300 Industrial Structures PDF

300 Industrial Structures
Abstract
Section 300 covers design for concrete and steel structures such as pipeways, pipe
supports, equipment support, stairs, ladders, walkways, platforms, guyed stacks,
pipeway crossings, and roadway bridges. This section does not cover buildings and
offshore structural platforms, although most of the components can be used on
offshore production facilities.
The guidelines in this section are written for inexperienced engineers or engineers
working outside their discipline or area of expertise.
Contents Page
310 Introduction 300-3

311 Background Information
312 People and Organizations
313 Industry Codes and Practices
320 Piping Support 300-6
321 Design ConsiderationsElevated Pipeways
322 Design Guidelines
323 Low-Level Pipeways and Sleepers
324 Secondary Pipe Supports, Springs, and Hangers
330 Equipment Supports 300-29
331 Design Requirements
332 Design Loads
333 Structural Analysis and Design
334 Design Considerations for a Corrosive Environment
340 Stairs, Ladders, Walkways, Platforms, and Handrails 300-32
341 General
342 Design Loads
343 Grating and Floor Plate Design and Selection
Chevron Corporation 300-1 June 1997

300 Industrial Structures Civil and Structural Manual
344 Ladders, Cages, and Guards

350 Guyed Stacks 300-45
351 Use and Layout
352 Design
353 Installation
354 Maintenance
360 Pipeway Crossings and Roadway Bridges 300-53
361 General Considerations
362 Buried Lines
363 Corrugated Pipe Arches
364 Overhead Pipeway Crossings
365 Bridges for Pipeline Crossings
370 Computer Programs For Designers 300-64
371 STAAD III
380 Model Specification, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms 300-65
381 Model Specification
382 Standard Drawings
383 Engineering Forms
390 References 300-66
June 1997 300-2 Chevron Corporation

Civil and Structural Manual 300 Industrial Structures
310 Introduction
As used in this section, the term industrial structure refers primarily to structures
used to support piping and equipment. In addition, the section addresses guying of
stacks and the design of stairs, ladders and other means for accessing these struc-
tures.
Information included here will be useful for both novice engineers and engineers
working outside their discipline. While this information will help you develop
preliminary designs and make informed decisions, it is not a substitute for review
and sign-off by a registered civil or structural engineer. To enhance the utility of
this section, some major subsections have their own references. A comprehensive
list of primary references can be found in Sub-section 390.
311 Background Information

Industrial structures are required to perform a specific function, and a complete
understanding of this function is critical. But, in addition to meeting functional
requirements, there are other important objectives that a designer should strive to
meet. These objectives include:
Select a framing system and structural elements appropriate for the type of
loads involved.
Meet all safety requirements, including those in the Safety in Designs Manual
(SID).
Provide a structure that can be economically fabricated and installed.
Select materials appropriate for the environmental conditions.
Give particular attention to the detailing of structural connections. Structural
problems are frequently traced to inadequate or inappropriate connection
details.
Provide a structure that performs satisfactorily over its intended useful life,
without requiring extensive maintenance.
Provide a structure that creates minimum interferences to the normal activities
of the operators.
Provide a structure with the access, clearances, work and laydown areas neces-
sary for maintenance.
Present a balanced appearance consistent with the facilities being supported.
Give consideration to aesthetics whenever the structure is highly visible.
Provide space and structural capacity for changes and future loads.
Keep structural details as simple as possible to fit up and weld. Review of struc-
tural steel details should take into account the accessibility for welders to
perform their work.

Eliminate areas which will collect and hold moisture and other foreign mate-
rial. Such areas will be subject to accelerated corrosion.
There are many standard structural details illustrated in Company Standard Draw-
ings and Forms, and other structural design references. For many simple structures,
these details will reduce design time and provide proven solutions. A list of these
drawings and forms is included in Sub-section 380.
The Company primarily uses either structural steel or reinforced concrete struc-
tures. The choice is most often an economic decision based on lowest installed cost.
However, the importance of maintenance costs and flexibility for future modifica-
tions and additions may also be considerations.
Design Documentation
Structural designers are responsible for documenting the design basis for structures.
This documentation should assist designers involved in future additions, modifica-
tions, or corrective actions. The following items should be included on design draw-
ings where applicable:
Design Codes (Including Date or Edition)
Company Design Standards (Wind and Earthquake)
Design Operating Loads
Design Loads and Moments for Foundations
Soil Bearing Pressures
Pile Design Loads
Unusual Design Conditions
312 People and Organizations

