Data Transmission and Networking

Chapter 5: Data Transmission and Networking AS Computing 9691/01 1
1.5 (a) Networks

NETWORK
When two or more computers are connected together to share hardware and software resources; it is called a
network.
There are two types of networks, LAN and WAN
1. LAN (LOCAL AREA NETWORK)
A network that covers a small distance or is geographically limited normally to a single room, office or
building is called a LAN.
2. WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK)
A network that covers a great distances or is geographically not limited is called a WAN.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAN AND WAN
LAN and WAN can be differentiated from one another on the basis of:-
1. Geographic distribution
2. Hardware used for communication
LAN WAN
WAN is geographically remote as it covers
LAN covers short distances such as a building
great distances and allow communication
or a site
between different LANs
LAN uses its own communication medium WAN uses third party communication links
such as cables such as telephone lines
WAN is more open to attacks/may have
LAN more secure from hacking
security problems
ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF LAN AND WAN

Whether a network is a WAN or a LAN, it allows the computers to:
communicate with one another
share information centrally
share copies of software
give access to data and program files to multiple users
However LAN also allows

expensive peripheral devices such as a printer to be shared
DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS
There are also some issues with linking computers in a network:
it is more difficult to control access to a network and to files that are stored on the network
initial setup cost is high
chances of viruses being spread around the network
hacking
if the network fails then the work will have to be stopped such as file server is down
Need to have a technical expert such as a network administrator
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SUMMARY
Computers can be linked together to form networks
If the distances are short, typically in the same building, the network is called a LAN, but if distances are
longer; regional, national or global, the network is a WAN
Networks allow computers to communicate
Networks allow the sharing of both hardware and software.
1.5 (b) Network Hardware and Software
HARDWARE
In order to connect computers in a LAN there are a number of hardware devices required:
1. Network Interface Card: It is a special piece of hardware attached to the processor. It allows a computer
on a network to communicate with other computers.
2. Network Cable: It allows the computers to be connected in a network.
3. Server: It is a computer whose job is to control the network. It is known as a server or a network server.
There are many roles the server must carry out:
A file server is responsible for the storage of program files, the network operating system and
users data files.
A domain controller server is responsible for the authentication of user log-ons.
A print server is responsible for the management of shared devices.
On many LANs typically in a small business environment these server functions are all carried out by a single
network server.
For wireless communication on a WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
Router: A device that broadcasts a signal to which the computers on the network can connect.
On a WAN the distances involved tend to be far greater than for a LAN so it is not possible to connect all the
computers by a cable or by a wireless signal. The telephone system cables exist to do this.
Modem: a device that coverts digital signals produced by the computer into analogue signals to be
transmitted over the public telephone line and vice versa.
SOFTWARE
A network operating system provides instructions that the network must follow.
1.5 (c) Network Topologies
The term topology refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables, and other components on
the network.
"Topology" is the standard term that most network professionals use when they refer to the network's basic
design.
There are two types of network topologies: physical and logical. Physical topology emphasizes the physical layout
of the connected devices and nodes. Logical topology focuses on the pattern of data transfer between network
nodes.
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There are three basic types of topologies. They are:

Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Star Topology
1. BUS TOPOLOGY
All nodes/terminals are linked to a central linear cable (also known as TRUNK or BACKBONE).
The ends of the cable are attached to terminators that stop the signals from bouncing back. Most bus
topologies use coaxial cable.
Bus topology is passive topology as computers on a bus only listen for data being sent they do not move
data from one computer to the next.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Simple and easy to set up causing less disruption If there is a fault in the central cable, whole system
to the network affected
Cheapest network because less cable is required Network performance degrades/Doesnt work well
than other topologies under heavy loading
Less secure as data can be intercepted by other
Easy to add a device/node as wiring is simple
terminals
Well suited for temporary or small networks not
Cable failure is difficult to isolate
requiring high speeds
Difficult to identify the problem if the entire
network shuts down
2. RING TOPOLOGY
All nodes/terminals are lined by a single cable in a closed loop. The data signals travel around the loop in
one direction, passing through each computer.
Ring topology is an active topology because each computer repeats (boosts) the signal before passing it on
to the next computer.
One method transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. The token is passed from computer to
computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send.
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Works well under heavy loading due to high
Faulty connection can cause whole network to fail
transmission rates
It is difficult to expand this type of network as new
Possible to form very large networks computer has to be placed between existing two
computers
Less secure because data passes through all
Can be used for wide area networks
computers
No server needed as each terminal controls
If any computer fails the entire network fails
transmission to and from itself
3. STAR TOPOLOGY
All nodes/terminals are connected separately to a central device such as a hub switch or a computer
through their own individual cable with a point to point connection.
The central device acts as a router to transmit messages and as a junction to connect different
nodes/terminals.
All the data passes through the central device before reaching the intended destination.
Central device also manages and controls whole of the network.
This topology needs a server to centralize data.
It is easy to share peripherals like printers
Twisted pair cables are typically used in star topologies as they are not as immune to interferences as
coaxial cable
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Breakdown of one machine/wire does not affect

