stream
demultiplexer. This leads to BER 104 after Viterbi decoder, which is so
called reference BER and it is the basis for network planning and coverage
calculations.
The target performance for DVB-T2 is dened as less than one uncor-
rected error per hour at the level of 5 Mbit/ s single TV service decoder.
According to the standard, the new DVB-T2 QEF corresponds to a Trans-
port Stream Packet Error Ratio PER < 107 before the demultiplexer.
Some other performance criterion is picture failure point. It is dened
in specications as the minimum C/ I value causing more than 1 TS erro-
neous packet in a 10 s period, with a correction component added to it,
value of which is depending on measurement conditions [39].
QEF criterion is more restrictive than picture failure point and the
required C/ N is higher for QEF than for the picture failure point.
In all the specications described below, the front-end shall be able to
tune to center frequencies given by formulas (8.1) and (8.2).
fc 114 MHz + K 8 MHz, K {0, 1, . . . , 93} (8.1)

fc 107.5 MHz + L 7 MHz, L {0, 1, . . . , 27} (8.2)
8.2.2 Common receiver model

Most specications assume that the receiver consists of the following com-
ponents:
the RF front-end includes the tuner and demodulator
Tuner thanks to ideal automatic gain control (AGC) provides constant

power level at its output, the tuner noise gure NF is the noise gure
of the entire front-end and for simplicity it is assumed that it is
independent from frequency; one shall bear in mind that in real
front-ends NF depends on frequency.
Demodulator includes a channel corrector, which compared to an

ideal demodulator has an implementation loss in dB denoted IL.
There is an additional noise source in the receiver; the level of this

noise is denoted Px and the level proportional to the wanted signal C.
85
Figure 8.1: Typical DTT RF front-end assumed in specications
This is why the level of this additional noise is given in relative units
dBc . This kind of noise models e.g. the phase noise of the tuners
LO, quantization noises of AD converters, etc.
A typical front-end model with the above-mentioned features is shown

in gure 8.1
At the demodulator output the signal to noise takes the form of (8.3).
C
C/ N (8.3)
kTBF + CPx
where k 1.38 1023 KJ is the Boltzmann constant, T 290 K is the
reference temperature. Chester97 and RRC06 are similar, however they
neglect the source of the additional noise of the receiver Px . What is more,
the RRC06 neglects the implementation loss.
It is assumed in all the specications that the input impedance of the
receiver is 75 . It is usually required that the input RF connector shall
comply IEC 60169-2.
8.2.3 Propagation channel assumptions

Most specications look into three types of propagation channels: Gaussian,
Rician and Rayleigh. Gaussian channel is characterized by adding white
Gaussian noise to the wanted signal. The Rician channel is the one with
dominant direct path and a number of reected signals. Rayleigh channel
is a channel with the direct path absent.
8.2.4 Image channel issue

Most tuners work on the basis of single conversion from fc to fIF , usually
fIF 36 MHz. Shifting the signal toward IF requires a local oscillator
working at fLO fc + fIF . In the process of mixing, apart from the wanted
signal of frequency fc , which is converted into fLO , also signals from so
called image channel add to IF signal. The image channel frequency equals
fim fLO +fIF fc +2fIF . The image channel signal shall be ltered out by the
tracking lter, however in real receivers robustness against image channel
remains around 10 dB worse than against other unwanted channels.
86
8.3. ETSI EN 300 744 NORM
8.3 ETSI EN 300 744 norm
Although ETSI EN 300 744 [3] as the DVB-T norms itself, denes gener-
ally the transmitted signal only, there are some assumptions made about the
receiver parameters and theoretical performance is given. In the norm ta-
bles were given including theoretically calculated C/ N for Gaussian, Rician
and Rayleigh channels 8.2. It is assumed in the norm, that the receiver
performs ideal channel estimation and phase noise is neglected. Rician
and Rayleigh channels were dened by giving equations for signals in
time domain for each channel type. Those equations use common for both
channels echo prole consisting of 20 paths. The norm denes relative
attenuation and phase shift for each path. Due to such a high number of
paths, models from [3] are not practical for testing real receivers. This is
why in some other specications, e.g. NorDig, echo models were simpli-
ed.
Table 8.2: Required C/ N for non-hierarchical transmission in DVB-T 8 K

mode
System variant Required C/ N [dB] in a channel of type:
Modulation R Gauss Rice Rayleigh
QPSK 1/2 3.1 4.1 5.9
QPSK 2/3 5.3 6.1 9.6
QPSK 3/4 6.3 7.2 12.4
QPSK 5/6 7.3 8.5 15.6
QPSK 7/8 7.9 9.2 17.5
16-QAM 1/2 9.3 9.8 11.8
16-QAM 2/3 11.4 12.1 15.3
16-QAM 3/4 12.6 13.4 18.1
16-QAM 5/6 13.8 14.8 21.3
16-QAM 7/8 14.4 15.7 23.6
64-QAM 1/2 13.8 14.3 16.4
64-QAM 2/3 16.7 17.3 20.3
64-QAM 3/4 18.2 18.9 23.0
64-QAM 5/6 19.4 20.4 26.2
64-QAM 7/8 20.2 21.3 28.6
source: EN 300 744 [3]
Values from Table 8.2 were derived theoretically and shall be corrected
according to the realistic receiver model; e.g. AGCOM 216/00 [122] there
is a reference to Table 8.2 with implementation margin added.
87
8.4 Chester97 Coordination Agreement
The receiver noise gure in any case equals NF 7 dB and the imple-
mentation margin always equals IL 3 dB. Protection ratio for DVB-T
broadcasts in adjacent and image channels were assumed 40 dB, however
it was admitted that the value was a result of lack of experimental data.
The required C/ N in Chester97 is given it Table 8.3. The Table 8.4 shows
co-channel protection ratios for DVB-T interfered by DVB-T in 2K mode.
Table 8.3: Required C/ N

QPSK 1/2 3.1 3.6 5.4
QPSK 2/3 4.9 5.7 8.4
QPSK 3/4 5.9 6.8 10.7
QPSK 5/6 6.9 8.0 13.1
QPSK 7/8 7.7 8.7 16.3
16-QAM 1/2 8.8 9.6 11.2
16-QAM 2/3 11.1 11.6 14.2
16-QAM 3/4 12.5 13.0 16.7
16-QAM 5/6 13.5 14.4 19.3
16-QAM 7/8 13.9 15.0 22.8
64-QAM 1/2 14.4 14.7 16.0
64-QAM 2/3 16.5 17.1 19.3
64-QAM 3/4 18.0 18.6 21.7
64-QAM 5/6 19.3 20.0 25.3
64-QAM 7/8 20.1 21.0 27.9
source: Chester97 [123]
Table 8.4: Co-channel protection ratios for DVB-T interfered by DVB-T in

2 K mode
System variant Protection ratio [dB] in a channel of type:
QPSK 1/2 5 7 8
16-QAM 1/2 13 14
16-QAM 3/4 14 16 20
64-QAM 1/2 18 19
64-QAM 2/3 19 20 22
source: Chester97 [123]
88
8.5. FINAL ACTS OFF RRC06, GE06 COORDINATION AGREEMENT
8.5 Final acts off RRC06, GE06 coordination agree-

ment
As a result of the coordination conference in Geneva in 2006, known as
GE06, a coordination agreement was signed between countries of ITU re-
gion 2. The Final Acts [111] were released comprising propagation model
and its curves, protection ratios, etc. The purpose of this conference was
to prepare a frequency plan and coordination methodology for implemen-
tation of DVB-T in ITU region 2.
Four reference networks (RN) have been dened to cover possible ap-
plications of DVB-T networks. Reference Planning Congurations have
been dened to cover possible modes of reception: RPC1, RPC2, , and
RPC3. Frequency planning congurations may be grouped with respect
to reception mode and frequency. The reception modes have been divided
into three categories:
RPC1 - xed reception
RPC2 - porTable outdoor reception, mobile reception and lower cov-

erage quality porTable indoor reception
RPC3 - porTable indoor reception of higher coverage.
Besides reference planning, also dierent channels models were pro-

posed: PO - porTable outdoor channel, PI - porTable indoor channel
and MO - mobile channel. Two reference frequencies have been selected:
200 MHz from the VHF band and 650 MHz from the UHF band.
In annex 3.2 to [111] there were C/ N values dened as well as minimum
median eld strengths of electric eld for all DVB-T variants. The C/ N
values are cited in Table 8.5. In annex 3.4 formulas were dened for
calculating required electric eld strengths based on receiver architectures
and assumptions made on the receiving installation. The noise gure was
assumed as always equal NF 7 dB. In adjacent channels the protection
ratio is assumed 30 dB. Also co-channel protection ratios were given, in
Table 8.6 protection ratios for DVB-T service interfering another DVB-T
service is given.
8.6 IEC 62216 norm

