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MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART ONE
CONTENTS
1 INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS (ATA 31) ............................................. 1-1
1.1 THE ATMOSPHERE ....................................................................... 1-1
1.1.1 STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ................................................ 1-3
1.2 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS ............................................................. 1-4
1.2.1 AIR DATA INSTRUMENTS.................................................. 1-4
1.2.2 LOCATION OF PROBES AND STATIC VENTS ....................... 1-7
1.3 ALTIMETERS ................................................................................ 1-10
1.3.1 ANEROID BAROMETER .................................................... 1-10
1.3.2 FRICTION COMPENSATION ............................................... 1-13
1.3.3 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION ....................................... 1-13
1.3.4 PRESSURE COMPENSATION............................................. 1-15
1.4 SERVO ASSISTED ALTIMETERS ..................................................... 1-18
1.4.1 GENERAL ....................................................................... 1-18
1.5 DIRECT SERVO ALTIMETER ........................................................... 1-19
1.5.1 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING ............................................ 1-22
1.6 PRESSURE REVERTING SERVO ALTIMETER .................................... 1-23
1.6.1 SERVO MODE OPERATION ............................................. 1-25
1.6.2 STANDBY MODE OPERATION ........................................ 1-25
1.6.3 DATUM PRESSURE SETTING ............................................ 1-26
1.7 CABIN ALTIMETERS ...................................................................... 1-26
1.8 AIRSPEED INDICATORS ................................................................. 1-28
1.8.1 SIMPLIFIED AIRSPEED INDICATOR .................................... 1-28
1.8.2 PITOT PRESSURE............................................................ 1-31
1.8.3 SPEED OF SOUND ........................................................... 1-32
1.8.4 MACHMETER .................................................................. 1-33
1.8.5 COMBINED SPEED INDICATOR .......................................... 1-35
1.8.6 PRESSURE OPERATED CSI ............................................. 1-36
1.8.7 SERVO OPERATED CSI ................................................... 1-37
1.9 VERTICAL SPEED INDICATORS ...................................................... 1-38
1.9.1 BASIC OPERATION .......................................................... 1-38
1.9.2 CALIBRATION .................................................................. 1-40
1.9.3 ALTITUDE & TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION .................... 1-41
1.10 GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS ......................................................... 1-42
1.10.1 GYROSCOPIC PROPERTIES .............................................. 1-42
1.10.2 RIGIDITY......................................................................... 1-42
1.10.3 PRECESSION .................................................................. 1-43
1.10.4 PRECESSION .................................................................. 1-45
1.10.5 VERTICAL GYRO ............................................................. 1-46
1.11 GYRO HORIZON UNIT .................................................................... 1-48
1.12 VERTICAL REFERENCE UNIT (VRU) ............................................... 1-53
1.13 ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR (ADI) .......................................... 1-54
1.13.1 WARNINGS ..................................................................... 1-56
1.13.2 ATTITUDE DISTRIBUTION ................................................. 1-56
1.13.3 ATTITUDE TRANSFER SWITCHING..................................... 1-58
1.14 STANDBY ATTITUDE INDICATORS .................................................. 1-59
1.14.1 DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION ........................................ 1-59
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
5. Electronic instruments
A relatively thin layer of air called the atmosphere surrounds the earth. This
extends upwards from the surface for a distance of about 250 miles and is
composed mainly of nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21% plus 1% of other gases which
includes amongst others, argon, carbon dioxide and helium. Under the
gravitational effect of the earth, the atmosphere exerts a pressure upon the
surface of the earth. This pressure, if measured at sea level, it is approximately
1.013bar (14.7lbf/in2), and reduces with height.
The pressure reduction, is not linear, the rate of pressure reduction decreases
with a rise in altitude to form an exponential curve. Temperature and water
vapour within the air also affects the pressure of the air, and therefore the height
at which a particular pressure can be measured. Figure 1 shows a
Height/pressure graph.
65
60
55 AT 8,000ft
240mb
50
45
HEIGHT X 1000ft
40
35
30
AT 8,000ft
750mb
25
AT SEA
20 LEVEL
1013mb
15
10
0
0 .100 .200 .300 .400 .500 .600 .700 .800 .900 1.000
AIR PRESSURE IN BARS
Height/Pressure Graph
Figure 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. The Troposphere.
2. The Stratosphere.
3. The Chemosphere.
+22.473
135 140,000ft
CHEMOSPHERE -
TEMPERATURE INCREASES AT
125 APPROXIMATELY 2.256C FOR
AN INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF
115 1000ft
STRATOPAUSE 104,987ft
105
-56.5
95
85
ALTITUDE FEET X 1000
75
STRATOPHERE - TEMPERATURE
UPPER LIMIT OF ICAO ISA 65,800ftt AT -56.5C
65
55
45
TROPOPAUSE 36,090ft
35
-56.5
25
TROPOSPHERE - TEMPERATURE
15 DECREASES 1.98C FOR AN
INCREASE IN HEIGHT OF 1000ft
5
+15
0
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES C)
Atmosphere Bands
Figure 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The height of these layers varies considerably with latitude and the season. It is
assumed that the troposphere extends to a height of 36,090ft and has a
temperature gradient falling at a linear rate to 56.5C at 36,090ft. The
stratosphere is assumed to range from 36,090ft to 104,987ft and to have a
constant temperature of 56.5C. Above this is the Chemosphere, extending to
the limits of the atmosphere and which is assumed to have a temperature
gradient, which initially rises approximately 2C for each 1000ft of altitude. For
the purpose of aircraft pressure instruments, these higher levels are not
important.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
An Air Data system of an aircraft is one which the total pressure created by the
forward motion of an aircraft, and the static pressure of the atmosphere
surrounding it, are sensed and measured in terms of speed, altitude and rate of
change of altitude. The measurement and indication of these three parameters
may be achieved by connecting the appropriate sensors, either directly to
mechanical-type instruments, or to a remotely-located Air Data Computer (ADC),
which then transmits the data in electrical signal format to electro-mechanical or
servo-type instruments.
The basic Air Data Instruments display airspeed, altitude, Mach number and
vertical speed. All are calculated from air pressure received from a Pitot/Static
source.
1. Static air pressure, which is simply the outside air pressure at the instant of
measuring.
2. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure of the air due to the forward motion of
the aircraft and is measured using a tube, which faces the direction of travel.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 3 shows a Pressure head as fitted to aircraft to allow Pitot and Static
pressures to the relevant indicators.
STATIC LINE
PITOT LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
FORWARD
Indicated Airspeed (IAS), Mach No, Barometric Height (Height above sea level),
and Vertical speed (Rate of climb/dive) are derived from the Pitot/Static inputs.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FUSELAGE
STATIC
VENT
STATIC
PIPE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosion-
resistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings is required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of Slugs of water blocking the lines. This provision takes the form of
drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves in the systems pipelines. The
drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as not to introduce errors into the
system.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Methods of draining the pipelines varies between aircraft types and are designed
to have a capacity sufficient to allow for the accumulation of the maximum
amount of water that could enter the system between maintenance periods.
Figure 6 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
TRANSPARENT FLOAT
PLASTIC PIPE INDICATOR
DRAIN
BAYONET
VALVE
FITTING
(SELF SEALING) CAP
The IAS is often combined to display Mach No as well as indicated airspeed and
is referred to as the Combined Speed Indicator.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 7 shows the connection and equations for the primary Air Data
instruments.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.3 ALTIMETERS
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE
PIVOT
CAPSULE STACK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRTIGHT POINTER
INSTRUMENT
CASE
EXTERNAL STILL
AIR PRESSURE
(STATIC)
CAPSULE STACK
Simplified Altimeter
Figure 9
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3 - POINTER ALTIMETER
SINGLEPOINTER ALTIMETER
Barometric Altimeter
Figure 10
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Temperature affects the strength of the materials used in the manufacture of the
capsules and springs, causing them to become stronger as temperature
decreases. The overall effect of this is that with a drop in temperature the
capsule stack will tend to extend, with the result that the instrument will over-read.
Conversely, a rise in temperature causes the capsule stack to contract and the
instrument under-read. There are two main methods employed to compensate
for this temperature-induced variations in readings, both of which use a bi-
metallic element as the compensating mechanism.
The first method used is to mount the capsule stack within a U shaped bi-
metallic bracket, the open end of which is connected to the top of the capsule
stack by pins. The composition of the b-metallic brackets is arranged so that with
a drop in temperature the limbs tend to move inwards, exerting a compressive
force onto the capsule stack, in opposition to the tendency of the capsule stack to
expand with a fall in temperature. Figure 11 shows the U bracket method of
temperature compensation.
DROP IN TEMPERATURE
LIMBS MOVE INWARDS
EXERTING A COMPRESSIVE
FORCE ONTO THE CASULE STACK
CASULE
STACK
BIMETAL
U SPRING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAPSULE
BIMETAL
COMPENSATING
LINK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
All aircraft pressure operated altimeters, are calibrated to one of the standard
atmospheres, and will provide an accurate altitude indication providing that the
atmospheric pressure prevailing conforms to the standard atmosphere. Anyone
who is familiar with the weather forecast on TV will realise that the atmospheric
pressure is always changing at any given point, as well as varying from area to
area. We are not concerned with the reasons why this happens, only the effect
this has on the altimeter.
+100ft
ERROR
Ht 5,000ft
843.21
-100ft
ERROR
A1 A2 A3
Pressure Compensation
Figure 13
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ICAO standard atmosphere also assumes a temperature of 15C at sea level
and a temperature drop (lapse rate)of 1.98C per 1000ft up to 36,090ft, it then
remains at a constant temperature of 56.5C. If the lapse rate differs from this
assumption then even a correctly set altimeter will indicate an error when an
aircraft flies into an area where air temperature is higher or lower than that
expected.
Assuming the same sea-level pressures, the pressure at a certain height over a
column of cold air is less than the pressure over a column of warm air at the
same height. This is because cold air is denser than warm air. Therefore, in
these conditions, an altimeter will over-read in air colder than standard conditions
and under-read in air warmer than standard conditions.
To help overcome these problems, the altimeter is fitted with a mechanism which
enables the instrument datum can be adjusted to the prevailing barometric
pressure. This mechanism consists of a system of gears within the instrument,
which is controlled by a knob on the face of the instrument. This knob, called the
Ground Pressure Setting Knob, allows the instrument datum and therefore the
indicator pointers be repositioned without affecting the capsule stack. At the
same time, an indicator, usually calibrated in millibars, will rotate to display the
instrument datum setting. This indicator, known as the Baroscale, can be
displayed as a linear scale but more commonly displayed using a veeder counter
viewed through an aperture in the indicator face.
QFE Airfield barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set to this
will read zero feet when landing or taking-off at the airport for which the QFE was
given.
QNH Actual sea-level barometric pressure. Altimeters with the baroscale set
to this will indicate height above mean sea-level (MSL).
QFE is normally set into the altimeter before take-off and on approach before
landing at any particular airport. QNH is normally set into the altimeter when the
aircraft is below 3,000. QNE set into the altimeter when the aircraft is above
3,000ft.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STANDARD SETTING
FLIGHT LEVEL
1013.25 MILLIBARS
QNE
SEA LEVEL
HEIGHT ABOVE
SEA LEVEL
QNH
HEIGHT ABOVE
AIRFIELD
QFE
Radio Q Codes
Figure 14
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Despite the use of a vibrator mechanism to enhance its response, the basic
altimeter becomes increasingly inaccurate with height. This results directly from
the non-linear changes in atmospheric pressure, with changes in altitude. For
example, the pressure drop from sea level to 1000ft is 36.08mb, whereas from
50,000ft to 51,000ft the pressure drop is only 5.44mb.
1.4.1 GENERAL
The errors within the basic altimeter can be reduced to acceptable levels by
minimising the work done by the capsule. This is achieved by interposing a
servo-assistance mechanism between the capsule stack and the gearing
mechanism. The other main difference between the servo assisted altimeter and
the basic altimeter is the dial presentation. This consists of a single pointer
moving over a scale calibrated from 0-1000ft in 50ft divisions and a veeder digital
counter, which records height up to 99,950ft which again is displayed in 50ft
increments.
Two main methods are used to provide servo-assistance for the basic altimeter.
1. Direct Servo-Control.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to figure 15, the I bar of the transducer is connected to the capsule
stack and pivoted so that I bar position will change as the capsule expand and
contract in response to a change of altitude. The E core, whose position
relative to the I bar is controlled by the servo-motor, is wound as a transformer,
with the primary coil on the centre limb and the secondary coils wound in series
opposition onto the outer limbs. The primary is supplied via a transformer from
the aircrafts 115V 400Hz supply. Figure 15 shows the face of a direct reading
Altimeter.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAPSULES
TRANSFORMER
SERVO
AMP
FOLLOWER
LEVER
CAM
ADJUSTING BAR
WORM GEAR
MILLIBAR
SHAFT
MOTOR
OVERRUN
SWITCH
COUNTERS
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
HEIGHT
SETTING KNOB
SOLENOID
PRESSURE
GROUND
WARNING
POINTER
FLAG
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Providing the I bar is equidistant from the E bar limbs, the resultant output
from the secondary coils will be zero. However, when a change of altitude
occurs, the I bar will pivot to follow the capsule movement and consequently the
air gaps between the outer limbs of the E bar and the I bar will become
unequal. The magnetic flux in the outer limb with the smaller gap will increase
and the induced voltage on that limb will also increase. The opposite effect
occurs in the other outer limb. This results in an output voltage, the magnitude
and phase of which depends upon the amount and direction of the movement of
the I bar. This output voltage is fed via an amplifier to the control winding of a
two-phase AC servo-motor. Figure 17 shows the operation of the E & I
transducer for increases and decrease of height.
A LT I TU D E A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT R IS IN G
(L O W L E V E L ) (L O W L E V E L )
A .C . A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM W A V E FO RM
A LT I TU D E A LT I TU D E
C O N ST A NT F A L L IN G
(H IG H L E V E L) (H IG H L E V E L)
A .C . A .C .
EX CI T AT I ON EX CI T AT I ON
SU PP L Y SU PP L Y
R E S U LT AN T R E S U LT AN T
W A V E FO RM W A V E FO RM
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The two-phase AC motor has its main winding supplied with a constant reference
voltage from the transformer. When the I bar is displaced by the movement of
the capsules, the resultant voltage output to the servo-motor control winding
either lags or leads the reference voltage. This sets up a rotating field in the
motor, which causes it to rotate in a direction such that the pointer and digital
counter moves in the correct sense to indicate the increase or decrease in
altitude. At the same time the servo-motor drives the cam and cam follower
which re-positions the E bar to equalise the air gaps between the E bar cores
and the I bar, thus reducing the transducer output to zero when the aircrafts
height stabilises.
As the motor only drives the indicator, any power failure will result in the
indication remaining at the height shown when the power failed. For this reason
a Power Failure Warning Indicator (PFWI) is fitted to the instrument. The PFWI
takes the form of a spring-loaded flag, which is held out of view by solenoid action
while the power is connected. Any power failure removes the supply from the
solenoid, allowing the flag to be returned into view by the spring action.
As with the basic altimeter, a Ground Pressure Setting Knob (GPSK) is provided
to allow the various Q codes to be set into the instrument. When this knob is
rotated, the veeder counter is turned by the associated gear train to show the
millibars set. Rotation of the knob also alters the setting of the millibar
adjustment rod; this moves the millibar lever about its pivot causing the worm
gear to move laterally. Movement of the worm gear shaft in this way rotates the
differential gear, cam and cam follower, displacing the E bar relative to the I
bar. An error signal is therefore generated and fed via the amplifier to the servo-
motor, driving the indicator gear train, the worm gear cam and cam follower and
the E bar back to the zero output position. The altimeter now shows aircraft
altitude with respect to the ground pressure set onto the baroscale.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MILLIBAR
SETTING
POINTER
KNOB
COUNTER
MILLIBAR
COUNTERS
HEIGHT
BACKLASH
GEAR
ANTI
MOTOR
DRAG
CUP
TRANSFORMER
CONTROL
SERVO
AMP
SYNCHRO
SIGNAL
ALTITUDE SIGNAL
FROM ADC
CX
MECHANISM
CAPSULE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With power on, the altimeter functions in the standby mode until the altimeter is
switched to servo motor by momentarily turning the mode selector switch to the
RESET position. This via a self-maintaining relay circuit (nor shown), connects
the power to the amplifier and drag cup motor circuits, and retracts the standby
flag from view. A corrected altitude signal generated by a synchro transmitter in
the master altimeter or ADC, is fed to the stator of the control transformer (CT).
This gives an error signal related to the difference between the position of the
stators magnetic field and the position of the rotor coil. Provided these are
aligned at 90 to each other a null error signal is produced. The rotor position is
initially determined by capsule displacement.
Provided the rotor position and the CT stator input signal position remain at 90,
no error signal is produced, however, when the rotor position is out of alignment
with respect to the input signal position an error signal is produced. This error
signal is fed to the amplifier and then fed to the control phase of the two-phase
drag cup motor. The motor, which is connected to the altimeters gearing
mechanism now assists the capsules to drive the indicator to the correct reading
and also to align the CT rotor to the nil error position stopping the motor. Thus as
the CT rotor is always driven to the nil error position, the indications produced by
the instrument reflect the input signal position generated by the master altimeter
or ADC.
The altimeter is fitted with a failsafe detection circuit, which automatically returns
the altimeter to the standby mode under any one of the following conditions:
1. AC power failure.
3. Amplifier failure.
Difference at sea-level between the input signal and standby altimeter of more
than 4,000ft (difference increases with an increase of altitude).
Under these conditions, the main AC supply is isolated, the standby flag drops
into view and the vibrator is energised.
In addition to the circumstances listed above, the standby mode can be selected
by momentarily setting the mode selector switch to STANDBY. This interrupts
the supply and allows the self-maintaining relay to de-energise thus isolating the
main supply. This action completes the DC supply circuit for the vibrator and
returns the standby flag into view.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Q codes can be set into the altimeter using the millibar setting knob. The
knob when turned adjusts the millibar scale, the capsule position and, via bevel
gear and worm drive the stator of the CT. Thus the rotation of the setting knob
causes simultaneous adjustment of the millibar scale, the capsule mechanism,
the pointer and counter and the CT stator. It is necessary to simultaneously
adjust the CT stator with the CT rotor (via capsule mechanism) to ensure that
inputs from the master altimeter or ADC are not affected.
In addition to the aircraft altimeters, most passenger aircraft also carry a cabin
altimeter. This is to enable the flight crew to monitor the pressurisation of the
cabin environment control system. This type of instrument is a single pointer
instrument with a range of zero feet to 20,000ft. The instruments case is
unsealed (vented to cabin pressure) and is normally only proved with
compensation for temperature fluctuation. As a consequence, it suffers from
errors due to changes in atmospheric conditions from the standard atmosphere to
which it is calibrated. In spite of this, the accuracy of the instrument is better than
500ft, which is sufficient for its normal application.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EN D
P L A TE
T E M P E R A TU R E
C OM PEN SA TOR
F IL T E R
C IR C L IP
M E C H AN IS M
P L A TE
H A N D S T A FF &
P I N IO N A S S E M B L Y
R O C K IN G S H A F T
P O IN T E R & S E C TO R A S S E M B L Y
Cabin Altimeter
Figure 20
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Airspeed is displayed in two ways, in nautical miles per hour, knots (1 nautical
mile = 6,080ft, 1.5 miles), or as a factor of the speed of sound, Mach (Mach 1 =
speed of sound). This information can be displayed separately, using an
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) displaying airspeed in knots and a Mach meter (MM)
displaying airspeed relative to the speed of sound, or both displays can be
combined into a single instrument.
When an aircraft is stationary (on the ground) all external surfaces are subjected
equally to the prevailing atmospheric pressure. When the aircraft is in motion,
there are changes in the pressures felt on its external surfaces and the aircraft
experiences a build up of an additional pressure on its leading edges resulting
from its passage through the air. For any given height, the build up of this
pressure (known as dynamic pressure) is proportional to the speed of the aircraft.
This pressure when sensed by a Pitot tube, and ducted to an instrument, can be
used to measure aircraft speed.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A IRS P E E D
PI VOT
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
PI T OT
C A PSU L E S T AC K
PR ES SU R E
A T MO SPH ER IC
PR ES SU R E
S T AT IC
P R E S S U RE G E A R ING
P IT O T
P R E S S U RE
P O IN T E R
C AP S UL E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Airspeed Indicator in its most simple form consists of a sealed instrument
case with a capsule which has pitot pressure applied to its inside while static
pressure is fed to the case. The movement of the capsule is due only to the
effects of the dynamic pressure, which results directly from the aircrafts speed
through the air. Figure 22 shows two types of simple airspeed indicators.
Airspeed Indicators
Figure 22
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Pitot pressure as sensed by the Pitot tube, is the sum of the dynamic
pressure and the static pressure and can be represented by the formula:
P = V2 + S
Where - P = Pitot Pressure.
- = air density.
- V = aircraft velocity.
- S = Static Pressure.
It can be seen from the above formula that the actual dynamic pressure build-up
increases as the square of the aircrafts speed increases whereas the movement
of the capsule has a linear response to pressure change. If therefore, as is
normally required, the instrument scale is to be linear with respect to speed, and
not compressed or cramped at low speeds, the square law pressure rise must be
compensated for within the indicator. This is normally achieved using a ranging
spring assembly as shown in figure 23.
RANGING
SCREWS
RANGING
PLATE
RANGING
SPRING
CASULE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When an aircraft flies at or near the speed of sound, shockwaves build up around
the aircraft due to the increased resistance of the air to the passage of the
aircraft. The effect of these shockwaves are such that the aerodynamic stability
of the aircraft is affected, resulting in buffeting, loss of directional control and loss
of lift. The severity of these effects when flying at, near or through the speed of
sound (sound barrier), is different for each type of aircraft but is always severe
enough for the pilot to be forewarned via instrumentation that he is approaching
the speeds at which these effects can be expected.
The problems associated with the speed of sound are aggravated by the fact that
the speed of sound varies with air density (altitude & temperature), as altitude
increases the speed of sound decreases. Hence the need for a Machmeter,
which indicates the aircrafts speed in relation to the speed of sound. This is
indicated as a Mach number, Mach 1 = speed of sound at the altitude at which
the aircraft is flying. Mach number can be represented by the formula:
TRUE AIRSPEED
Mach Number =
LOCAL SPEED OF SOUND
TRUE AIRSPEED (P - S)
ALTITUDE (S)
When referring to aircraft flying speeds with respect to the speed of sound, there
are three distinct speed bands:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.8.4 MACHMETER
Machmeter
Figure 24
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ALTITUDE
RETAINING
CAPSULE
SPRING
PUSH
ROD
SECTOR
ROCKING
POINTER ARM
VERTICAL
HIGH LINK PITOT
ENTRY
PIVOT
LOW
AIRSPEED
CAPSULE
Machmeter Schematic
Figure 25
As can be seen from the diagram in figure 25, an increase of aircraft speed
causes the dynamic pressure P-S to increase and the airspeed capsule to
expand. This motion is then transmitted via the vertical link, rocking arm and
sector arm to the pointer; causing it to move up the Mach number scale. A rise in
altitude causes the altitude capsule to expand, this motion is transmitted to the
rocking arm, via the rocking arm pivot, moving the rocking arm towards the centre
line of the sector arm pivot. The rocking arm therefore moves closer to the pivot
of the sector arm. This action modifies and increases the effect of the airspeed
capsule causing the indicated Mach speed to be increased.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
As aircraft become more and more complex the demand for instrumentation is
continually rising. This has resulted, where practical, in two or more instruments
being combined into one. This practice has been particularly successful with
respect to airspeed and Mach speed indications. Two different examples of this
are shown in figure 26.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 27 shows the schematic layout for the pressure operated Machmeter.
AIRSPEED
DIAL HAIRSPRING
TUNING BLOCK BI-METALIC LINK
STATIC
SECTOR
POINTER AIRSPEED
PITOT
CAPSULE
MACH ALTITUDE
DISC CAPSULE
HAIRSPRING
SECTOR
AIRSPEED HAIRSPRING
DIAL
BI-METALIC LINK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The altitude capsule is connected to a disc located behind the ASI pointer and
inside the ASI scale. The Mach scale is printed on this disc. An increase in
altitude, causes the altitude capsule to expand driving the Mach scale disc
counter clockwise, whilst an increase in airspeed causes the pointer to move
clockwise. The result of this is that an increase of airspeed and/or altitude
produces an increase in the Mach number reading on the innerscale against the
ASI pointer.
There is also a second pointer on this type of CSI and is known as the Velocity
Maximum Operating (Vmo) pointer. This is provided for the purpose of indicating
the maximum safe speed of an aircraft over its operating altitude range; in other
words, it is an indication of the critical Mach number.
This instrument also has a command bug and associated setting know in the
bottom left hand corner of the instrument. This is used to set a required airspeed
value, which can be used as the datum for an autothrottle control system, or as a
fast/slow speed indicator. There are also five external index pointers around the
bezel, which are manually set to any desired reference speed, i.e. take off speeds
V1 and V2.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The vertical speed indicator, commonly known as the rate of climb indicator,
provides the flight crew with an accurate indication of the rate at which the aircraft
is changing height. This indication is very necessary when flying on instruments
only, at night or in poor visibility.
CALIBRATED
CHOKE
STATIC
PRESSURE
STATIC
TUBE
CAPSULE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to figure 28, the pressure flow into and out of the case is restricted by a
calibrated choke, when the aircraft climbs, the pressure in the capsule falls,
maintaining a balance with external (to the aircraft) air pressure. The pressure
within the instrument case also falls, but is unable to escape at the same rate as
that from the capsule, causing a pressure differential to occur. The pressure
within the instrument case being the greater when compared to the capsule. This
causes the capsule to contract, and by a series of linkages the indicator pointer to
indicate the rate of climb.
The faster the change of altitude the greater the differential pressure, which
results in a greater contraction of the capsule and a further deflection of the
instrument pointer to indicate a greater rate of climb. Upon descent, the capsule
pressure becomes greater than that of the instrument case and the capsule
expands, causing the pointer to indicate a descent. In level flight the two
pressures are in balance and the pointer indicates zero
The rate of climb/descent is indicated by a single pointer moving over a dial face,
which is graduated in feet per minute. The dial face, which can have either linear
or logarithmic graduations, conventionally has a zero point situated at the 9-o-
clock position. The indicator pointer moves clockwise over the face to indicate
ascent and anti-clockwise to indicate descent.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.9.2 CALIBRATION
Adjustment of the screws varies the effective length of the spring, which
dependant upon capsule position will control the capsules response to pressure
change and will therefore modify the indications produced. The upper spring
controls the expansion of the capsule (rate of descent) and lower spring controls
the compression of the capsule (rate of ascent). Figure 30 shows the inside of a
vertical speed indicator showing the calibration springs.
CALIBRATION CALIBRATION
SPRINGS SCREWS
ROCKING BALANCE
SHAFT WEIGHT
MECHANISM
LINK
CALIBRATION
SCREWS
METERING
UNIT
CALIBRATION
BRACKET
STATIC
CAPSULE CAPILIARY
TUBE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The way in which air passes through a metering device varies with air density and
with temperature. Since the metering unit is required to give a given pressure
difference for any given rate of altitude change, it must compensate for changes
in air temperature and the change in air density at different altitudes.
Altitude Compensation
Temperature Compensation
The viscosity of the air is proportional to temperature; viscosity falling with a drop
in temperature. The effects of this is that the pressure difference across an orifice
for a given rate of altitude change increases with a decrease in temperature.
Conversely, the pressure differential across a capillary tube for a given rate of
altitude change decreases as temperature decreases. Thus, during design, a
correct combination of orifice and capillary tubes can be chosen which will
provide a stable pressure differential over a wide range of altitude and
temperature changes. Figure 31 shows the internal working of a metering unit.
GASKETS
AIR
FILTER
CAPILLARY
STATIC
INPUT
ORIFICE
CONNECTING TUBE
TO CAPSULE
Metering Unit
Figure 31
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Tilting Freedom: About a horizontal axis at right angles to the spin axis
(axis of tilt YY).
The three degrees of freedom are obtained by mounting the rotor in two
concentrically pivoted rings, called inner and outer rings. The whole assembly is
known as the gimbal system of a free or space gyroscope. The gimbal system is
mounted in a frame so that in its normal operating position, all the axes are
mutually at right angles to one another and intersect at the center of gravity of the
rotor.
The system will not exhibit gyroscopic properties unless the rotor is spinning.
When the rotor is spinning at high speed the device becomes a true gyroscope
possessing two important fundamental properties:
2. Precession.
1.10.2 RIGIDITY
The property, which resists any, force tending to change the plane of rotor
rotation. It is dependent on:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.10.3 PRECESSION
The angular change in direction of the plane of rotation under the influence of an
applied force. The change in direction takes place, not in line with the force, but
always at a point 90 away in the direction of rotation. The rate of precession
also depends on:
Z
FRAME
Y
X
ROTOR
OUTER
RING
Y
INNER
RING
Gyroscope.
Figure 32
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Gyro Rigidity
Figure 33
Gyro A has its spin axes parallel with the Earth's spin axes, located at the North
Pole. It could hold this position indefinitely.
Gyro B has its spin axes parallel to the Earth's spin axes, but located at the
Equator. As the Earth rotates, it would appear to continually point North.
Gyro C is also situated at the Equator. As the Earth rotates, it appears to rotate
about its axes, however it is the Earth that is rotating and not the gyro.
This rigidity can be used in a number of gyro instruments including the directional
gyro.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.10.4 PRECESSION
If an external force is applied to a spinning gyro, its effect will be felt at 90 0 from
the point of application, in the direction of gyro rotation. This is known as
precession. It can be seen in Figure 34, that if a force is applied to the bottom of
the rotating wheel, it will rotate about its horizontal axis.
This property is not wanted in some instruments, such as directional gyros. The
use of precession is used in turn indicators, which will be covered later.
SPIN AXIS
90
APPLIED DIRECTION
FORCE OF
PRECESSION
Gyro Precession
Figure 34
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 35 shows the effects on a free gyro in an aircraft circling the earth. As can
be seen, it would only be perpendicular to the earth's surface at two points.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In order for the gyro to be used to indicate the aircraft's attitude, it has to be
corrected to continually be aligned to the vertical. These corrections are very
slow and gentle, since the amount of correction needed, for example, in a ten-
minute period is small. Figure 36 shows a vertical gyro corrected to the local
vertical.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Instruments that use either the rigidity or the precession of gyros are:
4. Direction Indicator.
6. Turn Co-ordinator.
The Gyro Horizon Unit gives a representation of the aircrafts pitch and roll
attitudes relative to its vertical axis. For this it uses a displacement gyroscope
whose spin axis is vertical. Figure 37 shows a displacement gyro and the two
axis of displacement.
ROLL PITCH
Displacement Gyro
Figure 37
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Indications of attitude are presented by the relative positions of two elements, one
symbolising the aircraft itself, the other in the form of a bar stabilized by the
gyroscope and symbolising the natural horizon. Figure 38 shows a typical Gyro
Horizon Unit.
SPERRY
6
6
3 3
The gimbal system is so arranged so that the inner ring forms the rotor casing
and is pivoted parallel to an aircrafts lateral axis (YY1); the outer ring is pivoted at
the front and rear ends of the instrument case, parallel to the longitudinal axis
(ZZ1). The element symbolizing the aircraft may either be rigidly fixed to the
case, or it may be externally adjustable for setting a particular pitch trim
reference.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OUTER
RING ROTOR
Y Z1
SYMBOLIC BALANCE
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT
PIVOT
Z POINT
Y1
X1 HORIZON
ROLL BAR
POINTER
& SCALE
In operation the gimbal system is stabilized so that in level flight the three axes
are mutually at right angles. When there is a change in the aircrafts attitude,
example climbing, the instrument case and outer ring will move about the YY1 of
the stabilized inner ring.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The horizon bar is pivoted at the side and to the rear of the outer ring and
engages an actuating pin fixed to the inner ring, thus forming a magnifying lever
system. The pin passes through a curved slit in the outer ring. In a climb attitude
the pivot carries the rear end of the bar upwards so that it pivots about the
stabilized actuating pin. The front end of the bar is therefore moved downwards
through a greater angle than that of the outer ring, and since the movement is
relative to the symbolic aircraft element, the bar will indicate a climb attitude.
Z
1
X
HORIZON BAR 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Changes in the lateral attitude of an aircraft, i.e. rolling, displaces the instrument
case about the axis (ZZ1), and the whole stabilized gimbal system. Hence, lateral
attitude changes are indicated by movement of the symbolic aircraft element
relative to the horizon bar, and also by relative movement between the roll angle
scale and pointer. Figure 41 shows roll attitude operation.
Y Y
1
BANK TO
PORT
DATUM
X
1
Freedom of gimbal system movement is 360 for roll axis and 85 for the and
pitch axis. The pitch scale is restricted by means of a resilient stop. This will
prevent gimbal lock.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PITCH ERECTION
VIBRATION CUTOFF SWITCHES
ISOLATION
MOUNTS
FRAME
DEHYDRATION
PLUG
GYRO
CASE
ROLL ERECTION
CUTOFF SWITCHES
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
BONDING
GIMBAL
STRAP
RING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FD GSL
2
F
1
S 2
RW
T Y
AT
TEST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.13.1 WARNINGS
1. ATT Flag
2. FD Flag
Indicates an internal failure of the command bars for any axis or flight director
failure.
3. LOC Flag
Indicates a loss of the localiser valid signal, or insufficient signal with index off
scale.
4. Glideslope Flag
Indicates loss of the localiser valid (G/S) signal with index off scale.
Figure 44 shows a block schematic of the attitude transfer switching circuit and
shows the distribution of the attitude information. The transfer switching is drawn
in the NORMAL position fed from 28V ESS DC.
Switching allows either gyro to supply both ADI attitude displays and the
autopilot. The flight data recorder and weather radar are hard wired to No 1 gyro.
Primary outputs are used exclusively for the ADI attitude displays. Buffered
secondary 3 wire outputs are used for the autopilot, FDR and ADI cross-
switching. The latter arrangement prevents a faulty ADI being paralleled with the
other ADI thus causing the loss of both.
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR
ALL ON
2
P/R
AUTOPILOT
ROLL THRESHOLD
Figure 44
AEROPLANE
P/R MONITOR
AERODYNAMICS,
WX RADAR
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
Attitude Distribution
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
115V
AC No 2 ALL ON AUTOPILOT (RACO)
1
R
ERROR
SECONDARY
3 WIRE & VALID
ADI
P/R
No 2
PRIMARY 3 WIRE & VALID
RESOLVER
COMPARARATOR
Page 1-57
ESS
26V AC
NO 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CUTOUT
(RACO)
ANGLE
ROLL
FIRST OFFICER
115V AC (No 2)
VERT GYRO
2
No 2
N
COMPASS (RH)
1
FROM HSI
INST. COMP.
MONITOR
COMPASS (LH)
FROM HSI
VERT GYRO
2
115V AC (ESS)
No 1
N
CAPTAIN
1
AUTOPILOT
A.I.D.S.
WX RX
Attitude Switching
Figure 45
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.14.2 RUNNING UP
If the shaft deviates from the vertical axis, the pendulum is no longer in the
horizontal plane. It will move erratically, the effect of which will be to bring the
shaft into alignment with the vertical axis.
1.14.4 CAGING
As the gyro runs up to speed, the gyroscopic assembly may occupy any random
position inside its casing. Caging to case datum may be rapidly achieved and
without abruptness, by pulling the fast erection knob approximately thirty seconds
after energising the gyro. This brings the gyroscopic assembly to the vicinity of
the vertical axis and when the knob is released it is free to move and aligns itself
precisely with the vertical axis.
When the gyro is erected and running at full speed and the aircraft is in a level
flight attitude, then the horizontal line on the datum and the roll pointer (which are
both attached to the gyro mechanism) are aligned with the aeroplane index and
the roll scale datum respectively. Because the gyro axis remains at the local
vertical due to the gravity sensitive erection control system, movement of the
aircraft (and therefore the instrument dial carrying the pitch datum and roll datum)
from the vertical is relative to the gyro. Aircraft movement in the pitch axis causes
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
a vertical displacement between the horizon line and the aeroplane index;
movement about the roll axis causes a rotational displacement between the
horizon line and the aeroplane index and also between the roll pointer and the
roll scale datum. Figure 47 shows a simplified circuit for the Standby Attitude
Indicator.
0.3 A
1A STATIC
28V DC INVERTER
EMERG/BATT GYRO
19V AC
400 Hz
ROTOR
SPEED
SENSOR
5V AC
INSTRUMENT
LIGHTING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The instrument operates from the aircraft 28 V DC supply; the 400 Hz 3-phase
AC supply for the gyroscope is provided by a built-in static inverter. Figure 48
shows the Standby Attitude Indicator and its location.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1.15.1 DESCRIPTION
After the gyro commences to run up, a fast erection mechanism is used to bring it
to the vertical position. This is brought into operation by pulling the knob on the
front of the instrument and waiting for a few seconds until the horizon line
stabilises at its datum position and the roll index reads zero.
Localiser and glideslope pointers indicate ILS deviation and are driven from No. 1
VHF navigation system. LOC and G/S failure warning flags are driven out of view
by external 28 V DC validity signals also emanating from NAV 1 receiver; the
flags are in view when the validity signals are missing or do not conform. When
power is applied to the NAV 1 receiver but it is not tuned to a localiser frequency,
external bias voltages remove the LOC and G/S pointers and flags from view.
Figure 49 shows the Standby Attitude Indicator internal circuit.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1A
28V DC
EMERG/BATT
STATIC GYRO
INVERTER
G/S LOC
SIGNAL SIGNAL
G/S
VALIDITY
5V AC LOC
INSTRUMENT VALIDITY
LIGHTING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In its basic form, the outer ring of the gyro carries a circular card, graduated in
degrees, and referenced against a lubber line fixed to the gyro frame. When the
rotor is spinning, the gimbal system and card are stabilized so that, by turning the
frame, the number of degrees through which it is turning may be read on the
card. Figure 50 shows a Directional Indicator.
180 170
Directional Indicator
Figure 50
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In the directional gyro, the rotor is enclosed in a case, or shroud, and supported
in an inner gimbal which is mounted in an outer gimbal, the bearings of which are
located top and bottom on the indicator case. The front of the case contains a
cut-out through which the card is visible, and also a lubber line reference.
The caging/setting knob is provided at the front of the case to set the indicator
onto the correct heading (magnetic). When the setting the heading, the inner
gimbal has to be caged to prevent it from precessing as the outer gimbal is
rotated. Figure 51 shows the construction of a directional gyro.
Directional Gyro
Figure 51
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A gimbal ring and magnifying system, which moves the pointer in the correct
sense over a scale calibrated in what is termed Standard Rates, actuate the
rate of turn pointer. Although they are not always marked on a scale, they are
classified as follows:
2 MIN
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
For the detection of rates of turn, a rate gyroscope is used and is arranged in the
manner shown in figure 53.
INPUT
AXIS
FWD
X Y1
F
Y X1
P
It differs in two respects from the displacement gyro as it only has one gimbal ring
and a calibrated spring restraining in the longitudinal axis YY1. When the
indicator is in its normal operating position the rotor spin axis, due to the spring
restraint, will always be horizontal and the turn pointer at the zero datum. With
the rotor spinning, its rigidity will further ensure that the zero position is
maintained.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When the aircraft turns to the left about the vertical input axis the rigidity of the
rotor will resist the turning movement, which it detects as an equivalent force
being applied to its rim at point F. The gimbal ring and rotor will therefore be
tilted about the longitudinal axis as a result of precession at point P.
As the gimbal ring tilts, it stretches the calibrated spring until the force it exerts
prevents further deflection of the gimbal ring. Since precession of a rate gyro is
equal to its angular momentum and the rate of turn, then the spring force is a
measure of the rate of turn.
Actual movement of the gimbal ring from its zero position can, therefore, be taken
as the required measure of turn rate.
In the normal level flight the ball is held at the center of the tube by the force of
gravity. Let us assume the aircraft turns left at a certain airspeed and bank angle.
The indicator case and the tube move with the aircraft and centrifugal force (CF)
in addition to that of gravity acts upon the ball and tends to displace it outwards
from the center of the tube. However, when the turn is executed at the correct
bank angle and matched with airspeed, then there is a balanced condition
between the two forces and so the resultant force (R) hold the ball in the center of
the tube.
If the airspeed were to be increased during the turn, then the bank angle and
centrifugal force would also be increased. As long as the bank angle is correct
for the appropriate conditions, the new resultant force will still hold the ball
central.
If the bank angle for a particular rate of turn is not correct (under-banked/over-
banked), then the aircraft will tend to either skid or slip. In the skid condition the
centrifugal force will be the greatest, whereas in the slip condition the force of
gravity is greatest.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Bank Indications
Figure 54
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The final instrument in this group is the turn co-ordinator. Basically, its
mechanism is changed slightly from the turn and slip indicator, so that it senses
rotation about the longitudinal axis, (bank) as well as the vertical axis, (turn). This
gives a more accurate indication to the pilot, of the turning of the aircraft.
TURN COORDINATION
L R
2 MIN
NO PITCH
INFORMATION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A glideslope pointer and scale on the right hand side of the indicator gives a
conventional display of the aircraft with respect to the glideslope. The scale is in
a three-position rotation display, the three positions being glideslope, when the
scale is presenting ILS glideslope deviation. The center mark is a rectangle and
the outer marks are dots. No 2 scale is presented to display vertical navigation
display and No 3 scale shows vertical navigation failure flag.
One radio bearing pointer displays the bearing to the next WPT. The bearing
pointer is a pink arrow.
A window to the left of the heading dial displays an ALERT annunciator flag to
indicate the proximity of a navigation reference point.
On the top left and top right hand corners of the instrument are to windows
labeled DIST (distance to waypoint) and GND SPD (ground speed) respectively.
Three windows located in the lower left hand corner of the instrument are blank
until one of the auxiliary servo monitors detects a persistent excessive null, at
which time the ISM causes the appropriate servo symbol to come into view.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
and will cover the heading index at the 12 oclock position if the heading source
fails, or if there is interrupted supply.
Selected course is displayed on the heading dial by an orange dagger-shaped
indicator, rotating in the centre of the heading dial. A similarly coloured pointer
opposite the dagger-shaped indicator provides the reciprocal of selected course.
The dagger and pointer, together with the airplane symbol, serve as the index for
the course deviation indicator. The course select indicator is remotely positioned
by means of the course setting knobs on the navigation selector. Figure 56
shows a Sperry RD700D HSI.
SELECTED SELECTED
COURSE HEADING
CAPTURED CAPTURED
SELECTED
WAYPOINT
BEARING
CAPTURED
VERTICAL VERTICAL
FAIL FLAG NAVIGATION
GLIDESLOPE
COURSE MASK
ANNUNCIATION'S
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A vertical track or glideslope deviation pointer and scale, on the right-hand side
of the HSI, gives a conventional display of the aircraft with respect to the
glideslope. The deviation scale is marked by five dash marks, one long dash
mark in the center, two short dash marks above it and two short dash marks
below it. The vertical track or glideslope deviation pointer is such that when the
aircraft is on the glidepath the pointer is in the central position on the scale. If the
aircraft is off the glideslope, the pointer will move to indicate whether the
deviation is up or down and the amount of movement indicates the extent of the
deviation.
The course deviation bar represents the centerline of a selected VOR or localizer
course. The course deviation scale is marked by five dots, the center one being
enclosed in a small circle. If the aircraft moves off course, the deviation bar will
move to indicate whether left or right of selected course, and the amount of
deviation.
A To-From pointer is used when the navigation receiver is tuned to, and receiving
a VOR signal. The to-from pointer indicates whether the selected course is "To"
(pointer up) or "from" (pointer down) the received signal. When the selected
course is the same as the selected VOR radial, and the aircraft is heading
towards the signal course, a "to" indication is given. When the selected course is
the same as the selected VOR radial and the aircraft is flying away from the
signal course, a "From" indication is given.
An RNAV bearing pointer indicates the direction to the active waypoint. When not
in the RNAV mode, the pointer is biased to the 6 o'clock position.
Two digital LCD displays in the top left-hand and right-hand corners of the HSI
indicate the distance to go to the next waypoint (MILES) and the groundspeed of
the aircraft (GND SPEED). The brightness of the two displays can be adjusted
using the HSI & RA DIM control located on the main instrument panel.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. MAG annunciator.
HEADING warning flag comes into view and covers the MAG annunciator if the
heading information becomes unreliable.