Be familiar with the people, organizations, regulations and requirements that
provide input to your designs, or have a review and/or approval function. Here are a
few of the most important:
Government Agencies
The extent of local governmental review is closely tied to existing regulations.
Where no regulations exist, follow local management perception of need and antici-
pation of future requirements.
Identify applicable regulations, required permits, and government agencies with
jurisdiction over the work. Determine if there are requirements that civil/structural
drawings be stamped by a Professional Civil Engineer and/or Structural Engineer.
Since 1986, the State of California requires that ....all final civil engineering plans,
specifications, reports, or documents shall bear the seal or stamp of the registrant,
and the expiration date of the certificate or authority.
Two examples of how local codes have influenced designs are:

At one location, the applicable building code was based on an earlier edition of
the Uniform Building Code. Subsequent changes to the UBC were not recog-
nized by the local authorities.
Another locality enforced their own limitation on the allowable openings
between rails on a handrail. This required the addition of a second midrail for
all railings.
Safety Engineer
The local Company safety engineer is an important contact to establish at the early
stages of design. For example, the number, location, and types of egress are critical
items that should be addressed early. Periodic discussions with the safety engineer
are encouraged to review required clearances, to consider special situations, and to
clarify or interpret Company requirements and practices. Final review by the safety
engineer occurs when the structure is complete. Items found to be in nonconfor-
mance at that time can prove to be costly to correct.
Fire Protection Engineer

The fire prevention specialists in CRTCs Health, Environment, and Safety Group
must be consulted to establish fireproofing requirements. Early agreement to define
the vertical and horizontal fireproofing limits for specific structures or locations is
desirable.
Facility Operators
The local operators will normally have four primary concerns relating to structures.
These include: functional aspects of the structure, operator access, clearances, and
servicing/maintenance requirements. They will influence size of platforms and
number and types of access.
Drafting and Engineering

Division of work between engineers and designer/draftsmen will depend on estab-
lished practices at a location, level of experience for designer/draftsmen, and
complexity of intended structure.
Contact with other engineering disciplines is frequently required to define intended
function, anticipated loads, space limitations, access and clearances required for
operations and maintenance work.
313 Industry Codes and Practices

This section lists the applicable codes used for design of steel and concrete struc-
tures.
Steel Construction
Manual of Steel Construction - American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC).
Includes: AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Struc-
tural Steel for Buildings

Structural Welding Code - AWS D1.1, American Welding Society (AWS)

ASTM Standards in Building Codes Specifications, Test Methods, Definitions
Volume 1
Metal Bar Grating Manual - The National Association of Architectural Metal
Manufacturers (NAAMM)
Concrete Construction
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute
(ACI 318)
ASTM Standards in Building Codes Specifications, Test Methods, Definitions
Volume 1
Safety In Designs Manual
Uniform Building Code. International Conference of Building Officials. Covers
the fire, life and structural safety aspects of all buildings and related structures. The
UBC is commonly accepted in whole or in part by municipalities, so that review
and approval of designs is frequently based on meeting UBC requirements. A sepa-
rate volume, Uniform Building Code Standards, presents test, material, and special
design standards which are referenced in the UBC. Guidelines for the Seismic Eval-
uation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities [20] is an excellent resource as it
provides commentary and guidance on how to apply the Uniform Building Code,
which is mainly intended for buildings, to structures typically found in petrochem-
ical facilities.
Standard Welding Symbols. A copy of the AWS Standard Welding Symbols is
included at the end of this section (Figure 300-30). Incorrect or incomplete weld
symbols on drawings can lead to inadequate welded connections, or to increased
fabrication costs because of claimed extras by the fabricator. An example occurred
when an engineer designed some critical connections as full penetration welds.
However, the basic welding symbol used on the drawings could also be interpreted
as a partial penetration weld. Since the notation CP (for complete penetration)
was left off the drawing, and the specification did not call for full penetration
welds, the fabricator made a claim for a sizable extra to the contract.
Note Figure 300-30, Standard Welding Symbols, is a foldout at the end of this
section.
320 Piping Support

This subsection on piping support discusses design considerations and applicability
of three types of support: stanchions for elevated pipeways, grade-level pipeways
and sleepers, and secondary supports, springs and hangers.
Stanchion supports (Figure 300-1) are commonly used in refineries and other plants
where piping runs might interfere with vehicle and personnel movement. They are
considerably more expensive than grade-level supports. In many instances, stan-
chions remain a constant size while the piping loads and configurations they bear

often change. With this in mind, it is important to ensure that stanchion design
reflects potential future loadings.
Fig. 300-1 Pipeway Stanchion