Implementation margin is dened as IL 2.5 dB, additional noise intro-
duced by the receiver equals Px 33 dBc . Noise gure of the receiver is
assumed NF > 8 dB.
According to this norm the receiver shall deliver the reference BER for
signal levels greater then Pmin where
89
Table 8.5: Required C/ N for dierent DVB-T variants

Rice Rayleigh
Modulation R Gauss
FX PO PI MO
QPSK 1/2 4,9 5,9 8,1 8,1 11,1
QPSK 2/3 6,8 7,9 10,2 10,2 13,2
QPSK 3/4 7,9 9,1 11,5 11,5 14,5
QPSK 5/6 9,0 10,3 12,8 12,8 15,8
QPSK 7/8 9,9 11,3 13,9 13,9 16,9
16-QAM 1/2 10,6 11,6 13,8 13,8 16,8
16-QAM 2/3 13,0 14,1 16,4 16,4 19,4
16-QAM 3/4 14,5 15,7 18,1 18,1 21,1
16-QAM 5/6 15,6 16,9 19,4 19,4 22,4
16-QAM 7/8 16,1 17,5 20,1 20,1 23,1
64-QAM 1/2 16,2 17,2 19,4 19,4 22,4
64-QAM 2/3 18,4 19,5 21,8 21,8 24,8
64-QAM 3/4 20,0 21,2 23,6 23,6 26,6
64-QAM 5/6 21,4 22,7 25,2 25,2 28,2
64-QAM 7/8 22,3 23,7 26,3 26,3 29,3
source: RRC06 [111]
Table 8.6: Co-channel protection ratios for DVB-T interfered by DVB-T
System variant Protection ratio [dB] in a channel of type:

Rice Rayleigh
Modulation R
FX PO PI MO
QPSK 1/2 6.0 8.0 8.0 11.0
QPSK 2/3 8.0 11.0 11.0 14.0
QPSK 3/4 9.3 11.7 11.7 14.7
QPSK 5/6 10.5 13.0 13.0 16.0
QPSK 7/8 11.5 14.1 14.1 17.1
16-QAM 1/2 11.0 13.0 13.0 16.0
16-QAM 2/3 14.0 16.0 16.0 19.0
16-QAM 3/4 15.0 18.0 18.0 21.0
16-QAM 5/6 16.9 19.4 19.4 22.4
16-QAM 7/8 17.5 20.1 20.1 23.1
64-QAM 1/2 17.0 19.0 19.0 22.0
64-QAM 2/3 20.0 23.0 23.0 26.0
64-QAM 3/4 21.0 25.0 25.0 28.0
64-QAM 5/6 23.3 25.8 25.8 28.8
64-QAM 7/8 24.3 26.9 26.9 29.9
source: RRC06 [111]
90
8.6. IEC 62216 NORM
Pmin 97.2 dBm + C/ N[ dB] for 8 MHz channels (8.4)

Pmin 97.8 dBm + C/ N[ dB] for 7 MHz channels (8.5)
and C/ N values are given in Table 8.7.
Table 8.7: Required C/ N for for reaching reference BER

QPSK 1/2 5.6 6.1 7.9
QPSK 2/3 7.4 8.2 10.9
QPSK 3/4 8.4 9.3 13.2
QPSK 5/6 9.4 10.5 15.7
QPSK 7/8 10.2 11.2 19.0
16-QAM 1/2 11.3 12.1 13.8
16-QAM 2/3 13.7 14.2 16.8
16-QAM 3/4 15.1 15.6 19.4
16-QAM 5/6 16.1 17.0 22.1
16-QAM 7/8 16.5 17.6 26.1
64-QAM 1/2 17.0 17.3 18.7
64-QAM 2/3 19.2 19.8 22.1
64-QAM 3/4 20.8 21.4 24.8
64-QAM 5/6 22.1 22.9 29.4
64-QAM 7/8 23.0 24.0 33.9
source: IEC 61126 [33]
Picture failure point correction component is dened equal to 0.5 dB.

According to the norm the receiver shall guarantee reception up to the
maximum input level 35 dBm.
Protection ratios against interfering signals were given as in Table 8.8.
Table 8.8: Receiver immunity against interfering DVB-T signals (values

are valid for 2 K and 8 K modes and all guard intervals)
Maximum I/ C [dB] in a channel of type:

System variant
adjacent other image
16-QAM, R 1/ 2 29 40 39
16-QAM, R 2/ 3 29 40 36
16-QAM, R 3/ 4 29 40 35
64-QAM, R 2/ 3 27 40 31
64-QAM, R 3/ 4 27 40 29
91
Receiver shall enable reception of reference BER in existence of two

paths of relative delays from 0.2 s to 0.9 s regardless of amplitudes and
phases of such paths. In multipath environment in MFNs so called long
echo prole is dened, which is shown i Table 8.9. Receiver shall achieve
the reference BER if C/ N 24.2 dB in the system variant agreed as a
representative variant, namely 64-QAM, 2K, R 2/ 3, / TU 1/ 32.
Table 8.9: Long echo prole
Path Delay Attenuation

index [ s ] [dB]
1 0 0
2 5 9
3 14 22
4 35 25
5 54 27
6 75 28
For SFNs a short echo prole is dened and it is cited in Table 8.10.
Table 8.10: Short echo prole
Path Delay Attenuation

index [ s ] [dB]
1 0 2.8
2 0.05 0
3 0.4 3.8
4 1.45 0.1
5 2.3 2.6
6 2.8 1.3
8.7 NorDIG specication

In [34, 35] receiver requirements are dened in chapter 3.4 Terrestrial
Tuner and Demodulator. Also an addendum to version 2.1 was issued
where changes compared to DVB-T were marked out [36].
The new NorDig receiver [35] shall include at least one tuner and
demodulator for reception of signals from terrestrial transmitters broad-
casting a signal compatible with the DVB-T or DVB-T2. It means that a
DVB-T2 receiver shall also be backward compatible with DVB-T.
The 8 MHz and 7 MHz channel widths are mandatory in the UHF band.
The 8 MHz raster is optional in VHF.
92
8.7. NORDIG SPECIFICATION
The support for 1.7 MHz channels in VHF is optional for receivers
issued before 2012. In 2012 and later, the NorDig compatible receiver
shall also support the 1.7 MHz raster.
If the receiver supports 8 MHz as well as 7 MHz rasters in the VHF
band, the receiver shall automatically detect, which bandwidth is used.
Reception of both hierarchical and non-hierarchical modes is required.
The receiver shall support both the normal and extended carrier modes.
Pmin 105.7 dBm + NF[ dB] + C/ N[ dB] for 7 MHz channels (8.6)
Pmin 105.2 dBm + NF[ dB] + C/ N[ dB] for 8 MHz channels (8.7)
The required C/ N (cited in Table 8.11) was dened for two interference
proles:
Prole 1: the interfering signal is a Gaussian noise
Prole 2: receivers get the signal from direct path as well as from
a delayed path of delay from 1.95 s to 0.95 of the . The delayed
path is of equal power of the main path and there is no phase of
frequency shift.
Table 8.11: Required C/ N for achieving reference BER
System variant Required C/ N [dB]