Comes into view if navigation data is (orange with white stripes) missing, or
unreliable, when the receiver is tuned to a VOR station.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Apart from the main flight instruments, one item of information that the pilot needs
to know at various stages of flight is the angle of attack. Earlier aircraft had a
range of devices that gave the pilot indication of an approaching stall, which was
an essential indicator but knowing the angle of attack has become an essential
part of flying modern, larger aircraft.
The simplest forms of angle of attack indicators are the Angle of Attack probe and
the stall vane. The probe consists of a hinged-vane-type sensor mounted in the
leading edge of a wing so that the vane protrudes into the airstream. Figure 58
shows an Angle of Attack vane sensor.
ELCTRICAL
CONNECTION
FWD
HINGED
VANE
SYNCHRO
INDEX
PINS
FUSELAGE
SKIN
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In normal level flight conditions, the airstream maintains the vane in a parallel
position. If the aircrafts attitude changes such that the AOA increases, then by
definition, the airflow will meet the leading edge at an increasing angle, and so
cause the vane to be deflected. Figure 59 shows the detection of the AOA.
A330
ANGLE
OF
ATTACK VANE ARM
AIRCRAFT ANGLE OF ATTACK
LONGITUDINAL TRANSDUCER
AXIS
FLIGHT PATH
AIRFLOW
Detecting AOA
Figure 59
When the AOA reaches that which the warning unit has been pre-set, the vane
activates a circuit to activate the stick shaker on the control column (Indicating the
aircraft is approaching a stall).
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DEMODULATOR
SHAKER
STICK
M
SS1
TRANSMITTER
POSITION
FLAP
AOA SIGNAL
BIAS OFF
VANE SENSOR
SUPP
HTR
SYNCHRO SUPP
K1
WOW
SW
GND
28V
DC
FLT
400Hz
115V
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MOUNTING
BRACKET
STICK-SHAKER
MOTOR
Stick-Shaker Installation
Figure 61
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Modern technology has enabled some significant changes in the layout of flight
instrumentation on most aircraft currently in service. The biggest change has
been the introduction of Electronic Instrument systems. These systems have
meant that many complex Electro-mechanical instruments have now been
replaced by TV type colour displays. These systems also allow the exchange of
images between display units in the case of display failures.
COMBINED
AIRSPEED
INDICATOR
EADI ALTIMETER
RADIO VERTICAL
MAGNETIC SPEED
INDICATOR EHSI INDICATOR
ECAM
SYSTEMS
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The Electronic Instrument System (EIS) also allows the flight crew to configure
the instrument layout by allowing manual transfer of the Primary Flight Display
(PFD) with the Navigation Display (ND) and the secondary Electronic Centralized
Aircraft Monitoring (ECAM) display with the ND. Figure 63 shows the switching
panel from Airbus A320.
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As well as a manual transfer, the system will automatically transfer displays when
either the PFD or the primary ECAM display fails. The PFD is automatically
transferred onto the corresponding ND, with the ECAM secondary display used
for the primary ECAM display.
The system will also automatically transfer the primary ECAM information onto
the ND if a double failure of the ECAM display system occurs. Figure 64 shows a
block schematic of the EIS for the Airbus 320.
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4. Symbol Generator.
The EADI and EHSI can either be positioned side by side or vertically top and
bottom. Normally the EADI is positioned on the top or on the onside position.
The EADI displays traditional attitude information (Pitch & Roll) against a two-
colour sphere representing the horizon (Ground/Sky) with an aircraft symbol as a
reference. Attitude information is normally supplied from an Attitude Reference
System (ARS).
The EADI will also display further flight information, Flight Director commands
right/left to capture the flight path to Waypoints, airports and NAVAIDS and
up/down to fly to set altitudes. Information related to the aircrafts position with
respect to Localizer (LOC) and Glideslope (GS) beams transmitted by an ILS.
Auto Flight Control System (AFCS) deviations and Autothrottle mode, selected
airspeed (Indicated or Mach No) Groundspeed, Radio Altitude and Decision
Height information.
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2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which is only present when active).
Pitch Attitude: The pitch attitude display has white scale reference
marks at 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60 and 80 on
the sphere.
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Attitude Source
Annunciation: The selected attitude source is not annunciated if it is
the normal source for that indicator. As other attitude
sources are selected, they are annunciated in white at
the top left-hand side of the EADI. When the pilot and
co-pilot sources are the same, then the annunciation
is amber.
Several displays are in view only when being used. When not in use, these
displays are automatically removed from the EADI.
Note; when the Radio Altimeter height is 100 feet above the DH, a white box
appears adjacent to the radio altimeter display. When at or below the DH, an
Amber DH will appear inside the white box.
Flight Director
Mode Annunciators: Flight director vertical and lateral modes are
annunciated along the top of the EADI. Armed vertical
and lateral modes are annunciated in white to the left
of the captured vertical and lateral mode annunciators.
Capture mode annunciators are displayed in green
and are located on the top center for lateral modes
and in the top right corner for vertical modes. As the
mode's transition from armed to capture, a white box
is drawn around the capture mode annunciator for 5
seconds.
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Vertical Navigation
Display: The deviation pointer indicates the VNAVs computed
path center to which the aircraft is to be flown. In this
mode, the letter V inside the vertical scale pointer
identifies the information as VNAV deviation.
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The EHSI presents a selectable, dynamic colour display of flight progress and
plan view orientation. The EHSI has a number of different modes of operation,
these are selectable by the flight crew and the number will be dependent on the
system fitted.
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2. Part Time EADI Display (Data which are only present when active).
Course Deviation
Indicator: The course deviation bar represents the centerline of
the selected navigation or localizer course. The
aircraft symbol pictorially shows the aircraft position in
relation to the displayed deviation.
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Distance Display: The distance display indicates the nautical miles to the
selected DME station or LRN Waypoint. Depending
on the equipment, the distance will be displayed in a 0
to 399.9 NM or a 0 to 3999 NM format. An Amber H
adjacent to the distance readout indicates DME Hold.
This will indicate to the crew that DME information is
from the previous VOR/DME beacon, and not the one
providing VOR bearing.
Navigation Source
Annunciators: Annunciation of the navigation source is displayed in
the upper right hand corner. Long range navigation
sources such as INS, VLF, RNAV and FMS are
displayed in blue to distinguish them from short-range
sources, which are annunciated in white.
Time-to-Go/Ground
Speed: Either Time-to-Go or Groundspeed can be displayed,
selected via the Display Controller. Ground Speed is
calculated using the LRN, if fitted. If no LRN, then the
EFIS uses the DME distance to calculate Ground
Speed.
Drift Angle Bug: The drift angle bug with respect to the lubber line
represents drift angle left or right of the desired track.
The drift angle bug with respec to the compass card
represents actual aircraft track. The bug is displayed
as a magenta triangle that moves around the outside
of the compass card.
Heading Source
Annunciation: At the top center of the EHSI is the heading source
annunciator.
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Heading SYNC
Annunciator: The heading SYNC annunciator is located next to the
upper left corner and indicates the state of the
compass system in the slaved mode. The bar
represents commands to the compass gyro to slew to
the indicated direction (+ for increased heading and 0
for decreased heading). Heading SYNC is removed
during compass FREE mode and for LRN derived
heading displays.
Vertical Navigation
Display: The vertical navigation display comes into view when
the VNAV mode on the flight director is selected. The
deviation pointer then indicates the VNAVs computed
path center to which the aircraft is to be flown. In this
mode the letter V inside the scale pointer identifies
the deviation display.
Glide Slope Deviation: The Glide Slope display comes into view when a VHF
NAV source is selected and the NAV source is tuned
to an ILS frequency. The deviation pointer then
indicates the Glide Slope beam center to which the
aircraft is to be flown. The letter G inside the scale
pointer identifies the deviation display.
Bearing Pointer
Source Annunciators: The bearing pointers indicate relative bearing to the
selected NAVAID. Two bearing pointers are available
and can be tuned to either VOR or ADF NAVAIDs. If
no NAVAIDs are selected then the pointers and
annunciators are removed. The bearing source
annunciators are colour and symbol coded with the
bearing pointers.
Elapsed Time
Annunciation: When in the Elapsed Time (ET) mode, the ET display
can read minutes and seconds or hours and minutes.
The hour/minute mode will be distinguishable from the
minute/second mode by an H on the left of the digital
display.
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1. Black - No storm.
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The MAP mode will allow the display of more navigational information in the
partial compass mode. Information on the location of Waypoints, airports,
NAVAIDs and the planned route can be overlaid on the compass mode.
Weather information can also be displayed in the MAP mode to give a very
comprehensive display.
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In the event of a display unit failure, the remaining good display can display a
Composite Display. This display is selected via the Display Controller and is
basically a display consisting elements from an EADI and EHSI display.
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Allows the crew to select the required display configuration and what information
is to be displayed. Both Captain and Co-Pilot have their own display controllers.
The controllers have two main functions:
Display Controller: Selects the display format for EHSI as either FULL,
ARC, WX or MAP.
FULL GS SC
WX ET MAP REV
ARC TTG CP
TEST
RASTER DIM
DISPLAY CONTROLLER
ADF 2 VOR 2
VOR 1
ADF 1
ADF 2
AUTO
ADF 1
OFF
OFF
BRG BRG
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1. Zero.
2. Start.
3. Stop.
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CRS Select Knob: Rotation of the Course select knob allows the course
pointer on the EHSI to be rotated to the desired
course.
RASTER DIM TOP/BOT: Rotation of the outer (Bottom display) and inner (Top
display) concentric knobs adjusts the raster scan
display (Weather Radar and Attitude Sphere).
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3. Control Panel.
Figure 72 shows the EFIS units and signal interface in block schematic form.
Honeywell
ATT 2 GS
AOA 20 20
F
10 10
G
FULL GS SC
WX ET REV
ARC TTG
MAP
CP 10 10
S
DIM DH BOT TOP CMD 20 20
CRS HDG
M .99
I
TEST 200DH DH 140RA
RASTER DIM
AIR EFIS SG No 1
DATA
COMP NAV VLF FMS INS 1 INS 2 ATT
HDG
Honeywell
ADF 2 VOR 2
VOR 1 CRS NAV 1
INERTIAL
ADF 1
ADF 2
AUTO
ADF 1
345 H 2.1 NM
OFF +0 N
OFF
33 3
REF BRG BRG
30
6
W
SYSTEM
E 1
VOR 1
24
2
ADF 1 21 15
S
HDG
GSPD
NAV AID 013 130 KTS
ILS/VOR
EFIS SG No 3
RAD ALT
Honeywell
ATT 2 GS
WEATHER AOA 20 20
F
RADAR 10 10
G
10 10
S
DME CMD
M .99
20 20
FULL
ARC
WX
GS
TTG
ET MAP
SC
CP
REV 200DH DH 140RA
RASTER DIM
AFCS EFIS SG No 2
Honeywell
ADF 1
ADF 2
6
AUTO
ADF 1
W
OFF
E 1
OFF VOR 1
BRG BRG
24
ADF 1 21 15
S
HDG
GSPD
013 130 KTS
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There are endless different instrument displays, which show the pilot's or flight
engineer, the condition of the aircraft's many systems, the range of instruments
depending on the size of the aircraft. On earlier airliners there could have been
dozens of instruments on the panels to pass on information regarding, for
example, oil temperature & pressure, cabin altitude, hydraulic oil quantity,
electrical power being used, etc.
Information required by the flight crew to enable them to monitor the engines
include:
1. Fuel Contents.
2. Fuel Flow.
3. Engine RPM.
4. Engine Temperature.
5. Engine pressure.
Most modern aircraft have a number of fuel tanks within the wing structure and
each individual tank's contents must be known. There are two main methods of
indicating fuel contents:
1. Resistance Gauges.
This type of gauge tends to found on smaller aircraft. It has a float in the fuel tank
that is connected to a variable resistor. As the fuel level changes, the float will
move, thus changing the resistance, which in turn will alter the current flow
through a DC circuit, which in turn will operate a meter indicating fuel contents.
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INDICATOR
S
TANK
RESISTOR
+ DC
POWER
FUEL TANK
Resistance Gauge
Figure 73
This has the advantage over other quantity systems in that it can give accurate
readings in very large or unusually shaped tanks. The probes within the fuel tank
are actually capacitors. The two plates of the capacitor will be separated by fuel
on the lower end and air on the upper end. Since fuel and air have different
dielectric constant values, the amount of capacitance will change as the fuel level
rises and falls. The probes will then send signals to the flight deck gauges to
indicate fuel contents. This system usually includes a totalizer, which will give a
reading of the total fuel on board. Some fuel systems will also include indications
of fuel used since take-off.
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TANK UNIT
LOOP
IS A
EMPTY LOOP
IB B
REF C
FULL
2 - PHASE DISCRIMINATION
MOTOR STAGE
AMPLIFIER
STAGE
INDICATOR
REF
PHASE AMPLIFIER UNIT
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Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly
between engines of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of
the satisfactory operation of the engine and the amount of fuel being consumed
during flight. A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted
into the low pressure fuel system, and an indicator, which shows the rate of fuel
flow and the total fuel used in pounds per hour. The transmitter measures the
fuel flow electrically and an associated electronic unit gives a signal to the
indicator proportional to the fuel flow. Figure 75 shows a fuel flow transmitter &
indicator.
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This system measures mass flow rather than volume. In this way, it
compensates for fuel temperature in its readout. The system also measures in
pounds per hour. Figure 77 shows a schematic diagram of the Synchronous
Mass Flow Flow-meter System.
CALIBRATED
RESTRAINING TURBINE DECOUPLING IMPELLER
SPRINGS DISK
FUEL FLOW
IMPELLER
MOTOR
FLUID
PASSAGE
FLUID
PASSAGE
115V TRANSMITTER
400Hz
MOTOR
CIRCUIT
INDICATOR
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Referring to figure 77, fuel enters the transmitter impeller, which is rotated at a
constant 60rpm by the synchronous impeller motor. The temperature of the fuel
will determine its volume and the amount of force to be created by the action of
the impeller. The turbine is twisted against its retaining springs by the mass flow
force created by impeller movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter
arrangement works on the principle of a torque synchro.
The motorless flow meter represents the latest in electronic solid-state fuel
measuring systems. It is small in size and accounts for variables such as fuel
temperatures and specific gravity with an accuracy of 1% as opposed to 2% for
motor driven flow meters. Almost all the large turbine powered aircraft are
configured with the motorless type, pound per hour fuel flow meter system.
Figure 78 shows a schematic of the Motorless Mass Flow Meter.
DRUM
t
PICK-OFF PICK-OFF
COIL 1 COIL 2
DRIVE
FUEL
FLOW
IMPELLER
SPRING MAGNET
MAGNET
TWO
ONE
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Referring to figure 78, The flow meter transmitter converts the rate into two
electronic signals. The signals are created as the flowing fuel gives an angular
displacement to two continuously rotating magnets. The magnets induce
electronic impulses into stationary coils and the time difference is used as a
measure of the mass flow rate.
The fuel enters from the drive end and rotates the drum containing magnet 1 and
the drive shaft. The spring connects the drive shaft to the impeller containing
magnet 2. As the magnets rotate, the pick-off coils receive current pulses, the
first pulse occurring at pick-off coil 1. Then as the spring deflects in proportion to
fuel flow, magnet 2 turns with the impeller and induces a current pulse with a time
lag into pick-off coil 2.
The greater the mass flow, the greater the spring deflection and angular
difference between the magnets. The time displacement which, results is directly
proportional to mass flow rate in this motorless transmitter design. The indicator
contains electronic circuits, which convert the time difference to a pound per hour
readout.
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It is essential for the correct and safe operation of the engine that accurate
indication is obtained of both the temperature and pressure of the engine oil and
fuel supply. Figure 79 shows a fuel pressure indicator and an engine oil
pressure indicator.
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DIAPHRAGM
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The bourdon tube is made with a metal tube that is formed in a circular shape
with a flattened cross-section. One end is open while the other is sealed. The
open end of the bourdon tube is connected to a capillary tube containing the
pressurised medium. As the pressurised medium enters the bourdon tube, the
tube tends to straighten. Through a series of gears, this movement is used to
move the indicating pointer on the instrument face. Figure 81 shows a Bourdon
tube mechanism.
POINTER BOURDON
STAFF TUBE
ANCHOR
POINT
GEARING
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PRESSURE
INPUT
26 V AC
ENGINE
FIREWALL
BOURDON
FLIGHTDECK
TUBE
PRESSURE
INDICATOR
PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER
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There are two main types of temperature sensors used in the oil & fuel
temperature measurement, these are:
2. Thermocouple Sensor.
Oil & fuel temperatures are sensed by a temperature sensitive element (resistive
BULB), fitted in the oil and fuel system. A temperature sensor and indicator is
shown in figure 82.
28V DC
TEMPERATURE
BULB
(RESISTIVE TYPE)
CONNECTOR
PINS
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
MICA
INSULATOR
MICA
CORE
COMPENSATING
COIL
NICKEL WINDING
ON MICA CORE
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The indicator contains a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with the temperature sensor
as the variable resistance. A change rise in temperature causes a rise in the
resistance value and, consequently, unbalances the bridge network with a
corresponding flow of current at the indicator. The indicator pointer is deflected
by an amount equivalent to the temperature change and this is recorded on an
indicator calibrated in degrees centigrade.
The advantage of the thermocouple sensor over the resistive bulb type is that it
requires no power from the aircraft electrical system to operate, It is self-
contained and self-generating circuit. It derives its power from a pair of dissimilar
metals, iron and constantan, which when heated at the hot junction, produces a
millivoltage and causes a current flow through the meter. Figure 83 shows the
thermocouple sensor and indicator,
CONSTANTAN (-)
(YELLOW)
IRON (+)
(BLACK)
THERMOCOUPLE
HOT JUNCTION
OIL TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR
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All engines have their rotational speed (rpm) indicated, on two spool or triple
spool engines, the high pressure assembly speed (N3) is always indicated; in
most cases, additional indicators show the speed of the low pressure (N1) and
intermediate pressure (N2) assemblies. Engine speed indication is electrically
transmitted from a small generator driven by the engine to an indicator that shows
the speed as a percentage of the maximum engine speed. Figure 84 shows the
compressor speeds for a triple spool engine.
INTERMEDIATE
LOW PRESSURE PRESSURE HIGH PRESSURE
LOW SPEED INTERMEDIATE HIGH SPEED
N1 COMPRESSOR SPEED N3 COMPRESSOR
N2 COMPRESSOR
The engine speed is often used to assess the engine thrust, but it does not give
an absolute indication of the thrust being produced because inlet temperature
and pressure conditions affect the thrust at a given engine speed.
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ENGINE RPM
INDICATOR
N1 PERCENTAGE
INDICATOR
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SYNCHRONOUS
MOTOR FIELD
POINTER
YOKE
SPOOL
DRIVE
FLUX
COUPLING
SPRING
INDICATOR
GENERATOR
FIELD
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
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SPEED SIGNAL
TO AMPLIFIER
COMPRESSOR
CASE
SPEED
PROBE
DRIVE
SHAFT
PHONIC
WHEEL
The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with the phonic
wheel, which is a machined part of the compressor shaft. The teeth on the
periphery of the wheel pass the probe once every revolution and induce an
electric current by varying the magnetic flux across a coil in the probe. The
magnitude of the current is governed by the rate of change of the magnetic flux
and is thus directly related to the engine speed.
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The temperature of the exhaust gases is always monitored closely during engine
operation, especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most
prevalent. Hot section temperature is considered the most critical of all engine
operating parameters because an out of limits condition can render an engine
unairworthy in a matter of seconds.
There are a number of different locations that the exhaust temperature can be
measured and thus a number of different indicators such as:
OVER TEMP
LIMIT BUG
OVERTEMP
WARNING
LIGHT
EGT Indicator
Figure 88
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NICKEL
ALUMINIUM
WIRE
NICKEL
CHROMIUM
WIRE
TRANSFER HOLES
Thermocouple
Figure 89
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TO GAS TEMPERATURE
CONTROL SYSTEM
THERMOCOUPLES
JUNCTION
BOX
JET PIPE
THERMOCOUPLE
AIR INTAKE
Thermocouple Harness
Figure 90
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The Engine Pressure Ration (EPR) system has for many years been the most
widely used thrust indicating system for aircraft flight deck indication. The EPR is
used as a performance (thrust) setting instrument on many flight decks.
The EPR is ratio of two engine pressures: Turbine discharge total pressure and
compressor inlet pressure. Each manufacturer uses a slightly different engine
station numbering system, and engine stations are a means of identifying engine
pressure ratio tap off points. For example Pratt & Whitney uses station 2 (Pt2)
and station 5 (Pt5), to identify the engine pressure ratio tap-off points of single-
spool engines. They also use stations 2 and 7 (Pt2) & (Pt7), to identify the engine
pressure ratio tap-off points of a dual-spool engine. Figure 91 shows a typical
EPR indicator.
EPR Indicator
Figure 91
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The following example is of a Pratt & Whitney JT12 engine EPR cockpit
indications. When turbine discharge pressure is 19.11 pounds per square inch
absolute and the compressor inlet pressure is 14.7 pounds per square inch
absolute, the EPR will be 1.3. Figure 92 shows the EPR system and the
calculation of the example in this paragraph.
= 1.3
19.11
14.70
EPR =
INDICATOR
PRESSURE RATIO
EPR
TRANSMITTER
Pt2 PROBE
EPR System
Figure 92
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A turbo-jet engine has an extremely low vibration level and a change of vibration,
due to an impending or partial failure, may pass without being noticed. Many
engines are therefore fitted with vibration indicators that continually monitor the
vibration level of the engine. The indicator is usually a milliammeter that receives
signals through an amplifier from engine mounted transmitters. Figure 93 shows
a vibration transmitter and indicator.
ENGINE VIBRATION
MEASURED IN
MILS (THOUSANDTHS)
OF INCHES
VIBRATION
TRANSMITTER
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The vibration level recorded on the indicator is the sum total of vibration felt at the
pick-up. A more accurate method differentiates between in the frequency ranges
of each rotating assembly and so enables the source of vibration to be isolated.
This is particularly important on m multi-spool engines. A crystal-type vibration
transmitter, giving a more reliable indication of vibration, has been developed for
multi-spool engines. A system of filters in the electronic circuit to the indicator
makes it possible to compare the vibration source. A multiple selector switch
enables the pilot to select a specific area to obtain a reading of the level of
vibration. Figure 94 shows a multiple-selector vibration indicator.
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CORE SPEED
FUEL PRESSURE
TEMPERATURE
EXHAUST GAS
FUEL FLOW
MONITOR
COMPRESSOR
SPEED
ENGINE VIBRATION
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
ENGINE
OIL
RATIO
OIL
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Figure 96 shows a typical LED type electronic engine instrumentation group for a
four engine aircraft.
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The basic system comprises two display units, a control panel and two computers
supplied with analog and digital signals from the engine and system sensors.
The computers are designated Left and Right and only one is in control of the
system at any one time, the other is held in standby. In the event of a failure, it
may be switched in either manually or automatically.
Operating in conjunction with the system are discrete caution and warning lights,
standby engine indicators and a remotely-located panel for selecting
maintenance data display. The system provides the flight crew with information
on primary engine parameters (Full-time), with secondary engine parameters and
advisory/caution/warning alert messages displayed as required.
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The upper unit displays primary engine parameters, i.e. N1 speed, EGT, and
warning and caution messages. The lower unit displays secondary parameters,
i.e. N2 speed, fuel flow, oil quantity, pressure and temperature. In addition, the
status of non-engine systems e.g. flight control surface position, hydraulic
system, APU, etc., can be displayed.
On the upper unit, a row of Vs will appear when secondary information is being
displayed on the lower unit. Seven colors are produced by the CRTs for
displaying information. Table 1 shows the colors and description of there
uses.
Colour Description
White All scales, normal operating range of pointers, digital readouts.
Red Warning messages, maximum operating limit marks on scales,
and digital readouts.
Green Thrust mode readout and selected EPR/N1 speed marks or
target cursors.
Blue Testing of system only.
Yellow Caution and advisory messages, caution limit marks on scale,
digital readouts
Magenta During in-flight engine starting, and for cross bleed messages.
Cyan Names of all parameters being measured (e.g. N1, oil pressure,
TAT, etc.) and status marks or cues.
Table 1
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CAUTION
RESET CANCEL
UPPER
DISPLAY
8
SBY
0
1
1013 2
(PRIMARY)
X 100 ft
3
7 3 5 0 00
5
6 4
LOWER
DISPLAY
(SECONDARY)
- -
DISPLAY COMPUTER BRT THRUST REF SET
BOTH
ENGINE STATUSEVENT L AUTO R
MAX IND
RECORD L R RESET
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
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Figure 98 and 99 show display formats for primary and secondary displays.
CAUTION
TAT 15c
0.0 0.0
CANCEL RECALL 10 10
2 2
6 6
N1
0 0
EGT
VVVVVVV
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AERODYNAMICS,
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88.00 88
50 50
OIL PRESS N2
120 120 86 86
OIL TEMP
N3
18 18 4.4 4.4
OIL QTY
N1 FAN
FF
3.1 1.9
VIB
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AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EICAS is designed to categorize displays and alerts according to the function and
usage. For this purpose there are three modes of displaying information:
This mode displays the engine operating information and any alerts required to
be actioned by the crew in flight. Normally only the upper display unit presents
information: the lower one remains blank and can be selected to display
secondary information as and when required.
When selected this mode displays data to determine the dispatch readiness of an
aircraft, and is closely associated with details contained in the aircrafts Minimum
Equipment List. The display shows the positions of the flight control surfaces in
the form of pointers registered against vertical scales, selected sub-system
parameters, and equipment status messages on the lower display unit. Selection
is normally done on the ground, either as part of the pre-flight checks of dispatch
items, or prior to shutdown of electrical power to aid the flight crew in making
entries in the aircrafts Technical log. Figure 100 shows an example of a status
page.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
L C R 0.0 FF 0.0
HYD QTY 0.99 1.00 0.98
RUD
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
To control the operation of the EICAS, a control panel is situated on the center
pedestal. Figure 101 shows a typical EICAS control panel.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Engine Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting
the display of secondary information on the, lower
display.
Status Display Switch: This is a push type switch for removing or presenting
the status page on the lower display.
Event Record Switch: Normally, there is an auto event function, this will
automatically record any malfunctions as they occur.
The push switch enables manual event marking so
that the crew can record a suspect malfunction for
storage in a non-volatile memory. This data can be
retrieved from the memory and displayed by ground
engineers by operating the ground maintenance
panel. This manual switch can also be used for
activating the recording of fault data, either in the air
or on the ground, on the Environmental Control
system, Electrical Power system, Hydraulic system
and APU.
Computer Select Switch: In the AUTO position it selects the left or primary
computer and automatically switches to the other in
the event of a failure. The other positions are for
manually selecting either the right or left computers.
Display Brightness: Controlled by the inner knob for the display intensity,
the outer for display brightness.
Max Indicator Reset: If any of the measured parameters e.g. Oil Pressure,
EGT etc. and if they exceed normal operating limits,
this will be automatically alerted on the display units.
The purpose of the reset button is to clear the alerts
from the display when the excess limits no longer
exist.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The system will continually monitor a large number of inputs (400+) from engine
and airframe systems. If a malfunction is detected then the appropriate alert
message is annunciated on the upper display. Up to 11 messages can be
displayed and are at the following levels:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 102 shows a display with the three different types of alert messages
Displayed.
LEVEL A
TAT 15c
WARNING
APU FIRE
R ENGINE FIRE 70.0 110.0
CABIN ALTITUDE 10 10
2 2
LEVEL B C SYS HYD PRESS 6 6
R ENG OVHT
CAUTION AUTOPILOT N1
C HYD QTY
R YAW DAMPER 999
775
LEVEL C L UTIL BUS OFF
ADVISORY
EGT
VVVVVVV
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PERFORMANCE AND
AUXILLIARY POWER SELECTS DATA FROM
UNIT FORMATS AUTO OR MANUAL EVENT
IN MEMORY
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL ELECTRICAL AND HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM AND MAINTENANCE SYSTEM FORMAT
MESSAGE FORMATS
CONF ENG
MCDP EXCD
TEST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ECAM differs from EICAS in that the data displayed relate essentially to the
primary systems of the aircraft and are displayed in checklist and pictorial or
synoptic format.
400
350 60
1
300 8 4 0 80
MACH 9
250 120
IAS
240 KNOTS
140
220
180
200
LDG GEAR
5
GRVTY EXTN
RESET
OFF
DOWN
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are four display modes, three of which are automatically selected and
referred to as phase-related, advisory (mode and status), and failure-related
modes. The forth mode is manual and permits the selection of diagrams related
to any one of 12 of the aircrafts systems for routine checking, and also the
selection of status messages provided no warnings have been triggered for
display. Selection of the displays is by means of a system control panel. See
Figure 81
In normal operation the automatic flight phase-related mode is used, and the
displays will be appropriate to the current phase of aircraft operation, i.e. Pre-
flight, Take-off, Climb, Cruise, Decent, Approach, and post landing. Figure 105
shows display modes. The upper display shows the display for pre-take off, the
lower is that displayed for the cruise.
E N G IN E
V IB (N 1 )
10 10
5 5
F .US E D 0 .8 0 .9
8 7. 0 6 5. 0 KG
N1 1530 1530
% F O B : 1 4 0 0 0 KG V IB (N 2 )
O IL
1 .2 1 .3
10 10 QT Y
5 5
F LA P 1 1 .5 1 1 .5
6 50 4 80
S F
EG T
C
A IR
L DG E LE V A U TO 500F T
N2
80 8 0 .2 F UL L
% C AB V /S F T/M IN
C K PT 2 0 FWD 2 2 A FT 23
FF
1500 1 5 00 24 22 24 250
K G /H
C AB A LT FT
4150
N O S M O K IN G : ON
S E A T B E LT S : ON L D G I N H I B IT
S P LR S : F UL L A PU B LEED
T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
F LA P S : F UL L
S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
E C A M U P P E R D IS P L A Y E C A M L O W E R D IS P L A Y - C R U IS E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This mode provides the flight crew with a summary of the aircrafts condition
following a failure and the possible downgrading of systems. Figure 106 shows
an advisory message following a Blue Hydraulic failure.
5 10 5 10
87.0 65.0
N1
% FOB : 14000KG
5 10 5 10
S FLAP F
650 480
EGT
C
ADVISORY
N2 FULL
MESSAGES 80 80.2
%
FF
1500 KG/H
1500
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The failure-related mode takes precedence over the other modes. Failures are
classified in 3 levels
LEVEL 3: WARNING
LEVEL 2: CAUTION
LEVEL 1: ADVISORY
This gives the flight crew information on aircraft configuration that requires the
monitoring, mainly failures leading to a loss of redundancy or degradation of a
system, e.g. Loss of 1 FUEL TANK PUMP LH or RH but not both.
The advisory mode will not trigger any aural warning or attention getters but a
message appears on the primary ECAM display.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 107 111 shows the 12-system pages and status page available.
C ON D TE M P C C AB P R E S S L DG E LE V MAN 50 0 F T
AP C A B AL T
PS I V/ S F T /M IN
FT
A LTN M O DE UP
F AN F AN 2
8 10
0 1150
C KP T 2 0 F W D 22 A FT 2 3 0 4 .1 2 0 4150
DN
24 22 24
M AN
SY ST 1 SY ST 2
C H C H C H SA F ET Y
VE NT
HOT IN L ET EX T RA C T
A IR
PA C K 1 PA C K 2
T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
A IR C O N D IT IO N IN G S Y S T E M P A G E P R E S S U R IS A T IO N S Y S T E M P A G E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BAT 1 BAT 2 F/ CT R
E LE C 28 V D C B AT 28 V G B Y
15 0A 15 0A
DC 1 DC 2
D C ES S
SP D BR K
TR 1 TR 2
L R
28 V ES S TR EM ER G GEN 28 V
15 0A 28 V 11 6V 15 0A A IL P IT CH TR IM G Y A IL
13 0A 40 0H Z B G G B
3 .2 UP
AC 1 A C ESS AC 2
R UD
L R
GE N 1 GE N 2 G B Y
EL EV EL EV
26 % A PU 26 %
11 6V 26 %
EX T PW R
11 6V B G Y B
11 6V
40 0H Z 11 6V 40 0H Z
40 0H Z
40 0H Z
T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
E L E C T R IC A L S Y S T E M P A G E F L IG H T C O N T R O L S Y S T E M P A G E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
F .U SE D 1 FU E L K G F .U SE D 2 H YD
1550 F OB 1550
GR EE N B LU E Y E LL O W
A PU 2 87 5 0
3000 PSI 3000 PSI 3000
L E FT R IG H T
C TR
5 50 5 50
1 07 5 0 5 60 0 1 07 5 0
T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G T AT +1 9 C G .W . 6 0 3 0 0 K G
S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
FUE L SYSTE M P AG E H Y D R A U L IC S Y S T E M P A G E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
WHEEL B LE E D
2 4 C 2 0 C
C H C H
R AM A IR 2 3 0 C
5 0 C
LO HI LO HI
C C
170 140 140 140
1 REL 2 3 REL 4
1 2
GN D
A PU
AUTO BRK
LP HP HP LP
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
D OOR O X Y 1 85 0 P S I A PU
A PU
A V I O N IC 26%
ARM ARM
B LE E D
C A BIN 116 V
35 PSI
400 HZ
FW D C OM PT
C A RG O
N
10 %
EM ER ARM ARM
E X IT 0 80
C A RG O F LA P O P E N
B U LK EG T
7 C
ARM ARM 5
C A BIN
3 580
T AT +1 9 C T AT +1 9 C
S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 % S A T + 17 C 2 3 H 56 C .G . 2 8 .1 %
D O O R /O X Y S Y S T E M P A G E AP U SY STEM PAG E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FAULT FAULT
OFF OFF
STATUS
MESSAGE RECALL
SWITCH SWITCH
SYSTEM SYNOPTIC
DISPLAY SWITCHES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SGU Selector Switches: Controls the respective symbol generator units. Lights
are off in normal operation of the system. The FAULT caption is illuminated
amber if the SGUs internal self-test circuit detects a failure. Releasing the switch
isolates the corresponding SGU and causes the FAULT caption to extinguish,
and the OFF caption to illuminate white.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART TWO
CONTENTS
2 AVIONICS SYSTEMS ................................................................... 2-1
2.1 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT ...................................................................... 2-1
2.2 AUTOPILOT SYSTEM ..................................................................... 2-1
2.2.1 Error Sensing ................................................................ 2-2
2.2.2 Correction ..................................................................... 2-2
2.2.3 Follow-Up ...................................................................... 2-2
2.2.4 Command ..................................................................... 2-2
2.3 AUTOPILOT INTERLOCKS .............................................................. 2-4
2.4 SERVOMOTORS ............................................................................ 2-6
2.5 SINGLE AXIS CONTROL SYSTEM ................................................... 2-8
2.6 TWO-AXIS SYSTEM ....................................................................... 2-8
2.7 THREE-AXIS SYSTEM.................................................................... 2-8
2.8 SENSING ATTITUDE CHANGES....................................................... 2-8
2.9 AUTOPILOTS & FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEMS .................................. 2-10
2.10 ALTITUDE HOLD SYSTEM .............................................................. 2-11
2.11 AIRSPEED HOLD........................................................................... 2-12
2.12 ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM ....................................................... 2-12
2.13 CONTROLS AND SELECTORS ......................................................... 2-13
2.14 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT DIRECTOR SYSTEM (AFDS) ............................ 2-15
2.15 MODE CONTROL PANEL ............................................................... 2-21
2.15.1 Power supplies A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.2 Microprocessor A and B ................................................ 2-21
2.15.3 Push-Button and Toggle Switches ................................ 2-21
2.15.4 Fluorescent Tube Control .............................................. 2-21
2.15.5 Liquid Crystal Displays & Control Knob Encoders ......... 2-22
2.15.6 AFDS Disconnect Switches ........................................... 2-23
2.16 AUTOPILOT FLIGHT DIRECTOR COMPUTER (AFDC) ....................... 2-25
2.16.1 Input Signal Selection ................................................... 2-25
2.16.2 AFDC Processors ......................................................... 2-25
2.17 PRIMARY FLIGHT COMPUTER (PFC) .............................................. 2-26
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS ........................................................................ 2-27
2.19 RADIO WAVES ............................................................................. 2-27
2.20 WAVELENGTH & FREQUENCY ....................................................... 2-28
2.20.1 Frequency Bands .......................................................... 2-29
2.21 CARRIER WAVE............................................................................ 2-29
2.22 AMPLITUDE MODULATION (AM) .................................................... 2-30
2.23 FREQUENCY MODULATION (FM).................................................... 2-31
2.24 RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION ......................................................... 2-33
2.24.1 Ground Wave Propagation ............................................ 2-34
2.24.2 Sky Wave Propagation .................................................. 2-34
2.24.3 Space Wave Propagation.............................................. 2-34
2.25 ANTENNAS ................................................................................... 2-34
2.26 MICROPHONES (MIC) ................................................................... 2-37
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PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
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2 AVIONICS SYSTEMS
2.1 AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
The Automatic Flight Control Systems or AFCS, in modern jet transports, are all
uniquely tailored to the specific aircraft, but all share common features. For
example, the flight aerodynamics of a DC-9 are different from those of a Boeing
747 but both aircraft would most likely require an "attitude hold" mode of
operation.
In this case, the attitude hold feature is common to both autopilot designs, but
gains in the two autopilots will differ to accommodate the differences in the
aerodynamics of each aircraft. Each AFCS receives attitude and heading signals
from a vertical and directional gyro and has its own rate gyro/accelerometer
system to develop attitude and flight path stabilization signals. The AFCS
computers comprise an electronic "brain" that receives signals from its "senses"
to compute the proper responses and provides outputs to electric and/or
hydraulic actuators, which move the aircraft's control surfaces.
Today's modern autopilots are designed to provide pitch, roll, and yaw axis
stabilization around the pilot's desired reference attitude. To do this, the autopilot
system must detect changes in aircraft attitude and respond to those changes
more quickly and smoothly than its human counterpart.
3. Compares the two and produce a control signal if there is a difference or error:
4. Use the control signal to correct for the difference or error and Control the
speed of the correction.
The human pilot controls the aircraft by detecting a change in aircraft attitude by
one of his senses. His brain then computes the necessary corrective action
required and transmits a signal to his muscles to move the flight controls. Again
his senses will detect that corrective action has taken place and he will move the
flight controls back to where they started. A typical autopilot would have to do all
that the human pilot does, but would do it through electronic or electrohydraulic
devices.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Determines when the flight condition of the aircraft is differing from that
commanded by the pilot. Almost all-modern aircraft use a gyro of some type for
this purpose, and there are two ways that the error signal can be generated,
either by attitude gyros or rate gyros. The attitude gyros only detect how far the
aircraft is away from the settings; the rate gyros detect the rate at which it is
deviating and, hence, are more accurate.
2.2.2 Correction
This is the correcting input, sent to the actuators connected into the flying control
systems. This input is simply the command from the autopilot to reverse the
movement of the aircraft away from its set course. It does not have any idea of
when to stop the correction; this is the job of the follow-up mechanism.
2.2.3 Follow-Up
Is the detection mechanism, which senses that the aircraft is righting itself, under
the commands from the correction part of the autopilot. The mechanism reduces
the correction input as it nears the original selected position and, by the time the
aircraft is level, there will be no correcting input to the actuators.
2.2.4 Command
The command system is incorporated to allow the pilot to dictate which heading,
height, speed or rate of climb he wants the aircraft to follow. This can be a
simple 'Heading Hold' system which is controlled by a "bug" on the compass,
which the pilot sets with a knob on the instrument. Alternatively, the system
'Mode Control Panel' can have many different parameters commanded by the
pilot, such as autopilot modes, altitude, and vertical speed and airspeed/mach
number modes.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PITCH SERVO
VERTICAL
GYROSCOPE
AUTOPILOT
COMPUTER AIRCRAFT
TRIM SYSTEM
COMPASS
GYROSCOPE
AIR DATA
COMPUTER
YAW SERVO
Basic Autopilot
Figure 1
The sensors take the place of our pilot's "senses" to detect various changes in
aircraft attitude. This information is fed to the computer, which calculates the size
of its output signal and which axis to send it on. The controller turns the autopilot
on and off and provides other system inputs not discussed here. Finally we come
to the loads which are the muscle of our system and move the aircraft's flight
control surfaces in response to the output signal of the computer. As the aircraft
responds to these signals, the sensors, through aerodynamic feedback, detect
the attitude change and tell the computer when the aircraft is back where it
should be.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A/P DISCONNECT A.C - D.C. MACH TRIM PITCH TRIM ATT REF
CAPT F/O
YAW
K1 DAMP MAN
ENGAGE AUTO
OFF
RELAY
AUTO
PILOT
ENGAGE
RELAY
K2
OFF
SERVO
RUDDER
CLUTCH
SERVOS
ELEVATOR
AILERON
OFF CLUTCHES
28V DC
Interlock Circuit
Figure 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In the yaw damper only position, K1 relay will close and energize the rudder servo
clutch and engage it to accept signals from a gyro or computer to move the
rudder. With No 1 switch in the autopilot position, it will energize K1 relay subject
to all the interlock switches being made, switch No 2 will now engage the aileron
and elevator clutches, and switch No 3 will pick a voltage from switch No 2 and
energize the rudder clutch. So in the yaw damper position, it is yaw damper only,
and in the autopilot position it is yaw, pitch and roll engagement.
In the yaw damper switch position, only the pilot's disconnect and power valid's
are needed; in the full autopilot condition all switches must be made.
Firstly, the autopilot disconnects; either the Captain's or the First Officer's switch
will disconnect the autopilot. The switches are usually located on the control
column.
The power ac and dc valid's are qualifying that power is available and any loss of
power will disconnect.
Mach trim has to be engaged in this case. In some systems, Mach trim is on all
the time, whether the autopilot is engaged or not, and in others it is disengaged
when the autopilot is engaged.
The pitch trim switch is qualifying that auto pitch trim is available in the autopilot
mode. The reason that this is important is that if there is a mis-trim, the autopilot
can compensate for that situation until the autopilot is disconnected, either
through malfunction or deliberate action, or the aircraft could nose up/down rather
dramatically.
The attitude reference switch is checking that the valid's from the vertical gyro are
all correct, and the attitude references are available for the autopilot.
On more sophisticated systems, there are other interlock switches, for example
air data computer, compass system, hydraulic pressure monitoring and radio
altimeters.
Some systems, apart from those that use electrical interlocks, do not use an
electrical servomotor. Instead they use a hydraulic servo.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.4 SERVOMOTORS
The power output element of any automatic flight control system consists of
servomotors, or servo-actuators as they are sometimes called, connected into the
aircraft's primary flight control system circuits; the number of servomotors
employed is governed by the number of control loops required. In addition to the
actuation of primary flight controls, servomotors may also be used, in some
cases, for the actuation of the secondary flight controls provided for trimming
purposes and for yaw damping.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SERVOMOTORS
(ACTUATORS)
FEEDBACK
PROCESSING
SIGNAL
AERODYNAMICS
PILOTS DEMANDS
SENSING
ERROR
MODE SELECT
AUTOPILOT
CONTROLS
MANUAL
FLIGHT
ATTITUDE
SENSING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2. Two-Axis System.
3. Three-Axis System.
In the single axis system, control is normally about the Roll axis. The control
surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the Ailerons. It is found on
small aircraft to provide lateral stabilization (wing levelling).
In the two-axis system, control is normally about the Roll and Pitch axes. The
control surfaces forming part of this system are therefore the Ailerons and
Elevators. These are found on medium sized aircraft and provide a means of
automatically controlling the aircrafts heading and altitude.
In the three-axis system, control is about all three axes (Pitch, Roll and Yaw).
These systems are designed to meet the requirements for stabilization and
control of high performance category aircraft, and have a large number of modes
of operation.
Under automatically controlled flight conditions, the sensing of all changes in the
aircrafts attitude is accomplished by referencing them against some form of
stabilized device. The device universally adopted for this purpose, from the
earliest types of control system to those now current, has been the gyroscope.
In addition to the gyro, it is also the practice in many cases to adopt a pendulous
device which although not purely stabilizing in function, can serve as a back-up
to a gyro by sensing short-term attitude changes brought about by the effects of
accelerations, vertical speed changes, and by side-slip.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 4 shows the gyro configuration for a three-axis automatic control system.
OF PRECESSION
DIRECTION
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH RATE
GYRO
YAW RATE
GYRO
AXIS
YAW
OF PRECESSION
ROLL RATE
DIRECTION
GYRO
OF PRECESSION
DIRECTION
PITCH
AXIS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Once the controller has been selected, and activated, the aircraft is controlled by
the Flight Director/Autopilot System. Rate gyros detect any movement of the
aircraft from the selected flight datum and will output a signal proportional to the
disturbance and in the opposite sense. The gyro output, along with other signals
from associated systems, are processed in the Flight Director/Autopilot
Computer, which in turn will give flight director information and or outputs to move
the control surfaces to bring the aircraft onto the correct flight datum.