If central device fails, whole network fails
whole network
Rate of data transmission is greater even under
More expensive to set up due to extra cost of
heavy loading as data does not have to travel
central device and large length of cable required
through any unnecessary nodes
More reliable; if one terminal/node fails, the If the server fails then the users will not be able to
network still functions access their files
More secure network as nodes contact each other
Performance and as well number of nodes is
directly through the hub/switch and data cannot
depended on capacity of central device
be intercepted by other terminals
Each node can have different kind of cable/
communication media
It is easier to identify faults in this arrangement
More flexible as it is easier to expand (or remove a

device) without disrupting the network
Fewer collisions of data since each terminal has its
own cable to central device
Each terminal can transmit at different speeds
Centralized management. It helps in monitoring

the network
Can isolate individual devices in troubleshooting
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1.5 (d) Different Types Of Data Transmission

SERIAL TRANSMISSION OF DATA
Data is transmitted bit by bit one after another along a single wire.
Device 1 1 Device 2
011 0 1 01
Advantages:
It can be used over long distances as it is cheap.
It is simple and reliable because the next bit is not transmitted until the current one has arrived
at its destination.
Less chance of corruption as it does not suffer from skew (less chance of bits having order
changed).
Disadvantages:
The speed of transmission is slow as only one bit can be transmitted at a time.
Note: Internet and USB devices use serial transmission.
PARALLEL TRANSMISSION OF DATA
Data is transmitted in group of bits usually 8 or more along several wires at a time.
Device 1 Device 2
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 0
1 1
Advantages:
The speed of transmission is fast as several bits are traveling at the same time.
Disadvantages:
It cant be used over long distances as it is expensive.
It is less reliable as the bits can become muddled due to interferences during transmission.
Note: Printer with parallel port and transfer of data between primary memory and secondary storage use parallel
transmission.
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Examples of different types of data transmission

1. The data transmission in a network using cables is serial.
2. The Data transmission inside the computer using the bus system is parallel. This is because of the very high
speed of data transmission needed by the computers processor in order to process them. For example the
data transmission between the primary memory and the hard drive of the computer is parallel because
the processor requires the data to be downloaded to the memory as quickly as possible
3. The data transmission between the computer and the printer is parallel because the computer needs to
send a big chunk of data to the printers buffer quickly so that the processor will be free to attend to other
tasks of the computer
1.5 (e) Different Modes Of Data Transmission
If data is to be transmitted between devices, there are three different modes of transmission possible.
1. SIMPLEX
Transmission of data is in one direction always. E.g. pager, radio broadcast, T.V. broadcast and
teletext.
Transmitter Receiver
2. HALF DUPLEX
Transmission of data is in both directions, but only in any one direction at a time. E.g. ATM, CB Radio and fax-
machine.
Device 1 Device 2
3. DUPLEX
Transmission of data takes place in both directions, simultaneously at the same time. E.g. telephone conversation,
internet and satellite communication.
Device 1 Device 2
1.5 (f) Bit Rates and time sensitivity of data

