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PART 4 ................................................................................................................................................. 5
Hydromechanical equipment and appurtenant hydraulic .............................................................. 5
structures Mechanical equipment and appurtenant hydraulic structures general .................... 5
Hydromechanical equipment general .......................................................................................... 6
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 6
Classification of gates and valves .................................................................................................... 6
Forces acting on gates and valves ................................................................................................... 6
Mechanisms for lifting and lowering of the gates and valves......................................................... 6
Appurtenant hydraulic structures ................................................................................................... 6
Classification of spillways and bottom outlets................................................................................ 7
Evacuation of overflowing waters via a chute spillway .................................................................. 7
Energy dissipation of the spillway jet .............................................................................................. 7
ENERGY DISSIPATION OF THE SPILLWAY JET .................................................................................. 7
Selection of type of spillway structure............................................................................................ 8
Surface (crest) gates ........................................................................................................................ 8
Basic schemes of surface (crest) gates ............................................................................................ 8
Surface (crest) gates transferring water pressure to side walls or piers ....................................... 8
Ordinary plain metal gates .............................................................................................................. 8
Special plain gates ........................................................................................................................... 8
Stop-log gates.................................................................................................................................. 9
Radial gates ..................................................................................................................................... 9
Roller gates...................................................................................................................................... 9
Surface (crest) gates transferring the water pressure to the gate sill ............................................ 9
Sector and drum gates .................................................................................................................... 9
Flap gates ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Bear-trap gates .............................................................................................................................. 10
Inflatable gates .............................................................................................................................. 10
High-head gates and valves........................................................................................................... 10
General characteristics classification ......................................................................................... 10
High-head gates transferring pressure to the structure directly through their supports ............ 10
Plain high-head gates .................................................................................................................... 11
Radial (tainter) high-head gates .................................................................................................... 11
Diaphragm gate ............................................................................................................................. 11
Valves transferring the pressure through the shell encasing the valve ........................................ 11
Waterworks valve types ................................................................................................................ 11
Cylindrical balanced high-head valves .......................................................................................... 12
Spillways passing through the dams body ................................................................................... 12
Crest spillways ............................................................................................................................... 12
Crest spillways at concrete dams .................................................................................................. 12
Crest spillways at embankment dams........................................................................................... 12
High-head spillway structures ....................................................................................................... 13
Spillways outside the dams body ..................................................................................................... 13
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13
Overfall (ogee) spillway structure ................................................................................................. 13
Side-channel spillway .................................................................................................................... 14
Shaft (morning glory) spillway....................................................................................................... 14
Shaft spillway with circular funnel crest ....................................................................................... 14
Special types of shaft spillways ..................................................................................................... 14
Tower spillway............................................................................................................................... 14
Labyrinth spillway.......................................................................................................................... 15
Bottom outlet works ..................................................................................................................... 15
Basic assumptions on designing bottom outlet works ................................................................. 15
Bottom outlet works in concrete dams ........................................................................................ 15
Bottom outlet works in embankment dams ................................................................................. 16
Special hydraulic structures .............................................................................................................. 16
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 16
Transport structures...................................................................................................................... 16
Hydraulic structures for the admission and protection of fish ..................................................... 16
River diversion during the construction of the hydraulic scheme ................................................ 17
River diversion during the construction of dams and appurtenant hydraulic structures general
....................................................................................................................................................... 17
Construction of the structures without river diversion from the parent river channel ............... 17
Method with damming of the construction (foundation) pit ....................................................... 17
Method without damming of the construction pit ....................................................................... 17
Construction of the structures with river diversion from the river channel................................. 18
Types of cofferdams .......................................................................................................................... 18
PART 4
Hydromechanical equipment and appurtenant hydraulic
structures Mechanical equipment and appurtenant hydraulic structures general
Hydromechanical equipment general
Introduction

Within the composition of a hydraulic scheme, there are very often constructed
waterconveying structures, either general or specific ones, which serve for conveyance of
the water from one place to another. In order to enable their functioning, it is compulsory to
use hydro-mechanical equipment, which serves for closing and opening of the openings
of the water-conveying structures. In that way, in the case of hydraulic schemes with
a dam, it is possible to realize a controlled discharge of water, as well as to regulate
the level of the headwater, and also a controlled intake, conveying and utilization of
water for certain objectives.In the cases of hydraulic

Classification of gates and valves

The gates and valves, which are used with every hydraulic scheme with a dam, and are the
most significant part of hydro-mechanical equipment, can be divided in different ways.
According to the position of the opening in relation to the level of headwater, the gates and
valves are divided into: (a) surface (crest) gates, which serve for closing the
surface openings; and (b) high-head or submerged gates and valves, which are set up at
the beginning, at the intermediate part or at the end of the water-conveying structure below
the water level. In contrast to the surface gates, the high-head gates and valves operate
under high pressure.