AERODYNAMIC RESPONSE
FLIGHT FLIGHT
DIRECTOR DIRECTOR
ENGAGED COMMAND BAR
GYRO INPUT
ALTITUDE INPUT
SERVO
AUTOPILOT
ENGAGED
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
We know that any change in the aircraft's attitude will be detected by the
Autopilot system. This system alone will not be able to detect a pure vertical
displacement of the aircraft. To maintain an aircraft at a selected altitude we
require further sensing elements.
The purpose of the Altitude Hold system is to maintain the aircraft at a selected
height. The pilot will select "ALT" on the Flight Mode Panel (FMP) and the
system will maintain that altitude. The sensing element consists of a pressure
transducer, similar to that in the Air Data System. Any change in the static
pressure will be felt and an output produced, this output will be fed to the pitch
channel of the autopilot system to adjust the aircraft's altitude.
ANEROID
CAPSULE
STATIC
CONTROL
CHASER
MOTOR MOTOR
ERROR
AMP
ALT HOLD
SELECT
REF
TO PITCH
CONTROL
CHANNEL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Since airspeed hold sensors are used in conjunction with altitude hold sensors,
the methods of transmitting error signals are of a common nature. The only
difference is that whereas an altitude sensor measures only static pressure
changes, an airspeed sensor is required to measure Static and Pitot pressures.
The Altitude Alerting System allows the pilot to make changes to the aircraft's
altitude and provide alerts to the pilot when the selected altitude is reached. The
pilot sets the required altitude, from 0 - 50,000 feet, in steps of 10 feet, on the
Flight Mode Panel (FMP).
The altitude alerter gives the pilot an alert when the aircraft approaches the
selected altitude, entry alert ("C" Chord) and illuminates a warning lamp. The
system will then alert the pilot when the aircraft does not follow the selected
altitude with an exit alert ("C" Chimes) and illuminates a warning lamp. Figure 7
shows the different alerts.
1000 feet
EXIT ALERT
ENTRY ALERT ON
ON
C CHORD ENTRY ALERT
OFF
250 feet
SELECTED HEIGHT
250 feet
EXIT ALERT
ON
C CHIME
1000 feet
Alert Levels
Figure 7
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
S P L IT
A /P A /P N AV 1 N AV 2
M GSL A LT VS M A CH V - NA V IA S
O
D
0 6 8 2 4 6
E
C O U RS E C O U RS E
T UR B
S H DG
V /L B -L O C L -N AV H DG
E
L
M OD E SELE CTO R N A V IG A T IO N S E L E C T O R
R UD EL EV P IT CH
T EST R OL L
L R
A LT S E L D OW N
A
L A LT AR M 2 5 9.0 0
T
F EET
YD A /P
S
E
L YD 1 UP
YD 2
IN
A L T IT U D E S E L E C T O R A U T O P IL O T S E L E C T O R
In essence the bottom row selects lateral modes and the middle row
selects vertical modes.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The autopilot and flight directors use the information that is displayed on
the captain's HSI. With SPLIT selected NAV 1 supplies HSI 1 and NAV 2
supplies HSI 2. If NAV 1 is selected then both HSIs are supplied from
NAV 1 and a NAV 2 selection supplies both HSIs from NAV 2.
The COURSE selector knobs allow rotation of the course pointer on the
HSIs. A HDG knob provides remote selection of the heading cursor on
both HSIs. Two ratios are available, coarse and fine.
PITCH and ROLL controls and associated out of trim indicators (ELEV and
RUD) are also found on the controller.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the AFDS is to automatically control the aircrafts attitude and to
supply indications to the flight crew in order for them to manually control the
aircrafts attitude. The autopilot controls the aircrafts attitude through: Takeoff
(Flight Director only), Climb, Cruise, Descent, Approach, Go-around and
Autoland.
In the Flight Director mode, the director bars (horizontal/vertical) show on the
Primary Flight Displays (PFD). The bars are used as guides to control the
attitude of the aircraft. Figure 9 shows the Primary Flight Display (PFD).
LNAV VNAV
HOLD
LOC G/S 5100
5200
200
A/P
180 6
20 20
5000 2
160 10 10 1
3
14 2 4800
10 10 1
120
4600 2
20 20
6
100
4400
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The mode select panel is the primary interface between the flight crew and
AFDS. Other flight crew inputs to the AFDS are; the disconnect switches and the
Go-around (GA) switches. Figure 10 shows the Auto Flight Director System
(AFDS) mode control panel for the Boeing 777 aircraft.
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
(c)
F/D ON
OFF
A/P
LOC
APP
1000
1000
LOC
APP
17000
17000
ALTITUDE
ALTITUDE
HOLD
HOLD
AUTO
AUTO
VS/FPA
+3288
FPA
VS/FPA
+3288
FPA
V/S
V/S
DOWN
UP
BANK
LIMIT
V/S
DOWN
25
TRK
V/S
UP
238
SEL
HOLD
HDG
HDG
AUTO
BANK
LIMIT
A/P DISENGAGE
25
TRK
V-NAV
L-NAV
FLCH
238
HOLD
SEL
MACH
HDG
HDG
288
AUTO
V-NAV
L-NAV
FLCH
A/P DISENGAGE
MACH
(a)
288
IAS
IAS
IAS
IAS
CLB
A/T ARM
A/T
ON
R
OFF
A/T
CLB
R
ON
A/T ARM
L
OFF
(b)
L
F/D ON
OFF
F/D ON
A/P
OFF
A/P
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A/P Engage Switch Captains autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
F/D Switch Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
IAS/MACH Switch Selects either IAS or MACH as the reference for speed hold
mode.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A/P DISENGAGE Bar - There are three toggle switches under the disengage
bar. The left switch controls the left AFDS only and the right switch controls the
right AFDS. The center switch controls the center AFDS. The center AFDC
cannot do a single autopilot engagement because it does not connect to any back
drive unit. It is there only as a back up for the left or right. The bar is normally in
the up position. Pushing the bar down will disengages all the AFDS.
DISENGAGE BAR UP
RIGHT AFDS SWITCH DOWN
(ONLY LEFT AND CENTER AFDS ENGAGED)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Light Sensor A photo light sensor on the MCP front panel monitors ambient
lighting. It controls the brightness of the LCDs on the mode panel.
HDG/TRK Switch This switch controls the reference for the Heading/Track
window.
Heading/Track Selector Switch This control has two concentric selectors and
one push-button. The outer selector controls the bank angle, the inner selector
controls the value of heading/track required. The inner selector (push-button)
selects between Heading, or Track select modes.
HOLD Push Button Engages the AFDS into Heading/Track hold mode.
Vertical Speed/Flight Path Angle Window - The window shows vertical speed
value (range is +6000 fpm to 8000 fpm). The flight path angle is +9.9 to 9.9.
Altitude Selector The control has two concentric selectors. The inner selector
changes the reference altitude in the window. If the selector is pushed while in V-
NAV, this will activate the altitude intervention.
The outer selector changes the window increment. With it selected to 1000
position, the inner selector changes the window at 1000 feet/detent. With the
outer selector in the AUTO position, the window change rate is 100 feet/detent.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A/P Engage Switch First Officers autopilot engage button, shows white when
engaged.
F/D Switch Allows the selection of the Flight Director bars for display on the
PFD.
LOC Push Button Engages the ILS LOC mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Localizer flight path.
APP Push Button Engages the Approach mode. Captures and holds the
aircraft to a Glideslope (vertical descent) flight path.
ARINC AFDC
POWER SUPPLY INPUT/OUTPUT
A SIGNAL 429 RX L
PROCESSING
AFDC
ARINC L/C
429 TX &
MICROPROCESSOR A AIMS
A/T ARM
A/T F/D ON
L R
HDG 238
5
AUTO SEL
25
BANK
LIMIT
V-NAV
OFF
OFF
ARINC AFDC
429 RX C
LCD ON-OFF
DIPLAY PUSH
SW SWITCHES
LIGHTS & KNOBS
AFDC
MICROPROCESSOR B ARINC R
429 TX &
AIMS
INPUT/OUTPUT
POWER SUPPLY SIGNAL
ARINC AFDC
A PROCESSING 429 RX R
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
They receive 28V dc from the left and right 28V dc buses. The MCP functions
with either source. Power supplies A and B supply +12V, -12V and +5V dc to
their respective microprocessors and logic circuits. They also supply power
supply C, which is part of the fluorescent tube control.
To make sure all three AFDC use data from one MCP processor, all AFDS use
the microprocessor data sent to the master AFDS. When the left AFDS is
master, microprocessor A writes to the LCD displays. The right and center AFDC
receive microprocessor A data through the AFDC cross-channel buses.
When the right AFDS is master, microprocessor B writes to the LCD displays.
The left and center AFDC receive microprocessor B data through the AFDC
cross-channel buses.
Each push-button and toggle switch has two sets of contacts. One set connects
to microprocessor A and one set connects to microprocessor B. The LED
annunciators in the push-button switches also connect to each microprocessor.
The fluorescent tube control circuit supplies current to drive the tube and the tube
heater. There is a heater coil around the tube, which will operate when the
temperature is <40F.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are four LCD windows, which show reference values. The values change
when the selector is rotated or when the AFDC command a new reference.
Microprocessor A and B drive each LCD. Each selector connects to the two
encoders and each encoder sends data to the on-side microprocessor. Figure 13
shows the LCD illumination.
FLUORESCENT
TUBE
LCD (TYPE)
DISPLAY
LCD Illumination
Figure 13
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The autopilot disconnect switches are on the outboard side of each control wheel.
The switch is a push-button type with multiple contacts. These switches manually
disconnect all AFDCs.
ELEVATOR
TRIM SWITCHES
AUTOPILOT
DISCONNECT
BUTTON
L R
A/P
HDG 238 V/S
IAS 288 +3288 17000
L-NAV
Page 2-24
AIMS A/P
OFF 5 25 AUTO 1000
DOWN
BANK LOC
AUTO
SEL F/D ON
CLB V-NAV LIMIT
F/D ON ON
APP
A/P DISENGAGE
A/T VS/FPA
OFF
FLCH HOLD HOLD
OFF UP
TO/GA Collins
AUTOMATIC FLIGHT
DIRECTOR
COMPUTER
DISC (AFDC)
BACKDRIVE
Figure 15
PART 2
ACTUATORS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
ACTUATOR
CONTROL
SECONDARY ELECTRONICS PCU
ATTITUDE &
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are three AFDC within the AFDS each containing the following:
3. Processor A.
4. Processor B.
5. Processor C.
Each ARINC and discrete input/output module monitors and selects input signals.
Each I/O module monitors the validity of the signal first, if validity check is good,
the I/O section selects the signal by one of the following methods:
1. Mid value selection which uses the middle value of the three signals.
Radio Altitude (RA) and ILS are examples of signals selected using this
method.
2. Priority selection for signals with two sources (left/right). Example; the Air
Data Inertial reference Unit (ADIRU) is the normal source of air/inertial
data. If the ADIRU fails, the AFDC selects the Secondary Attitude Air Data
reference Unit (SAARU).
The AFDC has three processors (A,B and C). Processor A and B receive digital
backdrive commands from the Primary Flight Computers (PFC). They convert
the digital backdrive signals into analogue signals for output to the backdrive
actuators.
Processor C calculates the autopilot and flight director control laws, test and data
loading, engage/disengage logic and failure detection/fault response monitoring.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The PFC receives commands from the AFDC. The PFC calculates and sends
surface position digital commands to the Actuator Control Electronics (ACE).
The ACE converts these signals to analogue and sends the signal to the Power
Control Units (PCU). The PCU move the flight surface, sending positional
feedback signal to the ACE, which converts the feedback signals into digital and
sends it to the PFC. The PFC then calculates and sends the digital feedback
signals to the AFDC. The AFDC converts the signals into analogue, and sends
these signals to the backdrive actuators, which moves the control column, control
wheels and rudder pedals.
ANALOG
ANALOG
POWER
CONTROL
UNIT
POSITION
TRANSDUCER PRIMARY CONTROL
FLIGHT SURFACE
BACKDRIVE COMPUTER
ACTUATOR
ACTUATORS
CONTROL
ELECTRONICS
ANALOG
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.18 COMMUNICATIONS
Radio signals emanate from the antenna of a transmitter partly in the form of
Electromagnetic waves. During radio transmission, the antenna in addition to
the electromagnetic field also generates an electric field. The two fields radiate
from the antenna at the speed of light, which is approximately 186,300 Mls/sec
(300,000,000 mtr/sec). Since radio waves travel at the speed of light, as soon as
the transmitter starts to transmit, its signal may be detected instantly hundreds or
thousands of miles away, depending on the power of the transmitter and the
nature of the wave being transmitted.
AERIAL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The length of a radio wave depends on its frequency. Like an ac sine wave, the
wave emanating from an antenna increases to a maximum in one direction, drops
to zero, and then increases to maximum in the opposite direction. The
wavelength, indicated by the Greek letter lambda (), is the distance from the
crest of one wave to the next. Since the wave travels at the speed of light
(300,000,000 mtr/sec) the wavelength in metres is equal to 300,000,000 divided
by the number of cycles per second (hertz).
RADIO WAVE
CYCLE
FREQUECNY = NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND
VELOCITY
WAVELENGTH =
FREQUENCY
VELOCITY = SPEED OF LIGHT
VELOCITY
FREQUENCY =
WAVELENGTH
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Frequency Bands
Table 1
Above these radio frequencies lie the various light frequencies. Infrared and
white light are currently being used for some information transmission at
frequencies between 109 1011 KHz. Below the radio frequencies are the
audible sound waves, ranging from 20 Hz to 15 KHz. The audio frequency range
for radio transmission is between 300 Hz 3 KHz and is known as Commercial
Quality Speech. Without special techniques, the transmission of these low
frequencies would cause two major problems:
The energy that carries the intelligence of a radio signal is called the Carrier
Wave. The frequency of this carrier wave may be only a few hundred kilohertz
(VLF) or several thousand megahertz (UHF). Carrier waves are usually in the
Radio Frequency (RF) range, which is in excess of 20 KHz. Frequencies below
20 KHz are in the Audio Frequency (AF) range.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CARRIER FREQUENCY
AUDIO FREQUENCY
TRANSMITTED AMPLITUDE
MODULATED SIGNAL
Amplitude modulation
Figure 19
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AUDIO WAVE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1KHz AUDIO
10.5KHz 11KHz
9.5KHz 9KHz
10KHz CARRIER
FM Modulation
Figure 21
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The carrier wave emitted by a radio transmission antenna may be broken into
three different propagation categories:
1. Ground wave.
2. Space wave.
3. Sky wave.
IONOSPHERE
V E
VE
WA
A
C E
W
PA A VE
Y
S EW
SK
AC
SP
E
AV
W
ND
OU
GR
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Ground waves tend to be held near the earths surface and bend with the
curvature of the earth. Ground waves travel a distance limited by the
transmitters output power, antenna design, local terrain, and current weather
conditions. Typically, a relatively powerful transmitter is capable of sending
ground waves a distance of 1,000 miles.
Sky waves tend to travel in straight lines, but may also be reflected off the
ionosphere layer in order to reach the receiver. Because of this method, sky
waves may produce a skip zone, where no reception is possible. Neither the line-
of-sight nor the reflected wave can be received in the skip zone.
The ionospheres density and distance from the earth determine the skip-zone
range and the exact frequencies that are reflected. The ionosphere is a layer of
ionized gases that surround the earth at an altitude of between 20 250 miles,
varying with the time of day, season and location. The density of this layer is also
affected by the suns solar flare activities. All these factors will determine the
frequencies that are reflected and their angle of reflection off the ionosphere.
2.25 ANTENNAS
The size and design of antennas vary in accordance with the frequency or
frequencies of signals being handled. As frequencies increase the wavelengths
decrease and the length of the antenna must be matched as closely as possible
to the wavelengths of the carrier waves. On aircraft the size of the antenna is
normally .
Most aircraft communication antennas are of the Blade type. The radiating
surface is and is protected by a polyurethane rubber coating. They are
generally termed Broad band antennas, meaning they will receive a wide range
of frequencies. The required frequency is filtered out from all the others by
circuitry within the transceiver. Figure 23 shows a typical VHF blade antenna.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANTENNA
CAP
ANTENNA
EROSION
BOOT
AIRCRAFT MOUNTING
SKIN SCREWS
TUNING
CABLE
ANTENNA
CABLE
VHF Antenna
Figure 23
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ANTENNA
COUPLER
RECEIVER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the mic is to convert sound energy into electric energy. This
process uses the dynamic energy of the sound wave produced by the pilot. The
sound strikes a diaphragm, and the sound energy is converted into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is then converted into electric energy. There
are four common aircraft microphones:
4. Electrostatic Microphone.
The carbon mic contains tiny carbon granules compressed in a sealed chamber.
The voice diaphragm vibrates the carbon chamber, changing the resistance of
the carbon granules. A current that passes through the granules changes in
amplitude as the sound wave moves the diaphragm. Figure 25 shows the
operation of a carbon microphone.
CARBON CONDUCTING
GRANULES SURFACE
CERAMIC
CUP
DIAPHRAGM
INSULATED
PLUNGER
Carbon Microphone
Figure 25
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The crystal mic is a voltage generator which utilizes the piezoelectric properties of
a quartz crystal. When the crystal is subjected to mechanical pressure it
develops a potential across two of its faces. This potential is dependent on the
pressure exerted on the crystal. This in turn produces an output, which
corresponds exactly to the applied pressure wave.
DIAPHRAGM ELECTRODES
CRYSTAL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The moving coil microphone is again a type of voltage generator, this time
working on the electromagnetic-induction principle. The diaphragm is attached to
a coil, which is free to move in or out of a strong magnet. Movement of the
diaphragm causes the coil to cut the magnetic flux and a voltage is induced into
the coil. Figure 27 shows the operation of the moving coil microphone.
MAGNET
COIL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIAPHRAGM AIRGAP
MOVEABLE
PLATE FIXED
PLATE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.27 EARPHONES
The earphone is a transducer that converts electrical waves into sound (pressure)
waves. The waveform of the sound wave should be identical to the electrical
wave in all factors but amplitude. Earphones therefore, merely perform the
reverse process of a microphone. The same principles apply to earphones as
they did for microphones.
HEADBAND
PRESS-TO-TALK
SWITCH
MOUTHPIECE
EARPIECE
ONLY USED TO
MONITOR AUDIO
NO TALK FACILITY
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HEADBAND
EAR PIECE
TRANSDUCERS
AUDIO TUBES
AMPLIFIER
BOOM MIC
JACK PLUG
HEAD
RESTRAINER
MASK
OXYGEN
COMMUNICATION
CONNECTION
JACK PLUG
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DEMODULATOR
DETECTOR &
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
MODULATED
FREQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
AUDIO
MODULATOR
LOUDSPEAKER
FREQUEUNCY
AMPLIFIER
FREQUENCY
OSCILLATOR
AUDIO
FRQUENCY
AMPLIFIER
RADIO
RADIO
MICROPHONE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Aircraft communication systems normally use the VHF wave band within a
118.000 MHz to 136.000 MHz range. Within this range the channel spacing was
previously 25 KHz, but because of the high demand for more channels it is
currently being reduced to 8.33 KHz. The VHF system provides short-range
(space wave) voice communication between:
2. Aircraft to aircraft.
All modern aircraft have at least two VHF systems, on the larger aircraft, there is
also a third system fitted.
Each VHF communication system receives RF energy via its antenna, processes
the RF signal and sends the resulting AF to the digital audio control system, and
the SELCAL (see later). During transmission, microphone audio from the flight
compartment is processed by the VHF communication system and the RF energy
is transmitted via the antenna. Control of the frequency selection is provided on a
VHF Communication control panel. Figure 33 shows a VHF Radio system block
schematic.
AUDIO OUT TO
INTERPHONE
VHF
AERIAL
RF IN & OUT
MICROPHONE
VHF
INTERPHONE COMMUNICATION
TRANSCEIVER
1ST OFF
VHF
CONTROL
PANEL
CAPT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are two sets of concentric frequency select knobs. On each set, the out
knobs select the 2nd and 3rd digits and the inner knobs select the 4th and 5th digits.
Above each set of knobs is a frequency select readout for displaying the selected
frequency. A two position VHF COMM TRF (transfer) switch allows the selection
of one of the pre-selected frequencies. The unselected frequency window has a
bar obscuring the readout.
The COMM TEST switch is a push button switch that enables confidence testing
of the receiving circuits in the system. Figure 34 shows a VHF control panel.
VHF COMM
120.60 118.30
TFR
COMM
TEST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The audio control panels provide microphone selector pushbuttons and listen
switches for the VHF communication systems. The mic selector pushbuttons
connect the microphone to the desired VHF transceiver. The audio volume
controls allow the selection of audio from the transceivers to heard over the flight
compartment speakers or headphones.
MIC SELECTOR
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
MASK B
V R
R/T I/C
BOOM
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the transceiver is to transmit and receive RF signals for voice and
data communication. It is a solid-state device with a minimum transmit power
output of 20 watts.
2.30.1 Control
The transceiver is tested using front panel controls. The squelch disable
pushbutton allows the testing of the receiver section of the transceiver. An amber
transmit monitor lamp illuminates whenever the transmitted output power
Exceeds 10 watts. There are also phone and mic jacks available for the
monitoring of the receiver and transmitter.
ON WHEN
TESTS THE
TRANSCEIVER
RECEIVER
POWER > 10W
SECTION OF
THE TRANSCEIVER
SQUELCH TRANSMIT
DISABLE POWER
PHONE MIC
MONITORING
OF AUDIO OPERATION OF
OUTPUT TRANSMITTER
VHF Transceiver
Figure 36
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the VHF antenna is to radiate and intercept radio signals in the
VHF frequency range (118.00 136.00 MHz). The No 1 VHF antenna is located
on top of the fuselage and VHF No 2 antenna is on the forward underside of the
fuselage. Figure 37 shows the VHF antenna location on a Boeing 737 aircraft.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The service interphone system allows communication between the flight crew,
cabin attendants, ground crew or maintenance personnel. Jacks for plug-in
microphone and headsets are installed at various locations in the aircraft. These
jacks allow ground personnel to communicate with each other. An on/off switch
on the aft overhead panel on the flight deck controls the external jacks. Handsets
are available at the forward and aft attendants panels. Figure 38 shows the
layout of the Boeing 737 interphone system.
ACCESSORY
INTERPHONE
AUDIO
SERVICE
UNIT
OFF
ON
ATTENDANTS
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL
MKR
PA
STATION
B
FLT
INT
AFT
V
INOP
SERV
INT
MASKS
BOOM
MIC SELECTOR
1 - ADF
INOP
HF - 1
ATTENDANTS
FORWARD
I/C
STATION
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
R/T
CONTROL
PILOTS
STAND
MIC
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
EXTERNAL POWER
WHEELWELL
LIGHT
SPEAKER
NOSE
SERVICE
INTERPHONE
NORM
ON
PANEL
FLIGHT
PILOT
CALL
EXTERNAL
HEADSET
POWER
IN USE
NOT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The handsets provide the facility for introducing microphone audio into the
system and for listening to audio from the systems other stations. The handsets
resemble the common hand-held telephone receiver. A pushbutton switch is
located on the grip to activate the mic. Handsets are permanently installed at
each attendants station. Figure 39 shows the forward attendants interphone
panel as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
LIGHTS
MUSIC SYSTEM
VOLUME CONTROL
MUSIC ATTENDANTS
CAPTAINS CALL LIGHT
CALL LIGHT CALL SYSTEM
HANDSET
HANDHELD
MICROPHONE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The crew call system is a three-way alerting system that signals crew members to
use the interphone system. The three types of crew call are:
Ground Crew Call When the ground crew call is initiated in the flight
compartment, a call horn sounds in the nose wheel well.
Figure 40 shows the ground crews interphone panel, which is located in the nose
wheel bay.
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT SERVICE
NOSE
PILOT WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT CALL
IN USE
LIGHT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The passenger address (PA) system provides a means of transmitting flight crew
announcements, boarding music and chime signals to the passenger cabin.
Audio inputs from the pilots, attendants and tape reproducer are prioritized by the
PA amplifier. The priority is:
1. Pilots.
2. Cabin attendants.
3. Pre-recorded announcements.
4. Boarding music.
The audio with the highest priority is amplified and distributed to the passenger
cabin speakers, attendants speakers and audio integration.
Figure 41 shows the layout of the PA system for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
PA
AMPLIFIER
PA SPEAKER
PA MIC
PA SPEAKERS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Provides the flight crew with a means of controlling all radio communications,
interphone and PA selection and Navigation receivers audio signals. Both pilots
have their own individual system and control panel. Figure 42 shows a block
schematic of the audio integration system.
MKR
PA
R
B
FLT
INT
1 - ADF
BOOM
MASKS
INOP
HF - 1
I/C
1 - NAV - 2
1 - VHF - 2
R/T
HAND
MIC
OXYGEN
MASK
SWITCHES
CONTROL
HEADSET
& BOOM MIC
HEADSET
SPEAKER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the INT/MIC switch is to provide PTT input for the boom or
oxygen mask microphones. The switch is a three-position switch on the outboard
horn of the captains and first officers control wheel. In the MIC position, mic
audio is directed to the selected communication system. In the INT position, mic
audio is connected directly to the flight interphone system.
Figure 43 shows the control wheel INT/MIC switches of a Boeing 737 aircraft
MIC/INT SWITCH
PRESS-TO-TALK
MICROPHONE
INTERPHONE
120.60 118.30
TFR
NO 1
COMM
VHF COMM
TEST
TRANSCEIVER
MIC SELECTOR
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
SERV FLT
1 - VHF - 2 HF - 1 INOP PA
INT INT
Figure 44
AEROPLANE
R/T I/C
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
BOOM
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
VHF COMM
TEST
Page 2-55
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
To operate the system, apply power to the transceiver and allow a short warm up
period.
Select the frequency of the ground station that is going to be used and 'listen out'
to ensure that no other transmissions are taking place.
With the microphone close to the mouth, key the transmitter with the ac PTT
switch and speak slowly and clearly into the microphone to establish 2-way
communication with the ground station.
Identify your position by airline and aircraft registration using the standard
phonetic alphabet;
1. A = alpha.
2. B = Bravo etc
Once you have finished speaking, release the PTT switch and listen for the reply,
ensuring that it is loud and clear. Complete the check by confirming to the
ground station the receipt of the reply.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. AM AMPLITUDE MODULATION.
In the AM mode the system transmits a carrier with amplitude modulation. In the
SSB mode the carrier and the lower side band is removed. The system only
transmits the upper side band (USB). Figure 45 shows a block schematic of a HF
system.
POWER &
HF COMM CONTROL
TUNING &
CONTROL CONTROL HF COMM
PANEL
ANTENNA
RECEIVE COUPLER
TRANSMIT
MIC
KEY
AUDIO SELCAL
OUT SYSTEM
HF COMM
TRANSCEIVER
HF Communication
Figure 45
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A HF aerial is of quite a different technology compared with most other aerials for
two reasons. One is the power output of the Transmitter (400 watts) the other
reason is that the quarter wavelength (/4) distance is about 40 metres at 2 MHz
but only 2.5 metres at 30 MHz, so broadband aerials are not possible. Instead all
HF aerials are fed from an aerial coupling unit to attempt to electrically lengthen
or shorten the aerial for optimum matching, especially to the transmitter. Figure
46 shows the location of the HF antenna and coupling unit.
HF ANTENNA
HF COUPLER
UNIT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. OFF.
Note: LSB is reserved for military operations and normally, civil aircraft have the
facility to select USB.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2 .0 0 0
LSB AM
USB
OFF
RF
SENS
FUNCTION RECEIVER
100 KILO HERTZ 10 KILO HERTZ
SELECTOR GAIN
SELECTOR SELECTOR
SWITCH CONTROL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The selective calling (SELCAL) system allows a ground station to call an aircraft
or group of aircraft using HF and VHF communications without the flight crew
having to continuously monitor the ground stations frequency.
A coded signal is transmitted from the ground station and received by the
aircrafts HF or VHF transciever tuned to the appropriate frequency. The output
code is fed to a SELCAL decoder, which, activates aural and visual alerts if and
only if the received code corresponds to the code, selected in the aircraft.
Figure 48 shows the SELCAL System layout.
VO
E IC
C OD E
L CO
A M
LC M
UN
SE IC
AT
IO
N
AIRLINE DISPACH
COMMUNICATION
ARINC ARINC
REMOTE VOICE
STATION STATION
SELCAL Operation
Figure 48
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are a total of 10920 codes available and these codes are assigned to
airline organisations, who in turn assign codes to their individual aircraft either on
a flight number or aircraft registration basis.
The SELCAL control panel consists of SELCAL warning lamps annotated to the
associated radio system, i.e. VHF 1, VHF 2, HF 1 and HF 2. It also provides a
means of resetting the SELCAL, thus cancelling the visual and audio indications.
The panel also has a self-test button to allow testing of the SELCAL system.
Normally located along with the control panel is the SELCAL code selection
panel, this is used to set the aircrafts SELCAL code.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The SELCAL decoder determines if the aircrafts four-letter code has been
received and produces alert signals in the form of indicators on the SELCAL
control panel and audio tones to the audio system. The alerts are cancelled by
pressing the corresponding alert light on the SELCAL control panel. A self-test of
the alerts lights and audio warnings is carried out using the self-test button on the
SELCAL control, panel. Figure 50 shows a block schematic of the SELCAL
system.
LAMP DRIVES
5 WIRE
CODE
SELECT
RESET
TEST
AUDIO SYSTEM
CHIME LAMP
VHF 1 SWITCH
SWITCH
LAMP
VHF 2
SWITCH
VHF 4 LAMP
SWITCH
VHF 5 LAMP
INTERRUPTER SWITCH
CIRCUIT
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The CVR records the last 30 minutes of the flight deck audio on continuous
magnetic tape. All voice communication is recorded. Operation is automatic
from engine start until five minutes after engine shutdown. The CVR receives
sound from the flight compartment and audio signals from the digital audio control
system. The voice recorder continuously records the sound and audio. Sensing
of the aircraft-on-ground and parking-brake-set is used to permit bulk erasure
of the voice recording.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TAPE AND
MOTOR
ERASE
HEAD
BRAKE ON
PARKING
RECORDING
HEADS
TEST
GROUND
A/C ON
3
1
ERASE
MIC
METER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The control panel allows remote monitoring and testing of the voice recorder unit
detects flight compartment sounds and conversations. It also controls bulk
erasure of the recording tape. It contains an area microphone (capacitive) which
senses compartment audio. Pressing the erase button for a minimum of 2
seconds erases the tape. This is only possible when the aircraft is on the ground
and the parking brake is set.
Pressing the TEST switch tests all 4 recording channels in sequence. The meter
indicates green during TEST if the test tone is recorded at a sufficient level. The
headset jack is used to monitor all 4 recorded channels. Figure 52 shows a CVR
control panel.
2 4 6 8
0 10
TEST ERASE
HEADSET
600 OHMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The voice recorder unit makes a 30 - minute recording of four audio channels on
a continuous polyamide tape. The recorder is shock and heat resistant and
contains an underwater locating beacon. It has a TEST switch to initiate an
internal test signal to be recorded. A phone jack monitors the recording as it is
being recorded. The Status indicator provides monitoring of the tape transport
operation and the recorded signal during test. Figure 53 shows a voice recorder
unit.
TEST
PHONE
STATUS IND
UNDERWATER
LOCATING
DEVICE
BATTERY
LIFE LABEL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The VOR operates in the frequency band from 108.00 to 117.95 MHz. The VOR
ground-station transmits a combination of signals in all directions (omni-
directional). The VOR ground station modulates two signals of 30 Hz each on the
carrier. One 30 Hz signal is the reference signal and the other is the variable
signal. The phase shift between the reference signal and the variable signal
depends on the radial over which the two signals are transmitted. The radial in
the magnetic north direction has a phase shift of 0 degrees, the radial in the
magnetic east direction (90 degrees) has a phase shift of 90 degrees, the radial
in the magnetic south direction (180 degrees) has a phase shift of 180 degrees,
etc. In this way the VOR ground station identifies each radial with the phase shift
between the reference and the variable signal.
VOR RADIAL = 45
VOR BEARING = 225
270 090
VOR
BEACON
180
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The radial information is transmitted from the ground station to the aircraft. When
the VOR system in the aircraft detects the phase shift between the reference and
the variable signal it knows on which radial the aircraft flies. For the bearing
information (opposite direction from aircraft to ground station) the VOR system
adds 180 degrees. In this way the bearing to the station depends on the detected
radial from the station.
The phase shift between the reference and the variable signal identifies a radial
with respect to the magnetic north. The bearing, which is a result from the
detected radial, has therefore also a relation with the magnetic north. So the
bearing output from the VOR system is a MAGNETIC bearing output. This
information is displayed on a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI). Figure 55 shows a
schematic of the VOR system.
RECEIVED
VOR SIGNAL
30Hz AM
ROTATION
INTERMEDIATE DETECTOR
FREQUENCY
AUDIO
RF IF DETECTOR TO PHASE
DETECTOR
RADIO
FREQUENCY
30Hz FM
REFERENCE
DETECTOR
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1 1 1 . 25 ACT
1 1 1 . 30 PRE
I
STBY L
NORM
VOR/DME S
T
E
ON TEST S
T
HOLD
DME
SPILT
NAV 1 NAV 2
068 246
COURSE COURSE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
For lateral guidance in airways, the pilots can select a VOR course on the VOR
control panel. The deviation from the selected course is calculated in the
systems, which show course and deviation (EFIS) or use it for guidance
(AFCAS). Also calculated from the difference between received radial and
selected course is the information if the aircraft flies to or from a VOR station.
The navigation display shows selected course, deviation, and the to-from
information. Figure 58 shows HSI indications for a selected VOR course.
FROM FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED
COURSE
TO FLAG
IN VIEW
SELECTED VOR
RADIAL
POSITION WRT
VOR RADIAL
AIRCRAFT
E 12
6
3
15
S
N
33
21
24
30 W
0 0 0
MILES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 59 shows the location of the VOR aerials on a Boeing 737 and a Fokker
100 aircraft.
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON TOP
OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
VOR AERIAL
LOCATED ON EITHER
SIDE OF VERTICAL
STABILISER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
No 2 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 1 SYSTEM
No 2 SYSTEM
VOR/ILS Aerial
Figure 60
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
T
S
L
E
S
I
AUDIO
VOR
PRE
ACT
VOR/DME
TEST
1 1 1 . 25
1 1 1 . 40
ON
HOLD
NORM
DME
STBY
CONTROLLER
VOR
RECEIVER
VOR
D
F
A
E 12
6
VOR
3
15
S
N
33
21
VOR
0 24
W 3
COMPASS HEADING
D
F
A
SELECTOR
NAV
COURSE
246
NAV 2
E 12
6
3
15
SPILT
S
N
33
21
24
30
COURSE
W
068
NAV 1
000
MILES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DME Operation
Figure 62
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The DME system operates in the UHF band and interrogates the ground stations
in the frequency range from 1025 MHz to 1150 MHz. Within this frequency range
the following ground stations are interrogated:
2. VOR/DME - Combination of VOR and DME station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
3. ILS/DME - Combination of ILS and DME station and gives ILS guidance and
distance replies.
5. TACAN - Military station for bearing and distance information for military
aircraft. The civil aircraft use only the distance replies from these stations.
6. VOR/TAC - Combination of VOR and TACAN station and gives VOR bearing
and distance replies.
In addition to the distance reply, identification tones (1350Hz) are received from
the ground station and may be heard as Morse code by the aircrew through
headsets.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DME No 1
DME No 2
BROADBAND
L-BAND AERIAL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RX TX
TIMING
INTERROGATION
50 SEC RANGE
DELAY CIRCUIT
REPLY
TX RX
DISTANCE
OUTPUT
DME Operation
Figure 64
In the DME system, the airborne unit transmits a 2-pulse group to the ground
station at a random rate of 150 pulse pairs a second. After a 50 second delay,
the ground station retransmits the pulse groups. Pulses are sent at one
frequency and received at a different frequency, using the same antenna.
Since many aircraft are using the DME facility, the aircraft equipment must be
capable of selecting only those pulses that are replies from their own
interrogations. A Search and Track circuit within the airborne equipment
achieves the selection.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Search and Track circuit receives all DME replies and examines them to
determine which ones have a regular time relation with respect to the transmitted
signals. When the search circuit determines which received pulses are due to its
own interrogations, the tracking unit locks onto them. At the same time, the pulse
rate is greatly reduced; this in turn reduces the interrogation/replies at the ground
station.
CONTROL
VHF/NAV
PANEL
1 2 3.5
NAUTICAL MILES
INDICATOR
DME
INTERPHONE
SYSTEM
FLIGHT
FREQUENCY SYNTHESISER
RCVR/XMITTR
DELAYED
VARIABLE DELAY
CONTROLLED
TX
MATCHING
CIRCUITS
LOCK
ON
IDENTIFICATION
TRANSMITTER
DUPLEXER
RECIEVER
AUDIO
SUPPRESSOR
BUS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
NAV/VHF Controller
Figure 66
All DME frequencies are paired with either VOR or ILS system frequencies.
When these system frequencies are selected, the associated DME facility will be
automatically be selected. DME frequency range is 960 to 1215 MHz.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the ILS is to provide approach information to the pilot when, due
to weather, the runway is obscured from view. A typical system will allow the pilot
to bring the aircraft to within mile of the runway and less than 200ft above the
runway without external visual reference. At these heights (Decision Height), the
pilot must have visual on the runway and surrounding environment in order to
continue the landing process. If the runway cannot be identified then a missed
approach procedure is carried out. Aircraft will then be flown around the circuit
for another attempt at landing.
Cat II - Operation down to a minimum below 200ft decision height and runway
visual range of 800m, and to as low as 100ft decision height and runway visual
range of 400m with a high probability of approach success.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CAT 1
200
CAT 2 A B C
100
CAT 3
ILS Categories
Figure 67
The ILS gives horizontal and vertical guidance in the approach to a runway. The
system uses two radio signals:
The localizer signal comes from a transmitter located at the end of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 108.000 - 111.95 MHz. The localizer
transmits two beams one on the right side of the runway centerline and one on
the left side of the runway centerline.
The beam on the right side has a 150 Hz modulation; the one on the left side has
a 90 Hz modulation. When the aircraft flies over the extended centerline to the
runway it receives both signals with an equal strength. When the aircraft deviates
from the centerline there is a difference in signal strength. The system measures
the deviation from the center line by comparing the strength of these 90 Hz and
150 Hz modulation signals.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Glideslope signal comes from a transmitter at the beginning of the runway
that operates in the frequency range from 329.3 MHz to 335 MHz. The
Glideslope transmits two beams to give vertical guidance over the glidepath. The
glidepath has an angle of approximately 3.
The Glideslope beams are just like the localizer, modulated with 90 Hz and 150
Hz. The 90 Hz modulated beam is above and the 150 Hz modulated beam is
below the 3 glidepath. The system measures the deviation from the difference in
signal strength between the 90 Hz and 150 Hz modulation signals.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DOTS ON HSI
DEVIATION
LATERAL
2 DOT ENVELOPE
(COURSE WIDTH)
AT THRESHOLD
700 ft WIDE
5 ON SHORT RUNWAY
4 ON LONG RUNWAY
LOC
TX
Localizer Principle
Figure 67
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3,000 ft
COURSE WIDTH 1.4
2 DOT ENVELOPE
1,000 ft
28 ft
3
14 ft
1,000 ft
100 ft
50 ft
Glideslope Principle
Figure 68
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.44.2 Antennas
VOR/LOC AERIAL
LOCATED ON THE
VOR/LOC No 2
OTHER SIDE
GLIDESLOPE
GLIDESLOPE
No 1 & No 2
LOCATED ON THE
VOR/LOC No 2
OTHER SIDE
VOR/LOC AERIAL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 70 shows a diagram for the LOC signal detection and display.
RF AMP
WARNING
FLAG
IF AMP
SUM
DETECTOR 90Hz FILTER
250mV OUT
OF VIEW
150Hz FILTER
DIFFERENCE
DEVIATION
BAR
The receiver of the Glideslope and Localiser operate in the same manner and
include conventional Radio Frequency (RF), Intermediate Frequency (IF) and
Audio Frequency (AF) stages. The output of the AF detector stage is the 90Hz
and 150Hz signals. These are separated in there respective filters.
The two signals are 180 out of phase and so oppose each other. The two
signals are first summed together, and if the result is more than 250mV, the
LOC/GS flag will be out of view (ILS valid). If the result of the summing is less
than 250mV, the LOC/GS flags will remain in view (ILS invalid).
If the 90Hz and 150Hz signals have the same amplitude, they cancel each other
out in the difference circuit. This produces a 0V output to the deviation bar that is
basically a centre reading dc voltmeter. With the output 0V the deviation bar will
be central indicating the aircraft is positioned on the extended runway centerline
(LOC) or on the glideslope.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If the aircraft is positioned in the 90Hz signal lobe, then the amplitude of the 90Hz
signal will be strongest. This will give a fly right signal (LOC) or fly down signal
(G/S). If the difference is -75mV, the deviation bar will be located on the first dot
right, if the difference is -150mV or more, then the deviation bar will be located on
the second dot right. If the 150Hz is the stronger signal, then the voltage
produced will be positive. This will give either fly left (LOC) or fly up (G/S).
Because the result of the difference circuit is either a +dc half-cycle or dc half-
cycle, the signals are condensed using the capacitor, which will produce a steady
dc signal. These condenser capacitors also damp the deviation bar movement.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In order to inform the pilot as to the aircraft's progress, during an ILS approach,
along the centerline and Glideslope, there is a marker system. The markers are
normally annotated as follows:
1. Outer marker.
2. Middle Marker.
3. Inner marker.
Note: With Category II & III, ILS the inner marker is virtually non existent.
3000 Hz
WHITE
400 Hz
INDICATOR
BLUE
1300 Hz INDICATOR
AMBER
INDICATOR
MORSE MORSE
MORSE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The inner marker is not normally used with ILS, but is now used as an Airways
marker, used for enroute navigation or as holding points above an airport.
Airways markers are identified when the white light comes on and a 3,000Hz tone
is heard.
Outer and Middle markers are associated with the ILS. The outer marker is
usually located directly below the point where an aircraft on a localizer course
should intersect the Glideslope and start descending. An outer marker is
identified when the blue light comes on and a 400 Hz tone is heard. The middle
marker is located near the runway, usually under a point on the glidepath where a
descent could be discontinued. The middle marker is identified when the amber
light comes on and a 1,300 Hz tone is heard. A 75MHz carrier modulates all
marker frequencies. Figure 72 shows the system layout.
MARKER BEACON
SYSTEM AUDIO AUDIO
75 MHz AMPLIFIER (MORSE)
FILTER
1300 Hz
MARKER FILTER AMP MIDDLE
HIGH
400 Hz
FILTER AMP OUTER
LOW
SENSITIVITY
SWITCH
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ADF system detects the direction to a Non Directional Beacon (NDB) and
receives audio identification from the NDB. The ADF system shows the direction
to the NDB on the instruments with the bearing pointer. The ADF system
operates in the frequency range of 190 to 1750 KHz.
MAGNETIC
NORTH
ADF2
ADF 1
300 HEADING 60
RF 30
S
AD IGN
F 2 AL M
ST S F F RO
AT RO S N
IO M N AL TIO
A
N SIG ST
RF DF1
A
RELATIVE
BEARINGS
ADF Operation
Figure 73
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A 'loop aerial', is very sensitive to its directional position, meaning that when it is
pointing towards the transmitter, it receives a null signal but when pointing away
from the transmitter, it receives a strong signal. This ability is used to
automatically find the direction of the transmitter, relative to the aircraft heading
and is displayed on the Radio Magnetic Indicator, RMI.
LOOP AERIAL
AT 90 TO SIGNAL
NO INCREASING NO INCREASING NO
CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT CURRENT
RADIO TRANSMITTER
Loop Antenna
Figure 74
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
By turning the loop aerial to either of its two null positions the directions of a line
joining the receiver with the transmitting station can be determined. This is called
the Station Line and is shown in Figure 75.
Station Line
Figure 75
As there are two nulls, 180 apart, the transmitter could be towards A or B in
figure 75, causing ambiguity. To resolve this ambiguity it is necessary to change
the directional properties of the aerial system. This is achieved by introducing a
second aerial which combines its horizontal polar diagram with that of the loop
aerial which produces a new heart shaped polar diagram called a Cardioid.