During data transmission large files will take more time and smaller files will take less time.
BIT RATE
The number of bits that can be sent in one second is known as the bit rate. The units used to measure the bit
rate are BAUD. 1 baud = 1 bit per second.
BANDWIDTH
A measure of the amount of data that can be sent in a given time period is the bandwidth of the medium being
used. The higher the bandwidth, the more data can be sent in a given time.
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Text files are smaller in size as they contain printable characters organized on a line by line basis and each
character is of minimum one byte.
Non-text files contain binary codes of non-printable characters, each of which is of minimum three bytes.
So if text files are being transmitted, e.g. on the Internet, keeping the bit rate low will not take long as text files
can seemingly be sent much more quickly than other forms of data. However, if non-text files are to transmitted
then the bit rate has to be kept higher in order to make sure that the file is transmitted in a reasonable time and
does not cause a long delay at the receiving end.
This means that many pages of text can be sent in the same amount of time that it takes to transmit a single
image, so it seems that text is transmitted more quickly.
Speeding up the transmission of the information by reducing the amount of data that is sent is known as
COMPRESSION.
The size of the transmitted file is not an issue as long as we have time to wait for it to be downloaded or uploaded.
If the file of data is a text file which the recipient will read after they have finished another task, then the two
minutes taken to transmit the file does not matter; it does not make the file less useful.
If the file is a video clip, transmission time does not matter if the file is going to be watched at a later time after it
has been downloaded.
However, if the file is a video that the recipient wants to watch as it is being transmitted. This technique is called
streaming. For streaming, it is important that the file can be transmitted quickly enough and the bit rate has to be
high, to let the person watch the video as it is being transmitted. If the bit rate is not high enough then the video
will appear to judder, or even to freeze, while the computer waits for the next download of data.
If a file is going to be watched in real time as it is received then the data are said to be time sensitive. Time-
sensitive files need a high bit rate, not necessarily just large files.
If data being communicated is to be stored at receiver for future use, then the bit rate can be slow.
If data being communicated is to be used immediately upon arrival then the bit rate used for
communication must be faster than the rate at which the data is used.
Why text based files do not cause problems while graphic (non-text) files download slowly?
Text based files are relatively smaller in size as each character used to store information takes only one
byte.
Graphics/Non-text files are larger in size as each character used to store information takes up to 3 bytes.
Explain why the bit rate is an important part of any protocol
to enable standardisation
to enable one layer to be altered without altering the entire protocol
enables manufacturers to design hardware and software for a particular layer
Relationship between bit rates and the use of data content in a network
Bit Rate is the number of bits per second that can be sent across the communication medium.
If data that is being transmitted is to be stored at receiver for future use, then the bit rate can be kept slow.
If data that is being transmitted is to be used immediately upon arrival then the bit rate used for
communication must be kept high i.e. faster than the rate at which the data is used.
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1.5 (g) Relationship Between Baseband and Broadband

There are two types of signaling methods that are used to transmit information over network media: baseband
and broadband.
1. BASEBAND
It is a communication technique in which data is transmitted as digital signals without any change in modulation
through the media as a single channel (i.e. digital signal are directly transmitted over a single transmission line).
The signals themselves take the form of either electrical pulses or light. The entire bandwidth of the media is used
by the digital signals to transmit a single data signal (i.e. one frequency).
Baseband communication is bi-directional, allowing computers to both send and receive data using a single cable.
Only one signal is transmitted at a time. However, the sending and receiving cannot occur on the same wire at the
same time. Digital signals are commonly called baseband signals.
In baseband transmission FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) is not possible. It transmits up to a couple of
miles and does not require the complex modems.
Typical token ring on LAN and Ethernet (10BaseT or 10BaseFL) use baseband signals.
Most communications between computers, including the majority of local-area networks, use baseband
communications.
Using baseband transmissions, it is possible to transmit multiple signals on a single cable by using a process known
as multiplexing. Baseband uses Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM), which divides a single channel into time slots.
The key thing about TDM is that it doesn't change how baseband transmission works, only the way data is placed
on the cable.
Definition:
It is a type of signaling method used in telecommunication system in which information is carried in digital form on
a single un-multiplexed signal channel on the transmission medium in both directions. The entire bandwidth of the
media is used by these digital signals.
2. BROADBAND
It is a communication technique in which data is transmitted as analog signals by modulating each signal onto
different frequency. Each transmission is assigned to a portion of the bandwidth. It transmits several streams of
data at the same time using FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) technique. FDM divides the bandwidth of a
communication line into smaller frequency bandwidths. Transmission is carried out by using different
communication paths/wires so each part of the communication line can be used for transmitting data separately.
To send and receive data two pathways/channels are required; either by assigning a frequency for sending data
and a different frequency for receiving data. Alternatively, two cables can be used; one to send and one to receive
transmissions.
Because a wide band of frequencies is available, information can be multiplexed and sent on many different
frequencies or channels within the band concurrently, allowing more information to be transmitted in a given
amount of time (much as more lanes on a highway allow more cars to travel on it at the same time).
Broadband communication is uni-directional. Broadband is faster than baseband. Broadband uses analog signals in
the form of optical or electromagnetic waves over multiple transmission frequencies.
Broadband is used to transmit large amounts of data such as voice and video over long distances. Digital Subscriber
Line (DSL) and cable TV are broadband services in the downstream direction.
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Broadband bandwidth is used for direct communication between very high speed computers (e.g. large mainframe
computers). This bandwidth includes microwave, satellite, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic media.
The term broadband is used to describe a type of data transmission in which a single medium (wire) can carry
several channels at once. For signals to be both sent and received, the transmission media must be split into two
channels.
A user with a broadband Internet connection has a much faster and more enjoyable experience while on the
Internet when compared to someone with a dial-up connection. Broadband users can also purchase a network
router and share their broadband connection between multiple computers in their home.
1.5 (h) Error Detection Methods