Forces acting on gates and valves

In order to perform proper dimensioning of the gates and valves, it is essential as


accurately as possible to anticipate and take into consideration all forces acting upon
them and for various possible conditions of work. In general, the following basic, i.e.
primary, forces act on the gates and valves:

Mechanisms for lifting and lowering of the gates and valves.

In describing the most important individual gates and valves, in brief and within the
necessary extent, we shall discuss the specific qualities of the mechanisms for handling the
equipment, that is to say, for lifting and lowering the gates and valves, which are essential
for the particular kind of gate or valve. In general, the mechanisms for lifting and lowering
the gates and valves can be divided into two groups: possibilities for transportation, as well
as for the experience, skill and fitness of the contractor of the works

Installation and service of gates and valves


In the selection of the type, construction and dimensions of the gates and valves,
it is also necessary to take into account the conditions for their workmanship, and
Appurtenant hydraulic structures

For proper and safe service of a dam, it is indispensable, within its framework, to
anticipate various appurtenant hydraulic structures, which can be general or special
ones. While the special structures serve a certain water economics branch, the general (or
common) structures serve a number of branches (see Chapter 1). Among the general
hydraulic structures, the most significant are the spillway and outlet works which, almost
without exception, are constructed in every hydraulic scheme with a dam. The spillway
structures have the task of evacuating flood waters from the reservoir

Classification of spillways and bottom outlets

The spillway structures, or spillways, can be divided into two major groups: (a) spillways in
the dams body (1, Fig. 23.6), and (b) spillways outside the dams body (2, 3, Fig. 23.6). The
type and structure of the spillways depend on the type of dam, as well as on the local
topographical, geological, and hydrologic conditions.
According to their structure, spillways are divided into a number of types that
are found in the two major groups of spillways or in only one of them. Thus, for
example, according to the position of the inlet (intake) or the entrance part, spillways
can be surface (crest) spillways or high-head (submerged) spillways, which are found

Evacuation of overflowing waters via a chute spillway

In general, spillway structures, regardless of whether they have been located through the
dams body or outside the dams body, consist of three parts: overflow part, waterconveying
part and terminals part. In considering various kinds of spillway structures, here we shall
analyse the characteristics of particular types of spillway parts. The waterconveying part is
very important, because it has to conduct the overflowing water from the upper level to the
lower level working, in complex hydraulic and sometimes also static conditions. It can be an
underground structure, in the form of a tunnel or a gallery (Marheim et al., 1994), or else a
surface structure, in the form of a channel with a considerable gradient, called a chute. The
chute spillway is regularly employed in the cases of overflow concrete gravity dams, and
sometimes also with other types of overflow dams. In the case of spillways located outside
the dams body, the chute is the most frequently used structure for the conduction of
overflowing waters. In
such cases, depending on the layout of works within the hydraulic scheme, it can
achieve a considerable length, which aggravates or complicates the conditions for its
operation.

Energy dissipation of the spillway jet

ENERGY DISSIPATION OF THE SPILLWAY JET


The water which is conducted via the spillway structures, possesses enormous energy,
since in a relatively short path, it is transferred at a certain, often considerable, difference in
elevation. In fact, the magnitude of this energy depends on the specific overflow quantity of
water q, as well as on the difference between the water level upstream and downstream.
Prior to the discharge of the overflowing water in the watercourse downstream of the dam,
there must be achieved dissipation of the energy, in order not to lead to destruction of the
surrounding ground. In the case of high dams, with large overflowing quantities, the
magnitude of the energy that has to be dissipated may be enormous. For instance, in the
case of the Tarbella Dam (Pakistan), it has the power of 40,000MW, which is 20 times higher
than the planned generating capacity of the hydroelectric power plant within the framework
of the hydraulic scheme. That imposes the need, in designing the hydraulic schemes, to
approach this question with particular seriousness, particularly owing to the fact that the way
of energy dissipation of the spillway jet has an influence also on the environment (Provorova,
1995; Novak et al., 2001).