Figure 76 shows the resultant Cardioid polar diagram from the loop and sense
aerials.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LOOP
POLAR
DIAGRAMS
SENSE CARDIOID
POLAR POLAR
DIAGRAM DIAGRAM
The signal from the ADF transmitter induces a voltage into the loop using the
magnetic component of the signal. The sense aerial has a voltage induced by
the electric component of the signal. This produces 90 phase shift between the
loop and sense aerial voltages. Whether the sense voltage leads or lags the loop
voltage depends on which side of the station line the signal is coming from.
Given a means of rotating the loop and switching the sense aerial into and out of
the receiver input and a means of reversing the polarity of the loop signal to
produce a Cardioid either to the right or left of a relative bearing pointer, aural
sensing can be carried out. The bearing pointer is positioned along the loop axis
in one direction as shown if figure 77.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BEARING POINTER
ALONG LOOP AXIS IN
ONE DIRECTION
ADF AERIAL
On tuning to the ADF beacon and listening to the audio signal, the loop is turned
until a minimum signal is received. The loop is then offset in one direction by 15
- 20. The sense aerial is now switched in for the right Cardioid and the loudness
of the audio noted. The loop is then reversed to give a left Cardioid, again the
loudness is noted. The sense aerial is now switched out and the loop is tuned in
the direction of the Cardiods, which gave the loudest signal. The first null the
loop aerial reaches will be the correct one and the pointer will now be pointing the
ADF transmitter the system is tuned to. Figure 78 shows this operation.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ADF
BEACON ADF
BEACON
RIGHT IS
LOUDEST
LEFT IS
NOT AS
LOUD
POINTING TO
WRONG NULL
TURN TOWARDS
LOUDEST FOR
CORRECT NULL LOOP OFFSET
BY 15 - 20
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In modern aircraft, the loop aerials are more streamlined and do not physically
rotate (rotated electronically).
NO 2 SENSE
ANTENNA & NO 2 LOOP
COUPLER ANTENNA
NO 1 SENSE NO 1 LOOP
ANTENNA & ANTENNA
COUPLER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SENSE
ANTENNA AUDIO
FWD
90 BALANCED AUDIO
MIXER
SHIFT MODULATOR DETECTOR
A
RS 47Hz 47Hz
OSC FILTER
B
ADF RECEIVER
AC SUPPLY
TR
RMI
ADF System
Figure 80
The fixed loop antenna is preferred because it is more trouble free, due to fewer
moving parts. The fixed loop consists of two loops orientated at 90 to each
other. Each loop is connected to an individual stator of a receiving resolver within
the ADF receiver.
If the received station is directly ahead of the aircraft, loop A will have maximum
signal and the B loop will have a null signal. In this case the resolver will see a
null signal due to the orientation of the resolver rotor. If the aircraft is positioned
to the right of the station, then the A will see a null and the B will see maximum
signal. Intermediate positions of the received station would result in intermediate
positions of the resultant filed in the stator of the resolver.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ADF ANT
ADF ANT
OFF TEST
ADF 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.47.1 Transponders
The ground control has two types of radar with which to control air traffic:
1. Primary Radar.
2. Secondary Radar.
The primary radar provides the ground station operator with a symbol on his
surveillance radarscope for every aircraft in his area. It is a reflection type of
radar system not requiring any response from the aircraft.
The secondary radar system uses what is called an ATC Transponder in the
aircraft. The transponder is a transmitter/receiver, which transmits in response to
an interrogation from the ground station secondary surveillance radar system.
The primary and secondary radar antennas are mounted on the same rotating
mounting, and therefore both always look in the same direction at the same time.
The aircrafts transponder reply can also include a special code, which identifies
that particular aircraft on the scope. If the pilot receives instructions from the
ground station to do so he presses his Ident button on his control panel. This
causes the display on the radarscope to change thus identifying the aircraft to the
controller. The transponder can also transmit the aircrafts altitude, which can be
displayed to the ground controller.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GROUND SURVEILLANCE
RADAR
ATC RADAR
ANTENNAS
ATC RADAR
TRANSMITTER/
RECEIVER
ATCRBS Operation
Figure 82
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ATCRBS control panel allows the flight crew to select ATC 1 or 2, mode of
operation and ident code select. Figure 83 shows a typical ATCRBS control
panel.
STBY MODE
A B
1 2
2567
ALT RPTG
ALT
IDENT
1 2
OFF
SOURCE
The ground station transmits its interrogation pulse on 1030 MHz as a three-pulse
signal. The space between the first and third pulse signifies the mode reply
required. The system operates in four modes, these are:
1. Mode A - Identify.
2. Mode B - Obsolete.
4. Mode D Unassigned.
2.47.3 Mode A
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.47.4 Mode C
Altitude reporting capability of the transponder. The aircraft's Air Data System
will supply altitude information for use in Mode C replies. This allows the ground
controller, to not only identify an aircraft but also to ascertain its altitude, so he
can guide it safely through his allocated airspace. The pulse spacing is 21sec.
Figure 84 shows the interrogation pulses for mode A & C.
8 SEC
P1 P3
P2
21 SEC
P1 P3
P2
Once the aircrafts transponder has received an interrogation, it will reply with
either Mode A or C (1090 MHz). One problem to overcome with this system is an
aircraft replying to interrogations when not being illuminated by the primary radar.
To overcome this, a suppression pulse is transmitted (P2). If the amplitude of this
pulse is equal/greater than P1, the aircraft will not reply to the interrogation.
Figure 85 shows the operation of the suppression signal.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DIRECTIONAL
REPLY
P2
ROTATION
P1
SIDELOBES
P3
NO REPLY
P2
ANTENNA (P2)
DIRECTIONAL
OMNI
P1
ATCRBS Suppression
Figure 85
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A IR D A TA
A LT R PTG ON
C O M P U TE R
NO 1 N O 1 A TC
T RA N S P O N DE R
N0 1
A TC AE R IAL
N O 1 EN A B LE
A TC R BS M OD E, 40 9 6, ID EN T
D UA L SU P P
N O 2 EN A B LE
C O N TR O L
N0 2
A TC AE R IAL
N O 2 A TC
A IR D A TA T RA N S P O N DE R
A LT R PTG ON
C O M P U TE R
NO 2
R EP LY A N D FA U LT LIGH T C ON TR OL
A TC R BS V ID E O C O M P A RA T O R
T RA N S P O N DE R SU PP P1 - P2
D IP LE X E R R E CE IV E R
D E CO DE R
1 0 3 0 M Hz M O D E A or C
M OD E SW
SEL F T EST
S E L FT E S T
C IRC U ITS
4096 ID E NT
T RA N S M ITT E R M O D U LA TO R
E N CO DE R
1 0 9 0 M Hz 1 0 9 0 M Hz
E N CO DE D
H E IG H T
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
After 1989, a completely new type of ATC system was introduced. This system is
called mode S (mode select). The new interrogators and transponders are called
ATCRBS/mode S because they are capable of working with the old ATCRBS
equipment or with new mode S equipment.
For the present time, there will be ATCRBS only equipped aircraft sharing
airspace with ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft. On the ground, most of the
stations are ATCRBS-only, but there will be a gradual phasing in of
ATCRBS/mode S ground stations. Both types of station can interrogate either
type of transponder, and both types of transponder can respond to either type of
ground station. TCAS-equipped aircraft interrogate both ATCRBS and
ATCRBS/mode S equipped aircraft just as an ATCRBS/mode S ground station
would do.
At some point in the future, all ATCRBS-only equipment will be phased out for
commercial aviation. All ground stations and aircraft will then operate in mode S
only.
The address and the Location of the Mode S aircraft is entered into a roll-call file
by the Mode S ground station. On the next scan, the Mode S aircraft is discretely
addressed. The discrete interrogations of a Mode S aircraft contain a command
field that may desensitise the Mode S transponder to further Mode S all-call
interrogations. This is called Mode S lockout. ATCRBS interrogations (from
ATCRBS only interrogators) are not affected by this lockout. Mode S
transponders reply to the interrogations of an ATCRBS interrogator under all
circumstances.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TRANSPONDER
PRIMARY
RADAR
REPLY INTERROGATION
1090MHz 1030MHz
ECHO
PRIMARY
SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE
SURVEILLANCE RADAR (PSR)
RADAR (SSR)
ATC
RADAR
SCOPE
ROLL CALL
NEIGHBORING
GROUND LINK AIRSPACE
AIRPLANE 1
CONTROLLER
AIRPALNE 2
(MODE S)
AIRPLANE 3
Mode S Operation
Figure 87
2.48.3 Operation
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In areas where Mode S interrogators are not connected by way of ground lines,
the protocol for the transponder is for it to be in the lockout state for only those
interrogators that have the aircraft on the roll-call. If the aircraft enters airspace
served by a different Mode S interrogator, the new interrogator may acquire the
aircraft via the replay to an all-call interrogation. Also, if the aircraft does not
receive an interrogation for 16 seconds, the transponder automatically cancels
the lockout. Figure 88 shows the different types of interrogation pulses for
ATCRBS and Mode S systems
(UNLESS LOCKED
(UNLESS LOCKED
REPLY MODE S
REPLY MODE S
TRANSPONDERS
ATCRBS/MODE S
ONLY MODE S
DISCREETLY
ADDRESSED
NO REPLY
REPLIES
ATCRBS
REPLY
OUT)
OUT)
TRANSPONDERS
ATCRBS
NO REPLY
NO REPLY
REPLY
REPLY
REPLY
P4
P4
P6
P6
P3
P3
P3
P5
P5
INTERROGATION PULSE
P2
P2
P2
P2
P2
P1
P1
P1
P1
P1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TCAS is an airborne traffic alert and collision avoidance advisory system, which
operates without support from ATC, ground stations. TCAS detects the presence
of nearby intruder aircraft equipped with transponders that reply to Air Traffic
Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS) Mode C or Mode S interrogations.
TCAS tracks and continuously evaluates the threat potential of intruder aircraft to
its own aircraft and provides a display of the nearby transponder-equipped
aircraft on a traffic display. During threat situations TCAS provides traffic
advisory alerts and vertical maneuvering resolution advisories to assist the flight
crew in avoiding mid-air collisions.
TCAS I provides proximity warning only to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition
of intruder aircraft. It is intended for use by smaller commuter and general
aviation aircraft.
TCAS III Still under development, will provide traffic advisories and resolution
advisories in the horizontal as well as the vertical direction to avoid conflicting
traffic.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OWN AIRCRAFT
TCAS I TCAS II TCAS III
Mode A
XPDR Only TA TA TA
Mode C TA
Or Mode S TA TA VRA
XPDR VRA HRA
TARGET AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT
TA TA
TCAS I TA VRA VRA
HRA
TA TA
TCAS II TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TA TA
TCAS III TA VRA VRA
TTC HRA
TTC
TA TRAFFIC ADVISORY
VRA - VERTICAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
HRA - HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION ADVISORY
TTC - TCAS TCAS COORDINATION
Table 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TCAS II provides a traffic display and two types of advisories to the pilot. One
type of advisory, called a traffic advisory (TA) informs the pilot that there are
aircraft in the area, which are potential threats to his own aircraft. The other type
of advisory is called a resolution advisory (RA), which advises the pilot that a
vertical corrective or preventative action is required to avoid a threat aircraft.
TCAS II also provides aural alerts to the pilot. Figure 89 shows TCAS protection
area.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 89
When a Mode S or Mode C intruder is acquired, TCAS begins tracking the
intruder. Tracking is performed by repetitious TCAS interrogations in Mode S and
Mode C. When interrogated transponders reply after a fixed delay. Measurement
of the time between interrogation transmission and reply reception allows TCAS
to calculate the range of the intruder. If the intruder's transponder is providing
altitude in its reply, TCAS is able to determine the relative altitude of the intruder.
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
OMNI
OMNI
TRANSPONDER
MODE S/TCAS
CONTROLLER
MODE S
UNIT
AURAL
ALERT
DATA BUS
BAROMETRIC
ALTIMETER
TA/RA
ALTIMETER
RADAR
COMPUTER
TCAS
UNIT
TA/RA
DIRECTIONAL
DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA
ANTENNA
OMNI
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The position on the display shows the range and relative bearing of the intruder.
The range of TCAS is about 30 NM in the forward direction. Figure 91 shows
TCAS TA and RA calculations.
SURVEILLANCE
TRAFFIC
ADVISORY
(TA)
RANGE ALTITUDE
TEST TEST
THREAT
DETECTION
(RA)
RA
SENSE CLIMB RATE OF STRENGTH
TCAS/TCAS
SELECTION DECENT CLIMB/DECENT SELECTION
CO-ORDINATION
RA
ADVISORY
TA ANNUNCIATION
(TA/RA)
AIR GROUND
COMMUNICATION ATC
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AIRCRAFT 2
TCAS AIRCRAFT 2 TRANSMITS
ATCRBS ALL CALL
AIRCRAFT 2 RECIEVES SQUITTER
(1030 MHz) AIRCRAFT 3
AND ADDS AIRCRAFT 1 TO
RESPONDS MODE C
ITS ROLL CALL, THEN INTERROGATES
(1090 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 1 (TCAS 1030 MHz)
AIRCRAFT 3
ATCRBS ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1
MODE S ONLY
AIRCRAFT 1 TRANSMITS
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SQUITTER SIGNALS
(MODE S 1090 MHz)
GROUND STATION
TRANSMITS
INTERROGATIONS
AT (1030MHz)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Honeywell
2
1 4
.5
+03 6
-05
0
-03
6
.5
1 4
2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
180
5000 6
2
160 10 10
1
14 4800
1
REF
120 10 10 4600 2
6
MDA
CRS 123
4700
100
FLY OUT
OF AREA STD
29.86IN
117 MAG 750
RA FLIGHT
BOUNDARY
(RED)
6
2
GREEN
1
SEGMENT
1
RED
SEGMENT 2
6
VERTICAL SPEED
LINE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The single announcement "Clear of Conflict" indicates that the encounter has
ended (range has started to increase), and the pilot should promptly but smoothly
return to the previous clearance.
Table 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
It is important for the pilot to know that TCAS is operating properly. For this
reason a self-test system is incorporated. Self-test can be initiated at any time,
on the ground or in flight, by momentarily pressing the control unit TEST button.
If TA's or RAs occur while the self-test is activated in flight, the test will abort and
the advisories will be processed and displayed.
After eight seconds "TCAS TEST PASS" or "TCAS TEST FAIL" is aurally
announced to indicate the system status.
OFF ON STBY
AS
IDENT
7777 TA
/RA
ATC
C
A
S ALT RPTG
TCAS XPDR
OFF TEST 1 2
1 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This shows the ATC code selected by the two dual concentric knobs below
the display. The system select switch (XPDR 1-2) controls input to the
display.
Certain fault indications are also indicated on the display. "PASS" will
show after a successful functional test and "FAIL" will show if a high level
failure is detected under normal operating conditions.
This selects the altitude range for the TCAS traffic displays. In the ABV
mode the range limits are 7,000 feet above and 2,700 feet below the
aircraft. In the BLW mode the limits are 2,700 feet above and 7,000 feet
below. When normal (N) is selected the displayed range is 2,700 feet
above and below the aircraft.
When AUTO is selected the TCAS computer sets the displays to "pop-up"
mode under a traffic/resolution advisory condition. In MAN the TCAS
displays are constantly activated advising of any near by traffic.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RT-950
Honeywell TCAS
COMPUTER UNIT
TPR
RESERVED
BITE
TEST
TCAS COMPUTER
MODE S COMPUTER
If the test button is momentarily pressed fault data for the current and previous
flight legs can be displayed on the front panel annunciators.
When the TEST is initially activated all annunciators are on for 3 seconds and
then current fault data is displayed for 10 seconds, after which the test terminates
and all annunciators are extinguished.
If the test button is pressed again during the 10-second fault display period the
display is aborted and a 2-second lamp test is carried out. The fault data
recorded for the previous flight leg is then displayed for 10 seconds.
This procedure can be repeated to obtain recorded data from the previous 10
flight legs.
If the test button is pressed to display fault data after the last recorded data all
annunciators will flash for 3 seconds and then extinguish.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Software updates can be incorporated into the computer via a set of ARINC 429
busses and discrete inputs. These allow an interface to either an Airborne Data
Loader (ADL) through pins on the unit's rear connector or to a Portable Data
Loader (PDL) through the front panel "DATA LOADER" connector.
The computer works with either ARINC 603 data loader low speed bus or ARINC
615 high-speed bus.
A personal computer (PC) can be connected to the front panel "DATA LOADER"
connector. This allows the maintenance log and RA event log to be downloaded
to the PC via an RS 232 interface.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The modern inertial navigation system is the only self-contained single source for
all navigation data. After being supplied with initial position information, it is
capable of continuously updating extremely accurate displays of the aircrafts:
1. Position.
2. Ground Speed.
3. Attitude.
4. Heading.
It can also provide guidance and steering information for the auto pilot and flight
instruments. Figure 97 shows a representation of Inertial Navigation principal.
Navigation Triangle
CK
RA ED
PE S H
T
S E VELOCITY NORTH/SOUTH (VN)
RS T
FT DSP
AI F
A
& CRA
R N
RC O U
AI G R
R
&
AI
TRK DRIFT
HDG
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the sum of the forces acting
on the body.
With these laws we can mechanise a device which is able to detect minute
changes in acceleration and velocity, ability necessary in the development of
inertial systems. Velocity and distance are computed from sensed acceleration
by the application of basic calculus. The relationship between acceleration,
velocity and displacement are shown in figure 98.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VELOCITY FEET
PER SECOND
PER SECOND
DISTANCE IN
FEET
TIME
Note; Velocity changes whenever acceleration exists and remains constant when
acceleration is zero.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The acceleration signal from the amplifier is also sent to an integrator, which is a
time multiplication device. It starts with acceleration, which is in feet per second
squared (feet per sec per sec) and end up after multiplication by time with velocity
(feet per second).
The velocity signal is then fed through another integrator, which again is a time
multiplier, which gives a result in distance in feet. So from an accelerometer we
can derive:
1. Ground Speed.
2. Distance Flown.
If the computer associated with the INS knows the latitude and longitude of the
starting point and calculates the aircraft has travelled a certain distance
north/south and east/west it can calculate the aircrafts present position.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
DISTANCE
DESTINATION
POSITION
PRESENT
GROUNDSPEED
VELOCITY
2ND
DISTANCE FLOWN
INTERGRATORS
1ST
PRESENT POSITION
COMPUTER
RECENTRING (FEEDBACK)
MASS
ACCELEROMETER
POSITION
START
POSITION
START
INS Operation
Figure 99
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AZIMUTH
AXIS
ROLL
AXIS
PITCH
AXIS
Inertial Platform
Figure 100
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
We can also measure the angular distance between the aircraft and the platform
in the three axes, giving us the aircrafts pitch, roll and heading angles. These
can be used in the navigation computations and also give heading and attitude
information to the relative systems.
The gyro and accelerometer are mounted on a common gimbal. When this
gimbal tips off the level position, the spin axis of the gyro remains fixed. The
case of the gyro moves with the gimbal, and the movement is detected by a
signal pick-off within the gyro. This signal is amplified and sent to the gimbal
motor, which restores the gimbal back to the level position. Figure 101 shows the
operation of gyro stabilization.
INPUT AXIS
RATE
GYROSCOPE
OUTPUT
AXIS
PLATFORM
GEARS AMPLIFIER
MOTOR
TACHO
GEN
Gyro Stabilization
Figure 101
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The INS gyro operates on the principle of gyroscopic inertia, which is the
characteristic of a rotating mass to resist any forces, which tend to change the
direction of its spin axis. Because the earth rotates in space, the space-
orientated gyro appears to rotate with respect to an earth bound observer. This
makes the gyro unsuitable for use as an earth-fixed reference unless the gyro is
deliberately torqued to rotate at a rate proportional to the earths rotational rate
(earth rate = 15/hour). When torqued in this manner, the spin axis appears
stationary, and the gyro is effectively slaved to the earths co-ordinate system.
Figure 102 shows the calculations of earth rate for the north and vertical gyros.
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 /H R ) X C O S LA TIT UD E
E A R TH R AT E
9 0
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 15 D EG /H R
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
N O R TH G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 0 D E G /HR 4 5
A T 9 0 L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 1 0 . 6 /H R 0
A T 4 5 L A T IT U D E
E A RT H RA TE = (1 5 /H R ) X S IN L AT ITU D E
E A R TH R AT E 9 0
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 0 D E G /HR
A T 0 L A T IT U D E
V E RT ICA L G Y R O
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 15 D EG /H R 4 5
A T 9 0 L A T IT U D E
E A R TH R AT E
C O M P E N S A T IO N = 1 0 . 6 /H R 0
A T 4 5 L A T IT U D E
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
These corrections are used to keep the platform horizontal and pointing to north.
The aim is to cancel out the apparent movement of the gyro as the aircraft moves
over the earths surface. These corrections are applied to all three gyros as
torque to the gyro torque motor, the amount of torque being dependant on the
direction of the aircraft movement over the earths surface.
This will cause the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This effect
is corrected by applying a signal to the East gyros torque motor. The strength of
the signal is dependant on the angular rate of change which is found out by the
following formula:
= AIRCRAFTS VELOCITY
EARTHS RADIUS
Figure 103 shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling North.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This again causes the platform to move away from its horizontal attitude. This is
corrected by applying a signal to th torque motor of the North gyro. Figure 104
shows the vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the North
axis rotated.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When moving east at any latitude other than the equator, the movement also
causes the platform to move away from pointing north. To correct this, we apply
a signal to the torque motor on the vertical gyro. The size of the signal is
dependant on the latitude and the sped of the aircraft. Figure 105 shows the
vehicle rate corrections for an aircraft travelling East with the vertical axis rotated.
Figure 106
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
P T
E
/ / (VEHICLE RATE CORRECTION) E = (RATE OF CHANGE LAT)
GYRO
O M
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.5 Alignment
The computer requires the following information prior to alignment so that it can
calculate the position of True North:
The alignment procedure can only be carried out on the ground, during which the
aircraft must not be moved. Once started the alignment procedure is automatic
In the navigation mode the pitch, roll attitude and the magnetic heading
information is updated mainly with the attitude changes sensed by gyros.
Because the IRS is aligned to true north a variation angle is used to calculate the
direction to magnetic north. Each location on earth has its own variation angle.
All variation angles between the 73 North and 60 South latitude are stored in the
IRS.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Given the knowledge of pitch, roll and heading that the gyros provide, the
microprocessor resolves the acceleration signals into earth-related accelerations,
and then performs the horizontal and vertical navigation calculations. Under
normal conditions, all six sensors sense motion simultaneously and continuously,
thereby entailing calculations that are substantially more complex than a normal
INS. Therefore a powerful, high-speed microprocessor is required in the IRS in
order to rapidly and accurately handle the additional complexity.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 107 shows the block schematic of the Strap-Down inertial Navigation
system.
COMPUTER
ALTIMETER
POSITION
VECTOR
SOLVER
ACCELEROMETERS
COORDINATE
CONVERTER
LONGITUDE
LATITUDE
B MATRIX
GYROS
PITCH
ROLL
YAW
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Laser Ring Gyros (LRG) are not in fact gyros, but sensors of angular rate of
rotation about a single axis. They are made of a triangular block of temperature
stable glass. Very small tunnels are precisely drilled parallel to the perimeter of
the triangle, and reflecting mirrors are placed in each corner. A small charge of
Helium-neon gas is inserted and sealed into an aperture in the glass at the base
of the triangle.
When a high voltage is run between the anodes and the cathode, the gas is
ionized, and two beams of light are generated, each travelling around the cavity
in opposite directions.
Since both contrarotating beams travel at the same speed (speed of light), it
takes the exact same time to complete a circuit. However, if the gyro were
rotated on its axis, the path length of one beam would be shortened, while the
other would be lengthened. A laser beam adjusts its wavelength for the length of
the path it travels, so the beam that travelled the shortest distance would rise in
frequency, while the beam that travelled the longer distance would have a
frequency decrease.
The frequency difference between the two beams is directly proportional to the
angular rate of turn about the gyros axis. Thus the frequency difference
becomes a measure of rotation rate. If the gyro doesnt move about its axis, both
frequencies remain the same and the angular rate is zero.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FRINGE
PATTERN
CORNER
PRISM
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The mode select unit controls the mode of operation of the IRS. There are two
types in common use:
2. Triple-Channel MSU.
The six-annunciator MSU provides mode selection, status indication and test
initiation for one Inertial Reference Unit (IRU). Figure 109 shows six-annunciator
MSU and Figure 110 shows a triple-channel MSU.
LASEREF NAV
ATT
ALIGN ALIGN FAULT
NAV RDY NO AIR
OFF
ON BATT BATT FAIL
TEST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
IRS Modes or set by setting the MSU mode select switch as follows:
OFF-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. The IRU remains in the alignment mode until the mode select switch is set
to OFF, NAV or ATT. The NAV RDY annunciator illuminates upon completion of
the alignment.
OFF-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the power-on/built-in test equipment (BITE) submode. When
BITE is complete after approximately 13 seconds, the IRU enters the alignment
mode. Upon completion of the alignment mode the system enters the navigation
mode.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters navigate mode from alignment mode upon completion of
alignment.
NAV-TO-ALIGN
The IRU enters the align downmode from the navigate mode.
NAV-TO-ALIGN-TO-NAV
The IRU enters the align downmode and after 30 seconds, automatically re-
enters the navigate mode.
ALIGN-TO-ATT or NAV-TO-ATT
The IRU enters the erect attitude submode for 20 seconds, during which the MSU
ALIGN annunciator illuminates. The IRU then enters the attitude mode.
ALIGN Indicates that the IRU is in the alignment mode. A flashing ALIGN
annunciator indicates in-correct LAT/LONG entry, excessive aircraft movement
during align.
NAV RDY
FAULT
ON BATT
BATT FAIL
Indicates that the back-up battery power is inadequate to sustain IRS operation
during back-up battery operation (less than 21 volts).
NO AIR
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ISDU selects data from any one of three IRUs for display and provides initial
position or heading data to the IRUs. Figure 111 shows an ISDU.
Honeywell LASEREF
DSPL SEL
P/POS N
TK/GS WIND 1 3
2
HDG/STS
TEST
BRT W H E
4
1 5
N
36
2
S
SYS DSPL 7
W H E9
8
2 4 5 6
1 3
ENT CLR
S0
7 8
9
OFF
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.50.13 Keyboard
The keyboard is used to enter latitude and longitude in the alignment mode or
magnetic heading in the attitude mode. The ISDU then sends the entered data
simultaneously to all IRUs when ENT pressed.
The keyboard contains 12 keys, five of the 12 keys are dual function: N/2, W/4,
H/5,E/6 AND S/8. A dual function key is used to select either the type of data
(latitude, longitude or heading) or numerical data to be entered. Single function
keys are used to select only numerical data.
The CLR (clear) and ENT (enter) keys contain green cue lights which, when lit
indicate that the operator action is required. CLR is used to remove data
erroneously entered onto the display; ENT is used to send data to the IRU.
2.50.14 Display
The 13-digit alphanumeric spilt display shows two types of navigation data at the
same time. The display is separated into one group of 6 digits (position 1 through
6) and one group of 7 digits (positions 7 through 13). Punctuation marks (located
in positions 3,5,6,10,12,and 13) light when necessary to indicate degrees,
decimal points, and minutes.
The SYS DSPL switch is used to select the IRU (position 1,2 or 3) from which the
displayed data originates. If the switch is set to OFF, the ISDU cannot send or
receive data from any of the 3 IRUs.
The DSPL SEL switch has five positions to select data displayed on the ISDU.
TEST Selects a display test that illuminates all display elements and keyboard
cue lights to allow inspection for possible malfunctions. The DSPL SEL switch is
spring loaded and must be help in this position.
TK/GS Selects track angle in degrees on the left display and ground speed in
knots on the right.
PPOS Selects the aircrafts present position as latitude on the left display and
longitude on the right. Both latitude and longitude are displayed in degrees,
minutes, and tenths of a minute.
WIND Selects wind direction in degrees on the left display and wind speed in
knots on the right display.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
HDG/STS Selects heading or alignment status for display, depending upon the
current IRU mode. Heading is displayed in degrees and tenths of degrees, and
time-to-alignment completion is displayed in minutes and tenths of minutes. In
the alignment mode, the ISDU displays alignment status (time to NAV ready) in
the right display. In the NAV mode, the ISDU displays true heading in the left
display. In the attitude mode, the ISDU displays magnetic heading in the left
display and ATT in the right display.
The dimmer knob is mounted on, on operates independently of, the DSPL SEL
switch. As the dimmer knob is rotated clockwise, the display brightens.
The IRU is the main electronic assembly of the IRS. The IRU contains an inertial
sensor assembly, microprocessors, and power supplies and aircraft electronic
interface. Accelerometers and LRG in the inertial sensor assembly measure
acceleration and angular rates of the aircraft.
1.Primary Attitude.
2.Present Position.
The power supplies receive a.c. and d.c. power from the aircraft and back-up
battery. It supplies power to the IRS, and provides switching to primary a.c. and
d.c. or backup battery power
The aircraft electronic interface converts ARINC inputs for use by the IRS. The
electronic interface also provides IRS outputs in ARINC formats for use by
associated aircraft equipment.
A fault ball indicator and a manual Interface Test switch are mounted on the
front of the IRU and are visible when the IRU is mounted in an avionics rack.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERFACE
TEST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
During alignment the inertial reference system determines the local vertical and
the direction of true north.
Inside the inertial reference unit, the three gyros sense angular rate of the aircraft.
Since the aircraft is stationary during alignment, the angular rate is due to earth
rotation. The IRU computer uses this angular rate to determine the direction of
true north.
During the alignment period, the IRU computer has determined true north by
sensing the direction of the earths rotation. The magnitude of the earth rotation
vector allows the IRU computer to estimate latitude of the initial present position.
This calculated latitude is compared with the latitude entered by the operator
during initialization.
For the IRU to enter ALIGN mode, the mode select switch is set to either the
ALIGN or NAV position. The systems software performs a vertical levelling and
determines aircraft true heading and latitude.
The levelling operations bring the pitch and roll attitudes to within 1 accuracy
(course levelling), followed by fine levelling and heading determination. Initial
latitude and longitude data must be entered manually either via the IRS CDU or
the Flight Management System CDU.
Upon ALIGN completion, the IRS will enter NAV mode automatically if the mode
select switch was set to NAV during align. If the mode select switch was set to
ALIGN, the system will remain in align until NAV mode is selected. The
alignment time is approximately 10 minutes.
Page 2-148
Inertial Reference Unit
DSPL SEL
P/POS N
TK/GS WIND 1 3
2
HDG/STS
A TEST
BRT W H E
4 N
5 6
INTERFACE
1 2 3
I TEST
S
SYS DSPL 7
W H E9
8
2 4 5 6
R 1 3
ENT CLR
S
0
OFF
7 8 9
C IRU 2
R
A INERTIAL SYSTEM
F Inertial Reference Unit
DISPLAY UNIT
T
S
INTERFACE
PART 2
TEST
Figure 113
Y
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 114 shows a block schematic of the interface of the IRS with the aircrafts
avionics systems.
COMPUTERS
CONTROL
DAMPER
FLIGHT
YAW
MANAGEMENT
COMPUTER
THRUST
PROXIMITY
WARNING
GROUND
MANAGEMENT
REFERENCE
COMPUTER
INERTIAL
FLIGHT
PANEL
MODE
UNIT
IR
WEATHER
RADAR
COMPUTER
AUTOBRAKE
ACQN UNIT
AIR DATA
ANTI-SKID
FLIGHT
SYSTEM
DATA
EHSI/EADI
RDMI
VSI
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The radio magnetic indicator is a very useful navigation tool due to its ability to
display several different pieces of information simultaneously. Primarily, the
circular rotating 'card' is a self- correcting compass which is much more accurate
that the older, floating magnet type of compass. Secondly, the displays from the
ADF or VOR units can be displayed on top of the card, using two pointers, one
single and one double. This allows the pilot to see, in one instrument, his
heading and the orientation of up to two ground stations, relative to the aircraft,
using two different navigation systems. Figure 115 shows an RMI display and
aircraft position with respect to an ADF and VOR station.
AIRCRAFT HEADING
MAGNETIC NORTH
BEARING TO
VOR 2
BEACON
BEARING TO
ADF 1
BEACON
N
33 3
30
6
W
A A
24
12
D D
F 21 15 F
S
VOR VOR
RMI Display
Figure 115
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
VOR NO 2
NM
BEARING TO
.5
75
VOR NO 2 = 30
=
CE
AN
IST
ED
DM
65.5 NM
TANCE =
DME DIS
BEARING TO VOR NO 1
VOR NO 1 = 87
DDRMI Operation
Figure 116
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 111 shows a DDRMI indications resulting from the situation in figure 117.
65.5 75.5
DME - 1 DME - 2
N 3
33
30
6
W
V V
24
12
O O
R 15 R
21 S
ADF ADF
DDRMI Indication
Figure 117
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 118 shows a block schematic of the DDRMI system and the source of all
displayed data.
DDRMI
F/OS
SYSTEM
COMPASS
SYSTEM
DME
NO 2
NO 1
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
VOR
NO 2
NO 2
ADF
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
VOR
NO 1
NO 1
ADF
COMPASS
SYSTEM
SYSTEM
NO2
DME
NO 1
CAPTS
DDRMI
DDRMI Schematic
Figure 118
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GPS is a space based radio navigation system, which provides worldwide, highly
accurate three-dimensional position, velocity and time information. The overall
system is divided into three parts.
1.Space Segment.
2.Control Segment.
3.User Segment.
Consists of 24 satellites (21 active + 3 spare), in six orbital planes with 4 satellites
in each orbit. They are orbiting the earth every 12 hours at an approximate
altitude of between 11,000nm 12,500nm. The orbits are such that a minimum
of 6 satellites are in view from any point on the earth. This provides redundancy,
as only 4 satellites are required for three-dimensional position. Figure 119 shows
the Space Segment.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This is a ground station that controls all satellites and is made up of:
2. Monitor Stations.
The Master Control Station is located at Colorado, USA, and is responsible for
processing satellite-tracking information received from the five Monitor Stations.
The Control Segments monitor the total system performance, corrects satellite
position and re-calibrates the on-board atomic time standards as necessary. The
Monitor Stations are located to provide continuous "ground" visibility of every
satellite. Three of the five monitor stations have ground antennas, which are
used to upload data to the satellites. Figure 120 shows the location of the Control
Segment.
COLORADO
SPRINGS
HAWAII
KWAJALIEN
ASCENSION
DIEGO
GARCIA
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.52.3 Operation
GPS operates by measuring the time it takes a signal to travel from a satellite to a
receiver on-board the aircraft. This time is multiplied by the speed of light to
obtain the distance measurement. This distance results in a Line Of Position
(LOP). Figure 121 shows GPS LOP.
LINE OF
POSITION
(LOP)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R EC EIV ER C OD E N OT
SY NC H R ON ISE D
W IT H T HE SA T ELL IT E CO DE
W ILL GIV E T W O/T H R EE
PO SSI BLE POS IT ION S
R EC EIV ER AD D S/ SU BT R AC T S
T IM E F R OM I TS C OD E T O
ES T ABL ISH T H E LOP S
IN T ER SE CT I NG T H E SA ME PO IN T
Code Synchronisation
Figure 122
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The P code is for military use only. Both codes transmit signals in a "Pseudo
Random Code" at a certain rate.
Once the GPS receiver has synchronized with the satellite code, it can then
measure the elapsed time since transmission by comparing the phase shift
between the two codes. The larger the phase shift, the longer the length of time
since transmission. The length of time since transmission times the speed of light
equals distance.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SIGNAL RECEIVED
FROM SATELLITE
SIGNAL TRANSMITTED
FROM SATELLITE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If we know our distance from a specific point in space (satellite), then it follows
that we are located somewhere on the surface of a sphere, with its radius of that
distance. The addition of a second satellite and a second distance measurement
further refines the position calculation as the two LOPs intersect each other. The
addition of a third distance measurement from a third satellite further refines the
position calculation as we now have three LOPs intersecting at a specific point in
space. This point in space represents the distance measured between the
aircraft and the three satellites. Figure 124 shows the process of position fixing.
AIRCRAFTS
VERTICAL
POSITION
AIRCRAFTS
HORIZONTAL
POSITION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ionosphere refracts UHF satellite transmission in the same way it refracts
VLF, L.MF and HF transmissions, only to a lesser degree. Since a refracted
signal has a greater distance to travel than a straight signal, it will arrive later in
time, causing an error in the distance measurement. The ionosphere refracts
signals in an amount inversely proportional to the square of their frequencies.
This means that the higher the frequency, the less the refraction and hence the
less error induced in the distance measurement.
Since the GPS satellites transmit two different UHF frequencies (1575.42 MHz
and 1227.60 MHz), each frequency will be affected by the ionosphere differently.
By comparing the phase shift between the two frequencies, the amount of
ionosphere distortion can be measured directly. By knowing the amount of
distortion that is induced, the exact correction factor can be entered into the
computer and effectively cancel ionosphere propagation error. Figure 125 shows
the principle of Ionospheric Propagation Errors.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A typical GPS provides Great Circle navigation from its present Position direct to
any waypoint or via a prescribed flight plan. When necessary, a new route can
be quickly programmed in flight.
Up to 999 waypoints and up to 56 flight plans are retained by the GNS-X when
power is turned off or interrupted. Selection of waypoints or of the leg to be flown
is not necessary to determine aircraft position; however, when these are
provided, the GNS-X computes and displays on the Colour Control Display Unit
all pertinent navigation data including:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GP S
A N TE N NA
E FIS
N AV I G A TIO N
A DC PR OC ESSOR A UT O P IL O T
U NI T
C OM PA SS
A UT O P IL O T
M O D E S E L E CT
M U LT IF U N C T I O N
C O N TR O L
D IS P L A Y U N IT
D EP
R TE LE GS ARR H OLD PR OG VN A V A TC
T IT L E F IEL D
L EF T R IGH T
F IE LD F IE LD
SC R A T CH PA D
BRT
D IM
C LR / PR E V N EX T M EN U D A TA EX EC
1 2 3 A B C D E F G
4 5 6 H I J K L M N
7 8 9 O P Q R S T U
+
0 / V W X Y Z SP
GNS-X System
Figure 126
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Boeing 777 has two independent GPS, which are used to calculate the
following:
1. Aircrafts Latitude.
2. Aircrafts Longitude.
3. Aircrafts Altitude.
4. Aircrafts Groundspeed.
5. Accurate Time.
LEFT GPS
ANTENNA
GPWC RIGHT GPS
ANTENNA
CHR DATE
AIR DATA 60
DAY. MON . YR
INERTIAL 50 23 : 59 10
REFERENCE GMT
DIGITAL
UNIT ET/CHR
CLOCK X2 45
ADIRU X 3 99 : 59 20
RUN 30 RUN
HLD HLD
ET
SS MT
G
M
RESET FS D
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The two sensor units receive GPS satellite signals from their respective antennas
and calculate the aircrafts position and accurate time. This data is sent to the
Aircraft Information Management System (AIMS) cabinets and the Ground
Proximity Warning Computer (GPWC). The Flight Management Computing
system uses the AIMS GPS data to calculate the aircrafts position for use in its
navigation calculations.
The AIMS cabinets also send GPS data to the Air Data Inertial Reference Units
(ADIRU) which is used to calibrate the inertial sensors, thus decreasing any
inertial reference drift.
GPS time goes to the Universal Time Co-ordinated function (UTCF) within the
AIMS, the AIMS also outputs time data to the flight deck clocks.
1. Acquisition Mode.
2. Navigation Mode.
4. Aided Mode.
The GPS sensor units look for and lock onto the satellite signals. The sensors
must find at least 4 satellites before it can start to calculate GPS data. Whilst the
sensor is in the acquisition mode, itreceives the following data from the Flight
Management system:
2. Aircrafts Velocity.
The GPS sensor unit uses this data to calculate which satellites are available at
the current aircrafts position, allowing the sensor unit to receive the signals from
those satellites available and which ones may be used for navigation calculations.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Once the GPS sensor has acquired and locked onto at least 4 satellites it will
enter the navigation mode. In this mode the sensor unit it will compute the GPAS
data. If during the Navigation mode the GPS accuracy is not within 16NM of the
actual aircrafts position, the sensor output will go into None Computed Data
(NCD).
With 4 satellites available, the GPS sensor stores the difference between the Air
Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU) altitude and the GPS altitude. When the
GPS sensor is only receiving signals from 3 satellites, it will use this stored data
so that it can estimate the GPS altitude. During this phase the GPS sensor will
use the aircrafts altitude from the ADIRU and the length of the earths radius as
the fourth range required for GPS altitude calculations. Figure 128 shows the
Altitude Aided Mode.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The GPS sensor enters the Aided Mode during short periods (Less than 30
seconds) of bad satellite coverage. An example of bad satellite coverage is poor
satellite geometry, where at least 4 satellites are available but they are not spread
out far enough so the GPS sensor unit can make an accurate position fix.
In the aided mode, the GPS sensor unit receives altitude, heading and
groundspeed from the Flight Management System (FMS). The GPS sensor unit
uses this data to go back into Navigation mode when there is good satellite
coverage again. During the Aided Mode the GPS sensor unit output is once
again Non Computed Data (NCD)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
YES
COVERAGE?
NO
AVAIL?
SATS
BAD
SAT
ARE
4
A
C
YES
YES
NO
ALTITUDE AIDED
PASSED?
NO
AVAIL?
SATS
AIDED
MODE
MODE
ARE
SEC
30
4
NO
YES
YES
A
ACQUISITION
COVERAGE?
NAVIGATION
POWER-UP
YES
AVAIL?
ONLY 3
AVAIL?
THERE
MODE
MODE
SATS
SATS
BAD
SAT
ARE
ARE
4
NO
C
NO
NO
B
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the RAIM is to monitor the status of the satellites that the GPS
sensor unit is using for its navigation calculations. The output of the RAIM
function is an estimate of the GPS position error. The RAIM value goes to the
Flight Management System (FMS) and is used by the FMS to determine if the
GPS data can be used for navigation. Figure 130 shows the operation of RAIM.
5
SATELLITE 2
CURRENTLY
MONITORED
4
3
RAIM Operation
Figure 130
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The accuracy of the GPS is typically 15 25 metres in 95% of the position fixes
available. The USA Department of Defence degrades this accuracy for security
reasons to 100 metres in 95% of the position fixes. However, this error can be
further reduced to almost zero by the use of Differential GPS.
ERROR CALCULATION
ERROR TRANSMISSION
Differential GPS
Figure 131
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This type of compass comprises a magnet system in a liquid filled bowl. In this
type the compass card is attached to single angular cobalt steel magnet which is
suspended in a sapphire cup by an iridium tipped pivot. Figure 132 shows a
common type of direct reading compass.
MOUNTING
PLATE
HORIZONTAL
(B & C)
CORRECTORS
FILLER
PLUG
BELLOWS
BOWL
Damping is achieved by filling the compass bowl with a mineral liquid or alcohol,
which has a low viscosity, low freezing point, high resistance to corrosion and
does not discolour. The compass is also given buoyancy by the liquid and this
reduces wear on the pivots. The compass liquid expands and retracts with
changes in temperature and this has undesirable effects. To compensate for this,
a bellows or corrugated diaphragm is fitted.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
On some modern aircraft the direct reading compass is stowed on the center
windscreen strut, only being used in an emergency. They also have to have
some sort of lighting; this lighting is operated by dc and does not effect the
compass operation. Figure 134 shows two types of compass fitted to modern
aircraft.
FIXED
COMPASS
HINGED
COMPASS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The (magnetic gyro) compass system provides the flight crew with magnetic
heading information. A compass card in the radio magnetic indicators (RMI's) on
the instrument panel displays the heading, which must be read against a
reference point or a lubber line.
115v 400 Hz
B C
+ _ + _
N 3
33
0
6
W 3
A A
24
12
D D
F 21 15 F
S
VOR VOR
SLAVED
DG SYNC
VOR/ADF
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A flux valve, or detector unit, senses the angle of the horizontal component of the
Earth's magnetic field with respect to the aircraft's heading, and gives a long-term
stable signal to monitor the gyro controlled master shaft. The detector unit can
best be described as a North sensing device which is capable of detecting the
direction of the horizontal component of the Earth's field and transmitting it to
other components. It is similar to a CX in a synchro control system.
SIDE
VIEW
LAMINATED
COLLECTOR A
HORNS
A
AC POWER
EXCITER B
COIL
C B
TOP SECONDARY
C
VIEW PICK-OFF
COILS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Synchronisation Annunciator.