When data, of whatever type, is being transmitted from one part of a computer system to another, it is
transmitted as a series of binary digits. Any data that is transmitted is going to be made up of a very large
number of bits. Consequently, there are bound to be occasions when the data is not transmitted correctly.
Luckily there are only two possible mistakes that can occur, either a 1 is received as a 0, or a 0 is received as a 1.
This makes it very important that there should be methods for checking the data when it has been transmitted.
There are three methods to detect errors during transmissions.
1. ECHOING BACK
The received data or message that was sent to the receiver is again sent back to the sender. The returned
data or message that has been returned is compared with the original. If there are differences then an
error has occurred and the data or message is again transmitted. If there is no difference after comparison
then an acknowledgement of data or message correctly received is received by the receiver.
Advantages:
It is a very simple and effective method.
Disadvantages:
It suffers from having to send data twice, thus taking longer than necessary.
Note: Echoing Back needs to a duplex or half duplex transmission to allow data transfer in both directions.
2. CHECKSUM
Data are normally sent as blocks of bytes rather than as individual bytes. All the bytes that are being sent
in the block of data are added. The answer is also an eight-bit number. This check byte or checksum is
transmitted with the data. At the receiving end the same calculation is repeated and both the totals are
matched. If the totals do not match it signifies that an error has occurred and the whole block of data has
to be transmitted again.
3. PARITY CHECK
A parity check involves checking that the number of 1 bits in a byte totals to an even number (called even
parity) or an odd number (called odd parity). If two devices that are communicating decide to use odd
parity, there must always be an odd number of 1s. If a byte is received with an even number of 1s, an error
must have occurred. For example, the byte 01011000 is sent. It has three 1 bits so it passes the odd parity
check. When it is transmitted, the byte received is 11011000. This has four 1 bits, which is an even number,
so there must have been an error in transmission. The receiving device would ask for it to be sent again.
Although this example uses odd parity, even parity can equally well be used. The two devices have to agree
which type of parity to use.
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Note:
Parity is used not only during data transfer between devices but also when data are transferred between
different components of the CPU.
If two mistakes are made in the same byte, they cancel each other out and the faulty data are accepted.
This problem can be overcome and a clever way of identifying mistakes can be implemented by using
Parity Blocks.
A byte can represent a character code in eight bits, giving potentially 256 different characters. However, an
ASCII character reserves one of the bits for a parity bit. This leaves seven bits for the character code,
reducing the number of different characters to 128.
PARITY BLOCKS
A further check can be made on the data bytes which are transmitted. An additional byte, called the parity byte, is
calculated and transmitted for each group of bytes. The data bytes and parity byte together are called a parity
block. Parity block is like a rectangle made up of rows and columns. The last bit in each row, i.e. in each data byte,
is the parity bit, which checks if there is an error in the byte. One possible problem with a parity bit check is that
two errors in the same byte are not picked up by the parity bit check. They are however detected by the check
which the parity byte performs.
Think of the parity byte not as data but as a whole row of parity bits, each of which is there to check the column of
bits above it in the grid.
Consider the following transmission in which four data bytes are followed by the parity byte using odd parity. The
correctly transmitted parity block (four data bytes followed by the parity byte) is shown below.
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 Parity Bits
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
Parity Byte 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
Assume that there was an error in the transmission and the bytes shown in the figure below were received by the
device. The parity bit for data byte three is calculated as 1. A 0 bit was received, so the conclusion is that there
must be an error with it. The parity byte shows that there is an error with the calculation in column three. The
conclusion is that the incorrect bit in byte three must be the one in column 3, so change this from 0 to 1.
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
Note:
It is claimed that checking the parity bits and using a parity block check will identify 99% of all transmission errors.
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1.5 (j) Switching