Modulation R Prole 1 Prole 2
QPSK 1/2 5.1 8.8
QPSK 2/3 6.9 13.7
QPSK 3/4 7.9 17.4
QPSK 5/6 8.9
QPSK 7/8 9.7
16-QAM 1/2 10.8 13.3
16-QAM 2/3 13.1 17.9
16-QAM 3/4 14.6 22.1
16-QAM 5/6 15.6
16-QAM 7/8 16.0
64-QAM 1/2 16.5 19.0
64-QAM 2/3 18.7 19.0
64-QAM 3/4 20.2 27.6
64-QAM 5/6 21.6
64-QAM 7/8 22.5
source: NorDig [36]
The required C/ N from Table 8.11 in order to achieve QEF are given
assuming / TU 1/ 4 and the 8K mode.
93
NorDig compliant receiver shall perform correct channel estimation

with path delays up to 7/ 24TU regardless of the echo prole.
With respect to variants dened as reference (8K, 64-QAM, R 2/ 3,
/ TU 1/ 8; 8K, 64-QAM, R 2/ 3, / TU 1/ 4; 8K, 64-QAM, R 3/ 4,
/ TU 1/ 4), the receiver shall always achieve QEF in a channel with
two paths of relative delay from 1.95 s to 0.95 regardless of relative
amplitudes and phases.
The receiver must also achieve QEF in the case when the delayed signals
arrive outside the guard interval, They must however fulll parameters
shown in Table 8.12, the example is cited for 8 MHz channels.
Table 8.12: Delays and relative attenuations of signals outside guard in-
terval
Relative delay
260 230 200 150 120 120 150 200 230 260
[ s ]
System variant Relative attenuation [dB]
8 K 64-QAM
15 13 10 5 5 10 13 15
R 2/ 3, / TU 1/ 8
8 K 64-QAM
10 5 5 10
R 2/ 3, / TU 1/ 4
8 K 64-QAM
12 6 6 12
R 3/ 4, / TU 1/ 4
source: NorDig [36]
According to [36], the receiver shall be able to automatically detect

network parameter change from normal to extended carrier mode and
back.
It is interesting that NorDig required support for TFS before 2012, how-
ever this was not followed by the manufacturers. Single PLP and multiple
PLP mode support is required with the maximum allowed number of PLPs
equal to 255. NorDig requires a DVB-T2 IRD to show DVB-T2 system
ID as well as PLP ID.
In [36] a couple of features were marked optional, such as:
the receiver is not required to support generic streams (GS or GSE),

however the existence of them shall not cause faulty operation
carrier modes 16 K and 32 K are not required for 1.7 MHz channels.
Receivers shall receive signals with an oset up to 50 kHz. RF input is

an IEC female connector with input impedance of 75 .
The required maximum Noise Figure (NF) depends on frequency band.
Selected NF requirements from [34], with additional S Band requirements
from [34] omitted, are presented in Table 8.13.
94
8.8. DGTVI D-BOOK SPECIFICATION AND AGCOM 216/00 RESOLUTION
Table 8.13: Maximum receiver NF from [34]

Band Noise Figure (NF)
VHF band III 5 dB
UHF band IV and V 8 dB
Besides standard DVB-T transmission parameters recovered by the IRD

from transport stream PSI/SI tables, namely:
DVB triplet
Original Network ID
Transport Stream ID
Service ID
Network ID.
8.8 DGTVi D-Book specication and AGCOM 216/00

Resolution
In DGTVi D-Book [32] specication and AGCOM 216/00 Resolution [122]
the required noise gure equals NF 8 dB and the implementation margin
is IL 3 dB. Maximum input signal not destroying QEF reception is
28 dBm at input impedance 75 .
Receiver shall enable QEF reception in the presence of two paths of
relative delays from 0.2 s to 0.9, regardless of phase or amplitude dif-
ferences between the paths.
The required C/ N are identical to those in EN 300 744 [3].
Immunity against interference was taken from [122]. In the case of
0 dB echo with the noise and interferers absent, the receiver must enable
QEF when echo paths arriving with delays not longer that any length of
.
8.9 PolSpec
For the purpose of regulating the Polish market of DTT receivers, a speci-
cation under the umbrella of then Ministry of Infrastructure was developed
by representatives of STB and TV manufacturers, broadcasters, regulators
and other professional organizations. The leading role for editorial works
was taken by KIGEiT organization, which also issued the document [124]
parallel to the regulation of the Ministry of 2009 [125]. Both documents
are similar, however in [125] some requirements were mitigated compared
to [124], however changes concerned not the physical and transmission
layers.
95
PolSpec is in principle based on IEC 62216 [33], from which the re-
ceiver model was taken as well as the required C/ N, correction tables, and
other. The implementation margin is assumed IL 2.5 dB and additional
noise source power is assumed Px 33 dBc . Minimum required C/ N are
identical to those in [33] except for the variants with R 7/ 8.
The STB shall receive signals in 7 MHz channels in VHF band and
8 MHz in UHF band. The demodulator shall automatically detect change
of modulation, which is signaled on TPS sub-carriers in DVB-T. The recon-
guration time after parameter change shall be less than 1 s. The receiver
shall display C/ N and BER after Viterbi decoder.
The input impedance shall equal 75 . The input connector of IEC type
connector shall support antenna power supply of 5 V voltage and 30 mA
with short circuit protection. The unique feature is requirement that the
reected signal shall be attenuated by at least 6 dB.
The RF front-end shall properly demodulate all transmission variants
described in [3] including the hierarchical mode.
96
Receiver architectures
9
In this Chapter architectures and parameters of digital terrestrial television
receivers (tuners and demodulators) are analyzed and evaluated in order to
nd the right architecture for universal (backward or down compatible),
low cost DVB-T2 consumer appliances as well as the right model for
coverage calculations. The receiver models, that are currently used in the
radio planning considerations, are far too simplied and thus not adequate
[126, 127]. Therefore, in this work the tuner and demodulator structures
are discussed together, which means the analysis of interfaces from N to Z
[55] with all elements between (cf., Fig. 10.1).
Receivers shall automatically detect, which transmission mode is used.
This is possible using transmission parameter signaling, which is trans-
mitted using carriers of known parameters such as modulation type and
constellation. The most important parameter indicating the receiver op-
eration quality is the bit error rate (BER) before the Reed-Solomon (RS)
decoder (module X in Fig. 10.1). BER is dened as the ratio between er-
roneous bits and the total number of transmitted bits [128]. Thus, it is the
primary parameter, which describes the quality of the digital transmission
link.
9.1 Digital TV receiver elements and interfaces

According to ETSI TR 101 290 [55], the DTT receiver may be decomposed
into elements shown in Fig. 10.1 and the following elements inuence
signal coverage and thus the radio planning methods in DTT:
tuner, which selects the desired channel and converts it to the stan-
dard intermediate frequency in a way it rejects unwanted signals,
especially in adjacent and image channels
demodulator, where the intermediate frequency signal is sampled,

OFDM symbols are synchronized, demodulated and the convolutional
code is decoded; the resulting MPEG-2 transport stream (TS) is sent
to the demodulator output.
97
CHAPTER 9. RECEIVER ARCHITECTURES
In diversity reception the receiver itself may have several tuners and de-
modulators connected with each other. Diversity data containing symbol
reliabilities are transmitted between tuners via a dedicated interface. One
of the tuner and demodulator pairs takes the role of the master unit, in
which the MRC algorithm is implemented. The output MPEG-2 TS is
produced in this case at the output of the master unit. Most of tuner and
demodulator modules, usually called RF front-ends in the eld of digital
television, send additional information beyond the demodulated transport
stream. Among these the most important is the signal strength indicator.
DTT receivers may have a couple of automatic gain control (AGC) points
where rst the AGC loop measures the wideband RF signal power. Some
receivers enable using an external AGC that uses its own AD converter
[129]. In DVB-T tuners, power measurement for AGC loop is performed
in several points, i.e.: before Viterbi decoder, after it, as well as after the
Reed-Solomon decoder. Seven bits AD converters are often used for this
purpose. Some elements of the receiver do not eect quality of reception,
nor radio planning and belong to such elds as: coding and compression
of video and audio components, conditional access systems, middleware
and a several other elds.
9.2 Tuners
Tuners on-chip architectures are typically built in CMOS (or BiCOMS)
technology are integrated into a single circuit with 2.7 V or 3.3 V power
supply, part of which is compatible with the TTL voltage level. Current
architectures are implemented on the main stream 0.35 m or 0.18 m
CMOS technologies. As a part of the project described in [130], a prototype
in the 0.35 m CMOS technology was built. Power consumption of the
overall device is close to 1 W, the maximum value does not exceed 1.5 W.
The output peak signal is close to 1 Vpp , with 500 output impedance.
Tuner variable gain falls between 65 dB and 90 dB [33, 126, 127, 131, 132,
129, 133, 134, 135, 136, 130, 137]. Typically tuners accept signals in the
range as in [128], -91.635 dBm. The RF front-end NF is typically 8 dB
Most tuners use the super-heterodyne architecture. In the rst stage
the input signal is amplied by LNA. Placing LNA at the beginning of
the chain maintains noise gure on the acceptable level. Then the LO,
mixer, and PLL downconvert the RF signal into IF. The requirement for
LO is relatively low phase noise. The LO is a voltage controlled oscillator
providing a clock signal for the demodulator. The main tuner architectures
are:
single IF conversion (Fig. 9.3)
double IF conversion (Fig. 9.4)
quadrature conversion with a polyphase lter (PPF) (Fig. 9.5)
98
9.2. TUNERS
Figure 9.1: Image channel problem
Figure 9.2: A classical single conversion tuner architecture with tracking

lter and SAW lter
99
Figure 9.3: A classical single conversion tuner architecture with tracking

lter and SAW lter
Figure 9.4: Double conversion tuner architecture with two intermediate

frequencies
Figure 9.5: Quadrature conversion with a polyphase lter (PPF)
Figure 9.6: Double IF conversion with I and Q streams
100
9.2. TUNERS
double IF conversion with I and Q streams (Fig. 9.6)
Nowadays, most typical consumer tuners are based on the so-called

single conversion scheme (Fig. 9.3) and contain tracking lters [138, 139].
Note that the performance of this kind of tuners depends on the quality
of the tracking lter [126, 127]. In the classical design, after the tracking
lter, a selective surface acoustic wave (SAW) lter is placed. This kind of
lter because of its dimensions cannot be implemented on-chip.
9.2.1 Adjacent channel signals rejection