2. Synchronisation Knob.
3. Slaved/DG Switch.
This indicates the synchronisation between the DU heading and the gyro
heading. If there is a discrepancy between the two headings then the indicator
will show either a DOT or a CROSS.
The compass systems normal operation mode is the slaved mode, where the
DU/gyro headings are slaved together (DU will precess the gyro when an error
occurs between the two detected headings. In the DG mode, the DU is removed
from the system and the compass operates as a Directional Gyro. This mode is
used more in maintenance when aircraft heading is required. If used in flight
there is a possibility that the heading indication will drift due to gyro drift.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
SYNCHRONISATION
SLAVED/DG ANNUNCIATOR
SWITCH
COMPASS
DG
HDG
SLEW
COMPASS
SLAVE
SLAVED
SYNCHRONISATION
SWITCH
The synchro transmitters in the RMI and in the directional gyro unit are used to
"transmit" the heading information to the following systems:
1. Autopilot.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The sensitivity of the cross-dot annunciator. When the card is moved 5 away
from the synchronised position with the manual synchronisation knob the cross or
the dot must be completely visible.
The slaving speed when the card is moved 10 away from the synchronised
position the automatic slaving system should move the card to the synchronised
position within 10 minutes (min. slaving speed 1/min).
The directional gyro drift with the slaving cut-out switch in DG the gyro drift should
not exceed (3.75 x sine attitude + 1.75 per 15 minutes).
The basic element of this compass system is a directional gyro. When the
system is supplied with 115-V AC the gyro starts to rotate and becomes a stable
element, which means that its direction (heading) in space is fixed.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A servo loop between the gyro and the compass card in the RMI ensures that any
change of aircraft heading causes a corresponding rotation of the compass card,
but in the opposite direction. The servo loop comprises a synchro transmitter
(Tx), a control transformer (CT), a servo amplifier and a servomotor.
The rotor of the synchro transmitter points in the same direction as the gyro.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
The rotor is powered with a 400-Hz signal, which causes a 400-Hz magnetic field.
This magnetic field produces 3 voltages in the stator windings of the synchro
transmitter. The 3 voltages in the control transformer cause a resulting magnetic
field.
The rotor of the control transformer produces an error signal any time the rotor of
the control transformer is not perpendicular with the direction of the resulting
magnetic field.
The error signal is applied via the servo amplifier to the motor. The motor in its
turn drives the compass card and the rotor of the control transformer. When the
latter rotates, the error signal reduces to zero and the motor stops rotating.
If the aircraft changes heading, the direction of the 400-Hz magnetic field in the
synchro transmitter changes with respect of the stator windings and therefore the
direction of the resulting magnetic field in the control transformer changes too.
An error signal is now present and after amplification the "heading" of the
compass card and the rotor of the control transformer changes accordingly and
the compass card reads the new aircraft heading.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
26V AC
INNER
400 Hz
RING
CX
GYRO
OUTER
RING
GYRO CASE
TORQUE
MOTOR
TM
GENERATOR
TACHO
TG
COMPASS
ANNUNCIATOR
CARD
VELOCITY FEEDBACK
M
SERVO
HEADING SHAFT
AMP
SLAVING
AMP
EXCITATION
(AC)
DU
CT
CT
(FLUX VALVE)
DETECTOR
UNIT
SYNCH
KNOB
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
To obtain a common reference for all aircraft, use is made of the earth magnetic
field the direction of which is detected by a flux valve. A second control
transformer in the RMI compares the compass card reading with the direction of
the earth magnetic field.
Any difference between these two causes an error signal at the output of the rotor
of the control transformer. The error signal is amplified in a slaving amplifier and
this signal drives a torque motor in the directional gyro unit. The torque motor
changes the position of the stable element and of the rotor of the synchro
transmitter. As described for the servo loop, the compass card and rotors of both
control transformers rotate accordingly until the error signals have been reduced
to zero.
The amplified error signal at the output of the slaving amplifier also drives a
cross-dot annunciator. Either a cross or a dot indicates any unsynchronised
condition of the compass system. The cross-dot annunciator can be used to
manually synchronise the compass system by turning the manual synchronising
knob on the control panel in the cross or dot direction until the cross or dot has
disappeared.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Radio altimeters are carried in virtually all aircraft outside the general aviation
sector. The outputs from the system play a vital role in the operation of automatic
landing and ground proximity warning systems. Because the radio altimeter
comes into play at a critical part of the flight, when the aircraft is close to the
ground, the serviceability and accuracy are perhaps more important than with any
other radio system.
Radio altitude, on the other hand, is always the height above the ground
regardless of air pressure or indeed the terrain the aircraft is flying over. It follows
that radio altitude is more useful at low levels, in particular when in the landing
phase or to give ground collision warning.
Radio altimeters are primary radar systems that transmit RF energy and time how
long it takes before an echo is received.
The radio altimeter target is always the ground immediately below the aircraft.
The transmitted beam is broadly directional, pointing straight down, so for
moderate bank and pitch angles part of the beam will be vertical. Figure 139
illustrates the idea showing dual aerial working.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INDICATOR
TRANSMITTER RECEIVER/MIXER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In the receiver mixer, the transmitted and received frequencies are mixed and the
beat frequency (difference) is counted in the counter. The beat counter converts
the frequency difference to an analog dc voltage whose amplitude is a function of
aircraft altitude above the ground. A servo system in the indicator drives the
indication to a position corresponding to the amplitude of the dc voltage received
from the beat counter.
DIAL
INDICATOR
RIBBON
INDICATOR
Radio Altimeters
Figure 140
On the ribbon type indicator, the aircraft reference symbol remains fixed in the
centre while the tape is driven behind it. Different tape colours are used to give
an instant indication of the approximate height. The flag, when activated, partially
obscures the aircraft symbol.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The antennas are so designed so that as long as the roll angle does not exceed
30, and the pitch attitude is not more than 20, the altitude indication remains
correct. If these limits are exceeded, then the altitude indications would be
excessive. These high values would not be maintained very long, so do not
present a problem. Figure 141 shows the effects of aircraft roll on the operation
of the Radio Altimeter system.
FAN BEAM
30 30
TRANSMISSION
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
30
SHORTEST
RETURN PATH
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Radio Altimeter systems are called Low Range because they are not intended
to operate at aircraft altitudes above the ground greater than 2,500ft. It is used
mostly during final approach. When making a CAT II approach, the radio
altimeter notifies the crew when the aircraft is 100 feet above the extended
runway. This is the point at which the flight crew must be able to see the runway
to land and is called the Decision Height. The decision height may be selected
above 100ft as required.
TX
ANTENNAS
RX
ANTENNAS
HORN ANTENNA
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.54.3 Testing
The Radio Altimeter system may be tested from the transceiver or other areas
depending on aircraft type. When the test switch on the transmitter/receiver is
operated, the integral test lights are tested. A test altitude of 40 ft is given and
lights displayed, 'SYS OK' for serviceable, 'RT' or 'ANT' for a fault, give test
results. Figure 143 shows a radio Altimeter Transceiver.
TEST
SYSTEM OK
R/T UNIT
ANT
IND
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Calm conditions mean that the water droplets in the air are very small and float
gently around, their weight being balanced by air resistance so that they do not
fall to the ground. In turbulent conditions the water droplets or ice particles are
thrown around, collide and stick together. Eventually they become large and
heavy enough to fall to earth.
The more violent the turbulence the larger the droplets will become before falling,
particularly so where there is an updraft of air. If a water droplet is large enough
it will scatter incident electro-magnetic waves, with some of the scattered energy
being in the direction of the transmitter-receiver.
Primary radar, therefore, can be used to detect water droplets and ice particles.
The smaller the wavelength of the incident waves the smaller the water droplets
that will scatter energy.
This also applies to ice particles but the situation is complicated by the form of the
ice i.e.: snowflakes, hailstones or sleet. The larger the droplet, the more energy
is scattered and a cloud mass with large droplets will give rise to strong signals.
Strong signals from a cloud, therefore, suggest turbulent conditions.
Sometimes strong signals are received from one region of a cloud and small
signals from an adjacent region. In this case a high rainfall gradient exists with
strong clearly defined updrafts in the region of the strong signals.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RFLECTED
ENERGY
SCAN ANGLE
TRANSMITTED
ENERGY
SELECTED
RANGE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The part of a cloud, which gives the strong radar returns, is known as the storm
cell. The closer the storm cell is to the edge of the detected cloud, the higher the
rainfall gradient and the worse the conditions are likely to be.
The function of Weather Radar is to detect and display conditions involving storm
cells and rainfall gradients in such a way as to allow the operator to assess the
probability of turbulence associated with such conditions. Figure 145 shows a
typical weather radar scanner.
AZIMUTH
REFLECTOR GEAR
ELEVATION
GEAR
AERIAL
GIMBAL
WAVEGUIDE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The radar antenna is installed in the nose of the aircraft behind a radome. The
radar transmitter/receiver transmits high-energy pulses via the antenna to the
area in front of the aircraft. The weather radar system moves the antenna from
the left to the right and back again so pulses are transmitted in a wide area in
front of the aircraft.
The weather circumstances in front of the aircraft (rain density in the clouds)
reflect the transmitted pulses back to the weather radar system. The weather
radar antenna receives the reflected pulses. The weather radar receiver converts
the received pulses into a picture, which represents the weather circumstances.
To produce this picture the weather radar system makes use of:
The strength of the reflected pulses which depends on the amount of rain in the
clouds. (The weather radar system converts the strength of the reflected pulses
into a colour).
The time delay between the transmission and reception of the pulses. (The
weather radar system converts the time delay into the distance between the
aircraft and the weather circumstances).
The azimuth angle of the antenna. (The weather radar system uses the azimuth
angle of the antenna to position the weather information on the display.
The radar must display three things: the range, the bearing and the signal
intensity of the cloud.
The display device best suited to showing all three of the above in an easily
assimilated form is the cathode ray tube (CRT) used as a plan position indicator
(PPI).
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GAIN TILT
UP
SB/T WX WX/T RCT GCR MAP
DWN
MIN MAX
DISPLAY MARKER
FRZ FRZ
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
As the aircraft pitches and rolls, the scanner will also pitch and roll. The weather
radar is designed to scan directly in front of the aircraft, so as the aircraft pitches
and roll; the scanner must pitch and roll in the opposite direction to that of the
aircraft. The scanner is therefore mounted on a stabilized platform, which is
maintained at a constant attitude with respect to the horizon. Stabilization is
derived from the Inertial Reference System (IRS).
The pitch and roll stabilization is completely independent system. Each having a
separate motor, giving freedom of rotary movement in both pitch and roll. There
must also be a freedom of movement in azimuth for scanning to port and
starboard. Therefore three rotating joints are required in the scanner waveguide
assembly. Figure 147 shows stabilization for pitch and roll.
ROLL
ANGLE
PITCH
ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 0
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
NO STABILIZATION REQUIRED
ROLL PITCH
ANGLE ANGLE
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
AZIMUTH ANGLE 90
WITH NO STABILIZATION
WITH NO STABILIZATION
ROLL
PITCH
ANGLE
ANGLE
STABILIZED STABILIZED
Roll/Pitch Stabilization
Figure 147
ANTENNA
PITCH ROLL ASSEMBLY
115V A.C.
POWER
SUPPLIES 28V D.C.
POWER
PART 2
TRANSMITTER
AEROPLANE
Figure 148
GAIN TILT -RECEIVER
UP
CONTROL STAB
AERODYNAMICS,
MIN MAX
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
POWER
LEFT RIGHT
INOP ALRT
SWEEP
Page 2-193
INDICATOR
CONTROL
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 149 shows the type of weather radar fitted to modern aircraft.
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 3
RX/TX
WX
WAVEGUIDE
SECTION 1
WAVEGUIDE
PEDESTAL
ANTENNA
SECTION 2
ANTENNA
30" FLAT
PLATE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The weather radar system has a dedicated control panel for selection of the
required mode of operation. This type of system uses the EFIS ND to display the
weather information. Figure 150 shows the weather display on the EFIS ND on a
Boeing 737 aircraft.
WX
WEATHER +10
RETURN MODE
14 ANNUNCIATION
13
40 TILT ANGLE
1/2 RANGE
INDICATION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The display is controlled via the EFIS control panel. Figures 151 and 152 shows
an EFIS control panel and a weather radar control panel.
HSI RANGE
EXP
ADI VOR/ 80 160 320
NAV
DH REF ILS 40
VOR/
ILS MAP
20
150 FULL
CTR
NAV MAP 10
PLAN WXR
RST ON
MAP
BRT VOR/ADF NAV AID ARPT RTE DATA WPT
ON ON ON ON ON
MODE
TEST WX WX+T MAP
-7 -6 10
MIN -5 5 15
-4 UP
GAIN 0 TILT
-3 DN
CAL -2 5 15
MAX -1 10
IDNT STAB
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With the mode selector on the control panel in the TEST position the transmitter
is on for 1 second for a transmitter test. For the remainder of the test the
transmitter is off. A test picture is 'painted' on the EFIS.
A test sweep of + 15 up and -15 down is carried out by the antenna. At the end
of the test the antenna centralizes at 0.
The following precautions are to be observed for Boeing 737 weather radar
ground operation:
If the radar system is to be operated while the aircraft is on the ground, direct the
nose of the aircraft such that a 240-degree forward sector is free of large metallic
objects (hangars, other aircraft).
Tilt the antenna upward 15 degrees and prevent personnel from standing closer
than 10 feet to the 240-degree forward section of the aircraft. The receiver may
be damaged as a result of strong returns from nearby metallic objects.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 154 shows safety areas and boundary marks to be displayed during
ground operation of weather radar.
WARNING
SIGN
RED/WHITE ROPE
120
120
R = 6 MTRS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2.55.5 Radome
Structural strength comes from how the radome is constructed. Normally they
are of the sandwich type, consisting of a honeycomb structure supported on each
side by a thin skin of laminated glass fibre.
Lightning strike protection takes the form of metal strips bonded to the surface of
the radome and painted over. The strips run from the nose of the radome to the
bulkhead, where good electrical bonding must be achieved so that any lightning
strikes are dissipated in the airframe with minimum damage. Figure 155 shows
the construction of a radome.
Radome Construction
Figure 155
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) is to alert the
flight crew to the existence of an unsafe condition due to terrain proximity. The
various hazardous conditions that may be encountered are divided into 7 Modes.
These are:
7. Mode 7 Windshear.
SINK RATE
WHOOP!
WHOOP!
PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 1
Figure 156
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TERRAIN
TERRAIN
WHOOP!
TERRAIN WHOOP!
TERRAIN PULL-UP
GPWS Mode 2
Figure 157
DONT SINK
GPWS Mode 3
Figure 158
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TOO LOW
GEAR...
GPWS Mode 4
Figure 159
GLIDESLOPE
GLIDESLOPE
GPWS Mode 5
Figure 160
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MINIMUMS
MINIMUMS
DECISION HEIGHT
GPWS Mode 6
Figure 161
STRONG DOWNDRAFT
HEADWIND TAILWIND
WINDSHEAR
WINDSHEAR
GPWS Mode 7
Figure 162
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
EFIS
SYMBOL
GENERATORS
PULL UP
EADI EADI
PFD PFD
DATA &
LOGIC GROUND
INPUTS BELOW G/S CAPT F/O
PROXIMITY
P - INHIBIT
WARNING
SYSTEM COMPUTER
TEST
GPWS
INOP CONTROL
PANEL
RADIO
ELECTRONICS
UNIT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The GPWC establishes the limits for the GPWS modes and compares the
aircrafts flight and terrain clearance status against established mode limits. If the
aircraft is found to have entered a GPWS mode, the computer issues appropriate
warning or alerting signals. The computer also stores failure data in a non-
volatile memory for display on a front panel window on the GPWC.
INOP FLAP/GEAR
INHIBIT
CAUTION
OBSERVE PRECAUTIONS NORMAL
FOR HANDLING
ELECTROSTATIC SYS TEST
SENSITIVE
DEVICES
CONTROL PANEL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The GPWS control panel provides the flight crew with visual indications of GPWS
operation; self-test capability and flap/gear inhibit capability.
INOP Light
Flap/Gear Inhibit
Two warning lights are provided to give visual indication of ground proximity
warnings. These are:
1. PULL-UP.
2. BELOW G/S.
The red PULL-UP light illuminates when Mode 1,2,3 or 4 flight path is detected.
The amber BELOW G/S warning light illuminates when glide slope deviation
becomes excessive. Pressing the BELOW G/S switch inhibits the warning.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
10
180 10
160
150
140
10
10
120
WINDSHEAR DH 350
GS RA 1620
173
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the BITE is to perform an internal check of the GPWC functions,
to record past faults that occur during the last ten flights, and to annunciate
system status information.
Continuous Test Performed during each program loop. This checks the CPU
operation and data input integrity for shorts to ground or open circuits. The ADC,
IRS, ILS and RAD ALT systems and internal power supplies are also monitored
for valid data.
Periodic Test Tests requiring excessive processing time are subdivided into
small segments. Tests on the individual segments are performed sequentially,
one segment during each program loop. Periodic tests include checks on the
processor instruction sets, program memory contents, RAM addressing and
storage functions, voice memory addressing and contents, parity of received data
and the ability to read the data.
Event-Initiated Tests These are performed during or after a specific event has
occurred. They include resetting the program a fraction of a second prior to a
power supply failure. Checksumming the data stored in the non-volatile fault
memory at power up. Checksumming the data written after entering data and
sampling and storing program pin status at power up. Restarting the CPU at a
known location in the program after loss of CPU.
AEROPLANE
Figure 166
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
STALL MONITOR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
HS FLAPS/AOA INOP
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
WARNING
G/S
POS
GEAR
PP/TKE GEAR
FMC LS POS NORMAL
Page 2-209
POSITION
SWITCHES
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The EGPWS contains all the modes as with the standard GPWS with some
additional features. The system contains a worldwide terrain database, an
obstacle database and a worldwide airport database, and using this extra data
enables the system to give an Enhanced GPWS. The additional features are as
follows:
Terrain alerting and display (TAD) - This provides a graphic display of the
surrounding terrain on the Weather Radar Indicator, EFIS or a dedicated GPWS
display. Based on the aircrafts position and the internal database (terrain
topography), all terrain that is above or within 2000 feet below the aircrafts
altitude is presented on the system display. This feature is an option, enabled by
program pins during installation.
Terrain Clearance Floor This feature adds and additional element of protection
by alerting the flight crew of possible premature descent. This is intended for
non-precision approaches and is based on the current aircraft position relative to
the nearest runway. This feature is enabled with the TAD feature.
Note; Some of these features have been added to the EGPWS as the system
evolved and are not present in all EGPWS part numbers.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With the use of accurate GPS and FMS information, the EGPWS is provided
aircrafts present position, track, and ground speed. With this information the
EGPWS is able to present a graphical plan view of the aircraft relative to the
terrain and advise the flight crew of any potential conflict with the terrain or an
obstacle.
Conflicts are recognised and alerts are provided when terrain violates specific
computed envelope boundaries on the projected flight path of the aircraft. Alerts
are provided in the form of visual light annunciation of a caution or warning, audio
enunciation based on the type of conflict, and colour enhanced visual display of
the terrain or obstacle relative to the forward look of the aircraft. Figure 167
shows Terrain/Obstacle database.
OBSTACLES
SURVEY POINTS
ABOVE SEA LEVEL
Terrain/Obstacle Database
Figure 167
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 168 shows a graph on when caution and warning alerts are triggered.
50% YELLOW
25% YELLOW
16% GREEN
50% GREEN
50% RED
MAX ELEVATION No
MIN ELEVATION No
REF ALTITUDE -250/500
REF ALTITUDE +2000
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Table 3 shows the different Terrain/Obstacle threat levels and the colour
indication present with TAD and Peaks selected.
Colour Indication
Solid Red Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
Solid Yellow Terrain/Obstacle threat warning.
50% Red Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is more than 2000 feet
above the aircraft.
50% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is between 1000 and 2000
feet above the aircrafts attitude.
25% Yellow Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 feet above the
aircrafts altitude.
Solid Green Shown only when no red or yellow
(Peaks Only) Terrain/Obstacle areas are within range on the
display. Highest terrain/obstacle not within 500
(250 with gear down) feet of the aircrafts
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is 500 (250 with gear
down) feet below to 1000 below the aircraft'
altitude.
50% Green Dots Terrain/Obstacle that is in the middle elevation
(Peaks Only) band when there is no red or yellow terrain
areas within range on the display.
16% Green Terrain/Obstacle that is 1000 to 2000 feet below
the aircrafts altitude.
16% Green Terrain/Obstacle that is the lower elevation band
(peaks Only) when there is no Red or Yellow terrain areas
within range on the display.
Black No significant Terrain/Obstacle
16% Cyan Water at Sea Level Elevation (0 feet MSL)
Magenta Dots Unknown terrain. No terrain data in the
database for the magenta area shown.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 169 shows a Weather Radar Display used for EGPWS displays.
40 DIM
20 80
10 160
320
OFF
CAUTION TERRAIN RANGE WARNING TERRAIN
(RED)
(YELLOW)
RNG 20
TERRAIN
(GREEN)
TERR
EGPWS Display
Figure 169
With a compatible EFIS or Weather Radar display, the EGPWS TAD feature
provides an image of the surrounding terrain represented in various colours and
intensities. There are two types of TAD display depending on the options
selected:
Standard TAD Provides a terrain image only when the aircrafts altitude is 2000
feet or less above the terrain.
Note; Obstacles are presented on the display as terrain, using the same colour
scheme. Peaks and Obstacle functions are enabled by EGPWS program pin
selection.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
REF
ALT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This special feature utilizes the internal database to tailor EGPWS alerts at
certain geographical locations to reduce nuisance warning and provide added
protection. Due to terrain features at or near certain specific airports around the
world, in the past, normal operations have resulted in nuisance or missed alerts
at these locations. With the introduction of accurate position information and a
terrain and airport database, it is possible to identify these areas and adjust the
normal alerting process to compensate for the condition.
Modes 4,5, and 6 are expanded at certain locations to provide alerting protection
consistent with normal approaches. Modes 1,2 and 4 are desensitized at other
locations to prevent nuisance warnings that result from unusual terrain or
approach procedures. In all cases, very specific information is used to correlate
the aircraft position and phase of flight prior to modulating the envelopes.
ENVELOPE
MODULATION
AREA
Envelope Modulation
Figure 171
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Through sophisticated look ahead algorithms, both caution and warning alerts are
generated if terrain or an obstacle conflict with Ribbons projected forward of the
aircraft. Figure 172 shows the Terrain Look Ahead Alerting function.
WARNING
(TYPICALLY 30 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
CAUTION
(TYPICALLY 60 SEC
AHEAD OF TERRAIN)
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
laterally (more if turning). The look-ahead and up angles are a function of the
aircraft flight path angle, and the look-ahead distance are a function of the
aircrafts altitude with respect to the nearest runway. This relationship prevents
undesired alerts when taking off and landing.
The look-ahead distance is a function of the aircrafts speed and distance to the
nearest runway. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates the
EGPWS caution lights and the aural message CAUTION TERRAIN, CAUTION
TERRAIN or TERRAIN AHEAD, TERRAIN AHEAD. The caution alert is given
typically 60 seconds ahead of the terrain conflict and is repeated every seven
seconds as long as the conflict remains within the caution area.
When the warning ribbon is intruded, typically 30 seconds ahead of the terrain,
EGPWS warning lights activate and the aural message TERRAIN, TERRAIN,
PULL UP is enunciated with PULL UP repeating continuously while the conflict
is within the warning area.
Note; the specific aural message provided is established during the initial
installation of the EGPWS and is a function of whether or not the terrain features
are enabled and the selected audio menu (via program pins).
The TCF function enhances the basic GPWS Modes by alerting the flight crew of
a descent below a defined Terrain Clearance Floor regardless of the aircrafts
configuration. The TCF alert is a function of the aircrafts RAD ALT and distance
(calculated from Lat/Long position) relative to the center of the nearest runway in
the database.
TCF alerts result in the illumination of the EGPWS caution lights and the aural
message TOO LOW TERRAIN. The audio message is provided once when
initial envelope penetration occurs and again only for an additional 20% decrease
in RAD ALT altitude. The EGPWS caution lights will remain on until the TCF
envelope is exited.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
R U N WA Y
LE NG TH
EN V ELOP E
B IA S FA C TOR
15N M
12N M
4N M
15 N M
12 N M
4 NM
E N V E LO P E
B IA S
TO O LOW TE RR A IN F AC T O R
TO O LOW TE RR A IN
T E R RA IN C L E A RA N C E F L O O R
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The EGPWS TCF and TAD functions are available when all required data is
present and acceptable. Aircraft position and numerous other parameters are
monitored and verified for adequacy in order to perform these functions. If
determined invalid or unavailable, the system will display TERRAIN
INOPERATIVE or unavailable annunciations and discontinue the terrain display
if active. TAD/TCF functions may be inhibited by manual selection of a cockpit
TERRAIN INHIBIT SWITCH.
Note; neither loss nor inhibited TAD/TCF effects the basics GPWS functions
Modes 1 7.
GND
PROX
GND PROX
TERR
OVRD
OVRD
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The EGPWS uses various input signals from other on-board systems. The full
compliment of these other systems depends on the EGPWS configuration and
options selected. The basic enhanced facilities require:
2. Airspeed (IAS/TAS).
3. Attitude (IRS).
4. Glideslope (ILS).
6. Flap/Gear Position.
a) Accelerations (IRS).
b) Angle of Attack.
c) Flap Position.
Inputs are also required for discrete signals. These discrete inputs are used for
system configuration, signal/status input and control input functions. EGPWS
program pins are utilized to inform the system of the type of aircraft and interface
that is in use. These are established during EGPWS installation.
Discrete signals also include signals for Decision Height, Landing Flaps
selected, display range and status discrete such as RAD ALT/ILS valid.
EGPWS provides both visual and audio outputs. The visual outputs provide
discrete alert and status annunciations and display terrain video on a compatible
CRT screen. Audio enunciations are provided (via the aircrafts interphone
system) at specific alert phases.
Figure 175
C
E
AEROPLANE
EGPWS System
DADC S
AERODYNAMICS,
S
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
S TERRAIN CLEARANCE
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
IRS S
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The EGPWS is fully active when the following systems are powered and
functioning normally:
1. EGPWS.
2. RADIO ALTIMTER.
4. ILS (Glideslope).
6. GEAR/FLAPS.
In the event that the required data for a particular function is not available, then
that function is automatically inhibited and annunciated (e.g. if PP data is not
available or determined unacceptable, TAD/TCF is inhibited, any active terrain
display is removed and TERR INOP indicated on CRT display.
The EGPWS provides a Self-Test Capability for verifying and indicating intended
functions. This Self-Test capability consists of six levels to aid testing and
troubleshooting the EGPWS. These six levels are:
Level 2 - Current Faults. Provides a list of internal and external faults currently
detected by the EGPWC.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Note: Level 2 6 tests are typically used for installation checkout and
maintenance operations.
40 DIM
20 80
10 160
320
OFF
RANGE
RNG 160
TERR ST
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Air Data systems depend upon Pitot and Static pressure sensing, as well as
temperature sensing. Static air pressure is the pressure of the outside air at the
location of the aircraft. Pitot pressure is the dynamic pressure caused by the
forward motion of the aircraft. Temperature sensing is required to calculate the
Total/Static Air Temperature (TAT/SAT), and for calculating True Air Speed
(TAS). Figure 178 shows a Pitot/Static probe.
STATIC
LINE NO1
PITOT
LINE
HEATER
CONNECTION
STATIC
LINE NO2
PITOT
STATIC
PORTS
Pitot/Static Probe
Figure 178
In a parked aircraft, the pitot and static pressures are equal. In a moving aircraft,
the pitot pressure is greater because additional pressure is developed at the
forward end of the tube by its motion through the air. Altitude is calculated on the
basis of static air pressure, and airspeeds are calculated on the basis of the
difference between pitot and static pressures.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Total Air temperature (TAT), is the static air temperature plus the rise in
temperature created due to the pitot effect. TAT is of great importance in setting
the operating conditions of a jet engine, since the temperature of the air entering
the engine is static air temperature increased by the pitot factor. It is also
possible to derive Static Air Temperature (SAT), from TAT and pitot pressure
information. Figure 179 shows a basic Total Air Temperature (TAT) probe.
AIR FLOW
SENSING METERED
ELEMENT ORIFICE
(VERY SMALL)
ELECTRICAL
CONNECTION
ELECTRICAL
SIGNAL OF
TEMPERATURE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Pitot and static pressures are transmitted through seamless and corrosion-
resistant metal (light alloy) pipelines. Flexible pipelines are also used when
connections to components mounted on anti-vibration mountings are required. In
order for an Air Data System to operate effectively under all flight conditions,
provision must also be made for the elimination of water that may enter the
system as a result of condensation, rain, snow, etc. This will reduce the
probability of Slugs of water blocking the lines.
This provision takes the form of drain holes in the probes, drain taps and valves
in the systems pipelines. The drain holes within the probes are of diameter so as
not to introduce errors into the system. Methods of draining the pipelines varies
between aircraft types and are designed to have a capacity sufficient to allow for
the accumulation of the maximum amount of water that could enter the system
between maintenance periods. Figure 181 shows a typical water drain valve.
ORANGE
FLOAT
TRANSPARENT
INDICATOR
PLASTIC PIPE
DRAIN
VALVE BAYONET
FITTING
CAP
(SELF SEALING)
Water Drain
Figure 181
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 182 shows a typical air data system for a large aircraft.
REC
FLT
ADC 1
ADC 2
MS 2
A/S 1
PRESS
DIFF
MS 1
A/S 2
PC
LOWER
LOWER
PRESSURE HEADS
PRESSURE HEADS
UPPER
UPPER
PITOT PITOT
STATIC STATIC
ALT
ALT
IAS
IAS
VS
VS
CAPT
F/O
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
4. Altitude.
The system supplies air data information to any system in either digital or analog
form.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TRUE AIRSPEED
AIRSPEED HOLD
VSI, FDR
(AUTOPILOT)
(AUTOPILOT)
MACH HOLD
FDR
ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED
TRUE
MACH
INDICATED
AIRSPEED
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
TOTAL AIR
STATIC
PITOT
The four blocks within the computer represent modules, which are capable of
supplying the information and controls indicated with the information required.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The module contains a capsule for measuring the static pressure and an E & I
pick off. The E & I pick-off changes the capsule movement into an electrical
signal. This electrical signal is amplified and then fed to a motor servo system.
The motor will drive a gear train to move the output devices to give the correct
altitude reading. Figure 184 shows the altitude module of an ADC.
AC
EXCITATION
M
STATIC
PRESSURE
ALTITUDE
RATE
G
GEAR TRAIN
ALTITUDE
DIGITAL ATC
ENCODER TRANSPONDER
CT
ALTITUDE
0V +10V
Altitude Module
Figure 184
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
True Airspeed (TAS) and Indicated Airspeed (IAS) are the same value at sea
level; however, as altitude increases, holding the same IAS results in an
increasing TAS. For example; 400kts IAS at sea level becomes 450kts TAS at
10,000ft, and approximately 550kts TAS at 20,000ft. Figure 185 shows the
relationship between IAS/TAS/Mack with an increase of altitude.
.90
50 .885
MACH NO
40
IAS
36,000ft
350
30
400
21,000ft
20
ALTITUDE
1,000ft
10
0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
TAS/IAS/Mach Vs Altitude
Figure 185
In the diagram above the Mach No lines are drawn on the basis of a standard day
temperature chart; It can be seen that .90 Mach at sea level would be 600kts
TAS. From above 36,000ft, .90 Mach equals only 525kts TAS. If an aircraft is
limited to Mach .885/IAS 390kts, it could fly at 390kts up to 21,000ft. Above this
height, the IAS would have to decrease to ensure that the maximum Mach No of
.885 is not exceeded.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POT
TAT
MACH MODULE
M
POT
TAS MODULE
M
POT
(ALT MODULE)
ALT
POT
MACH
TAS
CT
POT
IAS MODULE
IAS
CT
PICK-OFF
E
PRESS
CABIN
(MACH MODULE)
ALT
ALT
RATE
ALT
ALT
CT
POT
MODULE
ALT
G
ENCODER
M
ATCRBS
PICK-OFF
ALT HOLD
E
CT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The DADC uses digital computing and electronic circuits rather than the servo
motor system to calculate the outputs. Analog inputs are converted into digital for
computation. The outputs required are then either converted back to analog or
left as digital signals and output via the ARINC 429 or 629 data busses.
ANALOG
DIGITAL
O/Ps
O/Ps
D/AO/P
A/D
PROCESSOR
& MEMORY
CENTRAL
CCTS
I/P
& MULTIPLEXER
BRIDGE CCTS
TRANDUCER
TRANDUCER
STATIC
PITOT
ENGAGE
IAS HOLD
ALT HOLD
MACH HOLD
ENGAGE
ENGAGE
MILLIBAR
SET
STATIC
PITOT
TEMP
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Static pressure (Ps) - Is the ambient atmosphere pressure, which acts on the
surface of a body in rest.
Total pressure (Pt) or pitot pressure - Is the sum of static pressure and the
impact pressure and is the total force which acts on the surface of a body in
motion.
Impact pressure - Is the force we need to stop moving air. It is the actual
pressure, which a body in motion feels. It is equal to total pressure minus static
pressure (Pt-Ps). The relation impact pressure - speed is not linear due to the
compressibility and changes in density of the air. The computer software has the
formula to change impact pressure into airspeed.
Baro corrected altitude - Is the pressure altitude corrected for QFE or QNH
barometric correction signals (this requires a manual input for the computer from
an altimeter set panel).
Altitude rate - The change in altitude in ft per min. We also call this signal
vertical speed, vertical rate, rate of climb or baro rate.
Mach number (Ma) - Is the ratio between the true airspeed and the speed of
sound.
Angle Of Attack (AOA) - Is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft
and the flight path of the aircraft measured from the aircrafts centre of mass.
Corrected angle of attack - Is the local AOA from the AOA transducers
corrected for errors as a function of machnumber.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
True airspeed (TAS) - Is the speed of the aircraft with respect to the ambient air
through which it flies. It is airspeed (impact pressure) corrected for
compressibility and density. This depends on altitude and temperature.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) - To measure the outside air temperature we install
a sensor outside the aircraft. When we fly the sensor is in an airstream. The
airstream hits the sensor, comes to a stop, rises in pressure and therefore rises in
temperature. The air temperature plus the temperature rise is called total air
temperature.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART THREE
CONTENTS
3 ELECTRICAL POWER ................................................................. 3-1
3.1 BATTERIES .................................................................................. 3-1
3.1.1 Primary Cell/Secondary Cell ......................................... 3-1
3.1.2 Cell Voltage And Capacitance ....................................... 3-1
3.1.3 Lead Acid Cell ............................................................... 3-3
3.1.4 Chemical Action ............................................................ 3-4
3.2 LEAD/ACID BATTERIES ................................................................. 3-5
3.2.1 Cell Characteristics ....................................................... 3-6
3.2.2 Capacity of Batteries ..................................................... 3-7
3.2.3 State of Charge ............................................................. 3-8
3.3 BATTERY CHARGING (WORKSHOP) ................................................ 3-9
3.3.1 Preparation for Charge .................................................. 3-9
3.3.2 Charging The Battery .................................................... 3-9
3.3.3 Completion of Charge ................................................... 3-10
3.3.4 Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-11
3.3.5 Fully Discharged Condition ........................................... 3-12
3.4 NICKEL/CADMIUM (NI/CD) CELL ................................................... 3-12
3.4.1 Chemical Action ............................................................ 3-13
3.4.2 Nickel Cadmium Batteries ............................................. 3-15
3.4.3 Thermal Runaway ......................................................... 3-16
3.4.4 Causes.......................................................................... 3-16
3.5 NI/CD BATTERY CHARGING .......................................................... 3-17
3.5.1 Cell Caps ...................................................................... 3-17
3.5.2 Voltmeter ...................................................................... 3-17
3.5.3 Cell Shorting Links ........................................................ 3-17
3.5.4 Battery Characteristics .................................................. 3-18
3.5.5 Battery Characteristics .................................................. 3-19
3.5.6 Preparation For Charge................................................. 3-19
3.5.7 Constant Current Charging ........................................... 3-20
3.5.8 Charging Rate ............................................................... 3-20
3.5.9 Action Prior To Charge .................................................. 3-20
3.6 METHODS OF CONSTANT CHARGING ............................................. 3-21
3.6.1 Method 1 ....................................................................... 3-21
3.6.2 Method 2 ....................................................................... 3-22
3.6.3 Completion Of Charge .................................................. 3-23
3.7 BATTERY TESTING ....................................................................... 3-23
3.7.1 Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-23
3.7.2 Capacity Test ................................................................ 3-23
3.7.3 Capacity Recycling........................................................ 3-24
3.7.4 Deep Discharge ............................................................ 3-24
3.7.5 Cell Balancing ............................................................... 3-25
3.7.6 Voltage Recovery Check ............................................... 3-26
3.7.7 Storage ......................................................................... 3-26
3.7.8 Ready For Service ........................................................ 3-26
3.7.9 Long Term..................................................................... 3-26
3.7.10 Facts And Figures ......................................................... 3-26
3.7.11 Aircraft Charging Systems ............................................. 3-27
3.7.12 Constant Current Mode ................................................. 3-27
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3 ELECTRICAL POWER
3.1 BATTERIES
In almost all aircraft electrical systems a battery has the following principal
functions:
To help maintain the dc system voltage under transient high load current.
To supply power for short-term heavy loads when generator, or ground power, is
not available: e.g. engine starting.
A battery is a device for converting chemical energy into electrical energy and is
made up of a number of primary or secondary cells. As a primary cell
discharges, i.e. supplies electrical energy, the chemical action destroys the cell
and it cannot be re-formed, i.e. charged.
As a secondary cell discharges, the chemical action converts the cell material into
other forms and these can be converted into the original material, i.e. charged.
Therefore secondary cells can be discharged and charged during the 'life' of a
battery.
Secondary cells are used in aircraft batteries of which there are two types
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If cells are connected in series, the total voltage across the arrangement is the
sum of each cell voltage. The capacity is as for one cell.
If cells are connected in parallel, the total voltage is as for one cell. The total
capacity of the arrangement is the sum of each cell capacity. Figure 1 shows the
connection of cells.
SERIES CONNECTION
PARALLEL CONNECTION
Cell Connection
Figure 1
The cell consists of a positive electrode and a negative electrode, each made up
of a group of lead-antimony alloy grid plates; the positive plates have lead
peroxide paste (Pb 02) forced in as the active material and the negative plates
have pure spongy lead (pb) forced into them. Figure 2 show the arrangement of
plates in a cell.
S E P A RA TO R
P R O TE C TO R C E LL
C OVER
TE R M IN A L
P LA TE S TR AP
POST S
S E P A RA TO RS
P LA TE
Cell Arrangement
Figure 2
Note that there are more negative plates than positive plates. This is because
positive plates may buckle under discharge; negative plates do not buckle so
when the cell is complete, positive plates are completely enclosed by negative
plates, keeping buckling to a minimum.
The electrolyte consists of two constituents, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and water
(H2O), which are mixed in such proportions that the relative density (RD) is
generally about 1.25 to 1.27 for a charged cell.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
During discharge of the cell, i.e. when an external circuit is completed between
the positive and negative plates, electrons are transferred through the circuit from
lead (negative plates) to lead peroxide (positive plates), the net result of the
chemical reaction is that lead sulphate (PbSO4) forms on both plates.
At the same time molecules of water are formed, thus weakening the electrolyte
solution. The cell is therefore considered discharged when both plates are
covered with lead sulphate and the electrolyte has become weaker. Figure 3
shows a lead acid battery in charged and discharged states.
E L E CT R O N S
Pb O2 Pb L E AD
L E AD P E R O X ID E
H2 SO4
S U L P H U R IC A C I D
B AT TE R Y IN A C H AR G E D S T AT E
Pb Pb
L E AD S U LP H A TE
O2 Pb SO4
Pb SO4
L E AD S U LP H A TE
H2 SO4
D IL U T E D S U L P H U R I C A C ID
B AT TE R Y IN A D IS C H AR G E D S T AT E
The cell may be recharged by connecting the positive and negative plates,
respectively, to the positive and negative terminals of a D.C. source of a slightly
higher voltage than the cell. All foregoing reactions are then reversed; the lead
sulphate on the positive plate being restored to lead peroxide, the negative plate
restored to lead, and the electrolyte restored to its original relative density.
The battery in figure 4 is made up of two blocks, each containing six cells of 2
volts per cell, connected in series. Hence, each block delivers 6 x 2 volts = 12
volts. Since there are 2 blocks of 12 volts in series, Battery Voltage = 24V.
Lead/Acid Battery
Figure 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Battery State of
Positive Plate Negative Plate Electrolyte
Type charge
PbO2 Pb H2SO4
Lead-Acid Charged
(Lead Dioxide) (Lead) Concentrated Sulphuric Acid
Table 1
Fully charged cell voltage = 2.2 volts (Approx). 2.0 volts (Nominal).
Discharged = 1.150.
Note: The solution becomes weaker on discharge and that the SG figures may
vary and manufacturer's instructions should be referred to.
The capacity of a battery, or the total amount of energy available, depends upon
the size and number of plates. The capacity rating is measured in Amperes-
Hours and is based on the maximum current, in amps, which it will deliver for a
known time period, until it is discharged to a permissible minimum voltage of each
cell.
The time taken to discharge is called the Discharge rate and the rated capacity
of the battery is the product of this rate and duration of discharge (in hours).
Thus a battery which discharges 5A for 5 hours is rated at 25 Amperes-Hours
capacity. Figure 5 shows the discharge rate for a 24V lead-acid battery rated at
20 Amperes/Hour.
T
E 24V
R
M
I
N
A
L
V 21.6V DISCHARGED
O
L
T 20 AMP 10 AMP
A DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
G
E
1 1 2
TIME IN HOURS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
All batteries display certain indications of their state of charge, and these are of
practical help in maintaining operating conditions.
When a lead-acid battery is in the fully charged condition each cell displays three
distinct indications:
The relative density is the sole reliable guide to the electrical condition of the cell
of a battery which is neither fully charged nor yet completely discharged. If the
relative density is midway between normal maximum (1.25 1.27) and minimum
(1.150), then the cell is approximately half discharged. Figure 6 shows a
Hydrometer used to check the RD of lead-acid batteries.
CHARGED = 1.260
RUBBER
BULB DISCHARGED = 1.150
SYRINGE
1.100
1.150
1.100
FLOAT
1.250
1.300
1.350
1.400
RUBBER
TUBE
Hydrometer
Figure 6
1. Unscrew the vent plugs but leave in the vent holes. This allows the cell
to gas freely during the charge.
Note: Most batteries have a perforated strip above the plates to protect against
foreign objects. The level is measured from this strip.
1. Adjust the charging current, as cell voltage will increase during the
charge.
2. Ensure electrolyte remains above plates and cells are gassing. Adjust
the level by adding distilled water. Record the quantity added; if the
battery is always requiring distilled water, it must be rejected.
5. Record the RD. This will indicate when the battery is fully charged. Do
not forget that if you want to find the state of charge by measuring the
RD, it is relative to a temperature of 15C and a correction must be
made.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Without this correction we will not know the state of the cell.
After level adjustment, the electrolyte is mixed by the cell gassing while still on
charge, therefore, any RD reading taken immediately after adding distilled water
will be incorrect.
If all three conditions are met, the battery is fully charged and charging should
cease.
The final 'on charge' voltage will vary on different batteries. It is normally between
30 and 32.4 volts (2.5V to 2.7V per cell). The RD is approximately 1.260 at 15C.
Following a charge, the voltage immediately falls. If it falls below 28.5 volts the
battery must be rejected for service. Over a longer period the voltage will fall
below 28.5 volts.
Note that gently rocking the battery disperses any gas retained in the electrolyte.
Check electrolyte level one hour after battery is removed from charge. If distilled
water needs to be added, re-connect to the charging board and adjust while on a
low charge and gassing. NB: Gassing aids mixing. Finally, record date and
state of charge.
FOLLOWING CHARGE
BATTERY TERMINAL VOLTAGE
T MUST NOT FALL BELOW 28.5V
E
R FINAL
30V ON CHARGE
M
VOLTAGE
I 28V
N
A
24V
L
V
O
L
T
A CONSTANT
CHARGE CURRENT
G
E
TIME
Charge Curve Lead-Acid Battery
Figure 7
This test is to determine whether the battery will be able to carry out its function
as an emergency power source on the aircraft. To measure capacity, a fully
charged battery is discharged at the battery rating, whilst the time to discharge is
recorded, i.e. a 30AH battery at the one hour rate is discharged at 30 amps.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. First cell to reach 1.8 volts, or, if cell voltage cannot be read (block
construction), read battery voltage. A 24V battery reads 21.6V (12 x
1.8), OR,
The Ni/Cd cell is one of three possible alkaline cells. The three are:
3. Silver Zinc.
Of the three, the Ni/Cd cell has become that preferred for use in aircraft batteries.