When a message is sent from one computer to another, particularly over a wide area network, the message may
have to pass through other devices. This may be forced on the system because there is no direct route between
the sending and receiving computers.
B
A C
D
E
In the network shown, it would be easy to send a message from A to D or from A to B because A is directly
connected to both of them. However, sending a message from A to C is much more difficult because there is no
direct route.
There are two ways that the message can be sent:
1. PACKET SWITCHING
In packet switching, the message is split into a number of equal-sized packets (or datagrams). Each packet
has a label its destination address and a packet sequence number. These packets are sent along
communication lines towards the destination. Each time a packet reaches a node (a point of intersection)
on the network, the node decides which direction to send it on. So, one packet in the message from A
reaches node D. The obvious route to take is the one directly to C, but it is already in use for another
message, so D decides to send it to E instead. The next packet arrives at D and, this time, the line to C is
free, so the packet is sent direct to C. When the message has all arrived at C it has to be reassembled in
the correct order.
Advantages:
Packet switching allows optimum use of the connections around the network because as many
routes are in use at one time as possible.
It maximises the number of routes in use at any one time.
It becomes almost impossible to intercept a whole message and therefore messages are more
secure.
A path/route is not dedicated for the transmission of one message.
Disadvantages:
Message is only received as fast as the slowest packet.
Packets need to be reordered on arrival in order to re-create the original message.
2. CIRCUIT SWITCHING
The whole message is sent on a pre-decided single path/route reserved by the network. So the message
can then be sent directly from A to C and will not need to be reordered when it gets there.
Advantages:
The whole message is kept together so it does not need to be reassembled at the destination.
Packets do not need to be reordered at receiving end.
It is faster as it allows greater bandwidth.
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Disadvantages:
It ties up a large part of the network for the duration of the transmission.
The path must be set up which takes time.
Circuit switching involves setting up the route before the message is sent.
Packet involves sending the message in packets of equal size, each of which finds a different route to the
destination.
1.5 (k) Protocols
The set of rules that needs to be established to allow the transfer of data to be carried out is known as a protocol.
OR
A set of rules or instructions, that governs or defines how communication is to be carried out/controlled between
different communicating devices.
OR
A uniform set of rules that enable two devices to connect and transmit data to one another. Protocols determine
how data are transmitted between computing devices and over networks.
There are a number of protocols, e.g. HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, VOIP, or TCP/IP. Without protocols, devices
wouldnt know what format to expect data in. Typical rules would define:
Type of data transmission (the wire connecting the two parts of the system): whether the data
transmission is serial or parallel. For example errors would occur if one device has a serial connection and
the other device expects a parallel connection.
Mode of data transmission: whether the data transmission is full duplex, half duplex or simplex.
Bit rate used: if one device sent data at a particular bit rate and the other device was set to receive at a
different rate, the message would not be received correctly (bits may be missed or counted twice)
Method of error detection: whether the parity is odd or even, whether echoing back is used or whether
check sums are used.
Parity used: if one device used even parity and the other device used odd parity then no correctly sent
byte of information would ever be accepted.
Agreed method to tell the receiving machine that the sending machine has finished sending all of the
data.
Method or signal to tell the sender that the data has arrived correctly at its destination e.g. echo back
If the data is compressed before sending it to other computer then does the protocol allow this to take
place and if so then what method does it use?
HANDSHAKE SIGNAL
When two devices need to communicate, the initial contact between them is a signal called the handshake signal.
This involves an exchange of data between the two devices to establish that they are both ready for the
communication to start and that they agree on the rules that are going to be used for the communication.
Why handshaking process is necessary between a computer and the file server before use?
To ensure that both are on and ready for communication
To ensure that both are using same protocol
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Explain the need for a handshake as part of a protocol, giving examples of what occurs during a handshake
Handshake ensures that both parties are ready to communicate
Must agree on the format of the medium for communication e.g. serial
Must agree error checking e.g. parity
Must agree form of data to be used e.g. character set
1.5 (k) Physical and Logical Parts of Protocols