Selection of type of spillway structure

The type of spillway structure is selected by taking into consideration a number of


factors, the most important being: (1) type and height of dam; (2) quantity of flood
waters for evacuation during service and construction of the structure, i.e. works; (3)
general layout of the works, organization of the works, and method of passing of the
construction waters; (4) topographical, geological, and hydrogeological conditions in
the zone of the hydraulic scheme; (5) utilization particularities of possible solutions
for the spillway structure; and (6) data from technical and economic comparisons of
the possible variants. For certain other conditions in a hydraulic scheme with an
embankment dam, an overfall (ogee) spillway in the bank alongside the dam is the most
economical one, if there is a slight inclination of the bank. The side-channel and shaft
(morning glory) spillway structures are rational in cases of rock foundations and steep
inclinations of banks. The siphon spillway is efficient for floodwater waves, which come in
rapidly, and with reservoirs with relatively low retentive capacity.

Surface (crest) gates


Basic schemes of surface (crest) gates

Surface (crest) gates are used for controlling the inlet parts of water conveyance
structures that serve for intake of water at the surface, without water pressure. In
the cases of hydraulic schemes with dams, these gates are mainly used with surface
spillways, aiming at controlled discharge of floodwaters. A number of different
surface (crest)

Surface (crest) gates transferring water pressure to side walls or piers


Ordinary plain metal gates

Ordinary plain gates consist of a metal load-bearing structure, covered at the upstream side
with a watertight lining, usually made of steel plate.
In a simple case, the load-bearing structure consists of beams, as is shown in
Figure 24.3, as follows: horizontal beams bars or chords (1) and vertical bearers, i.e.
stanchions (4). The horizontal beams and vertical stanchions cross each other, in which all
the vertical stanchions, except the end ones (2), are intersected by the horizontal beams
into individual parts. The horizontal beams are integral, and non-intersected, i.e. continuous.
The water stopping

Special plain gates

Some of the deficiencies of ordinary plain gates can be eliminated with special types of plain
gates. One of them is the double plain gate, which consists of two independent parts, (Fig.
24.10). When lowering the upper part, there is the possibility of letting through floating solids
(ice and the like); by lifting the bottom part, we can discharge the sediment that has been
deposited in front of the gate. During water discharge, at the same time both above and
under the gate, there are created favourable conditions for dissipating the energy of the flow.
Stop-log gates

Stop-log gates are plain gates composed of a number of sections. They are employed as
emergency gates or overhaul gates (only in the case of small dams can they be used as
service gates). The simplest such gate is formed by means of laying down oak planks, i.e.
beams, which, at the ends, penetrate into the gate slots. Their application is limited to smaller
spans.

Radial gates

Radial gates have a broad application since they require a smaller lifting force than
plain gates. The ordinary radial gate (Fig. 24.15) contains the following basic elements: (1)
lining constructed along a circular curve with a radius; (2) space loadbearing structure upon
which the line rests, and which is constructed as a space truss as with the plain gates, but
with a radius of curvature R; (3) supporting legs, by means of which the hydrostatic pressure
is transferred to the supporting hinges (4); and (5) short reinforced concrete or metal
cantilevers, overhung from the side walls, upon which the supporting hinges are set up (4).
The short cantilevers are made in order to avoid the gate slots, in which the gate span is
reduced and also the thickness of the side walls is reduced.

Roller gates

The roller gate is a cylinder of a considerable diameter, which closes the opening.
Thecylinder can roll along a toothed inclined rail track, fastened in the gate slots in the side
walls, which enables handling of the gate. We differentiate three basic schemes of the cross-
section of the roller gate, Figure 24.24: (a) in the form of a cylinder; (b) cylinder with a bottom
shield; and (c) cylinder with a front shield. In the last case, the hydrostatic pressure is taken
on directly by the lining (1) of the front shield (6), while the cylinder plays the role of a load-
bearing structure.

Surface (crest) gates transferring the water pressure to the gate sill

These gates are not subjected to bending as are those that lie on side walls, and this
simplifies their construction and enables covering of great spans of openings.

Sector and drum gates

Sector and drum gates are gates that have a cross-section in the form of a sector with a
lining, fixed to the sill of the dam on a horizontal axis. Rotating in a circle, they
may be partially or completely lowered into a special gate slot. They can operate with a
hydraulic drive, which is the most frequent case, or else with a mechanical drive. Sector
gates have a downstream axis of rotation, while drum gates are hinged at the upstream side.