Filters with the Q parameter higher than 300 are used for nal ltering
of IF signals before passing them to AD converters. It should be men-
tioned that the Q parameter, the 3 dB lter width B3 dB and the resonance
frequency 0 are connected with the following equation
0
B3 dB . (9.1)
Q
Assuming B3 dB 7.61 MHz and Q 300 we get f0 0 / (2) 36.3 MHz,

which is the most often used value for intermediate frequency. Surface
acoustic wave (SAW) lters are usually used in order to achieve sucient
Q parameter. Typical SAW lters are not integrated on-chip and are ad-
justed for the specic channel width. Compatibility with 6, 7 and 8 MHz
channel widths is realized using three switched SAW lters or with one
SAW lter with 8 MHz passband but with additional digital lter after the
AD converter.
9.2.2 Image channel signals rejection

As it was already stressed above, the single conversion architecture suers
from necessity of using a tracking lter for image channel rejection. The
most popular intermediate frequency for European systems DVB-T and
DVB-T2 is 36 MHz whereas for ATSC it is usually 44 MHz. In Europe
such IF means that image channels are 72 MHz away from the wanted
channel, which is the distance of 9 channels for 8 MHz channel width (Fig.
9.1).
This is why receiver robustness against interference is worse for N + 9
channels than other channel, e.g. N+ 4, where N is the wanted channel. In
Fig. 9.2 an average single-conversion receiver C/ I after the tuner is shown
for DVB-T variant C2 (64-QAM, R 2/ 3) for interfering DVB-T signals
in dier-ent channels. Notice vulnerability to image channel shown in Fig.
9.2.
For this reason double conversion architecture is employed with the
rst intermediate frequency over 1 GHz and down-conversion into the sec-
ond intermediate frequency equal for instance 36.167, 44, or 4.57 MHz
(Fig. 9.4). In this case the image channel falls outside the television
101
band. The rst IF above the television band is used also in order to solve
the problem of local oscillator (LO) phase noise, which is hard to reduce
when applying monolithic design. The receiver architecture proposed in
[140] uses a xed rst intermediate frequency of 1.2 GHz that moves the
rst local oscillator range from 1.37 to 2.06 GHz. The second IF equals
4.57 MHz and for that reason the second local oscillator frequency is xed
at 1.20457 GHz. This approach is the so-called low-IF solution. In result,
two SAW lters need to be used in this double conversion architecture.
Intermediate frequency signals need to be amplied for nominal AD con-
verter signal level and full dynamic converter range should be used. Signals
from I and Q paths are sampled with 18.286 MHz frequency in typical AD
converters. However, there are solutions with I and Q signals generated
after tuner, namely in the demodulator.
Image channels may be eciently rejected by polyphase lters (PPFs).
This kind of lters can distinguish between positive and negative frequency
in the input signals. This feature is possible because harmonic components
of the input signal are given in several phases at the same time, as shown
in Fig. 9.7.
Figure 9.7: Polyphase lter input and output signals
Multiplication is carried out for frequency conversion in mixers. Let us

assume that local oscillator angular frequency equals
LO IF u (9.2)
where IF is the IF and u is the desired signal frequency. Mixing of the

LO signal with the desired one may be expressed as
cos (u t + ) cos LO t cos (u t + ) cos ((IF u )t)

1 1
cos (IF t + ) + cos ((2u IF )t + ) . (9.3)
2 2
Now let the image signal has frequency im u 2IF . Now the result
102
9.2. TUNERS
of mixing equals
cos (im t + ) cos LO t cos ((u 2IF )t + ) cos ((IF u )t)

1 1
cos (IF t + ) + cos ((2u 3IF )t + ) .
2 2
(9.4)
According to the last equation, the image channel signal has negative
frequency, whereas the desired signal is of positive frequency. Passive
polyphase lters may be used to reject the unwanted signals of negative
frequencies (Fig. 9.8).
Figure 9.8: Passive polyphase lter architecture, used in [130] for image
channel rejection
9.2.3 Direct conversion tuners

In direct conversion, the LO frequency equals the center frequency of the
wanted channel. Thank to this the IF is reduced to zero and this method
is also known as zero-IF (ZIF) [128]. The IF signal is obtained in the form
of baseband I and Q paths. In order to gain this, the quadrature LO with
two outputs is used. In this architecture, the phase dierence between LO
paths is 90 and any phase inaccuracies between I and Q paths increase IQ
crosstalks and noise level. The practical problem of such architectures is
reecting LO signal back to the tuner input. This signal may be radiated
back by the receiving antenna. Another problem is that during conversion
of a VHF signal, the harmonics of the LO may introduce interference from
the UHF channel and mix with the wanted signal in the VHF band.
103
9.2.4 Local oscillators

The double IF conversion architecture DVB-T receivers (Fig. 9.4) usually
use one local oscillator with one external crystal. A signal from the oscilla-
tor is passed to two-channel frequency synthesizer and further those two
signals are used by two independent VCOs or PLLs. Outputs of those are
used as LO signals in mixers as it is shown in Fig. 9.9.a. On the contrary,
phase shifters are used in the single IF conversion architecture with I and
Q streams as shown in Fig. 9.9.b.
Figure 9.9: Local oscillators: a) double IF conversion architecture, b) single

IF conversion architecture with I and Q streams
9.2.5 Surface acoustic wave lters

The SAW lter operates in IF and rejects signals in adjacent channels. SAW
lters have xed bandwidth, dedicated for a specied system variant, e.g.
8 MHz in UHF band. Tuners designed for receiving signals of variable
bandwidths have a number of SAW lters and switch between them. For
example, a tuner may have three SAW lters for 6 MHz, 7 MHz, and 8 MHz
signals. In older tuners SAW (Surface Acoustic Wave) lters were used
both in the single and double conversion architectures. They were used as
tuners used to be pure analog devices and SAW lters were the only that
could provide a high Q parameter. As complexity of the RF front-end grew
up in order to support DVB-T2, this drawback of usage of an analog lter
was clear. In modern front-ends, tuner and demodulator are blocked and
use digital lters of high Q. In the Authors opinion, today, SAW lters
should no longer be used in modern receiver designs, as suciently quick,
104
9.2. TUNERS
Figure 9.10: IP3, IIP3 and OPI3 denition illustration
cheaper, more reliable, and more accurate digital lters can be applied
instead [126, 127, 141].
9.2.6 Tuner parameters

Noise gure
Noise gure (NF) is dened as quotient of input to output circuit signal to
noise, and denes noise added by elements of the circuitry. For a number
of cascaded blocks of a receiver, where each has noise gure NF and power
gain G, the total noise gure is dened as:
NF2 1 NF3 1 NFN 1

NF1 + + + + (9.5)
G1 G1 G2 G1 G2 . . . GN1
The rst stages in the chain aect the NF most, thus low noise ampliers
are used on the tuner input. A low noise amplier is characterized the
Noise Figure value close to 4 dB, and gain reinforcement from 20 to 50 dB.
Linearity
Receiver linearity is described by the third order Input Intercept Point
(IIP3). In order to dene IIP3 later on, let us dene the third order
Intercept Point (IP3): it is the point, in which the extrapolated power level
of the third order intermodulation product intercepts with the extrapolated
level of the two-tone desired signal. Extrapolations are calculated from the
point, above which the intermodulation product power level increase is
proportional to the input signal level. In the region above that point, every
1 dB increase of the input level results in the 3 dB increase of the third
105
order intermodulation products. Denition explained above is illustrated

in gure 9.10.
Observing input power level for the IP3 point, IIP3 parameter can be
calculated. If output signal power level is considered, OIP3 parameter is
obtained. IIP3 and OIP3 are bound with the following equation:
IIP3 OIP3 G , (9.6)
where G is the element gain. The total linearity of the receiver could be
expressed by IIP3 of its N blocks by the equation
1 1 A21 A21 A22 A21 A22 . . . A2N1