The interface between two devices is the connection between them through which data can be sent. The physical
part includes the wires or other connection. The logical part includes the rules agreed about the form of error
checking used.
INTERFACE
An interface is the connection between devices over which data can be sent. It is usually used interchangeably
with protocol. It includes hardware and software such as the cables connecting the devices, error correction
and how messages are routed from place to place.
PHYSICAL PROTOCOLS
These are protocols concerned with how a device connects to a medium. For example how a printer
connects with the cable. They ensure that devices can transmit through the medium.
These are the protocols that make sure that the layout of pins on the connectors is the same and hubs and
switches are correctly connected and configured. Few examples of physical protocols are 802.11a/b/g/n for WiFi
connections and DSL for broadband.
LOGICAL PROTOCOLS
Logical protocols are concerned with data handling before it actually reaches the transmission
medium and after it has been received from the transmission medium.
There are many other rules to the logical parts of the protocol, for instance:
how messages are routed from one place to another
how the flow of data is going to be controlled
how the data transfer can be synchronised so that data are not mixed up
ensure that data are in the right format for the application, e.g. character set
the bit rates match at both ends
both ends are using the same mode, e.g. simplex
the same error detection is used at both ends
Few examples of logical protocols are HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, VOIP, TCP/IP etc.
Most modern protocols use the concept of layering the different aspects of the communication. For instance, first
set up the rules about how the devices are to be connected physically, and as a separate issue decide on the
rules to spot errors that have been made in the data transfer. This is known as layering the interface because the
most basic layer has to be done first and then more layers may be put on top. The physical parts of the protocol are
the basic layers and then the logical parts are built on those.
Advantages of Layering:
1. Changes may be made to one layer without having to make a change to any of the other layers when
hardware and software are changed.
For Example: If a software company was to design a new web browser, they would only need to design
the way it communicates with the presentation layer.
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2. Also allows manufacturers to develop communication systems and software which use standard
protocols.
For Example: If a manufacturer was to design a new network card, they would only need to design the
way it communicates with the data link layer. If layered interfaces were not used, these manufacturers
would have to design all the components of the interface.
3. Layering allows each layer to be treated independently and enables security measures to be used for
data transmission.
Why is a protocol arranged in a layered fashion or why a protocol consists of a number of layers?
To allow manufacturers to create for one layer

To allow different devices to communicate effectively
Different layers deal with different parts of communication
Individual layers can be altered easily without the need to alter other layers when a hardware or software
is changed. Only the links between the layers need alteration.
Application layer Sending Receiving Application layer

computer computer
Presentation layer applies the applies the Presentation layer
protocol protocol
Session layer layers to the layers to the Session layer
data data
Transport layer Transport layer
transmission transmission
Network layer process from process from Network layer
the top to the bottom
Data Link layer the bottom to the top of Data Link layer
of the the protocol
Physical layer protocol stack Physical layer
stack
Sending Receiving
Computer Network Transmission Medium Computer
Key points about layering

If a layer needs to be changed, it only needs to communicate with the layer above and below
Each layer does a specific job
Data flow through the layers in order as described in the diagram above.
Why layering is used in a network system?
All layers work together to make networked computer share information with other computers that are also
following the same layer model. Layering breaks the protocols down into different sections. Changes in one
layer dont affect other layers.
One of interface standards is called OSI model. OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnect. Protocols are
combined with the OSI layers model. There are seven layers in the OSI model and each layer performs different
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function. These seven layers are described below and their individual l names and de tails of working are not
required to be remembered for an A level co mput ing 9691 student.
In the early days of personal computing, it was important to buy all the hardware from
the same manufacturer. Devices from different manufacturers were not necessarily able
to operate together. There were difficulties in establishing an interface between different
parts of the system. Layered interfaces make such communication possible.
LAYERS MEMORY AID FUNCTION