In addition to carrying process lines and utility/service headers, the pipeway stan-
chions carry electrical and instrument distribution systems along with mechanical
and safety equipment.
Another issue in stanchion design is fire protection. Generally, on-plot stanchions
are either fireproofed or constructed of fireproof material, while off-plot stanchions
are not. The exception will be stanchions located in near-off-plot pipeways, i.e.,
pipeways adjacent to or between process plants.
321 Design ConsiderationsElevated Pipeways

This section discusses 10 major considerations used to determine pipeway design
parameters. These include:
1. Pipeway Capacity
Pipeway capacity, the amount of the available space to carry piping, is the critical
element affecting stanchion design. The width of pipeway, number of levels, and
stanchion geometry are all dependent on establishing the pipeway capacity. Require-
ments for pipeway space are determined from planning studies by the piping engi-
neers and designers and input from operations, and are based on estimated current
space requirements plus an allowance for future lines.
2. Stanchion Geometry
After determination of design pipeway capacity, studies can begin on stanchion
geometry alternatives. These studies will establish:
Overall pipeway width
Number of pipeway levels
Column spacing
Elevation of crossbeams
Extension of support beams outside the column lines
Requirements for other supports at plot limit manifolds
Factors considered in these studies include:
Vehicle access
Plant space limitations
Proposed piping layouts at plot limit waterfalls
Location of utility stations
Electrical/instrument conduits
Access during construction and maintenance considerations
Individuals responsible for the stanchion structural design will often get involved in
these studies as the constructability and economics of various design concepts are
considered.

3. Stanchion Spacing
The horizontal distance between stanchions is normally determined from plant
layout studies and is influenced by the size of lines to be supported. For acceptable
piping/conduit spans, stanchion spacing between 20 to 30 feet is generally used.
Smaller stanchion spacings to accommodate the small allowable span of small
diameter piping and conduit are typically not used, since small lines can be
supported by unistrut between two larger lines or by intermediate crossbeams. See
Figure 300-2 for an illustration of intermediate crossbeams. For information on
recommended spans for individual line sizes, refer to Sub-section 324.
Fig. 300-2 Pipeway Isometric Illustration of Terms
4. Clearances
Vertical and horizontal clearances must be determined by the operating require-
ments of the facility. At times there may be a need for an operating or maintenance
roadway underneath the pipeway. If the roadway runs longitudinally directly below
the pipeway, side clearance for the stanchion columns must be sufficient for vehicle
access plus an allowance for manifolds or other equipment mounted on or adjacent
to the stanchion columns.
The vertical clearance above the roadway must be sufficient to allow passage of fire
protection vehicles and a hydraulic maintenance crane. A frequently used minimum
vertical clearance from high point of grade to the lowest projection on the pipeway
is 12 feet-6 inches, but specific plants may require a different clearance.

For multi-level stanchions, the clear vertical distance between levels will vary
depending on the average and maximum line sizes to be installed. Adequate clear-
ance is necessary for lines to enter the pipeway and for reasonable accessibility for
completing field welds, insulation, and painting. For the average case a clearance of
2 feet-6 inches is suggested, from top of lower support beam to underside of the
beam above. Where small lines (4-inch maximum) are involved, the spacing may
be reduced to about 2 feet. A clearance of 3 feet or more may be required if a
number of large lines are proposed. For example, if there are a number of 12-inch
lines in the pipeway, a 4-foot clearance might be desired so that two elbows can be
used for a 90 degree jumpover of other lines in the pipeway. See Figure 300-3.
Fig. 300-3 Clearances for Piping
When there are only a few large lines in a pipeway, it may be desirable to consider
using 45 degree jumpovers instead of 90 degrees for lines entering the pipeway.
This will reduce the required clearance between pipeway levels.
Structural bracing can be a head-knocker. In areas where people walk, the lower
ends of braces should intersect columns high enough to keep a 7-foot clearance
above grade. However, in Seismic Zones 3 and 4, braces must extend down to grade
(See Figure 300-2). A barrier should be used to prevent accidents. In Seismic Zone
2, the 7-foot clearance is acceptable, provided certain design requirements are met.
See Chapters 2211 and 2212 of the 1994 UBC for details.
5. Fireproofing Requirements
Structural steel pipeway stanchions can be covered with special materials or
concrete to protect them from fire. Precast or cast-in-place concrete pipeway stan-
chions usually do not require special fire protection consideration. Fireproofing
materials and requirements are discussed in the Insulation and Refractory Manual,
Section 400. Generally, fireproofing principal members of a pipeway structure is
warranted if exposure to fire could result in failure of these members and cause loss
or serious damage to critical piping, or supported equipment such as air-cooled
exchangers.