+ + + + , (9.7)
IIP23 IIP3 21 IIP3 22 IIP3 23 IIP3 2N
where Ai is voltage gain of the i-th block out of N. Contrary to NF, IIP3
depends mainly on the linearity of the last element of a circuit. In work
[140] it has been proved that IIP3 could be determined with the use of
only 40 sub-carriers instead of simulating e.g. full 6817 DVB-T sub-carrier
prole in 8 K mode. Using this simplication, the IIP3 can be determined
with error not exceeding 0.1 dB.
9.3 Demodulators
9.3.1 Channel estimation and equalization
There are two types of channel estimation for OFDM: parametric and non-
parametric. The parametric method uses a deterministic channel model,
which assumes a nite number of delaying paths. In order to estimate the
entire channel in parametric manner, the phases and gains of every delay-
ing path shall be found. On the other hand, the non-parametric method
use some simplifying channel assumptions. Such non-parametric method
is used in the case of DVB-T and DVB-T2 receivers. It consists in estimat-
ing the pilot signals and interpolating the channel. In order to estimate
the CFR (Channel Frequency Response) as well as CIR (Channel Impulse
Response), both in DVB-T and DVB-T2, pilots are used. The channel
equalizer block in a typical DVB-T receiver estimates CFR by measuring
of amplitudes and phases of pilot sub-carriers. In most designs channel
equalizer estimates the CFR by a division of incoming symbols from pilot
sub-carriers by symbols stored in a look-up table (LUT). For data sub-
carriers between pilots, CFR is interpolated. In SFNs with an increase
of distances between transmitters, aliasing phenomenon may occur due
to channel transfer function sampling and restricted number of pilot sub-
carriers. Assuming 8 K mode with 8 MHz channel width and supposing
that TPS sub-carriers do not take part in the channel transfer function
estimation, we obtain the average number of 701.25 pilot sub-carriers per
106
9.4. DIVERSITY, MISO, AND MIMO
one OFDM symbol. Precisely there are 701 sub-carriers in symbols with l
mod 4 0, 1, 2 and 702 sub-carriers in symbols with l mod 4 3 where
l is the symbol index in frame and the sets of continual and scattered pi-
lots indexes have from 43 to 45 common elements. According to Nyquist
theorem it is possible to capture components of the transfer function with
periods over 21.7 kHz, which corresponds to the signal arrival time dif-
ference of 1/ (27.2 kHz) 0.046 ms and the distance between transmitters
equal to 13.8 km. A case with two transmitters is shown in Fig. 9.11.
It can be proved that some aliasing can occur even with low distances
between transmitters and it can aect the receiver synchronization.
Figure 9.11: SFN with two transmitters, impulse response, and channel
transfer function at receiver site
In DVB-T2 there is a number of pilot patterns out of which one may

choose a trade-o between accuracy of channel estimation and loss of
throughput. E.g. in PP1 the pilot pattern for the SISO mode of DVB-T2, if
you assume that the channel is not variable over four symbols, you sample
the channel every fourth sub-carrier.
9.4 Diversity, MISO, and MIMO

According to [77] and [52], diversity reception improves C/ N by 7 dB.
Test diversity receivers for DVB-T used Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
method. In the MRC algorithm, signals from multiple antennas are com-
bined. In the project described in [100], MRC was implemented using
multiple demodulator chips. The solution of simple connecting demod-
ulator chips, e.g. DIB3000-M, has been patented, according to [100]. It
connects chips in a cascade. Every chip gets a separate IF signal from
a dedicated antenna. The rst chip operates as a regular, non-diversity
receiver. The second one, besides its IF signal, receives signal quality in-
formation from the rst chip, the third from the second and so on. Finally,
the last chip in the cascade produces the nal MRC output based on the
107
information from all chips in the chain. In the DIB3000-MC demodulator

described in [52], in the diversity mode with two antennas the required
C/ N for the TU6 prole is up to 7 dB better compared to the single re-
ception mode. The DIB3000-MC chips operates up to maximum Doppler
frequency fd 120 Hz. In DVB-T2 special pilot sub-carrier pattern were
designed for MISO. Two groups of transmitters broadcast inverted pilots.
This information about phase inversion of selected pilots can be used for
better channel estimation. The channel coecients H11,k , H12,k , H21,k , H22,k
can be calculated from the following equations:
ra1,k xa1,k h11,k + xa1,k h12,k + na1,k

ra2,k xa1,k h21,k + xa1,k h22,k + na2,k
(9.8)
rb1,k xb1,k h11,k xb1,k h12,k + nb1,k
rb2,k xb1,k h21,k xb1,k h22,k + nb2,k
where
ra1,k , rb1,k , ra2,k , rb2,k are received symbols for the cases a and b from
antennas 1 and 2 on k-th sub-carrier, respectively
na1,k , na2,k , nb1,k , nb2,k is noise for the cases a and b from antennas 1 and
2 on k-th sub-carrier,
xa1,k , xb1,k are pilot sub-carriers for the cases a and b on k-th sub-carrier,
there are no x with subscript 2 as the sub-carriers are dependent.
For MIMO demodulators, symbol synchronization is done using only one

channel by correlating the guard interval with the symbol. Then the guard
interval is removed and the FFT block is used as the demodulator itself. In
2 2 MIMO the transmittance matrix is of size 2 2. It is assumed that the
radio channel is stationary over four subsequent symbols thanks to this
the sampling density gain of the channel characteristic in the frequency
domain. After channel equalization, the C/ N is calculated for each data
sub-carrier in order to determine its reliability for Viterbi decoder. The
carrier C in the formula is the square of symbol magnitude. The noise N is
calculated as interpolation of noise levels estimated using pilot sub-carriers.
9.5 SFN inuence on receiver operation and FFT

window positioning
Single Frequency Networks (SFNs) are networks of synchronized transmit-
ters radiating identical signals in the same channel. In case of multipath
propagation or single-frequency operation, a number of copies of a single
signal reach the receiver with varying delays [142]. The weighting function
tells us how much of a signal contribution from a given transmitter in a
108
9.5. SFN INFLUENCE ON RECEIVER OPERATION AND FFT WINDOW
POSITIONING
SFN is the wanted part and how much shall be considered as interference.
The weighting function for the DVB-T and DVB-T2 shows the following
attributes:
it is not symmetric
it has a cut-o time after which the arriving signal makes pure inter-
ference.
The longer the echoes in time domain, the denser the frequency notches
in the frequency domain. Depending on the instant of arrival, those copies
are useful signals or interference. To determine the ratio of those two
components, i.e. useful signal versus interference, in radio planning the
following formulas were derived:

0 for (, Tp ]

T + 2

Tu for [ Tp , 0]
wi
u (9.9)

1 for [0, ]

3 for 3
The quadratic dependence may be explained as follows: the receiver deci-

sion of the most probable transmitted symbol is made based on the corre-
lator output. In the OFDM modulation, the role of parallel correlators for
each sub-carrier is played by the FFT block. The useful part weight of the
signal, that arrived earlier before or later after the reference signal, shall
be interpreted as the ratio dening what would be the equivalent power
of that signal if it arrived at the same instant as the reference signal, to
which the receiver has synchronized.
In coverage calculations there are dierent methods to simulate the be-
havior of the receiver. For the purpose of simulation of an SFN operations,
the receiver synchronization method must be assumed. The following
methods of receiver locking are possible to choose from:
minimum delay or rst above threshold called the correlation-based

synchronization (Fig. 9.12)
maximum level (Fig. 9.13)
maximum power (Fig. 9.14)
theoretically optimal, accumulating maximum useful signal power

using equation 9.9, a theoretical model assumed in some propagation
simulations
The minimum delay method (a.k.a. rst above threshold) synchronizes

to the rst signal exceeding a given threshold. It is popular in many
demodulators as it is relatively easy to implement using comparing the
correlator output with a given triggering threshold. The maximum level
method consists in searching the peak power value of the incoming signals.
109
Figure 9.12: Minimum delay method for FFT window positioning
Figure 9.13: Maximum level method for FFT window positioning
Figure 9.14: Maximum power method for FFT window positioning
110
9.5. SFN INFLUENCE ON RECEIVER OPERATION AND FFT WINDOW
POSITIONING
The maximum power method means that the receiver searches for such
positions of the window, that it uses maximum of incoming signal power.
Using the last, optimal method in the receiver places the FFT window
in such a way that the highest wanted eld strength is acquired. This
method is rather complex to implement in real demodulators and is used
most commonly in simulations.
9.5.1 Symbol Timing Recovery (STR) and Symbol Timing