Figure 8 shows the construction of a Ni/Cd battery cell.
CELLOPHANE
NYLON
NYLON
PLATE
NICKEL MESH
The case is made of a plastic/nylon material, which allows for slight expansion of
the cell when fully charged. It acts as an insulator between cells and is
impervious to electrolyte.
The plates are made from wire screens sintered with nickel powder. They are
impregnated with the active plate material.
During charging, the negative plates lose oxygen and become metallic cadmium.
The positive plates are brought to a higher state of oxidation by the charging
current until both materials are completely converted; i.e. all the oxygen is driven
out of the negative plates and only cadmium remains, the positive plates pick up
the oxygen to form nickel oxides. The cell emits gas towards the end of the
charging process, and during overcharging; the gas being caused by
decomposition of the water component of the electrolyte into hydrogen at the
negative plates and oxygen at the positive plates. A slight amount of gassing is
necessary to completely charge the cell and so it therefore loses a certain
amount of water.
The reverse chemical action takes place during discharging, the negative plates
gradually gaining back the oxygen as the positive plates lose it. Due to this
interchange there is no gassing on a normal discharge. In this way, the chemical
energy, and the electrolyte is absorbed by the plates to a point where it is not
visible from the top of the cell.
The electrolyte does not play an active part in the chemical reaction; it is used
only to provide a path for current flow.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Battery State of
Positive Plate Negative Plate Electrolyte
Type charge
KOH (Potassium
Nickel- Ni2O2 & Ni2O3 Cd
Charged hydroxide) unaffected
Cadmium (Nickel Oxides) (Cadmium)
by state of charge
Table 2
Fully charged cell voltage = 1.55 volts (Approx). 1.2 volts (Nominal).
71C THERMOSTAT
RUBBER
GASKET
(RED TOP)
STRAP
57C THERMOSTAT
VENT
PIPE
(BLACK TOP)
NON-RETURN
VALVE
HOLD DOWN
BAR
Ni/Cad CELL
LID ASSEMBLY
BATTERY CASE
PINS A - B BLACK TOP 57C
O-RING
THERMOSTAT
CONNECTOR
WASHER
NUT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In a normal charge cycle, the heat generated by the charging current is dissipated
within the battery and its temperature does not rise appreciably. As the Ni/Cad
cell reaches its charged state, higher gassing takes place.
All power sources, including batteries, have 'internal resistance'. If the cell
temperature were allowed to rise higher, the internal resistance and the terminal
voltage would fall.
If the internal resistance falls, the charging current will increase, which in turn
causes more heat. This chain reaction builds up rapidly and leads to the
destruction of the gas barrier, then the cell and finally a fire or even an explosion.
3.4.4 Causes
6. Low electrolyte.
8. Unbalanced cells.
Although Ni/Cd batteries are more susceptible to thermal runaway, the process
can occur in Lead/Acid batteries.
All batteries give off gas during charging. The cell caps of a Lead/Acid battery
are open and the cell can vent at all times.
In a Ni/Cd cell however, the cap is 'semi-open'. It is fitted with a non-return valve
to allow gas to vent but not allow air to enter. This is because carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere contaminates the electrolyte and reduces its RD.
Semi-open caps are susceptible to being blocked by potassium crystals and cell
gassing increases during charge. To prevent damage therefore, the caps are
removed during the charge and may be cleaned with warm water and then rinsed
in de-mineralized or distilled water.
3.5.2 Voltmeter
Voltages are critical in the servicing of Ni/Cd batteries. The voltages we are
required to measure are to two decimal places (1.24V, 1.55V, and 0.04V). To
achieve this accuracy a Digital Voltmeter must be used.
If a single cell in a battery discharges to 0.0 volts and current is still flowing, the
cell will have a reversed charge and reversed polarity. This reversal, if continued,
can damage the cell.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The discharge and charge characteristics of a Ni/Cd battery are shown at Figure
10 and Figure 11 respectively. The example is from a 24V battery rated at 36 AH
at the one hour rate and 100% capacity.
C
E
L
L
V
O
L
T 1.0 V DISCHARGED
A
G 72 amps 36 amps 18 amps
E
h 1h 1h 2h
TIME
Note:
2. If the discharge current is more than the 36 amps, the voltage falls
more sharply and we do not get a 100%, while if the discharge current
is less than 36 amps, we obtain more than the battery rated output.
TIME
1. The voltage initially rises then settles down to a steady rise. This is followed
by a second rise where it levels off at the fully charged condition.
2. At the second rise in voltage, the cells start to gas and at the fully charged
state, the gassing becomes livelier. If the charge is continued, excessive
gassing takes place and the electrolyte will flow out of the cell. This loss of
electrolyte can lead to overheating and thermal runaway.
Assuming no defects on the battery and satisfactory physical condition, its state
of charge must be determined and the balance of cells confirmed. This is done by
discharging the battery.
The results from this discharge will determine the next step we must take to
electrically recondition the battery. The battery is discharged at a constant
current stated in the manufacturer's instructions. An example is a 36 AH battery
which is discharged at 30 amps.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
During this discharge, the time is recorded in hours, from the start of the
discharge and at each stage. The individual cell voltages are also recorded.
The battery voltage and each cell voltage are monitored periodically to ensure the
discharge remains constant.
Initially, the first cell to reach 1.0 volt is looked for then the discharge is continued
until the battery voltage is equal to an average of 1.0 volt per cell. A 24V Ni/Cd
battery has 20 cells. At 1.0 volt per cell, battery voltage will equal 20 volts. By
discharging the battery to its minimum capacity and timing the discharge, the
capacity of the battery has been ascertained. Also, by discharging to a known
point, the amount of charge required is found and the risk of overcharging is
minimized.
Constant current charging is always used in the battery workshop. Its advantage
over constant potential (voltage) charging is that constant current charging
maintains cell balance and capacity.
3.6.1 Method 1
Charge at 0.1C amps until battery voltage reaches an average of 1.5 volts per
cell (20 cells = 30 volts), then continue the charge for a further four hours. The
time for this charge should be between fourteen and fifteen hours. Figure 12
shows charge method 1.
T
E
R
M
CHARGE AT 0.1C AMPS
I UNTIL BATTERY VOLTAGE
N REACHES AN AVERAGE
A OF 1.5 PER CELL
(20 CELLS = 30 VOLTS)
L
30V
V
O
L
T CONTINUES THE CHARGE
FOR A FURTHER 4 HOURS
A TOTAL TIME FOR CHARGE
G 14 - 15 HOURS
E
10 - 11 HOURS 4 HOURS
TIME
Charge Method 1
Figure 12
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.6.2 Method 2
Charge at 0.5C amps for two hours. Battery voltage should have reached an
average of 1.55 volts per cell (20 cells = 31 volts). If it is not up to 31 volts, then
charge for a further half-hour at this rate. Continue the charge at 0.1C amps for a
further four hours. Figure 13 shows charge method 2.
V
O
L CONTINUE THE CHARGE AT
T 0.1 C AMPS FOR A FURTHER
FOUR HOURS
A
G
CHARGE AT 0.5C AMPS
E
TIME
Charge Method 2
Figure 13
During the last thirty minutes of charge, the electrolyte level should be adjusted.
Remember that the level rises during charge and the cells will be gassing more
freely at this stage.
At completion of charge the cells' voltages should be between 1.5 and 1.7 volts.
When the charge is complete, tighten and torque-load the cell vent caps. Refit
the battery cover.
Start the capacity test with a fully charged battery. This means carrying out the
initial discharge and then charging the battery. After charge, stand for fifteen to
twenty four hours.
Discharge at 1.0C amps 36 AH = 36 amps and record the time. Stop the
discharge when battery voltage reaches an average of 1.0 volts per cell.
Note: As in the initial discharge, where we looked for the first cell to 1.0 volt, we
can do the same in the capacity test. It can indicate an out of balance cell, if that
cell voltage falls faster than the rest.
The capacity test is carried out at the periods stated in the maintenance manual.
This is normally no longer than three months.
If the battery fails to achieve 80% capacity, it is not immediately rejected. A cell
balancing procedure is carried out to restore the capacity and then a further
capacity test is carried out.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This helps to prevent premature damage and failure by cycling the battery,
discharging it and then charging it.
2. When all cells are discharged, stand the battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen to twenty four hours.
3. The shorting links should then be removed and the battery charged at the
recommended recycling charge rate for twenty four hours.
4. After the first five minutes of charge, any cell over 1.5 volts requires the
addition of water, distilled or de-mineralized.
5. After the first ten minutes of charge, cell voltages must be between 1.20 and
1.55 volts. If any cell is below or above these voltages, it must be rejected
and replaced.
6. After twenty hours of charge, record each cell voltage and adjust the
electrolyte level.
After twenty four hours of charge, record each cell voltage. These readings must
not be below the twenty hour readiness. Any cell below by more than 0.04 volts
must be rejected and replaced.
This is a term sometimes used. It is when the battery is discharged and all the
available capacity is removed.
This is similar to the capacity recycling but uses a normal charge, not the long
twenty four-hour charge.
This is used if the battery fails to give 80% capacity, or the cells are out of
balance.
1. Discharge the battery at 1.0C amps until battery voltage falls to 20 volts and
then stop the discharge.
2. Monitor cell voltages prior to the battery reaching the 20 volts. If any cell
falls to zero volts, or goes reverse, then stop the discharge. Zero voltage
indicates a shorted cell and reverse indicates a weak cell.
6. When all cells are discharged, stand battery, with shorting links on, for
sixteen hours.
7. Charge battery.
Repeat the 'cell balancing'. The time that each cell takes to fall to 1.0 volt should
have improved: i.e. longer time recorded. Reject any weak or shorted cells.
Note: As already discussed, a battery must be able to deliver at least 80% of its
rated capacity to be suitable for aircraft use. Ni/Cd batteries are discharged then
charged before a capacity test to determine their efficiency. With certain types of
cell, this figure of 80% does not apply.
After discharge Charge Capacity Test carried out, the capacity of the cells
must be at least:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of this is to detect high resistance connections and short circuits
inside the cells.
1. Deep discharge the battery, stand for sixteen to seventeen hours with
shorting links on.
3. Stand the battery for a further twenty four hours, without the shorting links
on.
4. Measure the cell voltages, they should have recovered to above 1.08 volts.
Below this voltage indicates a high internal resistance, or an open circuit
inside the cell.
3.7.7 Storage
Ni/Cd batteries should be stored in a clean, dry, well ventilated room and
separate from L/A batteries.
Ni/Cd batteries will self discharge if left standing, therefore a trickle charge is
required, (approximately 1 mA per AH).
Batteries, L/A or Ni/Cd, proved to have less than 80% capacity should be rejected
for aircraft use.
During emergency use, e.g. main power failure, batteries must be able to sustain
essential services for at least 30 mins.
Supplies a constant current, (an example is 38 amps but this value depends upon
the capacity size of the battery fitted to the aircraft). As the battery starts to
charge, its terminal voltage will rise at a predetermined value (approximately 31
to 32 volts, giving 1.55v per cell). The constant current mode is switched off and
the constant voltage mode switched on.
On some aircraft, the battery temperature is monitored and the voltage cut off
point of the constant current mode is reduced with a corresponding rise in battery
temperature.
In this mode, the charger holds a constant voltage, or TR mode (as in TRU), at
27.5v or 28v. As the battery terminal voltage is higher than the charger voltage,
no charging current will flow.
31.5 V
CONSTANT
CHARGER VOLTAGE
CURRENT
MODE CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
MODE
27.5
POWER
FIRST
APPLIED
TIME
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Note: When electrical power is first applied to the charger, it goes into the
constant current mode and the battery is being charged.
CHARGER VOLTAGE
BATTERY VOLTAGE
V
O
L
INITIAL
T CONSTANT
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
A MODE
MODE
G
E
CONSTANT
CURRENT
MODE
TIME
It can be seen that the initial constant current mode is independent of battery
voltage. The second constant current mode is slightly shorter; as the battery
becomes charged, the charge cycles get shorter.
These cycles are monitored when the battery charging current starts to flow in the
constant voltage mode. After the four charging cycles, the voltage is held at
27.5v, unless the power supply is interrupted, in which case it starts all over
again.
There are certain times when we want to switch the charger off automatically and
have no DC output. These are:
Figure 16 shows the circuit arrangement for a battery system from a turboprop
aircraft. The circuit serves as a general guide to the methods adopted. Four
batteries, in parallel are directly connected to a battery busbar which, in the event
of an emergency, supplies power for a limited period to essential services (Radio,
Fire Warning Systems, Navigation Systems etc.) Direct connections are made to
ensure that the battery power is available to the busbar at all times.
The batteries also require to be connected to ensure that they are maintained in a
charged condition. In figure 14, this accomplished by connecting the batteries to
the main D.C. busbar via a battery relay, power selector switch and a reverse
current circuit breaker.
Under normal operating conditions of the D.C. supply system, the power selector
switch is set to the Battery position (This is normally termed Flight on modern
aircraft). With the switch in this position, current will flow from the batteries
through the battery relay coil, the switch and then to ground via the reverse
current circuit breaker contacts.
The battery relay coil energises connecting the batteries to the main D.C. busbar
via the reverse relay coil and its second set of contacts. The aircrafts generators
supply the main D.C. busbar and so the batteries will also be supplied with
charging current form this source.
The reverse current coil will reverse its polarity when the battery current flows up
to the DC Main busbar (in the event of a failure of the Main DC busbar). This
reverse in polarity will cause the reverse current circuit breaker to open, thus
isolating the battery from the Main DC busbar.
Page 3-30
MAIN D.C. BUS-BAR BATTERY BUS-BAR
OFF
REVERSE
CURRENT
Figure 16
PART 3
(C/B) VOLTMETER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PWR
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BATTERY
EXT BATT RELAY
OFF
BATTERIES
The battery system on certain types of turboprop aircraft are designed so that the
batteries may be switched from a parallel configuration to a series configuration
for the purpose of engine starting from battery power. The circuit arrangement of
this type of system using two 24-volt Nickel-cadmium batteries is shown in
simplified form in Figure 17.
BATTERY SWITCHING
RELAY
BATTERY
2
EXT
BATTERY
RELAY 2
OFF
TO ENGINE
STARTING
SYSTEM
BATT
2a 3a
2b 3b
1a
1b
BATTERY
BATT
1
BATTERY BUSBAR
OFF
BATTERY
RELAY 1
EXT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With reference to figure 15; under normal parallel operating conditions, battery 1
is connected to the battery busbar via its own battery relay and also contacts 1a
1b of a battery switching relay. Battery 2 is directly connected to the busbar via
its relay.
When its necessary to use the batteries for starting an engine (i.e. an internal
start). Both batteries are connected to the battery busbar in the normal way and
24V supply is fed to the engine starting system via the battery busbar. Closing
the starter switch energises the corresponding starter relay, and at the same time
the 24V supply is fed via the starting circuit, to the coil of the battery switching
relay energising it. Contacts 1a 1b are now opened to interrupt the direct
connection between battery 1 and the busbar. Contacts 3 a 3b are also opened
to interupt the grounded side of the battery 2. Since contacts 2 a 2b of the
switching relay are closed they connect both batteries in series so that 48V is
supplied to the busbar and the starter motor.
After the engine has started and reached self-sustaining speed, the starter relay
automatically de-energises and the battery switching relay coil circuit is
interrupted to return the batteries to their normal parallel configuration.
Note: The power selector switches are left in the Battery position so that when
the generators are switched onto the battery busbar, charging current will flow to
the batteries.
In most modern transport aircraft, the battery system incorporates a separate unit
for maintaining the batteries in a state of charge. These units also provide some
method of sensing the temperature of the batteries during the charging cycle and
will automatically isolate the charging unit whenever an over temperature is
sensed.
The circuits of On-Board charger units vary between aircraft types. The
following explains the operation of the charger unit fitted to the McDonnell
Douglas DC-10.
ON BATTERY B1
SWITCH B2
B1 B2
OFF
BATT
DIRECT FROM
BATTERIES A2
A3 A3 A2
BATTERY
SENSING RELAYS
SWITCH
SCRS
Figure 16
MODULE 11
C/B UNIT
PWR SUPPLY
A1 A2
MONITOR
Figure 16 shows the charger circuit for the DC-10.
D.C.
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
PWR SUPPLY B1 B2
TEMPERATURE D.C.
CUT-OFF RELAY
TEMP CONTROL
REF VOLTS
TEMP SENSOR
CURRENT
Page 3-33
TEMP SENSOR TEMP SENSOR
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
On the DC-10, the D.C. systems operate from a 28V supply, this is achieved by
connecting two 14V batteries in series. Under normal conditions the D.C. busbar
is fed via two Transformer Rectifiers Units (TRU) from the main A.C. generating
system. If the normal D.C. power is not available, then the batteries are
automatically connected to the D.C. busbar via the Charger/Battery relay and
Sensing realys. When the batteries are supplying the D.C. busbars the charger
is isolated form the batteries.
3.8.4 Operation
When power is available from the main generating system, D.C. is supplied to the
battery busbar from the TRUs, which also feed the coils of the sensing relays.
With these relays energised, the circuit through contacts A2 A3 is interrupted,
while the contacts B1 B2 are made. The battery switch, which controls the
operation of the Charger/Battery relay, is closed to the Batt position when the
main electrical; power is available, and the emergency power switch is closed in
the OFF position.
The charger/Battery relay is of the dual type, one relay being A.C. operated and
the other D.C. operated. The A.C. relay coil is supplied with power from 1 phase
of the main three-phase supply to the battery charger and is energised via
contacts B1 B2 of the sensing relays, the battery switch and the emergency
switch. When energised, the contact A1 A2 close to connect the D.C. positive
output from the battery charger to the batteries, thus supplying them with
charging current.
In the event of a main power failure, the battery charger will become inoperative,
the A.C. charger relay will de-energise to the centre off position, and the two
sensing relays will also de-energise, thereby opening contacts B1 B2 and
closing contacts A2 A3. The closing of contacts A2 A3 now permits a positive
supply to flow direct from the battery to the coil of the D.C. battery relay which on
being energised also actuates the A.C. relay thereby closing contacts B1 B2
which connect the batteries directly to the battery busbar. The function of the
battery relay contacts is to connect a supply from the battery busbar to the relays
of an emergency warning light circuit.
The charging unit converts the main three-phase supply 115/200volts A.C. into
controlled D.C. output of a constant current and voltage. This is achieved using a
transformer and a full-wave rectifying bridge circuit made up of silicon rectifiers
and silicon controlled rectifiers SCRs. The charging current is limited to
approximately 65A, this is controlled via current/voltage monitoring circuits and
temperature sensing elements within the batteries. The output if these circuits
are fed to a logic circuit which in turn controls the operation of the SCRs, thus
controlling the charging current.
The charger operates from the aircrafts 115V 3-phase A.C. power supplied from
a Ground Service busbar, which in turn is normally powered by the No 1
generator system, or the external power source. This ensures that the aircrafts
battery is maintained in a state of charge both in flight and on the ground. Figure
17 shows the chargers A.C. input circuit.
No 2 MAIN BUSBAR
CONTROL UNIT)
GENERATOR
SIGNAL 28V
TRANSFER
D.C. (No 2
No 2 GENERATOR BUSBAR
CHARGER
BATTERY
No 1 TRANSFER BUSBAR
ALT
No 1 GENERATOR BUSBAR
NORM
TRANSFER
RELAY
INTERLOCK
APU START
RELAY
BUSBAR
EXTERNAL A.C. BUSBAR
GRND SERV
TRANSFER
CHARGER
BATTERY
GROUND
SERVICE
RELAY
RELAY
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In flight the A.C. supply is routed to the charger throughh the relaxed contacts of
a battery charger transfer relay and an APU start interlock relay. This interlock
ensures the charger is inhibited when the APU is starting. Figure 18 shows the
battery charger control circuit.
EXT POWER
115V 400Hz
BUSBAR
BATTERY
SWITCH
FROM MAIN
TRU
TRANSFER
BATTERY
RELAY
EXT POWER
RELAY
EXT A.C.
BUSBAR
BATTERY
BUSBAR
BATTERY
BUSBAR
RELAY
METERING
THERMAL
BATTERY
SHUNT
SWITCH
HOT BATTERY
BUABAR
CONTROL
RELAY
MODE
HIGH
LOW
CHARGER
BATTERY
TRU
400Hz
115V
The D.C. supply for battery charging is obtained from a TRU within the charger
unit, which will maintain the battery cell voltage levels in two modes of operation:
1. High Charge.
2. Low Charge.
Under normal operating conditions of the aircrafts power generation system, the
charging level is in the high mode since the mode switch is energised by a
rectified output through the batteries thermal switch, and the relaxed contacts of
both the battery bus relay and the external power select relay.
The charger operates firstly in the high mode, providing an unregulated supply to
the battery until the battery voltage rises above that of the charger. The charger
current then falls to zero until the battery voltage falls below that of the charger, at
which time the charger provides the battery with a pulsed charge and the process
is repeated. This pulsing continues until the control circuits within the charger
change the operation to the low mode, approximately 2 minutes after pulse
charging commenced.
In the event that the number 1 generator supply fails, there will be a loss of A.C.
power to the ground service busbar, and therefore, to the battery charger.
However, with the number 2 generator still on line, a transfer signal from the
number 2 generator control unit is automatically supplied to the coil of the battery
charger transfer relay, its contacts change over to the connect the charger to the
number 2 A.C. supply. Thus the battery chargers operation is not interrupted.
The APU start interlock relay is connected in parallel with a relay in the starting
circuit of the APU, and is only energised during initial stage of starting the APU
engine. This prevents the starter motor from drawing part of its heavy starting
current through the battery charger. The interlock relay releases automatically
when the APU engine reaches 35% rev/min.
In addition to the control relay within the battery charger, there are three other
ways in which the charging mode can be controlled, each of them fulfilling a
protective role by interupting the ground circuit to the mode control relay and so
establishing a low mode of charge. They are:
2. The loss of D.C. power from the designated TRU, causing the battery
transfer relay to relax and the battery bus relay to energise.
3. Energising the fuelling panel power select relay when external A.C. power is
connected to the aircraft
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.9.1 DC Generator
GENERATOR
FIELD WINDING
END
HOUSING
FRAME
DRIVE SHAFT
LAMINATED ARMATURE
POLE PIECES
D.C. Generator
Figure 19
COMMUTATOR
POLE
TERMINAL
BOX
YOKE
Z
A
A1
Z1
FIELD
WINDING
BRUSH
The fixed portion of the armature circuit consists of four brushes, the links
connecting together brushes of like polarity and the cables connecting the linked
brushes to the terminals A and A1. The four field coils are of a high resistance
and connected in series to form the filed windings. They are wound and
connected in such a way as to produce alternate North and South polarities. The
ends of the windings are brought out to the terminals indicated Z and Z1.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
VOLTAGE CURRENT
REGULATOR REGULATOR
SHUNT
WINDING
SERIES
WINDING
GEN
RESISTOR
The regulator consists of two armatures (1 for current regulation, 1 for voltage
regulation). The voltage regulator consists of windings assembled on a common
core. The shunt winding consists of many turns of fine gauge wire and is
connected in series with the current regulator winding and in parallel with the
generator. The series winding consists of a few turns of heavy gauge wire and is
connected in series with the generators shunt field winding.
When the generator is operating, the contacts of both regulators are closed so
that a positive supply flows through the generator field winding providing the
necessary excitation for raising the generator output. At the same time current
passes through the shunt winding of the voltage regulator, which will increase the
electromagnetic field. As soon as the generator output voltage reaches the pre-
adjusted regulator setting, the electromagnetic field becomes strong enough to
oppose the tension of the armature spring and opens the contacts.
The circuit in the series winding is opened causing the field to collapse, at the
same time the supply to the generator field passes through the resistor, reducing
the field current which will cause the generator output to reduce. This reduced
output in turn reduces the electromagnetic field strength of the regulator causing
the spring tension to close the contact to restore the generator output voltage to
its regulated value. The operation is then repeated to maintain the correct
voltage output. The frequency of operation dependant on the electrical load
carried by the generator, typically between 50 to 200 times a second.
The carbon pile voltage regulator derives its name from the fact that the
regulating element (variable resistance) consists of a stack or pile of carbon
disks. The disks are contained in a ceramic tube with a carbon or metal contact
plug at each end. At one end of the pile, a number of radially arranged leaf
springs exert pressure against the contact plug, thus keeping the disks pressed
firmly together.
For as long as the disks are compressed, the resistance of the pile is very low. If
the pressure on the carbon pile is reduced, the resistance increases. By placing
an electromagnetic in a position where it will release the spring pressure on the
disks as the voltage rises above a predetermined value, a stable and efficient
voltage regulator is obtained. The carbon pile regulator is connected in a
generator system in the field circuit and an electromagnet to control the
resistance. The carbon pile is in series with the generator field and voltage coil is
shunted across the generator output.
A small manually operated rheostat is connected in series with the voltage coil to
provide a limited amount of adjustment. This is necessary where two or more
generators are connected in parallel to the same electrical system.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LOAD
REGULATED
SETTING
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE
CARBON
COIL
PILE
PILE PRESSURE
RESISTANCE
PILE
D
E
F
L
I
MAX
GEN
RPM
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
Vibrating contact and carbon pile regulators are mainly used on light aircraft:
larger aircraft have transistorized voltage regulators (See figure 23). These
regulators use a Zener Diode to regulate the field current.
The two key points to understand with respect to the operation of the
transistorized voltage regulator are the Zener diode operation and the control
transistor. The zener diode can be compared to a relief valve that opens at a
given pressure in a hydraulic system. When the zener diode conducts current, it
causes the control transistor to switch ON which in turn causes the power
transistor to switch OFF. With the power transistor off, the current flow to the
generator field winding is zero. Once the generator output starts to fall, the zener
diode will close, switching OFF the control transistor which will cause the power
transistor to switch ON again, thus restoring the current flow to the generator
field winding. The operation is then repeated to maintain the correct voltage
output. The frequency of operation dependant on the electrical load carried by
the generator, typically between 50 to 200 times a second.
TR1
R1
D1 POWER
TR2
R2 D2
CONTROL C1
R3
R4
C2 ZD1
R5 R6
DC
GEN FIELD
TO LOAD
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A+
F+
LOAD +
CURRENT
COIL
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR VOLTAGE
COIL
F
The voltage coil and current coil are both wound on the same soft-iron core. The
voltage coil has many turns of fine wire and is connected in parallel with the
generator output. The current coil consists of a few turns of large wire connected
is series with the generator, thus it carries the entire load current of the generator.
A pair of heavy contact points is placed where it will be controlled by the magnetic
field of the soft iron core. When the generator is not operating, these contacts
are held open by the spring. When the generator is operating, and its voltage
value is slightly higher than the battery, the voltage coil in the relay magnetizes
the soft iron core sufficiently to overcome the spring tension.
The magnetic field closes the contact points and connects the generator to the
load. As long as the generator voltage remains higher than the battery voltage,
the current flow through the current coil will be in a direction that aids the voltage
coil to keep the points closed. This means that the field of the current coil will be
in the same direction as the magnetic field of the voltage coil and the two will
strengthen each other.
When the engine turning the generator slows down or stops, the generator
voltage will decrease and fall below that of the battery. In this case the battery
voltage will cause current to start to flow toward the generator through the relay
current coil.
When this happens, the current flow will be in a direction that creates a field
opposing the field of the relay. This results in the weakening of the total field of
the relay, and the contact points are opened by the spring, thus disconnecting the
generator and the battery. The tension of the spring controlling the contact points
should be adjusted so that the points close at approximately 13.5 V in a 12 V
system or 26.6 27 V in a 24 V system.
In some generator systems a device is installed that will reduce the generator
voltage whenever the maximum safe load is exceeded. This device is called a
Current Limiter. It is designed to protect the generator from loads that will cause
it to overheat and eventually burn the insulation and windings.
The current limiter operates on a principle similar to that of the vibrator type
voltage regulator. Instead of having a voltage coil to regulate the resistance in
the field circuit of the generator, the current limiter has a current coil connected in
series with the generator load circuit. Figure 25 shows the circuit of a current
limiter.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TO REVERSE
CURRENT
CURRENT LIMITER
COIL
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
CONTACT
POINTS
RESISTOR
When the load current becomes excessive, the current coil magnetizes the iron
core sufficiently to open the contact points, which adds the resistor to the
generator field circuit. This causes the generator voltage to decrease, with a
corresponding decrease in generator current. Since the magnetism produced by
the current limiter coil is proportional to the current flowing through it, the
decrease in generator load current also weakens the magnetic field of the current
coil and thus permits the contact points to close. This removes the resistor from
the generator field circuit and allows the voltage to rise again. If an excessive
load remains connected to the generator, the contacts of the current limiter will
continue to vibrate, thus holding the current output at or below the minimum safe
limit.
The contact points are normally set to open when the current flow is 10% above
the rated capacity of the generator.
1. Voltage Regulator.
2. Current Limiter.
This combination will provide for both voltage regulation and protection from
excessive loads. It has proved very successful for the control of 12 and 24-volt
generator systems. Figure 26 shows the circuit for a three-unit generator control
panel.
A+
F+
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The method most commonly used for this purpose is that which utilises a Load-
Equalising circuit to control generator output via their voltage regulators. This is
shown in figure 28.
BUSBAR
CP LINE CP
CONTACTORS
GEN GEN
FC VC VC FC
No 1 No 2
EC EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
INTERPOLE INTERPOLE
COIL COIL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Both generators are each feeding 150 amps to a common bus bar. The current is
fed to the loads and the 150 amps complete the circuit to each generator through
its earth connection. It can be seen that there is a voltage drop across (usually)
an interpole of each generator and since the load currents are equal, the voltage
drops are also equal. The same potential occurs at each end of the equalizing
loop and so no current flows in the equalizing coils.
When there is an imbalance of currents between the generators, the voltage drop
across the interpole of the generator supplying the largest current is greater than
the voltage drop in the other generator. The end of the equalizing loop with the
largest voltage drop will be driven more negative, causing equalizing current to
flow from the lightly loaded generator to the overloaded generator.
Current flow in this direction causes one regulator to increase the output of the
associated (lightly loaded) generator. The other regulator causes the associated
(over loaded) generator to reduce its output. Figure 29 shows the operation of
the equalising circuit when the No 2 generators output is higher than that of the
No 1 generator.
300 AMPS
BUSBAR
CP LINE CP
CONTACTORS
GEN GEN
FC VC VC FC
No 1 No 2
EC EC
EQUALISING
RELAYS
100 200
AMPS - 0.17V - 0.34V AMPS
Paralleling load sharing can also be controlled utilising vibrating contact voltage
regulation. Figure 30 shows a load sharing circuit using vibrating contact voltage
regulators.
EXCITATION
CURRENT
FIELD
No 2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
No 2
GEN
PARALLEL RELAY UNIT
BUSBAR
No 1 VOLTAGE REGULATOR
No 1
GEN
EXCITATION
CURRENT
FIELD
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
For this method of load sharing the circuit comprises an additional coil Eq in the
voltage regulation section A of each regulator and a paralleling relay unit. When
both generators are in operation and supplying the correct regulated outputs
voltages, the contacts in the voltage and current (B) regulation sections of each
regulator are closed. The contacts of the reverse current relays C are also
closed thereby connecting both generators to the busbar. The outputs from each
generator are also supplied to the coils of the paralleling relay unit so the contacts
of its relays are closed.
The paralleling relays and the equalising coils form the paralleling (equalising)
circuit between both generators. Under load-sharing conditions, the current
flowing through the coils Eq is in the same direction as that of the voltage coils
of the voltage regulating sections of each regulator, but in equal and opposite
directions at the contacts of the paralleling relay unit.
If the voltage output of the No 1 generator should rise, there will be a greater
voltage input to the voltage regulating section of the number 1 voltage regulator
compared with that of the corresponding section of the number 2 regulator.
There will be an unbalanced flow of current through the equalising circuit such
that the increase of current through coil Eq of the number 1 voltage regulator
will now assist the electromagnetic effect of voltage coil D causing the relay
contacts to open. This connects the resistance into the field circuit of the number
1 generator, reducing its excitation current and its voltage output.
AC generators are used as the primary source of electric power in almost all
transport category aircraft. The AC system supplies most of the electrical power
required for the aircraft.
Brushless generators were developed for the purpose of eliminating some of the
problems of generators that employ slip-rings and brushes to carry exciter current
to the rotating field. The advantages of a brushless generators are:
TO AC BUSBAR SYSTEM
TO GCU
T1 T2 T3 N
FROM
GCU
PMG
MAIN GENERATOR
Brushless Generator
Figure 31
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Some form of conversion equipment is therefore required and the type most
commonly used utilizes a transmission device interposed between the engine and
the generator, and which incorporates a variable ratio drive mechanism. Such a
mechanism is referred to as a Constant-Speed Drive (CSD) unit. Figure 32
shows the basic arrangement of a CSD unit.
CHARGE
OIL
VARIABLE
FIXED DISPLACEMENT
DISPLACEMENT
HYDRAULIC UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
DIFFERENTIAL UNIT
INPUT OUTPUT
FROM TO
ENGINE GENERATOR
TO OIL PUMPS
AND GOVERNOR
GOVERNOR
The power used to drive the generator is controlled and transmitted through the
combined effects of the units. Oil for the system operation is supplied from a
reservoir via charge pumps within the unit, and a governor.
When the control cylinder moves the wobble plate to some angular position, the
pistons within the cylinder block are moved in and out as the block rotates, and
so the charge oil is compressed to a high pressure and then ported to the fixed
displacement unit. Under these conditions the variable displacement unit
functions as a hydraulic pump.
3.15.5 Governor
The supply of charge oil to the units control valve is controlled by a governor
valve which is spring biased, flyweight operated and driven by the out gear
driving the generator. It therefore responds to changes in transmission output
speed.
The fixed displacement unit is similar to the variable displacement unit, except
that its wobble plate, which has an inclined face, is fixed and has no connection
to the control cylinder. When oil is pumped to the fixed displacement unit by the
variable displacement unit, it functions as a hydraulic motor and the volume of oil
pumped to it determines its direction of rotation and speed.
The differential gear unit consists of a carrier shaft carrying two meshing (1:1
ratio) planet gears, and a gear at each end; one meshing with the input gear and
the other with the gear which drives the variable displacement unit cylinder block.
The carrier shaft always rotates in the same direction and at a speed which via
the input , varies with engine speed. Surrounding the carrier shaft are two
separate housings, and since they have internal ring gears meshing with the
planet gears, then they can rotated differently. Each housing also has an
external ring gear; one (input ring gear) meshing with the fixed displacement unit
gear, and the other (output ring gear) meshing with the output gear drive to the
generator.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With the CSD in operation, the output ring gear housing serves as the
continuous drive transmission link between the engine and the generator. Since
the input ring gear housing is geared to the fixed displacement hydraulic unit,
then depending on the direction of rotation of this unit , the housing can rotate in
the same direction as, or opposite to, that of the carrier shaft and the output ring
gear housing. In this way, speed is either added to, or subtracted from the
engine input speed, and through the gear ratio (2:1) between the ring gears and
the carrier shaft planet gears, the output ring gear housing rotational speed will
be appropriately adjusted to maintain constant governor speed.
If the input speed supplied to the transmission exceeds that required to produce
the required output speed, the governor, in sensing the speed difference will
cause oil to flow away from the control cylinder. In this condition, the
transmission is said to be operating in the Underdrive phase. Figure 33 shows
the CSD operating in Underdrive Phase.
VARIABLE
UNIT
FIXED
UNIT
CONTROL
CYLINDER
T IAL OUTPUT
EN
FER RING GEAR
D IF
CARRIER
SHAFT
TO
GENERATOR
OUTPUT
GEAR
TO
GOVERNOR
INPUT
INPUT
RING GEAR
GEAR
TO
PUMPS
FROM
ENGINE
Underdrive Phase
Figure 33
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the same direction as that of the variable displacement
unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of the differential
unit, so that it will rotate in the same direction as the output ring gear housing,
and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is now rotating in the
same direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the freely rotating planet
gear meshing with the housing will be reduced. The speed of the second planet
gear will also be reduced in direct ratio thereby reducing the speed of the output
ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of speed subtraction
continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
When the output speed supplied to the transmission is lower than that required to
produce the required output speed, the governor causes charge oil to be supplied
to the control cylinder. In this condition, the transmission is said to be operating
in the Overdrive phase. Figure 34 shows the CSD operating in Overdrive
Phase.
Overdrive Phase
Figure 34
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The control cylinder changes the angular of the variable displacement units
wobble plate so that the oil is pumped at high pressure to the fixed displacement
unit causing it to rotate in the opposite direction as that of the variable
displacement unit. This rotation is transmitted to the input ring gear housing, of
the differential unit, so that it will rotate in the opposite direction as the output ring
gear housing, and the carrier shaft. Because the input ring gear housing is
now rotating in the opposite direction as the carrier shaft then the speed of the
freely rotating planet gear meshing with the housing will be increased. The speed
of the second planet gear will also be increased in direct ratio thereby increasing
the speed of the output ring gear housing. This hydromechanical process of
speed addition continues until the required generator drive speed is attained.
BRUSHLESS
GENERATOR
OIL LEVEL
CONSTANT SPEED SIGHT GLASS
DRIVE UNIT
In multi CSD generator systems the control of the drives is important in order that
real electrical loads are evenly distributed between generators. This will be
covered at a later point in these notes.
RESET
DOG TOOTH CLUTCH
SPRING
SEPARATION POINT
INPUT
INPUT SPLINE
SHAFT SHAFT
THREADED
PAWL
INPUT
SOLENOID GEAR
PAWL
SPRING
HANDLE
TRANSMISSION
SPRING
CASE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The drive from the engine is transmitted to the CSD via a dog-tooth clutch, and
disconnect is initially activated by a solenoid controlled from the flight deck.
When the solenoid is energised, a spring-loaded pawl moved into contact with the
threads of the input shaft, which serves as a screw causing the input shaft to
move away from the input spline shaft (driven by the engine) therby seperating
the driving dogs of the clutch.
OUTPUT
GENERATOR 115 V 400 Hz
CONSTANT
DRIVE UNIT
This type of unit is capable of producing 90 kVA continuously, 112.5 kVA for a 5-
minute overload, and 150 kVA for a 5-second overload. The output voltage is
115V A.C. at 400 Hz.
With reference to figure 37, the regulation circuit is comprised of three main
sections:
1. Error Detection.
2. Pre-Amplification.
3. Power Amplification.
3.18.1 Operation
The function of the error detector circuit is to monitor the generators output
voltage, compare it with a fixed reference voltage and to transmit any error to the
pre-amplifier. It is made up of a three-phase bridge rectifier connected to the
generator output, and a bridge circuit of which two arms contain gas-filled
regulator tubes, the two arms containing resistors. The inherent characteristic of
the tubes are such that they maintain an essentially constant voltage drop across
their connections for a wide range of current through them and for this reason
they establish the reference voltage against which the output voltage is
continuously compared.
The output side of the reference bridge is connected to an error control winding
of the pre-amplifier and then from this amplifier to a signal control winding of the
power amplifier. Both the amplifiers are three-phase magnetic amplifiers. The
output of the power amplifier is supplied to the shunt windings of the generators
A.C. exciter stator.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
GENERATOR
EXCITER FIELD
PMG
A.C. EXCITER
POWER AMP
CONTROL
WINDING
SIGNAL
CONTROL
PRE-AMP
WINDING
ERROR
RV1
ERROR DETECTOR
B
R2
R1
REFERENCE
SENSING
The output side of the reference bridge is connected to an error control winding
of the pre-amplifier and then from this amplifier to a signal control winding of the
power amplifier. Both the amplifiers are three-phase magnetic amplifiers. The
output of the power amplifier is supplied to the shunt windings of the generators
A.C. exciter stator.
The output of the error bridge rectifier is a D.C. voltage slightly lower than the
average of the three A.C. line voltages: This voltage may be adjusted via a
variable resistor (RV1) to bring the regulator system to a balance condition for
any nominal line voltage.
A balanced condition of the reference bridge circuit is obtained when the voltage
applied across the bridge (points A & B) is exactly twice that of the voltage drop
across the two tubes. Since under this condition, the voltage drop across R1 &
R2 will equal the drop across each tube, then no current will flow in the output
circuit to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier.
If the A.C. line voltage should go above or below the fixed value, the voltage
drops across R1 & R2 will differ causing an unbalance of the bridge circuit and a
flow of current to the error control winding of the pre-amplifier. The direction
and magnitude of the current flow will depend on whether the error in line voltage,
is above (positive error signal) or below (negative error signal) the balanced
nominal value.
The output from the pre-amplifier to the power amplifier will either be positive or
negative. For a positive error, the exciter current will be decreased and for a
negative output it will be increased.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In an effort to simplify and improve the production of ac power for aircraft and to
get away from the need for hydro-mechanical constant-speed drives, a number of
systems have been devised for producing 400 Hz three-phase electric power
through electronic circuitry. This has been made possible by great advances in
solid-state technology developed in recent years.
VOLTAGE
SENSING
NEUTRAL
A PHASE
CONVERSION
B PHASE
C PHASE
CIRCUIT
FILTERED
DC
3 PHASE AC
CRYSTAL-DIODE
400 HZ
REGULATOR
RECTIFIER &
FULL-WAVE
VOLTAGE
FILTER
FREQUENCY
3 PHASE AC
VARIABLE
AC GENERATOR
BRUSHLESS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The construction of a typical generator used for the supply of heating current to a
turbo-propeller engine de-icing system is shown in Figure 40.
3.20.2 Operation
The stator winding is star connected, the star or neutral point being made by
linking three ends of the winding and connecting it to ground. The other three
ends of the winding are brought out to a three-way output terminal box mounted
on the end frame of the generator. Three small current transformers are fitted
into the terminal box and form part of a protection system.
The rotor assembly has six salient poles of laminated construction; their series-
connected field windings terminate at two slip rings secured at one end of the
rotor shaft. Three brushes are equal-spaced on each slip ring and contained
within a brush-gear housing which also forms a bearing support for the rotor. The
brushes are electrically connected to d.c. input terminals housed in an excitation
terminal box mounted above the brush-gear housing.
The generator is cooled by ram air passing into the main housing via an inlet
spout at the slip ring end, the air escaping from the main housing through
ventilation slots at the drive end. An air collector ring encloses the slots and is
connected to a vent through which the cooling air is finally discharged. Provision
is made for the installation of a thermally operated switch to ensure there is
overheat protection.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 40 shows the circuit for the frequency wild generator shown in figure 41.
SWITCH
START
BUSBAR
28V DC
TO 208V AC
AIRCRAFT
DE-ICING
BUSBAR
SYSTEM
DISCONNECT
REGULATOR SIGNAL
EXCITATION
RECTIFIER
VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMER
COMPOUNDING
COMPOUNDING
RECTIFIER
STATOR
O
O
R
R
T
Referring to figure 40, excitation is provided by DC from the aircrafts main busbar
and by rectified AC. The principle components and sections of the control system
associated with excitation are:
1. Control Switch.
The primary windings of the compounding transformer are in series with the three
phases of the generator and the secondary windings in series with the
compounding rectifier.
When the control switch is in the Start position, DC from the main busbar is
supplied to the slip rings and the windings of the generator rotor; thus, with the
generator running, a rotating magnetic field is set up to induce an alternating
output to the stator. This output is tapped to feed magnetic amplifier type of
voltage regulator, which supplies a sensing current signal to the excitation
rectifier. When this signal reaches a pre-determined Off-Load value, the
rectified AC through the rotor winding is sufficient for the generator to become
self-excited and independent of the main busbar supply which is then
disconnected.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The output terminals of a three-phase generator are marked to show the phase
sequence, and these terminals are connected to busbars, which are also
identified correspondingly. Figure 42 shows a basic three-phase A.C. generator.
PHASE A
STATOR
N
ROTOR
PHASE B
PHASE C
N
N
1. Star connection.
2. Delta connection.
The Star connection is commonly used in generators. One end of each phase
is connected to the Neutral point, while the opposite ends of the windings are
connected to three separate lines. With this arrangement, two-phase windings
are connected between each pair of lines. A star connection arrangement is
shown in figure 43.