Flap gates

Flap gates consist of flat or curvilinear watertight surfaces rotating around a horizontal axis,
fixed to the sill. Two types have been made lately (Fig. 24.33): (A) with a longitudinal beam
and (B) in the form of a lens. They can be applied to higher dams and to lower sills. The
work of these gates can easily be automated. They can cover spans of up to 50 m, at a
height of up to 7 m. As mechanisms for lifting, there are usually employed hoists or stationary
mechanisms with hydraulic drive.

Bear-trap gates

The movable parts of these gates consist of two flaps which, rotating around a horizontal
axes, form a kind of roofed structure in a raised condition which, in a lowered condition, is
accommodated in a gate slot within the sill of the structure (Fig. 24.36). The upstream flap
or the downstream flap has at the end a short extension, perpendicular to the plane of the
flap. The downstream flap has a curved surface. The chamber, which is formed by the gate,
is filled with water from the upper level and imposes pressure on the flaps.

Inflatable gates

Gates made of synthetic fabrics or rubber, filled with liquid or air, form an inflated gate that
is anchored into the sill of the dam. The fabric can be single-layer or multi-layer; it is made
of synthetic fibres with rubberised protection on one side or both sides. The strength of fabric
used exceeds 100 kN/m2. By means of these gates, we can cover wide openings. In the
USA, by means of a gate made of fabric, there have been covered, i.e. bridged, four spans
of 134 m each, at a pressure head of 3.17 m. There is also known an inflated gate, which,
at a pressure head of 6 m, bridges an opening 28m wide. Lately, in Serbia, gates have been
employed of this kind for the regulation of the River Nishava. These constructions have a
low mass, are easy to transport, simple to install and low-cost. They also have deficiencies
danger of damage and limited durability (up to 10 years) which are compensated for by
their simplicity and economy.

High-head gates and valves


General characteristics classification

The high-head gates and valves differ from surface (crest) gates in that they are always
under water, and they close the opening from all sides and do not allow overflowing of water
at the upper side. In the case of dams, they are employed with outlet works, supply
structures, intake structures, and also with deep or high-head spillway structures. The
submersion of the gate or valve may be from several metres up to several dozens of metres.
The characteristic service features of high-head gates and valves are such that they are
subjected to a high water-pressure, while they are less accessible for control in comparison
to surface gates, and handling them is less frequent. Velocities of flow in the water-
conveyance structures or conduits, which are closed by these highhead gates and valves,
are considerable and they can reach 30 m/s. The above-cited features impose the need for
the construction of these gates and valves to be firm and stable, while the operation safe
even in the hardest conditions of service. In order to be protected from coarse objects and
solids, rough trash racks are usually placed in front of them. And since they close important
structures, the high-head gates and valves are manufactured as either double type, one
after another, or an overhaul-emergency gate or valve is anticipated, in addition to the
service gate or valve.

High-head gates transferring pressure to the structure directly through their supports
Plain high-head gates

Plain high-head gates have the simplest construction, while at the same time there is a
possibility for the execution of the most compact gate-system, which has led to their broad
application. They are the most widespread gates and are used either as service gates or as
overhaul-emergency gates. They are made of steel or of prestressed concrete.They can
move by sliding, on wheels or on cylinders, or else on teeth. The drive is usually from
hydraulic servomotors. At higher water velocities, their application is limited to pressure
heads up to 50 m. Sliding plain gates are suitable for low-pressure heads and for small
openings; otherwise, the resistance due to friction becomes very significant. They close very
well; however, they require a considerable lifting force. If behind such a gate there is another
one, which equalizes the pressure in front of and behind the gate, then it can also be used
at significant pressures.

Radial (tainter) high-head gates

The radial (tainter) high-head gates, from a structural point of view, do not differ
much from surface gates. Usually, they are employed as working gates. Their primary
advantage, in relation to plain gates is, as with surface gates, the necessity for an essentially
smaller force for lifting. In addition, radial high-head gates have a favourable form at the
upstream part and ensure good hydraulic conditions for discharging, and do not require
obligatory use of slots or recesses, while their supports are protected against the direct
action of water and sediment. Greater stiffness of the structure ensures smaller vibration of
the gate. Their deficiencies are their complex construction and high cost. Lately, the range
of application of radial high-head gates has extended to higher-pressure heads thanks to,
above all, the perfection of the supporting hinges.