Oset (STO)
Channel impulse response (CIR) may be estimated through correlation
between the received signals and the pilots. It may be also done eciently
using the IFFT block, however if the STO is estimated with insucient
accuracy, ambiguity of CIR estimation emerges, which makes further ne
STO estimation impossible. Also ne STR depends on the quality of the
initial STO estimation. Unfortunately, conventional STR may recognize
the nal echo a circularly shifted pre-echo, which would nd wrong FFT
window position. Initial circular shift of the FFT window caused the
ambiguity of CIR. To estimate accurate STO, the ambiguity eect must be
reduced.
The greater STO, the worse the found position of the FFT window.
Such dislocation of the window causes ISI (Inter-Symbol Interference)
and prevents from proper estimation of the CFR (Channel Frequency Re-
sponse). It turned out that the best method is two-stage STR calculation
for receivers working in SISO mode: coarse and ne. As mentioned in
[114], the ne STO estimation depends on the quality of coarse STR. In
a classical approach, coarse STR may be done using the MLE (Maximum
Likelihood Estimation) method to nd initial FFT window. Fine STR may
be performed using a number of methods:
analyzing slope angle of phases of pilot sub-carriers, this method,

although accurate, remains ineective for fast varying channels in the
frequency domain as it requires to analyze the phase of thousands of
pilot sub-carriers
CIR (Channel Impulse Response) calculation using IFFT - rather in-

eective real in hardware implementations
suboptimal combination of dierent steps:
predening a set of possible STR times, calculation of SNR and

than selecting the best variant
analyzing the inuence of timing on constellation.
In MISO mode, the conventional STR is outperformed by the method

described in [114]. Using the MISO channel, CIR was estimated rst by
observing special pilot patterns.
111
9.5.2 Impairments within receivers

Carrier Frequency Oset (CFO) causes reception quality degradation since:
symbol on sub-carrier k will appear on some other sub-carrier k + l
phase shift will occur, growing with every OFDM symbol.
There are a number of CFO estimators, e.g. Schmidt estimator, which nds
oset for the sub-carrier, for which the correlation with pilots is maximal.
In OFDM systems, CFO can spoil orthogonality. CFO is caused by the
local oscillator inaccuracy in the receiver as well as the Doppler shift. The
instability of the sampling clock in the receivers causes sampling frequency
oset. The DIB3000-MC demodulator chip recovers 300 kHz frequency
oset [52] if such oset is used by the broadcaster for interference mitiga-
tion purposes. In a real receiver, various implementation impairments are
observed. Among these the most important error sources are:
symbol timing oset Td
sampling frequency or timing oset t
phase oset 0
carrier frequency oset f
ICI (Inter-Carrier interference) for k-th carrier Ik .
A received symbol on k-th sub-carrier with above-mentioned errors in-

cluded may take the form of [142] equation
Td
j(2k T )+2k t(n)
T +0 +2kf Ts )
Rk Hk Xk e u u + Ik + Nk . (9.10)
9.5.3 LDPC decoding

LDPC codes can be decoded using the Sum-Product Algorithm (SPA) based
on message passing method. The LDPC codes selected for DVB-S2 and
DVB-T2 are irregular type. The parity check matrix is a sparse matrix and
it takes the form H [H1 |H2 ] where H2 is a staircase (lower triangular)
matrix and H1 is a random sparse matrix with column weight from 3
to 13 depending on the code rate. The LDPC decoder consists of bit
nodes and check nodes, where bit nodes are in groups of amount equal
M. The submatrix H1 is periodic in DVB-T2 in order to reduce memory
requirements M times in the receiver, where M 360 in DVB-T2. It is
sucient to specify check nodes for the rst bit node in a group while
the check nodes for the rest of bits can be calculated. The Sum-Product
Algorithm is the following:
initialization
iterative process with bit and check node updates
112
9.6. CD3 ALGORITHM
decision
Updates of the nodes may be found by using formulas for log-likelihood

ratio (LLR) of messages that check nodes send to bit nodes. Dierent sub-
optimal decoding methods were developed for receivers: piecewise linear
(PW), Look-up-Table (LUT), Jacobian and Min-Sum. The LUT approach
does not require any operations during the iterative phase as logarithmic
function values for calculating LLR are stored in the receiver memory.
9.6 CD3 algorithm

To improve SFN operation and temper aliasing phenomenon the CD3 algo-
rithm was proposed. The abbreviation CD3 (or CDDD) comes from Coded
Decision-Directed Demodulation. CD3 is a method of demodulation with
the feedback loop proposed in [131, 84] in order to improve operation in
large single frequency networks (SFNs). In a classical demodulation, pilot
sub-carriers are used for channel estimation. Contrary to this, in the CD3
method, the channel is estimated for every FFT position. Thus the channel
transfer function may be calculated for every data sub-carrier. This is pos-
sible thanks to taking information after the FEC (forward error correction)
decoder and comparing with the original received symbol. Signal after
FEC decoder is reencoded, reinterleaved, remapped and then remodu-
lated. However, some reference symbol is needed to lock-in the algorithm.
In the DVB-T standard, the drawback is the frequency domain subsam-
pling resulting in rapid degradation of the reception quality if echoes are
outside the guard interval (GI). Due to aliasing, the receiver estimates the
channel incorrectly. Using CD3, gradual degradation of reception capa-
bility is observed with the increase of delayed paths exceeding the GI. In
the rst step of the algorithm, it operates with the feedback loop open. In
this approach transmitting scattered pilots is not necessary and throughput
may be increased by about 8 % for DVB-T. Typically this method is not
implemented. Implementation of CD3 required some hardware modica-
tions to the DVB-T receiver architecture. CD3 algorithm developed for the
DVB-T was adopted as standard to DVB-T2. In DVB-T2 CD3 is a native
mode for some pilot patterns.
9.7 Diversity receivers

According to [77] and [52], diversity reception improves C/ N by 7 dB.
Test diversity receivers for DVB-T used Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
method. In the MRC algorithm, signals from multiple antennas are com-
bined. In the project described in [100], MRC was implemented using
multiple demodulator chips. The solution of simple connecting demod-
ulator chips, e.g. DIB3000-M, has been patented, according to [100]. It
connects chips in a cascade. Every chip gets a separate IF signal from
113
a dedicated antenna. The rst chip operates as a regular, non-diversity

receiver. The second one, besides its IF signal, receives signal quality in-
formation from the rst chip, the third from the second and so on. Finally,
the last chip in the cascade produces the nal MRC output based on the
information from all chips in the chain. In the DIB3000-MC demodulator
described in [52], in the diversity mode with two antennas the required
C/ N for the TU6 prole is up to 7 dB better compared to the single re-
ception mode. The DIB3000-MC chips operates up to maximum Doppler
frequency fd 120 Hz.
9.8 Recommended DVB-T2 receiver architecture

Note, that because of application of analog SAW lters, the interface be-
tween the tuner and the demodulator is analog. Thus, after the digital
processing in the tuner, the signal is converted back to the analog domain
in order to be passed to the demodulator [143, 144]. In modern tuners
low intermediate frequency (IF) around 5 MHz is used [126, 127, 140].
In the Authors opinion, from the perspective of the receiver architec-
ture, both DVB-T and DVB-T2 standards are similar [145]. This is a very
interesting and optimistic observation, as it makes it possible to chose a
unique receiver architecture for both standards and achieve the so-called
backward compatibility and even the plug-and-play like behavior, i.e.,
the universal future receivers.
There are, however, some dierences between the standards that may
to some extent aect the receiver architecture. Among them are:
MISO (multiple input single output) and MIMO (multiple input mul-
tiple output) in DVB-T2 in DVB-T the MRC (maximal-ratio com-
bining) method for the diversity receivers is used
TFS (time frequency slicing) still not implemented in commercially

available front-ends.
Nevertheless, these factors do not cause essential dierences and thus do

not mean signicant costs to get a universal, i.e., backward (or down)
compatible DVB-T2 receivers.
Thus, the most convenient modern receiver architecture for both DVB-
T2 and DVB-T standards seems to be the double frequency conversion
architecture, i.e., this with two intermediate frequencies, as it is robust to
noise in the image channel. In this receiver the coded decision-directed
demodulation (CD3 or CDDD for short) should be used.
114
Digital terrestrial television in
10
Poland current state and future
trends
10.1 Beginning of DVB-T in Poland