On-plot pipeway stanchions are generally fireproofed up to and including the first
main horizontal member, but not less than 20 feet above grade. Knee braces for
support beam extensions outside the stanchion columns are generally fireproofed
when located less than 20 feet above grade. Braces provided for wind and seismic
loading need not be fireproofed, as long as the structure is stable without them for
gravity loading conditions. In high risk areas (equipment operating pressure over
1000 psig), fireproofing may be required for the second and higher levels of
pipeway supports. Structural members supporting air coolers handling liquid hydro-
carbons above pipeways in process areas should be fireproofed up to the point of
applied load.
For off-plot stanchions the only fireproofing generally required is at plot limit mani-
folds areas, and at other locations deemed to be fire hazard areas. If fireproofing is
warranted for such areas, it would be limited in scope, such as:
Pipeway columns within 25 feet of manifolds or fire hazardous areas.
Horizontal members that support piping coming from manifolds.
Fireproofing would normally not be required for off-plot pipeway diagonal bracing
or for longitudinal struts between stanchions.
Installation
Fireproofing is provided for structural steel members by using either regular port-
land cement concrete, gunite, or special insulating materials. Refer to the Insulation
and Refractory Manual Section 400 for a discussion of surface preparation,
priming, top coats, and fireproofing materials. Following are the ratings for various
thickness of concrete fireproofing over steel:
Minimum Thickness(1) Fire Rating (Hours)

2-1/2 inch 4
2 inch 3
1-1/2 inch 2
(1) On the face of steel member. Thickness at edge of structural member may be
1/2 inch less. Thickness requirements are illustrated in Figure 300-4 for
beams. The top flange face of beams does not require fireproofing. The flange
faces for columns require full thickness coverage.
For main support members that require fireproofing, it is customary to provide a

4-hour fire rating as shown on Drawing GA-N33336 (in the Fire Protection
Manual). Concrete having a minimum compressive strength of 2500 psi is recom-
mended for fireproofing.
Corrosion under fireproofing can be a serious problem. Flashing or caulking may
be required to prevent entry of water between the fireproofing and steel. Acceptable
sealants should be specified. Two products that have been used are Dow Corning
No. 732 Silicone elastomeric sealer, and H.B. Fuller, Foster Products Division No.
94-95 Butyl Caulking.

Fig. 300-4 Fire Proofing Cover
6. Steel vs. Concrete

For a new installation, the preferred stanchion materials are either steel or concrete.
Some factors that influence the final choice are:
Stanchion Geometry
Structural steel is usually the economic choice for complex pipeway stanchions
(multi-level, cantilever beams, larger spans). These are difficult and costly to
construct with precast or cast-in-place concrete. Moreover, steel structures have the
additional advantage of being more adaptable for future modifications. Reinforced
concrete is generally limited to simple structures that require fireproofing. A combi-
nation of materials may also be used, such as reinforced concrete for the lower
portion that requires fireproofing, and structural steel above.
Fireproofing
The economics of steel vs. concrete depend on the fireproofing requirements. Struc-
tural steel is generally the economic choice if concrete encasement is not required.
However, for installations that require fireproofing, the added costs to encase the
structural steel reduces the cost differential between steel and reinforced concrete.
Other Considerations
Other factors should be considered in the evaluation of steel vs. concrete. Some of
these may require input from installation contractors.
Items that might be evaluated for specific installations include:
Relative impacts of steel vs. concrete on project construction schedule.