Diaphragm gate

The diaphragm gate is a double plain gate with an incision into one of the sections.
The incision into the diaphragm section is overlayed by the other section, like a shutter,
located either at the upstream or at the downstream side of the diaphragm (Fig. 25.17). At
a certain stage of service, i.e. operation, the diaphragm can be fastened to the concrete
structure (Fig. 25.17a). There is also a variant with a double diaphragm with a bottom gate
slot, i.e. recess (g). The diaphragm and shutter may rest on independent fixed parts and be
serviced by independent mechanisms. There is also a possibility of a variant of the gate
construction resting on the shutters of the diaphragm, as well as a variant with lifting of the
two sections with only one mechanism.

Valves transferring the pressure through the shell encasing the valve
Waterworks valve types

These high-head valves have a broad application in underground and open conduits
with a diameter up to 1600 mm. The shell, made of cast iron, or steel, for cases with
higher pressures (1, Fig. 25.18), has two flanges (2) at which the pipes are jointed (3). By
turning the steering wheel (4), which is connected with a vertical valve spindle (5) upon
which a screw has been cut out, discs (6) are lowered or lifted and, thus, the pipeline is open
or closed. During lowering of the valve spindle, it presses the wedge (7) that is positioned
between discs and sticks them onto the sealing rings (8). When the valve spindle is raised,
along with it there are lifted both the discs and the wedge, so that they come into position
outside the pipeline, in the upper part of the shell.

Cylindrical balanced high-head valves

Cylindrical valves are installed at openings in towers or in special shafts, and the axis of the
valve is vertical. The water pressure acting upon the valve in a radial direction is balanced
so that the valve does not transfer the water pressure to the structure. There are various
constructions of these valves: unsubmerged cylindrical valve (Fig. 25.2i, j), submerged
cylindrical valve, Figure 25.24a, b (Grishin et al., 1979). In the case of a submerged valve
with a hydraulic action, the chamber (3) is permanently connected with the headwater. When
water from the upper level penetrates, into the chamber (2), the cylinder (1) will go down,
since the force acting on the cylinder downwards is greater than the force acting in the
chamber (3) upwards (Fig. 25.24b). For lifting of the cylinder, the water from the chamber
(2) descends downstream. When the cylinder is raised, the water penetrates the circular
edge of the tower opening. In order for it not to happen that the forces of friction prevent the
lowering of the valve, it is loaded with ballast (for instance, the metal cylinder is filled with
concrete).

Spillways passing through the dams body


Crest spillways

Crest spillways at concrete dams

Crest spillways are most often found with mass concrete dams. They are also constructed
with other kinds of concrete dams. A dam with an overflow section through its own body is
the most economical solution for the evacuation of floodwaters in the course of service of
the hydraulic scheme. Figure 26.1 shows sketches of the most frequently used spillways
through the body of concrete dams. Illustrations (a) and (b) presents spillways with the
practical profile that is most often applied in practice. These spillways ensure uniform
overflowing of water without dynamic impacts. Types (c) and (d) are spillways with a free
overfall jet (nappe), employed for an arch and buttress dam. Type (e) is a spread profile of
a spillway with a practical profile that is employed with weaker foundations, as well as the
application of gates requiring a wider crest, while type (f) is a spillway with a wide crest sill.

Crest spillways at embankment dams

In general, spillways are practically not made over the body of embankment dams.
Indeed, a number of attempts have been made for low embankment dams to be carried out
as overflow dams, in two cases: (1) when the cost of the spillway structure has been very
high in relation to the cost of the dam; (2) in reparation and rehabilitation of dams, over
whose body there has come about overflowing of water because of the insufficient capacity
of the spillway structures (Solvik & Skoglund, 1994). We should pay special attention to this
second case, since it is deemed that throughout the world there have been carried out a
number of small dams with insufficient capacity of the spillway structures. With quite a
number of them it could turn out that it would be simpler and more economical for the dams
body to be prepared for accepting a thin overflow jet, rather than to carry out an extension
of the capacity of the spillway structures. Namely, with an analysis of cases of embankment
dams lower than 15 m, at which there has come about overflowing, i.e. overtopping over the
crest, it can be concluded that in the case of a well-compacted embankment, a short-time
overflowing, of less than 0.6 m, causes only minor damages. In cases of larger overflowing
depths or in cases of an overflow with duration of several hours, there comes about a failure
of the dam. The mechanism of failure is such that first of all there comes about erosion of
the dams downstream toe which, further on, extends upwards, towards the slope and, at a
longer duration of the overflowing, this leads to the entire failure of the dam. It has been
established that an embankment of coherent material is much more resistant to scour and
erosion effects of the overflow jet than an embankment made of incoherent material.