The Polish public service broadcaster, Telewizja Polska S. A., hereafter
denoted as TVP, received in 2009 a frequency reservation for a nation-
wide coverage from the regulator UKE (Urzad Komunikacji Elektron-
icznej) [124, 125]. This is called MUX-3. The respective set of the reserved
frequencies consisted of nal as well as temporary frequencies. Temporary
frequencies were included due to still existing analog broadcasts until July
2013. Full migration toward the nal frequency will take place in April
2014 and is possible thanks to the analog switch-o in Poland (ASO),
which already took place on July 23rd, 2013 [146].
In 2009 a public tender was announced by TVP [147], which was won
by EmiTel, the dominant broadcasting network operator in Poland [147].
The basic agreement obliged the contractor to launch transmission in four
stages between October 2010 and April 2014.
In MUX-3 a variant carrying 24.88 Mbit/s with 8K sub-carrier mode is
used. Most transmitters have 64-QAM, R 3/ 4, / Tu 1/ 8 [3], however
for some cases of large SFN cells, R 5/ 6 and / Tu 1/ 8 are used [3].
Note that those two variants have equal throughputs, which is convenient
from the head-end and TS shaping point of view. In such a case through-
put thresholds congured in all the multiplexers within the broadcasting
network are the same.
10.2 DVB-T in progress

Because of settlements between TVP and the contractor, it was important
to determine coverage of the service after launching. In the agreement
115
CHAPTER 10. DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL TELEVISION IN POLAND
CURRENT STATE AND FUTURE TRENDS
between TVP and EmiTel, a defect was dened as occurrence of at least

one the following:
drop of the transmitted power higher than 2 dB
BER after the Viterbi decoder higher than QEF criterion
bad packet order (Continuity_count_error)
loss of TS synchronization (TS_sync_loss).
10.3 DVB-T measurements

The normative basis for the measurements was ETSI TR 101 290 [55, 148,
149].
Measurement campaign of MUX-3 was carried on in 2010 and 2011. In
order to ensure disinterested results, they were performed by two teams
and the results were compared. One measurement team was organized
by EmiTel and the other was formed by Polskie Sieci Nadawcze (PSN),
EmiTels competitor. Both teams measured signals independently, however
in possibly similar conditions [12].
This measurements were based on a predened set of points. These
were selected in such a way that they were located near urban agglomer-
ations, they laid inside the contracted coverage, and the points were easily
available in large public areas, such as supermarket parking lots, etc. It
was important to select places were there were no terrain obstacles near
the reception points in order to get the measurement results repeatable
and plausible.
However, in some cases nding such points was impossible. In some
cases dense urban environments were selected for the purpose to inves-
tigate dierences between two teams. Such situations sometimes caused
signicant dierences in the measurement results [150].
Both teams were t with equipment that allows to measure or visualize
such parameters as: MER (Modulation Error Ratio), EVM (Error Vector
Magnitude), SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio), spectral density as a function of
frequency, channel impulse response with / Tu overlaid, BER (Bit Error
Rate) before and after the Viterbi decoder.
Thus, majority of signicant physical layer parameters were measured.
Out of these the most important were RF frequency accuracy, RF channel
width, and Symbol length. In the transport layer all measurements were
carried out from first_priority, second_priority and third_priority
tables from [55].
The PSN team could only measure signals from the air, thus on the
interface N (Fig. 10.1) [55].
The procedure for both teams was the following:
nding out the azimuth of the transmitter site
116
10.3. DVB-T MEASUREMENTS
Figure 10.1: Interfaces of the transmitter and receiver dened for mea-
surements in [55]
searching for a place least obscured in the direction of the transmitter

site
pulling out the antenna and rotating until the azimuth of the strongest
signal is reached
measuring physical and transmission layers according to [55] and

recording the stream at TVPs head-end at the same time.
In the case of SFNs, the antennas were directed into the direction of
individual transmitters. EmiTel, besides eld measurements, also carried
out on-site measurements. Transport streams were recorded on the spot
as well as at the TVP head-end at the same time. Thank to this, it was
possible to nd weather the possible errors were due to the broadcasting
network or whether they originated from the multiplexing process at the
TVPs head-and [14, 151].
As both teams worked independently, precisely described locations,
read from the GPS (Global Positioning System) receivers, dier. The Emi-
Tel team used a car equipped with a pneumatic 5 m high mast with a
calibrated wideband log-periodic antenna (gain 4.7 dBd at 600 MHz) and
the calibrated cable. PSN used a similar car equipped with a pneumatic
10 m high mast with a calibrated wideband log-periodic antenna (gain
9.2 dBd at 600 MHz) and also the calibrated cable [152].
The from the air reached MER values were between 21 dB and 34, 3 dB
whereas the MER values measured directly after the transmitter and before
117
Figure 10.2: Measured MUX-3 constellation, week signal of MER 18.1 dB

and SNR 20.5 dB, decoding impossible due to low eld strength
Figure 10.3: Measured MUX-3 constellation, strong signal of MER 37 dB,

SNR 40.5 dB
118
10.4. DVB-T FUTURE TRENDS
the channel lter were in the range 29 dB and 41.8 dB with 36 dB as a

typical, median value.
In the specication of the MUX-3 tender [147], the minimum required
eld strength was 57 dBV/ m . The measurements conrmed that signals
below this level caused violating the QEF (quasi error free) reception.
Interesting data were collected during EmiTels and PSNs campaigns.
The measured eld strengths diered in 16 dB at the maximum and these
could not be explained at the stage of drawing the reports up.
Due to such inconsistency, the measurements in the most arguable
points were repeated. To compare results as precisely as possible, also
both cars were placed exactly at the same point. As a part of this experi-
ment, signals from EmiTels antenna were directed to the PSNs equipment
and vice-versa. It turned out that in dense urban areas signal level mea-
surements are strongly dependent on the reception point and the signal
level dierences reached even 16 dB. This means that measuring in urban
area within a discrete set of points will not give satisfactory precision and
the obtained values are scattered [153].
Due to such eects, in order to nd coverage over a given region,
the ITU-R SM.1875 [150] shall be used, in which it is recommended to
measure signal levels in a grid of 500 m 500 m size. If the distribution
of the measured signal levels is found uniform, the grid element size shall
be divided by 2 and the measurements shall be repeated. The results are
recognized as correct when there is a clear median value in the distribution
of signal levels [40].
10.4 DVB-T future trends

Poland started regular DTT broadcasts in October 2010 (MUX-2 and
MUX-3), switched o analog TV in July 2013 and will complete the pro-
cess of launching DVB-T multiplexes in April 2014. It is signicantly late
compared to the countries that now are in the process of the DVB-T2
roll out. The DVB-T standard was chosen in 2008 for the rst Polish
multiplexes. At that time the discussion about leaping DVB-T and taking
DVB-T2 at once, as it was done in 2007 with respect to H.264 instead
of MPEG-2, was quite intensive. However, DVB-T was chosen. Choosing
DVB-T2 then would involve the following risks:
there were no RF front-ends supporting the draft of DVB-T2, thus

not STBs were available, only manufacturers road-maps to DVB-T2
were announced, prices of the rst batches of STBs would be 34
times higher than DVB-T and H.264 compliant STBs
there was no ETSI standard at that time, only the draft A122 [22]
existed
there were no DVB-T2 gateways in production at that time
119
choosing a new standard would prolong huge delay of launching