Differences in weather impacts. For example, steel might be preferred over

concrete in a freeze/thaw environment.
Impact on other construction activities performed concurrently in the area.
Does stanchion geometry lend itself to precasting and use of reusable forms?
Ability to precast on-site or in contractors yard.
7. Foundations
Spread Footings
Since the axial loading imposed by pipeway columns is relatively light, spread foot-
ings are an option if the soils have adequate bearing capacity. Spread footings are
generally designed on the basis that the column-to-footing connection is hinged.
The reasons include:
Soil conditions may preclude imposing large moments on the footing without
substantially increasing the footing dimensions.
Fixed column-to-footing connections are more difficult to achieve and may be
more costly.
Pile-Supported Footings
Pile-supported footings can be designed to take combined axial loads and longitu-
dinal and/or transverse moments from stanchion columns. A column-to-footing
connection using a base plate and anchor bolts requires careful design to assure
complete moment transfer. An alternative is to extend the column into the pile cap
by grouting into a prepared pocket. Typical column-to-footing connections are
shown in Figure 300-5.
Fig. 300-5 Typical Column-to-Footing Connections

8. Longitudinal Struts or Tiebeams

Longitudinal loads on stanchions result primarily from the friction forces developed
by thermal expansion of the supported lines, along with possible loads from
anchored lines.
It is a common practice in stanchion design to tie individual stanchions together
longitudinally with structural strut members. Braced stanchions are provided at
appropriate locations, every fifth to tenth stanchion along the pipeway, to resist the
total longitudinal forces developed. These are strategically located to resist longitu-
dinal pipeway loading and minimize restrictions to vehicle and personnel access.
Diagonal bracing can be used to anchor a single stanchion, or multiple stanchions
can be braced as shown in Figure 300-2.
For some pipeways, the tiebeams act as struts only, and do not carry external loads.
Often, there are vertical loads imposed. These occur where:
Tiebeams serve as support for steam loops or lines that branch from the main
pipeway.
Small pipeway lines or conduit are directly supported by the tiebeams between
stanchions.
Intermediate crossbeams are provided between stanchions for support of small
lines and electrical/instrumentation conduit. Intermediate crossbeams in turn
receive their support by the longitudinal tiebeams.
9. Future Expansion
A space allowance for future lines is normally included in the determination of
pipeway capacity. This allowance is frequently based on a percentage of the space
proposed to meet current requirements. For example, an arbitrary 25% allowance
might be chosen, to be adjusted upward or downward depending on the expecta-
tions for future lines. Another factor to consider is the ease or difficulty to add
pipeway capacity in the future. On-plot stanchions frequently present great difficul-
ties with regard to expansion, and increased spare capacity in the initial installation
is warranted.
If you choose to make provisions for modifications and expansion of the pipeway in
the future, member sizes and details should be designed to support an additional
level to the pipeway, the addition of cantilever crossbeam extensions, or an increase
in the pipeway width by adding another row of columns and extending the cross
beams.
10. Loadings
Following the conceptual development studies for the pipeway and structures,
develop a consistent and realistic set of design loads.
Loadings to be considered on stanchions are:
Dead loads from pipeway structure
Pipe gravity loads including fluids

Electrical and control conduit loads

Thermal expansion loads from piping including anchor forces
Earthquake and wind loads
Loads from equipment and associated platforms
Pipe Gravity Loads

Pipe gravity loads may be treated as uniform loading of 35 pounds per square foot
of contributory area of loading, per pipeway level for columns and transverse
beams. This is equivalent to the loading from water- filled 6-inch lines (0.250-inch
wall) at standard 10-inch spacing between lines. The above loading is appropriate
for the typical pipeway, but a more refined determination may be justified if the
majority of lines will be either less than or will exceed 6-inch diameter. Piping
plans should be checked to avoid special loading situations that may exert high
concentrated loads.
Longitudinal Tiebeams
Tiebeams that will also support lines at pipeway intersections should be designed
for the full unit loading of 35 pounds per square foot of contributing area.
Tiebeams at other locations should be designed for anticipated current and future
loads. It is common practice to apply the same design loads to a continuous string
of tiebeams to provide uniformity in design and give maximum flexibility for
adding future loads.
Thermal Loads
Thermal loads result from expansion or contraction of piping from changes in both
ambient temperatures and operating line temperatures. The static coefficient of fric-
tion for individual lines is usually estimated at 0.3 to 0.5 (steel against steel), with
the value 0.42 used for 1 or 2 pipes and 0.3 for 3 or more pipes. The horizontal
force due to friction is:
Ff = fW
(Eq. 300-1)
where:
Ff = friction force (lbs)
f = coefficient of friction
W = weight of piping and contents supported by structure
Thermal loads are usually considered internal and self-compensating for stanchions
with longitudinal tiebeams. That is, if a group of stanchions are interconnected and
anchored to resist longitudinal movement, thermal loads on individual stanchions
can be disregarded.
Even for stanchions that do not have longitudinal tiebeams there will be some self-
compensation of thermal loads. The friction forces developed by individual hot
lines will tend to be offset by resisting forces from other lines in the pipeway not