High-head spillway structures

Spillway structures in the dams body, constructed as high-head spillways, are exclusively
employed in concrete dams. Their advantage is the fact that they have a much greater
discharge capacity than surface spillway structures for an equal area of the opening;
however, they, of course, require appropriate gates or valves. High-head spillway structures
are constructed much more rarely than surface ones, because of the following
disadvantages: (1) gates or valves are more loaded and they must be of stronger
construction; (2) control of these gates or valves is more difficult; (3) their access for revision
is more difficult, as is their maintenance and overhaul.

Spillways outside the dams body

Introduction

Spillway structures located outside the dams body are employed within the framework of
hydraulic schemes with non-overflow dams. Those are, mainly, embankment dams, and in
certain topographic and other conditions, their use is also rational and justifiable with
concrete dams, above all, arch dams and buttress dams.
Depending on the ground, and the geological and hydrological conditions of the
dam site, there are possibilities for numerous combinations in the technical shaping
and in the construction of spillway structures built outside the dams body. A vital
characteristic, according to which their classification is made, is the construction of
the spillway part, according to which the following most important types of spillway
structures can be differentiated: overfall (or ogee) spillway, side-channel spillway, shaft (or
morning glory) spillway, and siphon spillway. Of importance as well, is the manner of offtake
of the overflow waters, which may be surface, by means of a channel that has a slope
greater than the critical one, or underground, by means of a tunnel. One can often encounter
a combined offtake, i.e. diversion of the overflow waters, with an
outlet tunnel and a spillway chute. The water current of the overflow waters possesses
significant energy that must be dissipated prior to the discharge of the water into the natural
river channel downstream of the dam. Such dissipation of the water energy can be
accomplished in a special structure a stilling basin or else the water jet can be projected
to a safe distance from the main structures, i.e. works, by means of a special terminal
structure of the outlet part of the spillway structure, which has been discussed in Chapter
23.

Overfall (ogee) spillway structure

The overfall (or ogee) spillway structures are placed in the slight banks near the dam
(Fig. 27.1). They consist of four basic parts (Chugaev, 1985; Grishin et al., 1979;
Nedriga et al., 1983; Rozanov et al., 1985):
1. Approach channel;
2. Spillway of frontal (overfall) type;
3. Outlet or diversion part;
4. Terminal part.

Side-channel spillway
The side-channel spillway, schematically presented in Figure 27.13, is characterized
by the fact that the spill-crest is placed in the direction of flow of the river and of the
outlet structure, that is to say, approximately perpendicular to the axis of the crest of
the dam. The following parts fall within the composition of the side-channel spillway:
(1) overflow part, which is shaped as an ogee-crest spillway or else as a broad-crested weir;
(2) side channel, which collects the overflow water; (3) outlet part, most often in the form of
a spillway chute or, more rarely, as an tunnel; and (4) terminal part. The overflow part can
be either controlled or free (Torres et al., 2000). Free spillways are for smaller quantities of
overflow waters, while the controlled ones are for Qmax, up to 8000m3/s at an overflow
height of 8 m. If the gates are of automatic action, then they are employed for Qmax, up to
6000m3/s with an overflow height up to 2 m. From a structural point of view, a side-channel
overflow part does not differ from a smaller overflow concrete gravity dam.
Shaft (morning glory) spillway
Shaft spillway with circular funnel crest

The basic part in the shaft spillway structure is a vertical or slightly inclined shaft
(Fig. 27.23). The water in the shaft discharges down over the spill-crest that is in the
form of a circle, an incomplete circle (Fig. 27.28), or of some other shape in plan.
The upper part of the shaft is sometimes carried out in the form of a tower. The
shaft spillway structure is used for the evacuation of large quantities of water (up to
6000m3/s) within medium and high head hydraulic schemes over a rock foundation.
The basic parts of the shaft spillway are: surface overflow part, in the form of a
funnel (1 in Fig. 27.24); vertical or slightly inclined shaft (2); air inlet for the aeration
of the flow, in order to prevent cavitation (3); outlet tunnel (4) and terminal part (5).
Sometimes, the outlet tunnel continues into the surface spillway chute, followed by the
terminal part of the spillway structure.

Special types of shaft spillways

For improving the conditions of operation of the shaft spillway structures, for better
adaptation to the topographic conditions of the ground, as well as for increasing of
the overflow capacity, special types of shaft spillway structures are employed. A shaft
spillway structure with an incomplete circular funnel is constructed next to the steep bank
and does not require excavation of the ground to a greater extent or execution of anti-
whirlpool constructional elements.