DTT in Poland, which had become at last an urgent issue; no-
one would launch such a big project without gathering experience
through, e.g., experimental transmissions, laboratory tests, re-planning
of the network designs, etc.
In countries such as Great Britain introducing DVB-T2 was bound to

oering nation wide FTA HD (free-to-air high denition) broadcasts.
There is no such strong motivation to activate DVB-T2 in Poland be-
cause TVP already launched HD in DVB-T and the viewers would not
accept another switch-o that would not bring any added value. On the
other hand, Polish commercial broadcasters are not interested in oering
HD content for free, in the contrary, in their business models they assume
subscription-based HD packages in cable and satellite TV.
It is however very plausible that as a part of the digital dividend a need
for the DVB-T2 system would emerge in Poland in the VHF band. It was
primarily dedicated for digital radio in DAB / DAB+ standard, however
reserving one nationwide coverage channel for a new TV multiplex is
feasible.
Indeed, the Oce of Electronic Communication in Poland (Urzad Ko-
munikacji Elektronicznej or UKE for short) has just announced accessibility
for the whole country of the band 174230 MHz. The new multiplex is
already roughly named the MUX-8. It should start after the year 2015.
It is probable that this new MUX-8 will be shared by a number of
providers and they will be highly interested to use individual physical
layer pipes (PLPs) a possibility oered only in the DVB-T2 standard.
Thus activation of the DVB-T2 system in Poland seems to be realistic in a
near future.
120
11
Conclusions
In Chapters 7, 8 and 9 it has been shown that the considered models, spec-
ications, and receiver architectures are closely interrelated. The receiver
designs shall take into account how the RF signal arrives from transmitters.
When designing a network using radio planning software, which imple-
ments propagation models, it is also important to know how the receiver
is built and what is its architecture.
DVB-T2 introduces many changes relative to its predecessor DVB-T,
i.e., the rst generation DTTB system. These changes concern modula-
tion variants, channel coding, utilization of space-time codes, signaling of
transmission parameters, and many more. The price for the new standard
is a much more complex signaling and more complicated implementation.
Up to now there is no commercially available time frequency slicing (TFS)
supporting tuner on the market.
Although the dierences are signicant, from the Authors investiga-
tions it turned out that the optimal architecture is interchangeable between
the DVB-T and DVB-T2 standards. It means that the most suitable archi-
tecture for the DVB-T shall also be the best for the DVB-T2 standard.
This observation can be considered as the main result obtained by the
Author of this thesis on the basis of the carried investigations. Due to this
statement, each new DVB-T2 receiver can be designed, with practically no
additional costs, as the backward compatible device with the elder DVB-T
standard. This means a substantial reduction of costs necessary for the
equipment modernization (receiver and possibly the antenna system) for
the consumers who would in future potentially be interested to switch to
the new digital television standard, i.e., to DVB-T2 instead of DVB-T. This
will in turn stimulate a commercial success of the whole process not only
in the national but also in the global scale.
From the Authors considerations, it follows that the most convenient
modern receiver architecture for both DVB-T2 and DVB-T standards is
that with double frequency conversion, i.e., with two intermediate frequen-
cies, as it provides more robustness to noise in the image channel. In such
a receiver the coded decision-directed demodulation (CD3 or CDDD for
short) should be used.
121
CHAPTER 11. CONCLUSIONS
Assuming an antenna system composed of a number of antennas, the

receiver is composed of many tuners. In this case, in the Authors opinion,
the maximum ratio combining (MRC) algorithm should be implemented.
On the other hand, application of the TFS mode is not necessary as the
commercially tuners will not support it in a foreseeable future.
Furthermore, the Author showed that the best solution consists in res-
ignation from the intermediate frequency and the analog interface between
the tuner(s) and the demodulator. As long as the tuner had been a purely
analog device, production of the analog intermediate frequency signal
would have been justied. Indeed, nowadays and in future, if we re-
place SAW lters with digital ones, conversion back to the analog domain
and then again to the digital domain in the demodulator, will be irrelevant.
Moreover, th Author stated that it is important to know how to build
radio frequency (RF) front-ends properly in order to achieve robustness
against various important eects, e.g. multipath propagation.
Recapitulating:
most DTT tuners should be built with BiCMOS technology, which

means that bipolar junction transistors and CMOS technology are
integrated; in elder tuners selective analog lters were used both in
the single and double conversion architectures; in modern front-ends,
tuner and demodulator should be blocked and digital lters should
be used (only when tuner and demodulator are separate blocks and
SAW lters are present, as in classic solutions, interface between them
must be the analog IF signal)
among single front-end tuners, the double conversion architecture

tuner with the maximum power method symbol synchronization and
the CD3 algorithm implemented, turned out to be theoretically the
best for both DVB-T and DVB-T2 standards
obviously, the demodulator part is far more complicated in the case of

the DVB-T2, which shall additionally be backward compatible with
the DVB-T; however, the dierences between the DVB-T and DVB-
T2 are not fundamental to such extent that dierent architectures
shall be used; therefore, universal, low cost, and plug and play
receivers, which are very important for the market success of the
new DVB-T2 standard, are feasible in the near future
in demodulator, which is a digital signal processing device, the impor-

tant issues in terms of reception quality are: symbol timing recovery
(STR), symbol timing oset (STO), and FFT window positioning for
SFN operation; using the main focus method, the receiver places the
FFT window in such a way that the highest wanted eld strength is
acquired; this method of nding the FFT window position is rather
complex to implement in real demodulators, however it gives the best
results; moreover, the author wants to stress that the FFT algorithms
122
are very well suited for the DSP architectures as they are computa-
tionally lossless and thus robust against rounding errors; additionally,
high computational eciency can be quite easily achieved with the
use of the reverse bit addressing technique.
The results obtained in this thesis, concerning features and design of the
DVB-T2 receivers, occur to be particularly important taking perspectives
of the DVB-T2 activation in Poland into account. Indeed, the Oce of
Electronic Communication in Poland (Urzad Komunikacji Elektronicznej
or UKE for short) has just announced accessibility for the whole country
of the band 174230 MHz.
As it was already mentioned in Chapter 10, this new VHF band placed
multiplex, which is popularly referred to as the MUX-8, should start after
the year 2015. It will very probably be shared with multiple providers.
Thus a possibility oered by the DVB-T2 standard, namely organization
of the individual physical layer pipes (PLPs) (i.e., the provider individual
statistical groups) is very tempting and DVB-T2 will in near future be
brought into practice in Poland. The problem of the choice of the proper
DVB-T2 receiver architecture, considered in this thesis, will quite soon
occur to be of primary technical importance in Poland and with the min-
imization of the costs of the equipment modernization for the mass users
will stimulate success of this process.
With this statement the Author would nally like to conclude that the
aims of his research presented in this work, formulated in Chapter 1, have
been fullled, and the scientic thesis has been proved.
123
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Warsaw University of Technology

Faculty of Electronics and Information Technology

Supervisor: Professor dr hab. in. Jzef Modelski

1 Subject, scope, aims, and scientic thesis 23

2 Digital terrestrial television 27

3 European DVB-T system 37

4 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing 45

5 Single frequency network technology 51

6 Overview and dierences between DVB-T and DVB-T2 59

7 Propagation models and coverage calculations 73

8 Specications for receivers 83

10 Digital terrestrial television in Poland current state and future

128-QAM 128-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

CD3 (or CDDD) Coded Decision-Directed Demodulation

DVB-H Digital Video Broadcasting Handheld

ETSI European Telecommunications

KIGEiT Krajowa Izba Gospodarcza Elektroniki

TFS Time Frequency Slicing

1TR Vector with all entries equal to 0

I Cumulated signal of all interferers

A subject of this thesis in analysis of the second generation European

taking special attention to the impact on the receiver architectures together

higher modulation orders

higher number of transmission variants, i.e, more exible choice of

a possibility for immediate use of multiple radio channels for a single

modulation constellation rotation option

a possibility for modication of emission parameters during emission

a possibility of arbitrary multimedia data streams transmission in-

sending from two antennas using the Alamouti scheme [8, 9]

reduction of peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR).

1.2 Subject, scope, and signicance of the work

propagation and signal fading. It frequently happens that signal power

1.3 Aims and scientic thesis

1.4 Text structure

the European DVB-T system is presented in detail in Chapter 3. The main

formulated by the lm industry (especially by the Hollywood community)

European DVB-T standard is used in Europe, Greenland, Russia,

ATSC standard, developed in USA by the Advanced Television Stan-

Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting Terrestrial (ISDB-T) stan-

DTMB (Digital Terrestrial Multimedia Broadcast), the Chinas own

guarantee for a particular receiver to cope with many standards (possibly

2.2 General DTT transmission scheme

Source coding and compression

Service multiplexing and transport

Physical layer containing the channel coding and the modulation

Planning factors, which include transmission and receiver environ-

Figure 2.1: General DTT transmission scheme

is referred to as the single-carrier or multiple-carrier system, respectively.

2.3 DTT Recommendations

2.3.1 Video coding

2.3.2 Audio coding

Union for unique, inexpensive, and universal consumer appliances.

2.3.3 Transport layer

2.3.4 Physical layer

Coded Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (COFDM) in Eu-

8-level vestigial sideband modulation (8-VSB) in the United States

COFDM modulation is less susceptible to interference and is capable

Figure 2.2: COFDM modulation concept

Figure 2.3: 8-VSB modulation concept

Although a set of COFDM parameters was also proposed for use in

2.3.5 Unied receiver architecture

DVB-T has been further developed into such standards as DVB-S,

Lately, the DVB has established a 3D TV group (CM-3DTV) to identify

3.2 DVB-T basics