expanding at the same time. By carefully considering the load contribution from hot
lines, the designer can select total thermal forces for stanchion design that are
adequate but not overly conservative.
Thermal loads on pipeway stanchions should be considered at changes in pipeway
direction, where expansion loops or bellows are used, or where pipes may be
restrained external to the pipeway, such as where connected to vessels or equip-
ment. In a long, rigidly-connected pipeway, consideration should be given to
thermal stresses induced into the stanchions due to expansion of structural
members. These stresses can be mitigated by subdividing the length of the pipeway
into groups of individual stanchions tied together with longitudinal tiebeams. Each
group is individually anchored, with no tiebeams between groups.
Earthquake
Earthquake forces (transverse and longitudinal) can be determined using procedures
given in Section 100, Wind and Earthquake Design Standards. Seismic loading in
the transverse direction is usually of greater concern than in the longitudinal direc-
tion, as supports are restrained longitudinally by the lines themselves. Transverse
seismic loading is resisted by rigid frame design of the stanchions or diagonal
bracing in the transverse plane.
Wind
Wind loading transverse to the pipeway is calculated using the projected area of the
largest pipe at each pipeway level, plus the area of the support columns. Rigid
frame design or diagonal bracing is the usual choice for resisting lateral wind
loading. The wind force longitudinal to the pipeway is usually neglected. For wind
forces refer to Section 100, Wind and Earthquake Design Standards.
Other Loads
Pipeway stanchions may also be used to support operating equipment such as air
coolers and miscellaneous vessels. Loads should be determined from the operating
weight of equipment, platforms, and supporting structures.
322 Design Guidelines

The purpose of this section is to review accepted design practices for stanchions,
and direct the reader to references on this subject.
Design Reference
Included in the References subsection is a document entitled Pipe Support Design
(Reference [16]). Individuals not familiar with designs for pipeway structures may
wish to obtain a copy of this manual through Chevron Research and Technology
Company. In using this document the following cautions apply:
Refer to Section 100 of this manual to determine design loadings for wind and
earthquake.

In developing designs use good judgment when following the procedures given
in Reference [16]. Take a critical approach to determine if unusual loadings or
other conditions require modifications to the design steps.
Construction Details for Earthquake Resistance

Details for earthquake-resistant design should give the structure the ability to
absorb energy. The following general comments apply:
Reinforced Concrete Structures. Design all moment-resisting space frames as
ductile frames (for seismic zones 2,3 and 4) in accordance with Section 1921 of the
1994 Uniform Building Code, and to ACI 318, Chapter 21, Special Provisions for
Seismic Design.
Steel Structures. Pay special attention to connections. Ultimate strength of connec-
tions should exceed the yield strength of connected members. At connections and
other points of high stress in rigid frame structures, follow the requirements of the
AISC Specification for plastic design regarding width-thickness ratios, lateral
bracing, web stiffening, and fabrication. Design in accordance with Sections 2211
and 2212 of the 1994 Uniform Building Code.
Column Orientation (Structural Steel)

Selection of column orientation is unique to each design. It is influenced by:
The geometry of the structure
Relative magnitudes of transverse and longitudinal forces
Limitations on the use of bracing
Connection details for cross beams
Moment transfer at the base of columns
To provide maximum access under on-plot pipeways, stanchions are frequently
designed as rigid frame structures to take transverse pipeway loading. The strong
axis of the columns is oriented accordingly as shown in Figure 300-6.
For off-plot pipeways, where transverse bracing between columns is acceptable,
orientation of the strong axis to take longitudinal pipeway loading is a common
practice.
Attachments and Inserts for Concrete Supports

It is relatively easy to add miscellaneous small lines and/or equipment to bare struc-
tural steel pipe support structures. However, for reinforced concrete, or concrete
encased steel, it is important to establish what attachments are required to be
embedded in the concrete. Examples include unistrut to support conduit or small
piping and lifting inserts for handling or installation of precast reinforced concrete
sections. For all reinforced concrete crossbeams supporting piping, a slide plate is
required as detailed on CIV-EF-588. For all stanchions, stop plates must be
provided at the ends of support beams to prevent piping from moving off the
supports.