A
A PHASE
VOLTAGE
A1
NEUTRAL
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE
A B PHASE
C VOLTAGE
B B
C1
B1
LINE VOLTAGE
= 3 x PHASE LINE VOLTAGE
C PHASE = 3 x PHASE
VOLTAGE
C
PHASE VOLTAGE = 115V
Star Connection
Figure 43
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LINE
AG E
VOLTAGE
L T AS
E
LINE
VO
PH TA
VO PH
A1
L
VOLTAGE
AS GE
C1
A
A C L CURRENT
= 3 PHASE CURRENT
B B1
B PHASE LINE
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
Delta Connection
Figure 44
3.22 BUSBARS
In most types of aircraft, the output from the generating sources are coupled to
one or more low impedance conductors referred to as Busbars. These are
usually situated in junction boxes or distribution panels located at central points
within the aircraft, and they provide a convenient means for connecting positive
supplies to the various consumer circuits.
2. Essential Services.
3. Non-Essential Services.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Vital Services; are those which would be required after an emergency wheels-up
landing, e.g. emergency lighting and crash switch operation of fire extinguishers.
These services are connected directly to the battery.
GEN No 2 No 3 GEN
No 1 INVERTER INVERTER No 2
NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS
No 1 No 2
BUSBAR BUSBAR
NON-ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS D.C. CONSUMERS
BATTERY
BUSBAR
No 1
INVERTER
VITAL D.C.
ESSENTIAL
CONSUMERS
A.C. CONSUMERS
ESSENTIAL BUSBAR
ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS
In figure 44, the power supplies are 28v D.C. from two engine driven generators
operating in parallel, 115v A.C. 400 Hz A.C. from rotary inverters, and 28v D.C.
from the batteries. Each generator has its own busbar to which are connected
the Non-essential consumer services. Both busbars are in turn connected to a
single busbar, which supplies power to the Essential consumer services.
With both generators operating, all consumer services are supplied with power.
The essential busbar is also connected to the battery busbar ensuring that the
batteries are maintained in the charged condition. In the event that one generator
should fail it is automatically isolated from its respective busbar and all busbar
loads are taken over by the operative generator.
Should both generators fail, the non-essential services are no longer provided
with power, the batteries automatically supply power to the essential busbar to
supply the essential services (A.C. essential services via the No inverter). The
batteries will maintain the essential busbar for a period calculated on consumer
load requirements and the battery states of charge.
EXTERNAL
BUS TIE
No 1 A.C. BUSBAR No 2 A.C. BUSBAR POWER
BREAKER
RELAY
NON-ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL
A.C. CONSUMERS A.C. CONSUMERS
CHANGE
ESSENTIAL OVER
A.C. BUSBAR REALY
Figure 46
PART 3
STATIC
AEROPLANE
ESSENTIAL INVERTER
AERODYNAMICS,
A.C. CONSUMERS No 1 No 2
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
TRU TRU
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
VITAL D.C.
CONSUMERS ESSENTIAL NON-ESSENTIAL
D.C. CONSUMERS D.C. CONSUMERS
The supply of D.C. is derived from independent TRUs and the batteries. The No
1 TRU supplies essential loads and the No 2 TRU supplies non-essential loads
connected to the main D.C. busbar. Both the main and essential D.C. busbars
are automatically interconnected by an isolation relay.
In the event that one generator should fail it is automatically isolated from its
respective busbar and all busbar loads are taken over by the operative generator.
If, for any reason, the power supplied from both generators should fail the non-
essential services will be isolated and the change over relay between No 1 main
busbar, and the essential A.C. busbar will automatically de-energize and connect
the essential A.C. busbar to an emergency static inverter. The main D.C. busbar
is isolated from the essential D.C. busbar by the isolation relay de-energizing.
The essential D.C. busbar deriving its D.C. supply directly from the battery busbar
to maintain the operation of the essential D.C. and A.C. supplies.
External power can also be connected to the whole system to supply both A.C.
and D.C. to the system.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The supply of the automatic ac bus transfer system and the dc bus transfer
system are given below at Figures 47.
P R I O R IT Y
P R I O R IT Y * M A N U A L O P E R A T IO N
1 T RU 1 B AT 1 T RU 3 T RU 3 B AT 2 T RU 2 D C EX T
PW R
3 - - - B AT TE R IE S - - -
Figure 48 shows the AC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
AC priority as shows in Figure 47.
GSBC 1
GCB 2
AC GRND SERV
AC BUS 2
GEN
2
GSBC 2
BTB 2
PWR
EXT
ESS AC BUS
EPC
EMERG AC BUS
APC
APTC
EBTC
EBTR
GEN
3
GPTC
BTB 1
EMERGENCY
INVERTER
AC BUS 1
GEN
1
GCB 1
AC Busbar System
Figure 48
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 49 shows the DC Busbar system, which would satisfy the requirements of
DC priority as shows in Figure 47.
CHARGER
BATTERY
AC BUS 2
BATT BUS 2
SERV BUS
AC GND
BATT 2
AC BUS 2
BIC 2
SERV
GND
TRU
DC BUS 2
TRU
2
2
1
EMERG DC BUS
DC EBPC
BPC
1
TRU
3
DC EPR
DC BTC
ESS DC BUS
DC EXT
DC BUS 1
DC EBTC
PWR
TRU
1
BIC 1
AC BUS 1
BATT 1
BATT BUS 1
CHARGER
BATTERY
AC BUS 1
DC Busbar System
Figure 49
GPU
APU
XPC 2
APB
TIE BUS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A split parallel electrical system allows for the flexibility in load distribution but
maintains isolation between systems when required. When closed, the split
system breaker connects all generators together, thus paralleling the system.
When open, the split system breaker isolates the right and left systems, thus
creating a more flexible parallel system. Figure 51 shows a split parallel system
for a four engine aircraft.
GPU GPU
APU
XPC 2 XPC 2
APB
SSB
1. Voltage Regulation.
2. Current Limiting.
5. Crew Alerting
The major component used to perform these functions is called the Generator
Control Unit (GCU). The GCU regulates generator output by sensing the
aircrafts system voltage and comparing it with a reference signal. The voltage
regulator then sends an adjusted current flow to the exciter field of the main
generator. This in turn controls the main generators output voltage.
The control unit must automatically reconnect any essential loads to an operable
bus. This power manipulation must take place within a fraction of a second to
ensure an uninterrupted flight. To achieve this, modern aircraft employ a solid
state Bus Power Control Unit (BPCU).
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The BPCU also receives data from the Generator Control Unit GCU, the Ground
Power Control Unit (GPCU) and various bus ties and circuit breakers of the
system. It also receives input information concerning system loads from Load
Controllers. Load controllers are electric circuits that sense real system current
and provide control signals for the generators CSDU rpm governor. The CSDU
output rpm in turn affects the generator output frequency. Load controllers
receive their input signals from current transformers. Figure 52 shows current
transformers as fitted to the Boeing 737 aircraft.
TO PROTECTION
CIRCUITS
Current Transformers
Figure 52
Current transformers consist of three inductive pickup coils that provide current
sensing signals. The main power leads carrying the three phase A.C. supply
from each generator are routed through the corresponding holes in the current
transformer. As the A.C. travels through the cable, the corresponding magnetic
field induces a voltage into the current transformer. The electrical signals from
the current transformer, in conjunction with the GCU and BPCU, are used to
control protection circuitry and supply signals to load meters on the overhead
panel in the flightdeck. Figure 53 shows the operation of a current transformer.
Current transformers
Figure 53
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
APU GEN
GCU
APB
GEN
APU
BPCU
BTB
RIGHT
GCU
BTB
GTB
RIGHT
IDG
LEFT
GCU
GTB
BTB
LEFT
IDG
1. A Field Power Supply (TR unit) which converts 3-phase ac power from the
generator to a rippled dc voltage for the generator exciter.
2. A Control dc Power Supply (TR unit) which converts 3-phase ac power from
the generator to 28 volt dc power for the generator switch and the protection
circuits.
The GCR can be tripped by three manual actions and automatically by the
detection of five faults:
Manual
5. Over Frequency.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
6. Over-voltage Unit
The unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from over voltage faults. The unit will operate, to protect the system, when the
voltage rises to (typically) above 220 volts and in effect disconnects the generator
from its loads. Figure 55 shows the circuit for the Over-voltage Unit.
VOLTAGE NORMAL
DE-ENERGISED
OVERVOLT
RELAY
TR1 TR2
D9
D1 D3 D5
R1
LOW
D2 D4 D6
VOLTS
HIGH
VOLTS
ZD4 ZD5
NO BREAKDOWN D8
R4
RV1 T1 T2 T3
C2
Over-voltage Unit
Figure 55
The supply to the unit is via two open-delta connected transformers TR1 and TR2
via the full-wave Rectifier Bridge, across which is connected the potential divider
network R1, RV1 and R2. Under normal conditions, the voltage developed
across RV1 and R2 is not sufficient to break down Zener diodes ZD1, ZD2 and
ZD3. Transistor T1 is therefore not conducting but transistor T2 is, due to the
high potential on its base. This means that T3 is not conducting and the over
voltage relay is not energised.
When the supply voltage exceeds 220 volts, ZD1, ZD2 and ZD3 break down and
(after a time delay afforded by R4, R5 and C2) the voltage across R3 is able to
energise transistor T1. Thus T1 conducts, shutting off T2, which causes T3 to
conduct and the relay to be energised.
The length of the time will vary considerably, depending on the value of the over-
voltage and on the rate at which the voltage is rising. The following figures are
given as a rough guide: at 220 volts the unit will operate in less than 10
seconds; at 225 volts it will operate in 0.7 to 1.6 seconds; at 250 volts it will
operate in 0.35 to 0.65 seconds. From this it can be said that the time delay is
Inversely proportional to the value of the over-voltage (i.e. the higher the over-
voltage the shorter the time delay).
This unit is designed to protect electrical systems of 200 volts, 3-phase, 400 Hz
from under-voltage faults. It will operate, to protect the system, when the voltage
falls to (typically) 173 2 volts and in effect disconnects the generator from its
load. It also affords protection against incorrect phase rotation in the event of the
generator being incorrectly connected.
The supply to the unit is applied to two open-delta connected transformers TR1
and TR2. Each transformer has two secondary windings S1 and S2. The S1
secondary windings supply the phase sequence circuit, whilst the S2 windings
supply the transistor amplifier and voltage sensing circuits.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 56 shows the Under-voltage & Reverse Phase Sequencer Unit circuit.
S1 S2 S2 S1 D4
D1 D3 D5
R6
D2 D4 D6
T1
D2 T2
C1 ZD1 D1
ZD2
D3
R1
C2 R T R
4 H 5 R
R C4
7
C3
Under normal operating conditions the under volt relay is energised, i.e.:
transistors T1 and T2 are switched on. This is accomplished using a two-input
AND gate circuit formed by D1, R6 and D3, R5, thermistor THR and R4. When
D1 and D3 are blocked by the phase sequence circuit and by the voltage
sensing circuit respectively, the transistors are switched ON and the relay is
energised. Should either diode be unblocked, current will flow through it and
through R6, resulting in the relay being de-energised.
The time delay is to prevent tripping of the GCR due to transient under-voltages,
or to allow the CSD to slow down to a UF (Under-frequency) condition on engine
shutdown and inhibit tripping of the GCR.
NO
+V E W H E N G E N
C1 C H AR G E
O U T PU T N O R MA L
Q1
ON
R2
B R E A KD O W N
R E G U L AT E D DC (A F T E R C 1 C H A R G E D )
F RO M G C U
PO W E R SU PPL IES Z D1 D1
R1
OU TPU T
(G C U T R IP )
0V WH EN GEN
O U T P U T U ND E R V O LT A G E
C1 C H AR G E
O R IN C O O R E C T P H A S E
S E Q U E N CE
Q1
OFF
R2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
At a level greater than 430 5Hz the OF detector will send a signal to trip the
GCB.
At a level of less than 365 5Hz, the UF detector will send a signal to trip the
GCB, to inhibit the power ready circuit involved in closing the GCB and to prevent
an under-voltage (UV) signal from tripping the GCR during engine shut down.
Figure 58 shows the Abnormal Frequency Protection circuit.
PWR
READY
INHIBIT UV
ON ENG
SHUTDOWN
GEN UF DETECTOR
O/P 365 Hz 5Hz
GB
0.5 - 1 SEC
TRIP
OF DETECTOR
430 Hz 5Hz
BUSBAR
FAULT
IF
LOAD
(I - I F) + (IF) = I I-IF
DP DETECTOR
IN GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If the current from the generator is I, and the fault current between the generator
and busbar equals If, then the net current will flow through the aircrafts structure
and back to the generator through the ground DPCT. The remainder of the
current I - If , will flow through the load DPCT, the load, the aircraft structure, and
then back to the generator via the ground DPCT. Thus, the ground DPCT will
detect the generators total current (I - If) + (If) which is equal to I, and the load
DPCT will detect I - If.
The difference in current (i.e. the fault current) between the two current
transformers on the phase line is sensed to be greater than the specified limit (20
30A are typical values) a protector circuit within the GCU will trip the generator
control relay.
GCB
CT4 CT1
CT5 CT2
CT6 GEN CT3
R R R
1 3 5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R TO TRIP
V GCR
R R R 1 & GCB
2 4 6 C1
ZD1 D4
GCB
CT1
CT2
CT3
GEN
TO TRIP
GCR
& GCB
R R R
1 3 5
D1
R7
D2
D3
R
V
R R R 1
2 4 6 C1
ZD1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The primary purpose of the Generator Control Unit (GCU) is to connect the output
of the field power supply to the generator field. This is achieved using a
Generator Control relay (GCR).
The GCR can only be closed by momentarily placing the generator control switch
to ON.
The GCB can only be closed by placing the generator switch momentarily to ON,
energising the power ready relay (GCR closed, not UV, not UF) and tripping other
breakers necessary to prevent paralleling.
The GCR can be tripped by three manual actions and automatically by the
detection of five faults.
Manual actions:
Automatic Trip:
1. OV (220V 6V).
2. UV (173V 6V).
3. OC (170A B737).
5. OF (430 5 Hz).
The GCR having been tripped, or an UF (365 5 Hz) condition will trip the GCB.
TRIP &
INTERLOCK
FIELD CCTS
CLOSE
POWER
GCR TO
SUPPLY
GEN
FIELD
CONTROL
DC PWR
UV
Figure 62
MODULE 11
FREQUENCY UF
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
GEN AC GB TRIP
CUURENT OV/UV
LINE GCR
CCTS DETECTOR
TRIP
OC - DP
Page 3-97
CSD DISC
GEN OFF
FIRE HANDLE
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.24 TRANSFORMERS
2. Current Transformers.
Voltage transformers are connected so that the primary windings are in parallel
with the supply voltage, in the current transformers, the primary windings are
connected in series with the supply voltage. These transformers may be single
phase or three-phase devices. Transformers for three-phase circuits can be
connected in one of several combinations of star and delta connections
depending on the requirements for the transformer.
When the star connection is used in a three-phase transformer for the operation
of three-phase equipment, the transformer may be connected as a three-phase
system. If a single phase load has to be powered from a three-phase supply it is
sometimes difficult to keep them balanced, itr is therefore essential to provide a
neutral wire so that connections of the loads may be made between this and any
one of the three-phase lines. Figure 63 & 64 show transformer connections.
STAR-WOUND
PRIMARY
DELTA-WOUND
PRIMARY
STAR - DELTA
CONNECTION
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
If the frequency is reduced at a constant value of voltage, then the current will
rise. The increased current will in turn bring the transformer core nearer to
magnetic saturation and this decreases the effective value of inductance leading
to still larger current. Thus, if a transformer is used at a frequency lower that that
for which it was designed, there is a risk of excessive heat generation at the
primary windings and subsequent burn out.
On the other hand, a transformer designed for low frequency can be used with
higher frequencies, since in this case the primary current will be reduced.
LOAD
D.C.
D6
D5
D3
D4
D1
D2
A.C. SUPPLY
3 PHASE
Transformer-Rectifier Operation
Figure 64
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
RECTIFIER
SECTION
TRANSFORMER
SECTION
AMMETER SHUNT
TERMINALS
A.C. INPUT
TERMAINLS
TEMPERATURE
WARNING SYSTEM
TERMINAL
D.C. OUTPUT
TEMINALS
Transformer-rectifier Unit
Figure 65
Figure 66 shows the schematic circuit for the TRU shown in figure 65.
WARNING
SYSTEM
METER
D.C.
O/P
DELTA
TRANSFORMER UNIT
RECTIFIER UNIT
STAR
STAR
A.C.
I/P
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The unit consists of a transformer and two three-phase bridge rectifier assemblies
mounted in separate sections of the casing. The transformer has a conventional
star-wound primary winding and secondary windings wound in both star and delta
configurations.
Cooling for the unit is by convection through gauze covered ventilation panels
and in order to give warning of over-heating conditions, thermal switches are
provided at the transformer and rectifier assemblies, and are connected to
independent warning lights. These switches are supplied with D.C. from an
external D.C. source (normally on of the busbars) and their contacts close when
temperature conditions at their respective locations rise to approximately 150C
and 200C.
Used to produce 26V or 115V 400Hz from a D.C. source. It consists of a D.C.
motor driving an A.C. generator, and since many of the systems, which are to be
operated from it, are dependent on constant voltage and frequency, the A.C.
supply must be regulated accordingly. Figure 67 shows a Rotary Inverter circuit.
28V D.C.
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
115V
400Hz
MOTOR GENERATOR
When the inverter is switched on, D.C. is supplied to the motor armature and
shunt filed winding, and also to the excitation field winding of the generator. The
motor will start to drive the generator, which in turn produces a three-phase A.C.
output at 115V. In order to control the voltage at this level, the D.C. supply is
passed through a resistor in series with the generator field. This resistor is pre-
set to give the required excitation current at the regulated D.C. system voltage
level.
Since the frequency of the generator output is dependent of the speed of rotation
of the motor, this requires some form of control. This is achieved by using
another pre-set resistor , which is connected in series with the motor shunt filed to
provide sufficient excitation current to run the motor and generator at the speed
necessary to produce a 400Hz output.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
28V D.C.
INVERTER
CONTROL
BREAKER
SHUNT 115V
FIELD 400Hz
CARBON
PILE
SERIES
FIELD
RECTIFIER
REGULATOR
FIELD
The motor and generator share a common armature and filed system, and control
of voltage and frequency is based on the carbon pile regulator system. The D.C.
section of the machine is of the four-pole compound wound type, the D.C. being
supplied to the armature winding, series and shunt field-windings. The A.C.
section corresponds to a star-wound generator, the winding being located in slots
of the armature and beneath the D.C. windings.
The A.C. winding is connected to a triple slip ring and brush-gear assembly at at
the opposite end to the commutator. When the inverter is in operation, a three-
phase output is induced in a rotating winding and not a fixed stator winding as in
the case of a conventional A.C. generator.
The A.C. output is rectified and supplied to the voltage coil of the regulator which
varies the pile resistance in the usual manner, this in turn, varying the current flow
through the common field system to keep both the voltage and frequency of the
A.C. output within limits.
These inverters perform the same conversion function as the rotary machines,
but by means of solid state circuit principles. They are employed in a number of
types of aircraft and in some cases providing the normal source of A.C. They are
more commonly used in supplying emergency sources of A.C. to certain essential
A.C. systems when a failure of the normal source of A.C. has occurred. Figure
69 shows a block schematic of a static inverter.
HARMONIC
FILTER
ODD
400Hz
115V
A.C.
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
SENSOR
SENSOR
OUTPUT
STAGE
NOTCH
TIME
REGULATOR
GENERATOR
CONSTANT
CURRENT
POWER
DRIVER
NOTCH
TIME
CONTROL
NOTCH
400Hz SQUARE-
GENERATOR
NETWORK
SHAPER
FILTER
PULSE
WAVE
TURN ON
DELAY
D.C.
28V
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This output is then supplied to a pulse shaper circuit, which controls the pulse
width of the signal and changes its waveform before passing it onto the power
driver stage. The D.C. required for pulse shaper operation is supplied via a turn-
on delay circuit. This is to cause the pulse shaper to delay its output to the power
driver stage until the voltage is stabilised.
The output stage also produces a square-wave output but of variable pulse width.
This output is finally fed to a filter circuit, which reduces the total odd harmonics
to produce a sine wave output at the voltage and frequency required for operating
the systems connected to the inverter.
As in the case of other types of generators, the output of a static inverter must be
maintained within certain limits. In the example shown, this is achieved by means
of voltage and current sensors, both of which control the notch time of the pulse
width shaper output via a regulator and notch control circuit.
The Boeing 737 aircrafts electrical system operates using a split busbar system
and is shown in Figure 70
TR 2
BATTERY BUS
MAIN BUS 2
GCB 2
TRU 3
GEN BUS 2
TRANSFER
RELAY 2
TRANS BUS 2
115 V
GEN
APU
BTB 2
TRU 2
GCB
APU
DC BUS 2
DISCONNECT
TRU 3
EPC
TRU 1
BTB 1
TRANS BUS 1
DC BUS 1
POWER
115 V
EXT
TRANSFER
RELAY 1
GEN BUS 1
TR 1
GEN 1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The controls for the electrical system on the Boeing 737 300 are on the
'ELECTRIC' section of the overhead panel. There are 4 panels controlling the
electrical system. Figure 71 shows the P5-13 panel.
D.C. METER SELECTOR Selects the D.C. source for the D.C. voltmeter
indications.
RESIDUAL VOLTS SWITCH Push to read the residual voltage of the selected
generator (with associated generator control relay tripped).
A.C. VOLTMETER Indicates (130 volt scale) voltage of the source selected.
When the residual volts switch is pushed, the 30 volt scale reads residual voltage
of the selected generator.
A.C. METERS SELECTOR Selects the A.C. source for A.C. voltmeter and
frequency meter indications.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
STANDBY POWER OFF LIGHT Illuminated amber when standby buses are not
powered.
AUTO - Normal operation switch position. With loss of all A.C. power in the air,
the battery is automatically connected to supply the D.C. standby bus power for
essential D.C. equipment and to the inverter to supply A.C. standby bus power for
essential A.C. equipment. To prevent unnecessary battery drain on the ground,
the standby busses are not powered by the battery.
BAT Battery supplies power to the battery bus. The D.C. standby bus and turns
on the inverter to supply the A.C. standby bus.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
BUS OFF LIGHTS Illuminated amber when the No 1, or 2 generator bus, is not
powered.
GENERATOR OFF BUS LIGHTS Illuminated blue when the generator is not
supplying the generator bus (generator is OFF the bus).
APU GENERATOR OFF BUS LIGHT Illuminated blue when the APU is running
but the generator is not supplying a generator bus.
NOTE; Both APU generator switches work the same on the ground. Only one bus
can be powered by the APU generator in the air.
ON If ground power is available, the engine or APU generators are tripped off
the generator busses and ground power is supplied to the generator busses.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The controls for the APU are located on the forward overhead panel and consist
of the following:
APU SWITCH Three position switch OFF momentary START and spring
loaded to ON.
LOW OIL QUANTITY LIGHT Illuminated blue when oil tank fluid level is low.
LOW OIL PRESSURE LIGHT Illuminated amber when oil pressure is low. APU
automatically shuts down.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The primary power source is non-paralleled 115/200V 3 phase 400Hz A.C. from
two 40kVA generators. A source of A.C. power can be supplied from another
40kVA generator riven by an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). Power can also be
supplied form an external A.C. power unit. All D.C. is supplied via three TRUs.
The four power sources are connected to the busbars by six 3-phase breakers
and two transfer relays, which are energised and de-energised according to the
switching selections, made on the system control panels. An interlocking circuit
between breakers and switches is also provided to enable proper sequencing of
breaker and overall system operation. A source of power switched onto or
entering the system always takes priority and so will automatically disconnect any
existing power source.
The switches on the control panel (P5-4) are of a Momentary Select type in that
following a selection, they are returned to a neutral position by spring loading.
The bus transfer switch is retained in the Auto position by a guard cover to
provide a path for signals controlling the Normal and Alternate positions of the
transfer relays. In the Off position the transfer relays are prevented from being
energised to the Alternate position so that the two generating systems are
completely isolated from each other.
Ground Power Available (Blue) - When external power is plugged into the
aircraft.
Transfer Bus Off (Amber) - When either the normal coil or a transfer
relay is de-energised.
Bus Off (Amber) - If both the respective GCB and BTB are
open.
APU Gen Bus Off (Blue) - If APU engine is running and over 95%
rev/min, but there is no power from the
generator.
3.26.5 Operation
When external power is connected to the aircraft and is switched on, the external
power contactor closes and energises both bus-tie breakers (BTB) to connect
power to the whole busbar system. The connection between the generator
busbars and the transfer bus busbars is made via the transfer relays which are
energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
Once the number one engine is started and the generator switch (P5-4) is
selected to ON, the BTB 1 will open and GCB 1 will closes, ensuring that all the
number one systems power is delivered from the number one generator. At this
time however the external power is still providing power for the number 2 system.
When the number two engine has been started and its generator switched on,
BTB 2 trips open, GCB 2 closes to connect the generator to the number two
system busbars, and the external power contactor also trips open.
If it is only necessary for the services connected to the ground service busbar to
be operated from external power, this may be achieved by leaving the ground
power switch on P5-4 in the OFF position, and switching a separate ground
service switch (forward attendants panel) to ON. The switch energises a
ground service relay the contacts of which change over a connection from the
generator bus 1 to the external power busbar.
The APU generator is connected to the entire busbar system via its own three-
phase breaker, this, in turn being energised by two APU generator switches on
the P5-4 panel. Placing the left (No 1) switch to ON closes the APU generator
breaker and also BTB 1, and with the right or (No 2) switch placed to ON the
BTB 2 is closed. As in the case of connecting an external power supply, the
transfer relays are energised to the Normal position by the BTBs.
The normal in-flight configuration of the power distribution system is for each
generator to supply its respective busbars through its own breakers (GCB1 &
GCB 2). The generator switches (P5-4) then energise these breakers; the
interlock circuits keep BTBs 1 & 2 in the open position, so that the generator
systems are always kept entirely separate. GCB 1 and GCB 2 have a set of
auxiliary contacts which in the closed position energise transfer relays to their
Normal positions and so provide connections between generators and transfer
busbars 1 and 2. As will be noted from the diagram, the transfer busbars supply
TRUs 1 and 2 while TRU 3 is supplied direct from main busbar 2.
In the event of a loss of power from one or the other generators, say the number
1 for example; GCB 1 will open thus isolating the corresponding busbars. When
GCB 1opens, another set of auxiliary contacts within the breaker permit a D.C.
signal to flow from the control unit of the number 2 generator via a bus transfer
switch, the alternate coil of transfer relay 1. The contacts will change over so
that power is supplied to the number 1transfer busbar from generator 2
generator, which is still supplying its busbars in the normal way. A similar
transfer of power takes place in the event of loss of power from generator 2.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Generator busbar 1 and main busbar 1 which carry non-essential loads, can not
be supplies with power from generator 2 under the power loss example given on
the previous page. If, however, power to these busbars is required, the APU may
be started in flight and its number 1 switch (P5-4), momentary placed to the ON
position, thereby closing the APU breaker and the BTB 1. At the same time,
transfer relay 1 contacts would change over from Alternate to Normal so that
the APU supplies the whole number 1 system. If a loss of power from the
number 2 system should occur, it is not possible to connect it to the APU since its
number 2 switch is electrically locked out during in flight operations.
Figure 75 shows the routing of the feeder lines from the main generators and the
APU generators. At the wing/fuselage junction, the lines pass through sealed
connectors into the underfloor area. All lines are then routed through an
electrical/electronics compartment. Those from the main generators pass
through sealed connectors into unpressurised nosewheel well to connect up with
the generator breakers.
TO LOAD
BUSBARS
APU
GENERATOR
P6 PANEL BREAKER
LINE CURRENT
TRANSFORMER
ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
No 1
GENERATOR
BREAKER
No 2
GENERATOR
BREAKER ENGINE/WING
DISCONNECT
CSD/GENERATOR
NUMBER 1
FROM APU
CSD/GENERATOR GENERATOR
NUMBER 2
The feeder lines from the APU generators are connected to its breaker located
above floor level within a special compartment (P6) on the flight deck to the rear
of the First Officers position. This compartment contains most of the A.C. and
D.C. busbars, bus-tie breakers, and voltage control and protection units for all
three generators and an external power control unit. Figure 76 shows the
location of the electrical/electronics compartment and the P6 compartment.
P6
EXTERNAL PANEL
GENERATOR APU BUSBAR
POWER GENERATOR &
BREAKERS BREAKER PROTECTION
PANEL APU CONTROL
UNITS
BUSTIE
BREAKERS
TRUs
BATTERY
CHARGER
NOSE
WHEEL
BAY
EXTERNAL
POWER
CONTACTOR
INVERTER
E1 RACK
E3 RACK
BATTERY
EXTERNAL D.C.
RECEPTACLE
E2 RACK
ACCESS DOOR
TO COMPARTMENT
Electrical/Electronic/P6 Compartments
Figure 76
The feeder lines from the main generator breakers pass into this compartment to
connect with the A.C. busbars. A circuit breaker panel is mounted on the front
side of the compartment, thus this compartment is termed the Load Control
Centre of the aircraft.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
APU GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
BUS
PROTECTION
PANEL
G5
G7
POWER
115 V A.C.
SUPPLIES
FOR TEST G4 G3
28V D.C.
EQUIPMENT
No 2 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
GEN BUS GEN BUS
No 2 No 1
No 1 GENERATOR
CONTROL UNIT
P6 Panel
Figure 77
2. A 36 Ampere/hour battery.
3. Battery Charger.
The TRUS convert 115V A.C. to 28V D.C. and are identified as TRU 1, TRU 2
and TRU 3. The three TRUs are connected in such a way that the loss of any
one unit will not result in the loss of a D.C. busbar. The relay between TRU 1 and
TRU 3 is held closed by supplying D.C. signals from the generator control units
via the bus transfer switch in its Auto position. Figure 78 shows the D.C. power
distribution system.
115 V AC 115 V AC
GRND SERV BUS MAIN BUS 2
ALTERNATE
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY 115 V AC 115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 2
BATT
OVERHEAT
RLY
APU START
INTERLOCK
RLY
DC BUS 1 DC BUS 2
STANDBY POWER
BATT BUS
BATTERY
BAT OFF AUTO
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The B747 aircraft uses a further variation of the split busbar system. Its A.C.
power generating system utilises a system of interlocking GCBs and BTBs, but
in this case various combinations of generator operation are possible. Figure 79
shows a simplified diagram of the B747 A.C. power generation system.
GPU
GEN 4
XPC 2
GCB 4
BTB 4
AC BUS 4
TIE BUS
GEN 3
GCB 3
BTB 3
AC BUS 3
SSB
GEN 2
GCB 2
BTB 2
AC BUS 2
APU
TIE BUS
APB
GEN 1
XPC 2
GCB 1
BTB 1
AC BUS 1
GPU
3.27.1 Operation
If the GCBs only are closed, then each generator will only supply its respective
load busbar; in other words, they are operated individually and unparalleled. The
generators may, however, also be operated in parallel when the BTBs are closed
to connect the load busbars to the Tie-Busbar. As will be noted from figure 77,
this busbar is split into two parts by a split system breaker (SSB) which, in the
open position allows the generators to operate in two parallel pairs.
Closing of the SSB connects both parts of the Tie-Busbar so that all four
generators can operate as a fully paralleled system. By means of the interlocking
system between breakers and the manual and automatic sequencing by which
they are controlled, any generator can supply power to any load busbar, and any
combination of generators can be operated in parallel.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
When a load is placed on an ac busbar, the nature of the load will determine the
power factor of the system. Any load current, whether leading or lagging, can be
thought of as having two components: -
The component in phase with the voltage is termed the real load component and
the quadrature component is termed the reactive load component. Figure 80
shows the In-phase and In-Quadrature components of load current.
VOLTAGE
CURRENT (REAL)
CURRENT (REACTIVE)
CU
RR
EN
T(
AC
TU
AL
)
CURRENT (REAL)
POWER FACTOR =
CURRENT (ACTUAL)
I1 (REAL)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1
(AC
TU
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
I1 (REAL)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1
(AC
TU
AL
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2
(A
CT
U AL
)
GEN 2
If the speed governor setting on one constant speed drive is higher than others in
a parallel operating system, its associated generator will motor the generators
with which it is paralleled. In this case, the generator with the higher speed
governor setting rotates at the same speed as its constant speed drive output.
Since each generator is mechanically coupled to its own constant speed drive
through an overrunning clutch, the generators which are being motored rotate at
a speed which is higher than their associated constant speed drive output.
Therefore there is less transfer of energy from the constant speed drives to the
generators, which are being motored.
Since the energy supplied to the motored generators originates from a generator
with a higher speed governor setting, this generator carries more than its share of
real load and the motored generators carry less than their share of real load. To
equally divide real load among parallel generators, equal amounts of energy must
be supplied in the form of torque on the generator rotors.
Real Load sharing is controlled by adjustment of the Constant Speed Drive Unit.
Figure 83 shows a real load sharing loop.
GOVERNOR
DETECTOR
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
ERROR
TO CSD
CONTROL
LOAD
GEN
4
GOVERNOR
DETECTOR
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
ERROR
TO CSD
CONTROL
LOAD
GEN
3
DETECTOR
GOVERNOR
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
ERROR
TO CSD
CONTROL
LOAD
GEN
2
DETECTOR
GOVERNOR
AMPLIFIER
MAGNETIC
ERROR
TO CSD
CONTROL
LOAD
GEN
1
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Gen A and Gen B are two ac generators operating in parallel. If the excitation
(field current) of an ac generator is altered, the output voltage will be altered also.
Assume Gen B to be overexcited and thus receiving more field current than Gen
A. The output voltage of Gen B will increase and the voltage difference between
the generators will cause a circulating current to flow from Gen B to Gen A.
Figure 84 shows reactive current circuit.
REACTIVE
GEN A 115V CIRCULATING 125V GEN B
CURRENT
Because of the very inductive nature of the ac generator, this current will be
lagging by approximately 90 to the generators emf and so represents a reactive
load. Although no real power circulates between the generators, the current
causes the generators and their lines to overheat due to power developed within
the resistance of the copper conductors. This loss restricts the real power output
current of the generator and limits the amount of power or torque available to
keep the generators synchronised. The excitation of the generators must
therefore be kept equal, so that zero reactive currents flows between them.
I1 (REAL)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1
(AC
TU
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
AL
)
GEN 1
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2
(AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
I1 (REAL)
I1 (REACTIVE)
I1
(A
CT
TOTAL REACTIVE LOAD
U AL
GEN 1 )
I2 (REAL)
I2 (REACTIVE)
I2 (
AC
TU
AL
)
GEN 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
DETECTOR
ERROR
REACTOR
MUTUAL
GEN
4
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
DETECTOR
ERROR
REACTOR
MUTUAL
GEN
3
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
DETECTOR
ERROR
REACTOR
MUTUAL
GEN
2
AND GENERATOR
SHUNT FIELD
TO PRE-AMP
DETECTOR
ERROR
REACTOR
MUTUAL
GEN
1
The mutual reactor is a device capable of sensing reactive load. Note that its
primary winding (P) is fed from a current transformer at phase C. Its secondary
winding (S) is fed directly from the same phase. The air gap in its core causes a
phase shift of 90 between the primary current and the secondary voltage. Figure
88 shows the circuit of the mutual reactor operation.
GENERATOR OUTPUT
MUTUAL
REACTIVE REACTOR
LOAD SHARE
LOOP VOLTAGE
REGULATOR
TO THE
TIE BUS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Ip
Vs
Figure 89
Is Ip
Vs
Figure 90
Is I PHASE C Ip
(SECONDARY)Vc
V SECONDARY
V PHASE C
Figure 91
Is Ip
Vs
Figure 92
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Standby Generator.
Some larger aircraft have standby generators. These generators are a variable
speed, variable frequency type and operate when the engines are running. They
connect to a back-up generator converter, which makes the standby generator
output into a stable 115V, 400Hz.
Normally located in the aft end of the fuselage, behind the pressure bulkhead and
below the horizontal stabilizer and is a single shaft gas turbine. The APU
generator is normally identical to the engine generators and will supply 55kVA on
the ground or 45kVA as an alternate electrical power source. Figure 93 shows
the location of the APU (Boeing 737).
APU
COOLING ENGINE
FAN
APU AIR
INLET
EXHAUST DUCT
COOLING AIR
INLET
EXHAUST
MUFFLER
COOLING
ACCESS AIR EXIT
DOOR
GENERATOR
The RAT is stowed in the fuselage, usually in the underbelly or in the lower side
of a wing to body fairing. Should the main hydraulic system pressure fall to zero
(i.e. all pumps failed), or the electrical generators should all fail, the RAT will
automatically deploy into the airstream. Figure 94 shows the RAT from a Boeing
777 aircraft.
FWD INBD
PROPELLER/GOVERNER G E N E R A TO R
O U T P UT E L E CT R ICA L
UNIT
RAT C O N NE C T O R S
GENERATOR HYDRAULIC
PUMP
M O U N TIN G
H OL ES
G C U S IG N AL S
& POW ER
IN P UT
S H AF T
FW D
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2. A hydraulic pump,
The ram air turbine drives a hydraulic Pump, which directly powers flight controls
and landing gear. The RAT supplies electric loads such as actuators and DC
Power loads by driving a hydraulic motor generator. Some aircraft have sufficient
battery reserves for minimal functions.
The ram air turbine drives a generator when the aircraft makes use of electric
motor pumps (EMP) for hydraulic functions. Flight controls and landing gear are
operated by the RAT through the EMP, while AC and DC power loads are drawn
directly off the RAT generator.
The ram air turbine can drive both the generator and pump if the use of other
subsystems for power conversion is not desired. Higher total power availability is
achievable by managing pump, or generator loading, at the RAT according to
system priorities and turbine capability.
Certification for ETOPS operation must consider operation of the aircraft with
partial loss of power due to one engine out. Additional consideration of loss of
main generator or pumps is also a concern in this situation. Therefore ram air
turbine operation throughout the envelope in all weather for 120 or 180-minute
diversions can help optimize the number of backup subsystems aboard the
aircraft.
Electrical power is required for the ground operations of aircraft for turn rounds,
engine starting, lighting and so on. While the aircraft batteries are capable of
supplying these services for a very limited period, they should be conserved for
the important role of supplying power under emergency conditions. A separate
circuit is therefore incorporated to allow for connection of external power supplies
to aircraft.
3 PIN EXTERNAL
POWER RECEPTACLE
EARTH
EXTERNAL
SUPPLY SOCKET
POSITIVE D.C.
3 PIN
PLUG
POSITIVE D.C.
ACCESS
DOOR
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A basic external power circuit incorporating a 3-pin socket is shown at Figure 96.
REVERSE
CURRENT
CIRCUIT
BREAKER
EXTERNAL
POWER
RELAY
BATTERY
SYSTEM
EXT BATT
POWER
SELECTOR
Note that there are 2 large pins (carrying the main busbar load) and one small
pin, which carries the supply to the coil of the external power relay. This means
that if ground power is being applied and the external power plug is withdrawn,
the small pin leaves the power receptacle first, thus breaking the supply to the
external power relay, which opens its contacts. In this way, the main busbar load
is no longer supplied and arcing is prevented as the 2 large pins leave the power
receptacle.
In some aircraft D.C. power is distributed from a multiple busbar system and it is
necessary for certain services connected to each of the busbars to be operated
when the aircraft is on the ground. This requires a more sophisticated
arrangement of the external power supply system. Figure 97 shows a schematic
of a multiple D.C. busbar system.
No 3 DC
BUS
MAIN
AUX
TIE CONTACT
No3 BUS
No 2 DC
BUS
ESS DC
BUS
No 1 DC
BUS
MAIN
AUX
TIE CONTACT
No 1 BUS
INDICATORS
MAGNETIC
GROUND SUPPLY
CONTACTOR
MAIN
AUX
AUX
GROUND SUPPLY
MASTER SWITCH
OFF
ON
GROUND
POWER
PLUG
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Referring to Figure 97, it can be seen that in addition to the external supply relay
or contactor, there are contactors for tying the busbars together. There are also
magnetic indicators to indicate that all connections have been made.
When the external power unit is connected to the aircraft and the master switch is
selected to ON, it energises the external power supply contactor, thus closing its
auxiliary and main sets of contacts. One set of auxiliary contacts complete a
circuit to the magnetic indicator, which then indicates that an external supply is
connected, and on (Indicator C). A second set complete circuits to coils in the
No 1 and No 3 bus-tie contactors while a third and main heavy-duty set connect
the supply direct to the Vital and No 2 busbars.
When both bus-tie contactors are energized their main contacts connect the
supply from the external supply contactor to their respective busbars. Indication
that both busbars are also Tied to the ground power supply is provided by
magnetic indicators A and B which are energized from the Vital busbar via
the auxiliary contacts of the contactor.
These small pins carry out the same function as the small pin in the dc receptacle
in that they ensure the 3 phase and neutral load bearing pins are open circuited
before the external power supply plug can be disconnected, thus preventing
arcing.
EXTERNAL NOSE
POWER WHEEL
READY SERVICE
WELL
LIGHT INTERPHONE
LIGHTS
CONNECTION
A.C. PHASE A
A.C. PHASE B
A.C. PHASE C
A.C. NEUTRAL
D.C.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Three phase 400 Hz 115V AC power is supplied to the aircraft through the
external power receptacle. Before being connected to the aircraft systems, a
Ground Power Control Unit (GPCU) monitors the supply. Although aircraft
ground power systems vary from type to type the following parameters are
generally monitored:
1. Over voltage
2. Phase sequence
3. Under voltage
4. Over current
5. Over frequency
6. Open phase
7. Under frequency
8. Phase imbalance
When these parameters are within specified limits, then ground power is allowed
to feed the aircraft systems.
BREAKER RELAY
GROUND POWER
POWER PLUG
AC GROUND
3 A.C. MAIN BUS BAR
3
3
28V DC FEEDBACK
3
RESISTOR
LIMITING
CLOSE
TRIP
GROUND POWER
PROTECTION
SEQUENCE
AVAILABLE
PHASE
GROUND
POWER
TRU
1
GROUND
SWITCH
POWER
TRIP
28V DC BUS BAR
CONTROL
RELAY
CLOSE
FREQ
EXT
SELECTOR
SWITCH
VOLTS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 100 shows the A.C. external power receptacle and nose wheel bay control
panel for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
INTERPHONE
EXTERNAL
POWER
FLIGHT SERVICE
NOSE
PILOT WHEELWELL
ON
NORM
NOT CALL
IN USE
LIGHT
BATT CHRG
TRANS RLY 115 V AC 115 V AC
TRANSFER BUS 1 TRANSFER BUS 2
Figure 101
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
APU START
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
INTERLOCK
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
RLY
DC BUS 1 DC BUS 2
Page 3-147
STANDBY POWER
BATT BUS
MODULE 11.6
D.C.
EXT PWR BATTERY
BAT OFF AUTO
ELECTRICAL POWER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
There are many AC and DC buses throughout the Electrical Power Generation
System (EPGS). Power from these buses is distributed to all the electrical loads
required for flight and ground operations. The Bus Control Units (BCU),
Generator Control Units (GCU), and the Auxiliary Generator Control Units
(AGCU), receive inputs from the flight deck control panel, current transformers,
and current sensors to monitor and control the contactors, breakers, and relays to
provide distribution of both AC and DC power to the different buses.
The 115 volt AC power from the four IDGs is applied to the four main ac buses;
ac bus 1, 2, 3, and 4 through the GCBs. The output of the four IDGs is normally
operated in parallel through the Bus Tie Breakers (BTB), sync bus, and the Split
System breaker (SSB).
For ground operations, provided external power is not available, the APU
generators can power the main AC buses through the Auxiliary Power Breakers
(APB), sync bus, and the BTBs. The APU generator can not be paralleled
through the SSB.
External power applied to the airplane supplies the main ac buses through the
External Power Contactors (XPC), sync bus, and the BTBs. External power can
not be paralleled through the SSB.
If only one APU generator or one side of the external power is available, both the
right and the left sync bus halves can be powered through the SSB.
The 115 volt AC three phase power from ac bus 1, 2, 3, and 4 is supplied to the
four TRUs, which supply the inputs of the main DC buses; DC bus 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The main DC buses are normally tied together by the DC isolation relays (DCIR)
and the DC tie bus.
The external power TRUs are supplied with 115 volt AC three-phase power from
the AC ground handling bus. The 28 volt DC output of the external power TRUs
will power the DC ground handling bus.
The ground service bus receives 115 volt AC three phase power from either AC
bus 1, external power No. 1, or APU generator No. 1 through the ground service
select relays (GSSRs) and the ground service transfer relays (GSTRs),
depending on the source selected by BCU No. 1. External power has priority
when connected for ground operations. AC bus 1 powers the ground service bus
for electrical loads necessary during normal flight operations.