It provides the interface for the user between
Layer 7 Application Layer AWAY applications and network. It accepts info from
applications and passes them on to the next layer.
It takes data provided by applications layer and
Layer 6 Presentation Layer PIZZA converts it into a format the next subsequent layers
can understand and make use of.
When a connection with a piece of equipment is
Layer 5 Session Layer SAUSAGE made that will receive data packets, this layer set-ups,
maintains and ends a communication session.
Responsible for ordering and reassembly of packets of
Layer 4 Transport Layer THROW data. It may have to take packets from multiple
applications and order them into a stream of packets.
Concerned with delivery of data packets. It is in
charge of working out addresses and how data
Layer 3 Network Layer NOT
packers will get to a particular location. (called
routing)
Concerned with getting error-free connections across
Layer 2 Data Link Layer DO networks. It identifies errors and corrects them and
coordinates the streams of data.
Concerned with the physical characteristics of the
Layer 1 Physical Layer PLEASE hardware such as voltages, pin assignments in plugs
and so on.
Each layer knows how to communicate with the upper and lower layer as they can only talk to layers above or
below them.
Some common protocols are:
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
HTTPS Hyper Text Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer
FTP File Transfer Protocol
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
POP3 Post Office Protocol 3
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol
-
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the importance of bit rates to communication.

Refer to the characteristics of two types of data file which may need to be transmitted around a network
system.
Text File
contain small amount of data that is not a time sensitive transmission
Non Text File e.g. Video File
contain large amount of data which must be transmitted in a standard time frame
(1 per -, max 4)
- different volumes per second .
- means that different transfer rates are appropriate .
- some applications cannot be run without a high bit rate.
(1 per -, max 2)
2. Give one advantage of a star network topology over a bus network topology.
each device could use a different type of line / cable
if one segment goes down the rest of the network is not affected
it is easier to track down a fault
it is easier to expand a star network if required
better security
3. A finished website will be made available across the internet or on a local area network or both.
Explain the relationship between the bit rates available on the network and the types of output format
used on the website.
The bit rate is a measure of the rate that data can be sent across the communication medium.
Different communication media have different bit rates.
For simple text/still pictures, a low bit rate connection, is adequate because volume of data per page is
low and fixed that will be downloaded easily in a reasonable time.
For (live) video/sound the bit rate needs to be high because there is large volume of data which must
be downloaded in real time because information is time sensitive.
4. When a video file is accessed on a network it can be watched as it is downloading or it can be stored for
watching at a later date.
Explain the relationship between the required bit rates and the data being transmitted.
Video files contain large volumes of data. If watched at a later time then it does not matter how long
download it takes therefore bit rate can afford to be low.
However, if video is to be watched as it is downloaded then the bit rate must be high as it is to be
transmitted in a reasonable time and not cause a delay, otherwise the video will not run without
jerking/losing quality.
5. Why text based files do not cause problems while graphic (non-text) files download slowly?
byte.
Graphics/Non-text files are larger in size as each character used to store information takes up to 3
bytes.
-
6. Some computers are used in the offices for clerical tasks like word processing and accounting. Some are
in the showroom so that customers can see details of cars and videos of them being driven. The
computers used at the garage are networked and all data is stored on a central server.
Use examples from this application to explain the relationship between bit rates and the way that the
data in the files is used.
Bit rate is the number of bits transferred in a given time period
Different communication media have different bit rates.
Word processing uses text files requiring a low bit rate as because of non time sensitive transfer of
data
However, video is time sensitive transfer of data that requires a large/high bit rate
7. Why text based files do not cause problems while graphic (non-text) files download slowly?
byte.
Graphics/Non-text files are larger in size as each character used to store information takes up to 3
bytes.
8. Explain the relationship between bit rates and the use of data content in a network
Bit Rate is the number of bits per second.
If data that is being transmitted is to be stored at receiver for future use, then the bit rate can be kept
slow.
If data that is being transmitted is to be used immediately upon arrival then the bit rate used for
communication must be faster than the rate at which the data is used.

Data Transmission and Networking

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Chapter 5: Data Transmission and Networking AS Computing 9691/01 1

1.5 (a) Networks

ADVANTAGES / BENEFITS OF LAN AND WAN

However LAN also allows

There are three basic types of topologies. They are:

Breakdown of one machine/wire does not affect

More flexible as it is easier to expand (or remove a

Each terminal can transmit at different speeds

Centralized management. It helps in monitoring

Can isolate individual devices in troubleshooting

1.5 (d) Different Types Of Data Transmission

Examples of different types of data transmission

1.5 (f) Bit Rates and time sensitivity of data

1.5 (g) Relationship Between Baseband and Broadband

1.5 (h) Error Detection Methods

1.5 (j) Switching

1.5 (k) Physical and Logical Parts of Protocols

To allow manufacturers to create for one layer

Application layer Sending Receiving Application layer

Key points about layering

LAYERS MEMORY AID FUNCTION

1. Explain the importance of bit rates to communication.

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