Fig. 300-6 Column Orientation for Rigid Frame
Standard Form CIV-EF-588 (A&B)

Provides standard details for connections, attachments, and reinforcing for both
double column and T-type precast concrete stanchions.
323 Low-Level Pipeways and Sleepers

To minimize the cost of structural supports, pipeways outside of process areas are
frequently installed at or near grade level. Sleeper supports are used to keep the
lines clear of the ground. This helps protect pipes from corrosion, and allows the
grade under the pipeway to be drained and maintained. A minimum ground clear-
ance of 12 inches is suggested but additional clearance allows easier maintenance.
Figure 300-7 illustrates the types of piers commonly used for supporting low level
pipeways.
Pipe, new or used, is commonly used for construction of low level pipeways and
sleepers. Reasons include: availability, cost, easier painting and maintenance of
pipe versus beams, appearance, and pipe provides an ideal shape for the horizontal
member supporting piping.

Fig. 300-7 Types of Piers for Supporting Low Level Pipeways
Routing
In general, pipeway routing is selected to minimize the length of piping runs.
However, consideration must be given to pipeway, plant, and tankfield expansion.
Cross country routing of individual lines must be avoided.
New pipeways planned for older facilities should be routed and sized so that
existing lines can be placed on them as part of a future program of line and pipeway
consolidation.
Pipeway Crossings
Low-level pipeways require special treatment at intersections with refinery roads,
highways, and railroads. The method selected for the pipeway crossing will have to
be based on economics, piping considerations, vehicle accessibility, and the clear-
ances and restrictions imposed by plant operators, or by a railroad company or
highway department if outside Company-owned facilities. Refer to Sub-section 360
for a discussion on alternative pipeline crossings.
Sleeper Design
Loads. Develop vertical loading requirements either using the unit pipeway loading
of 35 pounds per square foot of contributory area of loading as discussed in

Sub-section 321 (stanchions), or by calculating the actual weight of proposed lines.

For recommended maximum spans between supports for various line sizes refer to
Sub-section 324.
Low-level sleepers are usually self-supporting and must be designed to resist over-
turning forces developed by thermal expansion of lines. Section 321 discusses
calculation of thermal load friction forces.
Foundation Type
Select sleeper and pier foundation type appropriate to the local site conditions and
calculated overturning forces.
Many sleeper design situations can be accommodated by the standard support
details shown on Drawing GF-M-99874. Typical details and member sizes are
given for single pier supports up to 3 feet in width, and double pier supports up to 6
feet in width, with height of pipe supports 3 feet or less. These same details can be
adapted for wider pipeways by using multiple supports. When sleeper requirements
are outside the range of load capacity and height limitations given, it will be neces-
sary to proceed with detailed designs.
Selection of sleeper foundation type depends on soil conditions and applied loads.
Spread footings may be appropriate in many places if the soil offers good support
and economic footing sizes can be achieved. For guidance in sizing and design of
spread footings and pile-supported footings, refer to Section 200. Occasionally,
because of induced moments to the foundation, a pole-type footing is the economic
choice. The Uniform Building Code (Reference [5]) provides the formula given in
Equation 300-2. This equation, along with Figure 300-8, can be used in deter-
mining the embedment requirements for pole footings in various soil conditions.
Where piled footings are required, refer to Section 200.
Fig. 300-8 Allowable Foundation Pressure Courtesy ICBO

Lateral Bearing (lbs/sq ft/ft of
Allowable Foundation Pressure depth below lowest point of
Class of Materials (lbs/sq ft) ground adjacent to foundation)
1. Massive crystalline bedrock 4000 1200
2. Sedimentary and foliated rock 2000 400
3. Sandy gravel and/or gravel 2000 200
(GW and GP)
4. Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, 1500 150
silty gravel and clayey gravel
(SW, SP, SM, SC, GM and GC)
5. Clay, sandy clay, silty clay and 1000 100
clayey silt (CL, ML, MH and CH)

Design Criteria
Nonconstrained
The following equation may be used in determining the depth of embedment
required to resist lateral loads where no constraint is provided at the ground surface,
such as rigid floor or rigid ground surface pavement.
d = ---- 1 + 1 + -------------
A 4.36h
2 A
(Eq. 300-2)
where:
A = 2.34 P / S1 b
P = Applied lateral force in pounds.
S1 = Allowable lateral soil-bearing pressure in lb/ft2 set forth in Fig.
300-8 based on a depth of one third the depth of embedment.
b = Diameter of round post or footing or diagonal dimension of
square post or footing (feet).
h = Distance in feet from ground surface to point of application of
P.
d = Depth of embedment in earth in feet but not over 12 feet for
purpose of computing lateral pressure.
Anchors. Where pipe anchors are required, special attention must be given to the
associated lateral forces on the sleeper. Drawing GB-M99653 (in Piping Manual)
provides details for pipe shoe anchors suitable for anchor supports on structural
steel, pipe, or reinforced concrete stanchions.
324 Secondary Pipe Supports, Springs, and Hangers