Tower spillway

Spillway structures in the form of a tower have certain similarities with the shaft
spillway structure (Fig. 27.38 Chugaev, 1985). In such cases, instead of a shaft, a
tower is constructed in the upper part, above the ground, while the shaft is constructed only
in the lower part, which is shorter than the upper one, above the ground. The tower must be
so constructed as to eliminate the possibility of rising to the surface under the effect of the
uplift water-pressure, which, as a rule, makes the construction.

Labyrinth spillway

A spillway crest in the form of a labyrinth, consisting of a broken line, is considered


to be a very efficient way of increasing the overflow capacity, at a fixed width of the
spillway. The model investigations indicate that, in spite of the complex character of
the flow through such a spillway, according to the cost it can be competitive with
the other possible solutions (Yildiz & zcek, 1996). The labyrinth spillway is used
to concentrate discharge into a narrow chute, where space does not permit a linear
ungated crest. It generally minimizes approach excavation, whereas the concrete weiris
more complicated to construct. An adequate foundation is necessary for economical
construction of this kind of spillway. Labyrinth spillways have been built with a wide range of
sizes and discharge capacities and are well suited for rehabilitation of existing spillway
structures when increased spillway capacity is needed. The discharge coefficients of these
spillways are usually (but not always) somewhat smaller than those of conventional
spillways.

Bottom outlet works

Basic assumptions on designing bottom outlet works

Bottom outlet works within hydraulic schemes with a reservoir are constructed in order to
ensure conveyance of water from the reservoir into the lower part, downstream of the dam,
in order to facilitate lowering of the level of the reservoir, or else to ensure water for the
biological minimum flow in the riverbed, downstream of the works. In cases of small dams
and reservoirs, the bottom outlet structures often also serve for intake of water for some
user as well, most often for irrigation. As has been said in the general part, in Chapter 23,
an outlet structure is also called a bottom outlet, owing to the fact that the intake of water is
constructed at a low level, close to the foundation of the dam. In Chapter 23, there have
been set out the basic issues regarding outlet structures, including the question of design
water.

Bottom outlet works in concrete dams

The material of which concrete dams are constructed, as well as the nature of their
construction, enables relatively simple solving of the question of designing the bottom outlet
structure. In the cases of gravity and arch concrete dams, the bottom outlets consist of steel
pipes embedded into the dams body, each provided with two valves (Fig. 28.1). It is
recommended that a minimum of two pipes be used in order to achieve greater safety in
service. Also, in cases of buttress dams, steel pipes are employed, positioned in the opening
between the buttresses. Examples can be found when the pipes have been embedded in
the buttresses. The bottom outlets in concrete dams consist of the following elements: (1)
inlet part; (2) outlet part; (3) gates or valves; and (4) dissipator of energy (possibly).
Bottom outlet works in embankment dams

The type and construction of the outlet structure within the hydraulic scheme with an
embankment dam is dependent on the topographic and geological conditions, and the
structure of the dam, as well as on the quantity of water that has to be discharged.
These outlets are constructed as: (a) a pipe or gallery below the embankment of the
dam or (b) as a tunnel in the bank, outside the dams body, which is the much more
frequent case. The first type is utilized in hydraulic schemes with an earthfill dam with a low
pressure head and consists of one or more pipe conduits, provided with valves or gates,
with a structure for intake of water and control of the valves or gates in the form of a tower,
or with a chamber in the form of a gallery. The solution with a tower is much more
widespread, because it is safer from the aspect of service.

Special hydraulic structures


Introduction

Special hydraulic structures are intended for performing certain functions within the
hydraulic scheme for the needs of some water economy branches. The special structures
can be for amelioration (channels, pumping stations, etc.); hydroelectric power plants (power
houses, pumped storage hydroelectric power plants, intake structures,derivation (supply)
channels and tunnels, etc.); water transport (channels, ship navigation locks and lifts, etc.);
structures for fishery economy (fish bypasses, i.e. fish ladders and lifts, etc.); water supply;
for fighting floods and erosion of the soil; for utilization of underground waters (underground
intake structures, etc.); for sedimentation of waste materials and other purposes. More
detailed enumeration of special hydraulic structures has been given in Chapter 1. Since the
majority of the above-mentioned special hydraulic structures have been analyzed in other
specialized fields of hydraulic engineering, and in order to enable an easier pursuance of
the forthcoming chapters in which problems regarding the designing of hydraulic schemes
are treated, here we shall only treat in brief those issues, the knowledge of which is
indispensable in composing hydraulic schemes.