The main and APU battery chargers receive power from the ground service bus.
The output of the battery chargers power the main and APU hot battery buses,
also maintaining the batteries at full charge condition.
During normal power operations, DC bus 3 powers the main and APU battery
buses through the battery transfer relay. The AC standby bus is powered by AC
bus 3 through the AC standby power transfer relay.
The captain's transfer bus receives power from AC bus 3 through the instrument
bus voltage sense unit (IBVSU), and the first officer's transfer bus receives power
from AC bus 2 through another IBVSU.
If the voltage is lost on AC bus 3, the IBVSU will automatically switch to AC bus 1
to power the captain's transfer bus. If AC bus 2 has a power loss, the IBVSU will
switch the first officer's transfer bus to AC bus 1.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The primary flight displays, navigation displays, and the flight management
computers normally receive 115 volt AC power from the captain's and first
officer's transfer buses. With a loss of the captain's transfer bus, the APU static
inverter will energise and supply power to the left flight display, left navigation
display, and the left flight management computer.
A power loss of the first officer's transfer bus will result in the loss of the right
primary flight display and right navigation display. Power can be restored by the
APU static inverter by switching the EFIS power display switch to F/O position. If
both the captain's and the first officer's bus have a power loss, then only the
captain's or the first officer's displays may be powered at one time.
The APU static inverter receives 24 volt DC power input from the APU inverter
transfer relay when the system switches to standby power.
APB 1 APB 2
SSB
EXT LEFT SYNCH BUS RIGHT SYNCH BUS EXT
PWR PWR
1 2
XPC 1 BTB 1 BTB 2 BTB 3 BTB 4 XPC 2
GCB 1 GCB 2 GCB 3 GCB 4
GHR
IDG IDG IDG IDG
AC GHB 1 AC BUS 1 AC BUS 2 AC BUS 3 AC BUS 4
1 2 3 4
AC GHB 2
IBVSU
DC BUS TIES
MODULE 11
Figure 102
TRU DC GHB APU PRI FLT DISP - L
STATIC NAV DISP - L
28V AC
INV 28 AC MAIN BUS
APU XFMR
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
AC GSB
Page 3-151
APU APU XFR RLY
BATT
BATT START
RLY
RELAY
MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Switches are provided on the electrical system control module for manually
selecting and monitoring the operating status of the functions selected by the
operator. Figure 103 shows the Electrical System Power Module.
The bus tie breaker switch is a latched, alternate action switch. When depressed
to the latched (AUTO) position, automatic paralleling of the ac buses occurs. The
release (ISLN) position isolates the selected bus from the other AC buses.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The electrical synoptic display presents graphic views and parameters for
generator control, generator drive disconnect status, bus tie, split system breaker,
main bus, electrical power flow, and galley and utility bus status.
Illuminated combinations of green coloured flow segments within the bus outlines
indicate electrical power flow. The electrical synoptic display is selected via the
EICAS display select panel located on the glareshield. Figure 104 shows the
EICAS Display Select panel and the EICAS synoptic display for the electrical
system.
Collins
EICAS DISPLAY
SELECT PANEL
The Split System Breaker (SSB) status is indicated pictorially in the open or
closed positions.
Bus Tie
Bus tie breaker status is indicated by square box symbology. If bus tie breaker 1-
4 is open, an amber coloured ISLN message is displayed within a box. If bus tie
breaker 1-4 is closed, two white coloured vertical lines overlay the bus outlines
and are enclosed within a box. For invalid bus tie data, the respective bus tie
symbol is replaced by a low intensity white box.
Main Bus
A coloured message and outline indicate main bus status. If ac bus 1-4 is on, the
bus number message and outline are coloured white. If ac bus 1-4 is off, the bus
number message and outline are coloured amber. For invalid main bus data, the
outline changes to low intensity white.
Galley and utility bus status is indicated by the display of an associated message
located next to the appropriate main bus indicator. If main bus 1-4 is on and the
galley bus 1-4 relay is closed, the GALLEY message is coloured green;
otherwise, the message is coloured amber. If main bus 1-4 is on and the utility
bus 1-4 relay is closed, the UTILITY message is coloured green; otherwise, the
message is coloured amber. If galley or utility bus data becomes invalid, the
associated message changes to low intensity white.
Generator Control
Generator Drive
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.33.7 DC Distribution
There are four main transformer rectifier units (TRUs), each TRU powers an
associated main 28 volt DC load bus. In addition, under normal operation, the
battery buses are supplied from DC bus No. 3. The TRUs are normally operated
in parallel through the DC isolation relays (DCIRs), 75 amp thermal circuit
breakers, and a DC tie bus. The TRUs are identical and are interchangeable.
The main TRUs are static devices which convert 3-phase nominal 115/200 volt,
400 Hz ac input power into unregulated 28 volts dc output power for the airplane
main dc system. Each TRU employs a transformer with a star connected primary
and paralleled star-delta secondary connections. The 6-phase output from the
secondaries is connected to a 6-phase full wave rectifier bridge and filtered to
produce the desired output. Each TRU has an output voltage of 29 volts at no
load and approximately 27 volts at rated load. The four main TRUs are rated for
a continuous output load of 75 amps.
The DC isolation relay parallels the four main DC buses when de-energized
during normal operation. When energized, they isolate their associated main
buses. The four DCIRs operate in conjunction with the BTBs and the bus tie
switches.
1. Provide TRU current sensing to the GCUs and BCUs for indication on
the EICAS maintenance page.
EPC 1 EPC 2
SSB
AC 1 AC 2 AC 3 AC 4
AC BUS 1 DIST AC BUS 2 DIST DIST AC BUS 3 DIST AC BUS 4
APU APU
GEN 1 GEN 2
BCU BCU
MODULE 11
Figure 105
1 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
CONVERSION COURSE
IBVSU IBVSU
TRU
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MN BAT STATIC
TRU TRU TRU HOT BUS INVERTER
AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS,
PMG - L AC STBY
PFD - L
STBY PWR
XPR RELAY
CAPT XPR FO
Page 3-157
PWR TEST RELAY OFF
EFIS SW
APU BAT BAT SW
RELAY
STBY PWR
MODULE 11.6
SW
ELECTRICAL POWER
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 3
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A common cause of circuit failure is called a Short Circuit. A short circuit exists
when an accidental contact between conductors allows the current to return to
the source through a short, low-resistance path as shown in Figure 106.
SHORT
HIGH
CURRENT
LOAD
FLOW
A Short Circuit
Figure 106
If the current flow caused by a short circuit at some section of a cable is left
unchecked, the heat generated in the cable will continue to increase until
something gives way. A portion of the cable may melt, thereby opening the
circuit so that the only damage done would be to the cable involved. However,
there is a probability that much greater damage would result; heat could char and
burn the cable insulation and that of other cables within the loom, and so causing
more short circuits and setting the stage for an electrical fire.
This failure is prevented by making sure that all insulation on the wires is in good
condition and strong enough to withstand the voltage of the power source.
Furthermore, all wiring should be properly secured with insulating clamps or other
devices so that they cannot rub against any structure and wear through the
insulation. To further protect the circuits the installation of protective devices,
such as Fuses and Circuit Breakers are used.
3.34.1 Fuses
1. Lead.
2. Lead/Tin.
3. Tin/Bismuth.
Or some other low melting temperature alloy. When the current flowing through a
fuse exceeds the capacity of the fuse, the metal strip melts and breaks the circuit.
The strip must have low resistance, and yet it must melt at a comparatively low
temperature. When the strip melts, it should not give off any vapor or gas that will
serve as a good conductor, because this would create an arc between the melted
ends of the strip. The metal or alloy used must be of a type that reduces the
tendency towards arcing.
1. Cartridge Type.
2. Plug-in Type.
3. Clip Type.
Current Limiters are essentially a Slow-blow fuse. That is, when the circuit
becomes overloaded, there is a short delay before the metal links melts and
disconnects the circuit. This is because the link is made of copper, which has a
higher melting point than the alloys used in other types of fuse. The current
limiter will carry more than its rated capacity and will also carry a heavy overload
for a short time. They are designed to be used in heavy-power circuits where
loads may occur of such a short duration that they will not damage the circuit or
equipment. The capacity of a current limiter for any circuit is so selected that the
current limiter will always interrupt the circuit before an overload has had time to
cause damage.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 107 shows some typical aircraft fuses and current limiters.
LIGHT DUTY
FUSE HOLDER FUSES
FU S IB LE
E LE M E N T
TE R M IN A LS
HEAVY DUTY
FUSES CURRENT LIMITER
Circuit breakers, unlike fuses or current limiters, isolate faulted circuits and
equipments by means of a mechanical trip device actuated by a bi-metallic
element through which the current passes to a switch unit. Figure 108 shows two
types of circuit breakers found on aircraft.
TYPICAL
CIRCUIT BREAKER
CIRCUIT BREAKER
WITH A MANUAL TRIP
BUTTON
Circuit Breakers
Figure 108
They are used for the protection of cables and components and, since they can
be reset after clearance of a fault, they avoid some of the replacement problems
associated with fuses and current limiters. Furthermore, close tolerance trip time
characteristics are possible because the manufacturer, to suit the current ratings
of the element, may adjust the linkage between the bi-metallic element and the
trip mechanism.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The mechanism is of the Trip-Free type; i.e. it will not allow the contacts of the
switch unit to be held closed while fault current exists in the circuit. The design
and construction of circuit breakers varies, but in general they consist of three
main assemblies:
1. A Bi-metallic element.
A push-pull button is also provided for manual resetting after thermal tripping has
occurred, and for manual tripping when required to switch off the supply to a
circuit or system. The construction and operation of a circuit breaker is shown in
figure 109.
PUSH-PULL
BUTTON CONTROL
CONTROL MAIN SPRING TRIPS
SPRING CONTACT MAIN CONTACT
LATCH
MECHANISM
OPERATES
THERMAL
ELEMENT
THERMAL
ELEMENT
OPENS
LATCH
MECHANISM
LOAD SUPPLY
In the closed position; current passes through the switch unit contacts and the
thermal element, which in thus carries the full current supplied to the load being
protected. At normal current values, heat is produced in the thermal element, but
is radiated away fairly quickly, and after an initial rise in temperature remains
constant.
If the current should exceed the normal operating value due to a short circuit, the
temperature of the thermal element starts to rise and becomes distorted. This
distortion will eventually become enough to release the latch mechanism,
allowing the control spring to open the main contact, thus isolating the load from
the main supply. At the same time the push-pull button extends, exposing a
white band to indicate that the circuit breaker has operated.
After the circuit breaker has tripped, the distorted thermal element starts to cool
down and reverts to its original state. Once the fault causing the trip has been
rectified, the circuit can then be reset using the push-pull button.
In a three-phase a.c. circuit, triple-pole circuit breakers are used, and their
mechanisms are so arranged that in the event of a fault current in any one or all
three of the phases, all three poles will trip simultaneously. Similar tripping will
take place should an unbalanced phase condition develop as a result of a phase
becoming Open-circuited. The three trip mechanisms actuate a common push-
pull button.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
TERMINAL
BLOCK
MAIN
TERMINAL
(BUSBAR)
MAIN
TERMINAL
(GENERATOR)
Reverse Current CB
Figure 110
It consists of a magnetic unit, the filed strength and direction of which are
controlled by a single-turn coil connected between the generators positive output
and the busbar via a main contact assembly. An auxiliary contact assembly is
also provided for connection in series with the shunt-field winding of the
generator. Opening both contact assemblies is controlled by a latching
mechanism actuated by the magnet unit under heavy reverse current conditions.
Figure 111 shows the circuit arrangement for a Reverse Current CB.
CONSUMERS
REVERSE CURRENT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
CONTACTOR
LINE
CUT-OUT
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
GEN
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.36.1 Operation
Under normal current flow closing of the relay energises the line contactor, the
heavy-duty contacts, which connect the generator output to the busbar via the
coil, and main contacts of the normally closed reversed current circuit breaker.
The magnetic field set up by the current flow assists that of the magnetic unit,
thus maintaining the breaker contacts in the closed position. The generator shunt
filed circuit is supplied via the auxiliary contacts.
When the generator is being shut down, or a failure of its output occurs, the
reverse current resulting from the drop in output to a value below that of the
battery flows through the circuit. The cut-out relay will operate and de-energise
the line contactor, which takes the generator off line. Under these conditions, the
reverse current circuit breaker will remain closed, since the current magnitude is
much lower than that at which it will operate.
If the cut-out or line contactor failed to open, then the reverse current would
continue to flow towards the generator, and in addition to its motoring effect on
the generator, it would also reverse the generator field polarity. The reverse
current passing through the circuit breaker coil would continue to increase, thus
its magnetic field strength would also increase until the latch mechanism opened.
This would isolate both the main and auxiliary contacts of the circuit breaker.
Note; the breaker must be reset after the circuit fault has been cleared.
The methods used vary between aircraft systems and also on whether they
supply D.C. or A.C. Figure 112 shows an overvoltage relay method of protection
for a D.C. system.
CONNECTOR
LINE
D.C. BUSBAR
SHUNT
FIELD
GEN
SENSING
COIL
OVER VOLTAGE
RELAY
VOLTAGE
SENSING
COIL
REGULATOR
VOLTAGE
Overvoltage Relay
Figure 112
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
3.37.1 Operation
Under normal regulated voltage conditions, the sensing coil circuit resistance is
high enough to prevent generator shunt-field current from releasing the relay
latch mechanism, and so the contacts remain closed and the generator remains
connected to the busbar. If an open circuit occurs in the regulator voltage coil
sensing line, shunt field current will increase. Because of the inverse
characteristics of the relay sensing coil resistor, the electromagnetic filed set up
by the coil causes the latch mechanism to release all the relay contacts to the
open position, thereby isolating the system from the busbar.
After the fault has been cleared, the contacts are reset by depressing the push
button.
TO
GEN BUSBAR
GB TRIP
RELAY
INVERSE
TIME DELAY S1
OVERVOLTAGE
DETECTOR
GENERATOR
CONTROL RELAY
S2 GENERATOR
FIELD
O.V. LIGHT
RELAY
The detector uses solid state circuit elements which sense all three phases of the
generator output, and is set to operate at a level greater than 130 3 volts. An
overvoltage condition is an excitation type fault probably resulting from a loss of
sensing to, or control of, the voltage regulator such that excessive field excitation
of a generator is provided.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the inverse time delay is to prevent nuisance tripping under
transient conditions. Figure 114 shows the principle of operation of the inverse
time delay.
V
O 160V
L
T
GB
A TR
IP
G
E 145V
130V
TIME
G. GC galley contactor
CR generator control relay In GCU 1/ 2/ 3
GCU generator control unit In flight compartment
GHBC ground handling bus contactor
GHR ground handling relay
GLC generator line contactor
GLPPR galley power pilot relay In equipment panel
GPCU ground power control unit In flight compartment
GPPR generator power pilot relay
GPTC generator power transfer contactor
GSBC ground service bus contactor
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Note: All relays are located in the electrical power centre unless mentioned.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART 4
CONTENTS
4 LIGHTS ......................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 EXTERNAL LIGHTING .................................................................... 4-1
4.2 INTERNAL LIGHTING ..................................................................... 4-1
4.3 BOEING 737 EXTERNAL LIGHTING ................................................. 4-2
4.4 NAVIGATION LIGHTS ..................................................................... 4-3
4.5 LANDING LIGHTS .......................................................................... 4-4
4.5.1 Retracting Landing Lights.............................................. 4-5
4.6 RUNWAY TURN-OFF AND TAXI LIGHTS .......................................... 4-6
4.7 ANTI-COLLISION LIGHTS ............................................................... 4-6
4.7.1 Strobe Light Operation .................................................. 4-7
4.7.2 Strobe Light Safety........................................................ 4-7
4.7.3 Rotating Beam Anti-Collision Lights .............................. 4-8
4.8 WING ILLUMINATION LIGHTS ......................................................... 4-10
4.9 EMERGENCY ESCAPE SLIDE LIGHTS.............................................. 4-10
4.10 EXTERNAL LIGHT CONTROL PANEL ............................................... 4-11
4.11 CARGO & SERVICE LIGHTING ........................................................ 4-12
4.12 FLIGHT COMPARTMENT LIGHTS ..................................................... 4-14
4.12.1 Pillar & Bridge Lighting .................................................. 4-16
4.12.2 Wedge Lighting ............................................................. 4-16
4.12.3 Master Caution/Failure Lights ....................................... 4-17
4.13 PASSENGER COMPARTMENT LIGHTS ............................................. 4-18
4.13.1 Passenger Service Unit (PSU) ...................................... 4-19
4.14 PASSENGER READING LIGHTS ...................................................... 4-20
4.15 ATTENDANT CALL SYSTEM ........................................................... 4-21
4.16 EMERGENCY EXIT LIGHTING.......................................................... 4-22
4.16.1 Emergency Lighting Operation ...................................... 4-24
4.17 SELF ILLUMINATING SIGNS............................................................ 4-27
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
4 LIGHTS
Lighting is important in the safe operation of aircraft and aircraft systems and falls
into two main groups:
4. Emergency lighting.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 1 shows the layout of the Boeing 737 aircrafts external lighting.
110
140
140
110
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
All aircraft in flight or moving on the ground during the hours of darkness must
display the following lights.
A GREEN light, at or near the starboard wing tip so that it is visible in the
horizontal plane from a point directly ahead through an arc of 110 to starboard.
A RED light, at or near the port wing tip so that it is visible in the horizontal plane
from a point directly ahead through an arc of 110 to starboard.
A WHITE light visible from the rear of the aircraft in the horizontal plane through
an arc of 140.
Figure 2 shows the layout of the Boeing 737 aircrafts navigation/position lights.
Navigation/Position Lights
Figure 2
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
These lamps provide illumination for aircraft landing and taxiing in conditions of
night or poor visibility. The term Landing and Taxi lamp also covers such
equipment as flare-out lights and runway turn-off lights.
The Boeing 737 aircraft has a total of 4 landing lights. Two are the fixed type and
are located on the wing leading edges near the fuselage. Two are the retractable
type and are located in the outboard flap track fairing.
Note: When the retractable landing lights are extended the lights shine forward,
regardless of the flap position. The outboard lights provide good visibility under
adverse weather conditions and minimise the effect of reflected light into the flight
deck. Figure 3 shows landing and turn-off lights Boeing 737 aircraft.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
These lamps are extended by means of an actuator via a slipping clutch or shear
links. This ensures lamp retraction in the event of it failing to do so at high speed,
for whatever reason. The lamp unit is generally of the sealed beam type.
Figure 4 shows the typical arrangement of an extending landing lamp. The lamp
is shown fully retracted.
EXTEND
D
A
LIGHT
F
115V
400Hz M
B
RETRACT
C
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Runway turn-off lights in each wing root inboard of the inboard landing lights.
They are aimed ahead and to the side of the aircraft to illuminate taxiway turnoffs.
A nose gear taxi light is mounted on the inner cylinder of the nose gear shock so
that it turns with the nose gear.
Note: In addition to the anti-collision lights, some aircraft are fitted with white
strobe lights on each wing tip and tail and act as aircraft position indicators.
Figure 5 shows the lower anti-collision light (strobe), Boeing 737 aircraft.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The strobe light works on the principle of a capacitor-discharge flash tube. The
capacitor converts an input power of 28V dc or 115V ac into a high dc output of
around 450V. This discharge occurs between two electrodes in a neon-filled tube
and this in turn produces a high intensity flash of light at a rate of approximately
60 flashes per minute.
WARNING:
1. Do not handle the unit for at least 5 minutes after power is removed.
3. Damage to the eyes may result from looking directly into high intensity
light.
115V
400Hz ANTI-COLL OFF
CONTROL
GND SRV AC BUS 1 PANEL WARNING
LIGHT
PWR
ANTI-COLLISION TOP
NOISE FILTER
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE
TIMING CCT DOUBLER DOUBLER
CCT CCT ANTI-COLLISION
BOTTOM
TRIGGER CCT
STORAGE CCT STORAGE CCT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Rotating Reflector.
2. Rotating Lamp.
SPREAD
BEAM NARROW
BEAM
In this type of light a motor drives a rotating reflector which reflects light from one
lamp. The speed of rotation is (typically) 40-45 rpm giving a flashing frequency of
80-90 Hz/min. The reflector has one half flat to emit a narrow high intensity
beam, while the other half is curved to increase the vertical spread of the light
beam to 30 above and below the horizontal.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
This type of lamp employs two filaments mounted in tandem; each pivoted on its
own axis. One half of each lamp consists of a reflector and a motor rotates the
two lamps through 180. Since the lamps are set in opposite directions, 180 to
each other, then the effect is of a continuously rotating light beam.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Two wing illumination lights are provided for scanning the wings and engines in
flight for ice detection purposes. Also used on the ground to illuminate the
immediate area. The lights are flush mounted, one on each side of the fuselage
forward of the wing leading edge and just above the cabin floor level.
Four exterior lights illuminate the escape slide areas for the forward and aft entry
and forward and aft service doors. An additional four lights illuminate the
overwing escape doors and the areas just aft of the wing trailing edge. Figure 9
shows emergency lights from the Boeing 737 aircraft.
Emergency Lights
Figure 9
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The control panel for the external lights is normally located on the lower overhead
panel. Figure 10 shows the external light control panel for the Boeing 737
aircraft.
START
RUNWAY
LANDING TURNOFF
RETRACT OFF
E
X
L R TAXI
T OFF OFF
E
N
D
L ON R L ON R
OUTBOARD INBOARD ON ON
ANTI WHEEL
WING
STROBE POSITION COLLISION WELL
OFF ON BAT OFF OFF OFF
OFF
ON ON ON ON ON
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the cargo and service compartment lights is to provide the
necessary illumination for cargo handling and for performing all service activities.
Dome lights and floodlights are used to provide illumination in the cargo
compartments, wheel wells and servicing compartments. The lights can operate
from internal power or from an external power source. Light switches are
provided within the compartments the lighting serves. Figure 11 shows the
distribution of cargo/service lighting for the Boeing 737 aircraft.
Cargo/Service Lighting
Figure 11
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OFF
ELEC LOWER
RACK ON
NOSE
OFF
E/E
ON
OFF
A/C RIGHT
BAY A/C
ON
28V OFF
GRND
SERV LEFT
BUS A/C
ON
AFT
ACCESS
OFF
APU
ON
ACCESSORY BAY
OFF
BAYS
TAIL
ON
CONE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The purpose of the flight compartment lights is to provide illumination for the flight
compartment, its instruments, controls and other equipment so that the flight
crewmembers can perform their jobs.
Dome lights supply general illumination for the cabin. The lightshield provides
background lighting for the pilots. Each instrument and instrument panel has
integral lighting. The control stand is illuminated from an overhead floodlight.
Floodlights illuminate circuit breaker panels. There are also lights for the standby
compass and for map lighting.
Figure 13 shows the position of the flight compartment light control panels.
FLOOD PANEL
DOME WHITE BRIGHT
BRIGHT
DIM
OFF OFF
OFF
BRIGHT
CIRCUIT BREAKER
BRIGHT
OFF
PANEL
BRIGHT
OFF
LIGHTS
TEST
BRT
DIM
PANEL MAP
BRIGHT BRIGHT
MAP PANEL
BRIGHT BRIGHT BACKGROUND AFDS FLOOD
BRIGHT BRIGHT
OFF OFF
OFF OFF
OFF OFF
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Figure 14 shows the rear flight compartment and circuit breaker panel
illumination.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The pillar light contains a miniature center contact filament lamp (pea lamp). A
single cable carries the supply, while a ground tag completes the circuit for the
lamp. An aperture has a filter through which the light is distributed. These lights
can be used as single items or in a bridge configuration.
Wedge lighting uses two wedges of glass, inner wedge A and outer wedge B.
Light is introduced to wedge A by a lamp, some light penetrates directly to the
instrument dial while some is trapped within wedge A to be distributed down the
dial. Light escaping into wedge B is reflected down the wedge but is prevented
from further escape by none reflective black paint. In this way, the light is
retained and illuminates the dial. Figure 15 shows Pillar/Bridge and Wedge type
lighting.
APERTURE PILLAR
LAMPS
BRIDGE
LIGHTING
GROUND
CONNECTION LAMP
ELECTRICAL
SUPPLY INNER
WEDGE A
PILLAR
LIGHTING
INSTRUMENT
PILLAR & BRIDGE LIGHTING DIAL
OUTER
WEDGE B
BLACK
PAINT
WEDGE LIGHTING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The master caution/failure system informs the flight crew that a system fault
annunciator has illuminated on the forward overhead, aft overhead or fire control
panels. The system receives inputs from various fault annunciators to illuminate
two master caution lights and one of twelve sections of the master caution
annunciators. Both annunciators have a Push to Cancel, Push to Recall
function. Figure 16 shows the Master Caution lights for the First Officer and
captains position.
ANTI-ICE ENG
MASTER FIRE
HYD OVERHEAD CAUTION WARN
PUSH TO RESET PUSH TO RESET
DOORS AIR COND
CAPTIANS PANEL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
CEILING LIGHTS
DEFUSER PANELS
MID AISLE
SIGN
EXIT
PASSENGER
LIGHT PANEL
WINDOW
LIGHTS
CEILING
LIGHTS
EMERGENCY
EXIT DIRECTION
INDICATORS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Reading Lighting.
READING
PUSH
LIGHTS
AT BELT
INSIDE
LIFE VEST
STORAGE
FEVEST
FASTEN SE
PUSH LI
G
NO SMOKIN
READING
LIGHT
SWITCHES AUDIO
SPEAKER
OXY MASK
STORAGE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Passenger Panel and Fwd Cabin Attendant Panel circuits are shown at Figure
19.
16 S
DELAY
RH
OTHER
PASSENGER
LTS
LH
FLT
DECK
SW
ATT
CALL N/S LIGHTS F/S LIGHTS
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
CALL READ
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ATT
CALL
READ LT
TOUCH
CONTROL
READ LT
TO/FROM
OTHER PASS
PANELS
PASS TO ATT
PA LAV TO ATT
SYSTEM
ATT TO ATT
ATT CALL
LAVATORY
PILOT TO ATT
ATT TO PILOT
Operation of a switch in either lavatory will call an attendant in similar fashion and
from which lavatory the call was made is identified at the Area Call Lights Aft
and Fwd stations.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Emergency lights automatically illuminate exit signs and egress paths when
normal lighting system power is lost. They are powered by battery packs and are
located in the flight and passenger compartments. The system also includes the
external lights used to illuminate the escape routes form the doors and overwings
hatches.
Floor proximity lighting provides visual; guidance for cabin evacuation when all
sources of cabin lighting above four feet is obscured by smoke. They are
positioned on the left-hand side of the aisle and have an illuminated arrow spaced
every 40 inches to indicate the direction to the nearest exit. Figure 21 shows the
position of the emergency exit signs and floor proximity lighting.
EXIT
FLOOR TRACK
SIGNS
LIGHTING
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
LENS
COVER
LAMP
ASSEMBLY
TRACK
COVER
FLOOR TRACK
EXIT
EXIT
INDICATOR
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The emergency lights (6V) are fed from battery packs, which under normal
conditions are trickle charged from the aircraft main electrical system. The 6V
lights operate as for the following conditions. A three-position switch located on
the flight deck controls the system. The three positions are:
1. OFF.
2. ARMED.
3. ON.
ARMED
ON
The battery packs are not charged. 6V lights ON even though main electrical
power available and normal lights are also ON.
OFF
The battery packs are charged. 6V lights remain OFF even in the event off main
electrical power loss.
EMER
POWER
GSBC 1
NORM ON
EMER LIGHTS
Figure 24
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
AC BUS 2
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
OFF IND
SCR 1
EXIT
LTS
STANDBY DN UP
LIGHTS
R LG Q1
TOILETS UP
CABIN/
Page 4-25
ENTRANCE
EXIT SIGNS
PASS DOOR LT
ESCAPE HATCH LT C A B K
CEILING LT
EMERGENCY LIGHTS
JAR 66 CATEGORY B1
MODULE 11 BOOK 2
PART 4
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The following explains the operation of the circuit in Figure 24 with the selector
switch in the ARMED position.
The battery power supply units supply electrical power to the emergency lights (6-
Volt) and the inverters of the floor proximity emergency lighting when the
transistor Q 1 is on (conducting).
To have logic one at the non-inverting input, the Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SCR 1 must be on. This occurs when there is a positive voltage on pin B (ARM).
As long as 28 Volt is on pin A (CHARGE and HOLD-OFF), the internal batteries
are charged and logic one at the inverting input of the gate keeps the transistor
off.
When the voltage is removed from pin A and B, there is a logic zero at the
inverting input and a logic one from the internal batteries at the non-inverting
input. This turns the transistor on and the emergency lights and floor proximity
emergency lighting comes on.
The only way to switch off the emergency lights is to put 28 Volt on pin C
(DISARM). This reverse biases the Silicon Controlled Rectifier SCR 1.
Note: The voltage at pin B, necessary to arm the emergency lights, can also be
supplied by the battery power supply unit itself, through pin K (6 Volt) and
the attendant switch or EMER LIGHT rotary selector in the ON position.
WARNING
Minimum use of the battery packs (testing etc) must be made. The battery packs
take up to 20 hours to recharge.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The only possible hazard attendant upon the use of such signs is that due to
inhalation or absorption into the body of gas released in the event of breakage of
the glass envelope. Tritium gas is mildly radioactive; therefore, the signs should
be handled carefully to avoid breakage. Should breakage occur, the aircraft
should be evacuated and all doors left open to allow maximum ventilation.
Disposal of broken signs are subject to the Radioactive Substances Act 1960 and
the Radioactive Substances (Luminous Articles) Exemption Order 1962 and
should, therefore, be returned to the manufacturer for disposal. All self-
illuminating signs should be checked for luminosity level on initial fitting and at
periods specified in the relevant maintenance schedule. Such signs usually have
a scrap life of 5 years and should then be returned to the manufacturer for
disposal.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PART FIVE
CONTENTS
5 ON BOARD MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS ..................................... 5-1
5.1 MULTI FUNCTION COMPUTER SYSTEM (MFC) ................................ 5-1
5.1.1 Function ........................................................................ 5-1
5.1.2 Maintenance Panel ....................................................... 5-3
5.1.3 Built-In Test Equipment (BITE) ...................................... 5-6
5.1.4 Operation ...................................................................... 5-10
5.2 DATA LOADING ............................................................................ 5-11
5.2.1 Navigation Data Base ................................................... 5-12
5.3 STRUCTURE MONITORING ............................................................. 5-13
5.3.1 Low Cycle Fatigue......................................................... 5-14
5.3.2 Health & Usage Monitoring (Hum) ................................. 5-14
5.3.3 Structural Monitoring ..................................................... 5-15
5.4 CENTRAL MAINTENANCE COMPUTING SYSTEM (CMCS) ................. 5-17
5.4.1 Flight Deck Effect (FDE)................................................ 5-18
5.4.2 Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT)............................ 5-18
5.5 PORTABLE MAINTENANCE ACCESS DEVICE (PMAT) ...................... 5-21
5.6 AIRPLANE CONDITION MONITORING SYSTEM (ACMS) .................... 5-22
5.6.1 Airplane Condition Monitoring Function (ACMF) ........... 5-24
5.6.2 Quick Access Recorder (QAR) ...................................... 5-25
5.7 AIRPLANE INFORMATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (AIMS) ............... 5-26
5.7.1 Flight Compartment Printing System ............................. 5-28
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
In flight monitoring and ground test capabilities are provided by the MFC system
(as fitted to the ATR 72). It consists of two independent computers MFC1 and
MFC2. The use of these two computers has meant the removal of a total of 9
redundant LRUs.
Each computer includes two independent modules, Module A & B. Each Module
receives signals from all the various systems and system controls. They also
include a self-test capability so that each module can be tested to ensure it is
operating correctly.
5.1.1 Function
After processing the input information, the unit will output to the various systems
to:
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FAULT FAULT
ACTIVATE ACTIVATE
INPUTS INPUTS
MFC 1A MFC 1B
OUTPUTS OUTPUTS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MFC
1A 1B 2A 2B
FAULT FAULT FAULT FAULT
NORM
FLT
ERS WOW & L/G
MFC DOORS
MAG
3 BOOTS
IND
PTA/ERS TEST
2 NAV
MISC
1 BRK
FLT
CTL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Bite Loaded Indicator - Indicates when a fault has been recorded by the
maintenance system.
Bite Advisory Display - Indicates, through illuminated lights, the code of the
failure recorded. Combination of illumination of these lights enables up to 14
failures per system to be coded.
Data Bus connector - Enables the connection of the Maintenance Test Set
system to be connected. This enables the down load of all faults onto a
Notebook type computer.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The failure codes are all listed in the aircraft maintenance manual. Table 1
shows an example of the code/failure relationship.
SYSTEM: WOW/L/G
CODE 8 4 2 1 DEFINITION
1 F Right Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
2 F Nose Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
3 F F Left Main Gear Prime DnLk Prox Switch Fail
4 F Right Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
5 F F Nose Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
6 F F Left Main Gear Sec DnLk Prox Switch Fail
7 F F F Left Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
8 F Nose Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
9 F F Right Main Gear WOW 1 Prox Switch Fail
A F F Left Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
B F F F Nose Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
C F F Right Main Gear WOW 2 Prox Switch Fail
D F F F
E F F F
F F F F End of list for selected system
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The BITE continuously tests the various systems and stores all fault information
to be recalled later, either by the flight crew or a maintenance team. Once the
appropriate repair has been made, the BITE system can then be used to reset
the system for operation. Most BITE systems are capable of isolating system
faults with at least 95% probability of success on the first attempt.
The introduction of digital systems on the aircraft has made BITE systems
possible. Discrete digital signals are used as the code language for BITE
systems. The BITE system interprets the various combinations of digital signals
to determine a system's status. If an incorrect input value is detected, the BITE
system records the fault and displays the information upon request. This
information may be by illuminating a number of Light Emitting Diodes (LED's), or,
as with modern systems, a display on a CRT or TV display.
1. Operational Test
2. Maintenance test
Normal operational checks start with initialisation upon switch on of system power
supplies.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
POWER
POWER
UP
UP PROTECTION
PROTECTION
RESET
RESET
INITIALIZE
INITIALIZE CONTROL
CONTROL OPERATIONAL
OPERATIONAL
BITE
BITE
INPUT
INPUT OUTPUT
OUTPUT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Input signals.
2. Protection circuitry.
3. Control circuitry.
4. Output signals.
During normal system operation, the BITE monitors a "Watchdog" signal initiated
by the BITE program. This watchdog routine detects any hardware failure or
excessive signal distortion, which may create an operational fault. If the BITE
program detects either of these conditions, it automatically provides isolation of
the necessary component, initiates warnings and records the fault in a Non-
volatile memory.
The maintenance program of the BITE is entered into only when the aircraft is on
the ground and the "Maintenance Test" routine is requested.
On aircraft fitted with Flight Management System FMS, a more complex BITE
system is provided. In the Boeing 737, the FMS BITE provides fast and accurate
diagnosis of the main FMS components.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
5.1.4 Operation
Self-contained In-flight monitoring and ground test capabilities are provided for
the main FMS components. Each major FMS component contains
comprehensive tests for itself, its sensor inputs, and other interfaces. In-flight
data is automatically stored for analysis on the ground through the BITE system.
BITE is controlled via the FMS Control Display Unit, CDU. The FMS display will
display (in plain English), system status for all systems under test. The operator
simply selects from a menu of test options and inputs interactive responses via
the CDU. BITE runs the test and provides corrective action diagnostics. The
system is designed for line maintenance fault isolation to a single line
replacement unit (LRU), within minutes. The BITE system will also carry out
system verification; to check interfaces after corrective maintenance action.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
429 BUS
DISK STORAGE DISK STORAGE INTERFACE
POWER
PROG CHNG COMP RDY XFER R/W FAIL
SPARE
FUSE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The Navigation database (NDB) contains data that describes the environment in
which the aircraft operates. The type of information loaded includes:
1. Approaches.
2. Country Name.
3. Waypoints.
4. Airports.
5. Runways.
6. Marker Beacons.
7. Holding Patterns.
The source data and the NDB are updated on a 28-day cycle that it corresponds
to the normal revision cycle for navigation charts. Each update disk contains the
data for the current cycle and the next one. This arrangement provides the user
with greater flexibility since it is not necessary to load a new disk on a specific
day. Each PCMCIA card contains 8 megabytes of storage.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
Structural (Health), monitoring and usage monitoring have evolved over the years
to improve the methods of monitoring critical aircraft components. Structural
monitoring was first applied to the monitoring of aircraft engines. This was for two
primary reasons:
1. Engine Speeds.
2. Engine Temperatures.
3. Engine Pressures.
4. Engine Vibration.
OFF ENGINE
AIRCRAFT MONITORING
ANALYSIS RECORDER
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The first British application of engine health monitoring was on BEA Trident
aircraft. Initially simple discrete inputs giving the engine parameters were
monitored and recorded on a suitable on-board recorder. This data was then
removed from the aircraft for the necessary analysis using ground-based
equipment.
1. Engine Speed.
2. Engine Temperature.
3. Engine Pressure.
4. Engine Torque.
5. Accelerations.
6. Vibration Levels.
7. Aircraft Stress.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
A typical HUMS is shown at Figure 7. The engine and other health parameters
are conditioned and converted into suitable digital format for use by the
microprocessor. After the necessary calculations and algorithms have been
executed the data is stored in non-volatile memory until conclusion of the flight.
The data is then extracted by means of a suitable "Data Transfer Unit" (DTU).
PROCESSOR
INPUT
SIGNAL HUMS DATA
MONITORED
PARAMETERS CONDIT- ALGORTHIMS BUS
IONING INTERFACE
NON-VOLATILE
MEMORY
HUMS
OFF DATA
AIRCRAFT TRANSFER
ANALYSIS
UNIT
HUMS
Figure 7
When an aircraft comes into service, the manufacturer will have calculated its life
as the number of cycles (take-off - flight - landing) it will achieve. This is normally
in the region of 10s of thousands of cycles, with say an average flight time. The
aircrafts life in hours is calculated by taking an average flight time, this could be
1 hours. Therefore to calculate the aircrafts life in hours simply multiply the
average flight time by the number of cycles, e.g. 1 hours X 60,000 cycles =
90,000 hours life.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
With the requirements for modern aircraft having flight data recorders, these can
also be used to monitor the aircrafts structure and thus identify any faults before
they cause catastrophic failure. Figure 8 shows the FDR system.
FDR
ARINC 429
ANALOGUE
AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS ANALOGUE
DISCRETES
ARINC 629
ARINC 573
FAULT
MONITORING
DFDAU
AIMS
FDR System
Figure 8
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The CMCS supports both line and extended maintenance functions through
menu selections on the Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT) or Portable
Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT). Other menu selections support special
maintenance functions, on-line help and report production. Figure 9 shows the
location of the MAT.
MAT KEYBOARD
MAT KEYBOARD
SLOT
MAINTENANCE ACCESS
TERMINAL (MAT)
FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
REAR RIGHT SIDEWALL
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
FDE inform the flight and ground crews of the conditions relating to the safe
operation of the aircraft. The ground crew must find the cause of an FDE to find
the corrective action. The FDE data is used along with the aircrafts maintenance
manuals to isolate the fault.
The MAT has a display screen and controls for selecting and viewing fault data.
A keyboard is also provided (stored when not in use) which allows certain entries
and controls displayed data. The MAT also has a cursor control device, which
has a power supply module that receives 115V ac via the MAINT ACCESS
TERMINAL circuit breaker located on the overhead panel. This PSM then
distributes power for the remainder of the MAT. The cursor control device
contains the following controls:
1. Track Ball.
2. Selection Keys.
3. Brightness Control.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
MAT DUAL
DISK DRIVE
MAT DISPLAY
POWER SUPPLY
MODULE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
ERASE
GO BACK
FAULT
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The PMAT is stored within the electronics bay and has the same functions as the
MAT. There is a PMAT terminal receptacle located on the MAT position. There
are also four other PMAT receptacles located throughout the aircraft. These are
located:
1. Electronics Bay.
2. Nose Gear.
4. Stabilizer Bay.
SELECTION
PMAT SWITCHES
POWER
SWITCH
CURSOR
CONTROL
LCD
PMAT RECEPTACLE
DISPLAY
KEYBOARD
DISK
DRIVE
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ACMS (Boeing 777) collects monitors and records data from the aircrafts
system. The data collected by the system is used to produce reports. These
reports are used to:
2. Analyse trends.
4. Troubleshoot faults.
QAR CMCF
AIMS
FMCF DCMF
TMCF FDCF DA
TA
DFDAF
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The ACMS receives data from the Airplane Conditioning Monitoring Function
(ACMF) which is located in the left-hand AIMS cabinet. The ACMS is accessed
through formats on the Maintenance Access Terminal (MAT), Portable
Maintenance Access Terminal (PMAT) or the side displays on the flight deck.
The ACMS can if required be programmed by the user airline to carry out custom
features. Figure 14 shows the general arrangement of ACMS.
RH QAR
DISPLAY
LH FLIGHT COMPARTMENT
DISPLAY MAT PRINTER
PMAT
A
FLIGHT CONTROL VHF
I
ARINC 629 BUS (3) TX/RX
R SDU
C SYSTEMS
R ARINC 629 BUS (4)
A
ARINC 429
F ANALOG
T DISCRETES
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
1. Report Format.
2. Report Content.
3. Triggers.
Triggers are logic equations that detect conditions and cause data to be
recorded, e.g. engine exceedances. The ACMF sends data to the following units:
Note: The DCMF is used to send data to the airline base while the aircraft is
airborne via either the VHF communication or Satellite communication system.
The ACMS collects data to record and sends reports to many output devices.
The MAT and PMATs allows the user to see the ACMS data and control the
function of the ACMS. Aircraft systems send data into the AIMS cabinet
input/output modules on:
4. Analogue Inputs.
5. Discrete Inputs.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
The QAR records data sent from the ACMF onto a 3.5 inch 128 MB optical disk
and holds 41 hours of data. A spare disk is located within the unit should the
active disk become full. Figure 15 shows a QAR and optical disk.
PRESS
SPARE DISK
DISPLAY
DISPLAY PENNY
&
GILES
FAIL
LOW CAPACITY
MAINTENANCE
EJECT
The optical disk has a magnetic surface with an infrared laser optically tracking
the disk. Data from the ACMF (Core Processing Module, CPM) is received by
the QARs CPU. The CPU does a self-test to check the validity of the data and
then sends control information to the memory device.
AEROPLANE
AERODYNAMICS,
STRUCTURES & SYSTEMS
2. Formatter memory.
The flash memory holds configuration data, system data and identification files
and sends this data to the formatter. The formatter arranges the received data,
then sends it to the cartridge drive circuits.
The cartridge drive circuits control the position of the laser tracking recording
head. They also write data on and read data from the optical disk. The front
keyboard is used to read information from the optical disk and to run functional
tests. The CPU also sends data to the 16 bit LCD displays. These displays
show:
1. Stored data.
2. QAR menus.
3. Test results.
4. Messages.
The QAR sends data and status to the CPM/COMM in the left AIMS cabinet. The
ACMF monitors the data and status.
The AIMS collects and calculates large quantities of data and manages this data
for several integrated aircraft systems. The AIMS has software functions that do
all the calculations for each aircraft system. The AIMS has two cabinets, which
do the calculations for these systems. Each cabinet contains:
1. Cabinet Chassis.
The IOM and CPM are in the cabinet chassis, which has a backplane data bus
and a backplane power bus to distribute data and power to the IOMs and CPMs.
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The IOMs transfer data between the software functions in the AIMS CPMs and
external sources. The CPMs supply the software/hardware to do the
calculations. There are four types of CPMs:
AIMS System
Figure 16
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The flight compartment printer supplies high-speed hard copies of text for the
following systems:
The flight compartment printer receives data from the print driver partition of the
Data Communication Management Function (DCMF). The DCMF is located
within the AIMS. The DCMF prioritises data sent to the printer in the following
order:
The printer can print at 300 dots per inch (DPI). It uses a roll of paper, which is
125 feet long and is A4 European Air standard paper. The printer contains all
mechanical components and electronics necessary for printer operation. The
mechanical components include:
1. Printer head.
2. Processor board.
3. Controller board.
4. Interconnection board
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RESET TEST
FAIL PAPER CUT SLEW
TOP VIEW
SIDE VIEW
Controller Board Receives brightness controls from dimmer controls that drive
the lights on the front panel.
Processing Board Processes all inputs for the left AIMS cabinet and changes
the data signals to control the thermal printer.
Interconnection Board Controls the flow of data between the processor board
and the controller board and the mechanical devices that print three paper.
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