Transport structures

Transport structures are constructed within hydraulic schemes of navigable rivers and they
serve for the conveyance of navigation vessels from one level to another. Ship navigation
locks and lifts are used for that purpose. A ship navigation lock consists of a chamber in
which the navigation vessel stays during its transfer from one level to another.

Hydraulic structures for the admission and protection of fish

River hydraulic structures in many cases derange the conditions for the development, life,
and even the survival of the ichthiofauna. Here we should mention the closure of the
migration routes of fish, the change of regime of their spawning (high upperlevel, while the
lower level is also changed in relation to the natural river regime), drawing of the young fish
into the intake structures, and their injury with various other structures and fast navigation
vessels, etc.
River diversion during the construction of the hydraulic scheme

River diversion during the construction of dams and appurtenant hydraulic structures general

One of the characteristics of the river hydraulic schemes is the essential need, in the
course of the entire period of construction, to divert the river water from the dam site,
i.e. to give passage to that water. This is ensured by means of a series of individual
structures: cofferdams (temporary dams), embankments, channels, and tunnels, as
well as by utilizing the permanent works of the hydraulic scheme, temporarily, for this
purpose, as well. The maximum quantity of water that is to be diverted in the course of the
construction of the hydraulic scheme is called construction water. It is determined by means
of a technical-economical analysis. It is evident that if we assume a smaller quantity of water
that has to be diverted, that is to say, against which the construction foundation pit is to be
protected, the costs will be lower, while the risk of flooding of the construction pit will be
greater. Or, vice versa the larger the quantity of such construction water, the smaller the risk
to the safety of the construction pit. The usual practice for the construction water is to
assume the water with a return period that is 35 times longer than the period that has been
anticipated for the construction of the hydraulic scheme. Of course, here as well, the specific
conditions prevailing at the dam site are of great importance in making decisions.

Construction of the structures without river diversion from the parent river channel

With the application of this method, the execution of the hydraulic structures can be
achieved in a construction (foundation) pit, protected with a cofferdam, or else without
damming of the construction pit, by using construction of the underground parts of the works
with methods of underground construction, while the overground parts are constructed in
the dry, giving passage to the waters through the parts of the structures that have been
erected during the first stage of construction.

Method with damming of the construction (foundation) pit

In applying this method, damming of the construction pit is usually performed in two
stages. In the beginning, we build the structures within the construction pit, located
in the river channel, protected with the cofferdams from the first stage (Fig. 30.1).
The longitudinal cofferdam (1) is constructed first, along the course of the water or
inclined at a small angle, followed by the construction of the upstream cofferdam (8)
and downstream (5) cofferdam, perpendicular to the river valley. One part of the main
permanent works (the powerhouse and a part of the concrete dam (Fig. 30.1) are
constructed in the construction pit and they contain openings for giving passage to the water
during the construction of the major permanent works of the second stage.

Method without damming of the construction pit

When applying this method, the structures are constructed, partially or completely,
directly in the water. In the practice of dam construction, methods employing caissons and
wells have also found application; methods using caissons and wells are much more
complex in comparison with the method of damming (of the construction pit); however, they
enable a faster construction and commissioning and starting-up of the works into service.
Wells are cheaper than caissons, but they may be used only when the foundation allows
work under water, without drying out. Caissons are used for sinking foundations up to depths
of 3035 m, and this limitation does not exist with wells1.

Construction of the structures with river diversion from the river channel

The method of construction of structures by means of diversion of the river from the
river channel is usually employed with narrow river channels, as well as with steep
banks during the construction of hydraulic schemes with a medium and with a highpressure
head. This method is very often used in practice. In the first place, the water conveyance
structure is constructed; it serves for diversion of the construction water. This structure may
be a tunnel (Fig. 30.6), channel, or pipeline. Then, the river channel is dammed by means
of a cofferdam, as a rule at lower discharges.

Types of cofferdams

In selecting the type and dimensions of the cofferdams, as well as the form of the
construction (foundation) pit, it is necessary to take into consideration the following
elements: (1) the distance from the cofferdam to the foundation of the structure, should not
be smaller than 10 m; (2) the form in plan of the construction pit should be such as to make
possible easy access and descent into it, as well as a good connection with the roadways
that are used in the course of construction; (3) the shape and dimensions of the construction
pit should ensure safe installation of cranes and of other construction plants and equipment.

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