Secondary supports include all pipe supports other than stanchions and sleepers.
These supports may be for individual lines or for multiple lines.
Vertical Design Loads

Vertical design loads are computed on the basis of actual weights of pipe, fluids,
insulation, valves, and fittings. As a general rule, the length of pipe supported at a
given point is taken as half the sum of the adjacent spans. Where the support is
close to a vertical run, it is assumed that the support carries the entire load of the
vertical section. Where horizontal bends exist, a judgment is made on the contribu-
tory loads to individual supports.

Horizontal Design Loads

Thermal. For supports that carry only one or two lines, the longitudinal friction
loads due to thermal expansion and steel-on-steel sliding is generally computed
with a static friction coefficient of 0.42. Section 321 discusses calculation of fric-
tion forces. In cases where several lines are carried by a support, a judgment is
made as to the combined contribution of thermal loads. A common practice is to
use the longitudinal force developed by the largest line(s) and assume that no
restraint or load contribution is provided by other lines. Because of the size of the
line and operating temperature for some situations, it may be desirable to consider
the use of teflon pipe slides as a means for reducing thermal loads. With teflon the
coefficient of friction can be reduced to about 0.1. The actual coefficient is a func-
tion of the load pressure against the teflon slide, decreasing as the unit loading on
the teflon increases. However, as a practical consideration, the weight of most
piping is not sufficient to achieve the lowest coefficients attainable with teflon.
Wind. Transverse wind forms should be determined by the procedures given in
Section 100. The projected horizontal area is based on the diameter of the largest
line supported.
Earthquake. Refer to Section 100 for determination of earthquake forces.
Other Loads
If guides or anchors are provided on supports, any lateral loads imposed by piping
must be considered. Combining loads from piping flexibility studies and wind or
earthquake may be necessary.
Support Spacing
Spacing of supports is a function of allowable stresses and deflections in the pipe.
Longitudinal flexural stresses in the pipe can generally be considered independent
of circumferential stresses caused by fluid pressure. The temperature of the pipe
must be taken into account, with respect to the modulus of elasticity and allowable
flexural stresses. The limiting consideration for deflections is usually the require-
ment that significant amounts of liquid not be trapped after draining the lines, or
visually the lines do not appear to be sagging.
Figure 300-9 may be used as a guide for commonly recommended spans. Spans and
recommended deflections given are for uninsulated water-filled schedule 40 pipes.
For the cases shown, flexural stresses are all below 20,000 psi.
Fig. 300-9 Recommended Spans and Deflection (1 of 2)

Recommended Nominal
Pipe Size (in.) Recommended Span (ft.) Maximum Deflection (in.)
3/4 10 1/4
1 15 1/4
1-1/2 20 1/4
2 20 1/4

Fig. 300-9 Recommended Spans and Deflection (2 of 2)

Recommended Nominal
Pipe Size (in.) Recommended Span (ft.) Maximum Deflection (in.)
3 30 3/8
4 35 1/2
6-12 40 1/2
Actual deflection for any line in a continuous horizontal run with uniform spans
may be determined from the following equation:
Deflection = 5.88 w L4 / E I
(Eq. 300-3)
where:
w = Wgt. of line, fluid, insulation lb/ft
L = Span in feet
E = Modulus of Elasticity (psi)
I = Moment of Inertia (in4)
Vertical runs of piping should be guided as well as supported. The spacings of
guides depends upon the rigidity of the piping and the wind pressures acting on the
system. The following table (Figure 300-10) may be used to obtain maximum
spacing of guides for various pipe sizes.
Horizontal runs of piping may require guides near expansion loops. Guide require-
ments should be reviewed with the engineer or designer responsible for pipe flexi-
bility studies.
Hangers
In general, resting-type supports are preferred over hanging supports. However, to
maintain maximum access for personnel under piping, smaller lines may be
supported by hanging one pipe from another or from an overhead structural
member. Ensure that excessive vertical and lateral loads are not imposed on any
supporting pipe, and the operating temperature of such supporting pipes should not
exceed 150F. Hanger details are shown on GF-M-99874 (Sheet 2) and CIV-EF-
799C. Commercial hanger units are readily available.
Fig. 300-10 Recommended Guide Spacing (1 of 2)

Nominal Pipe Size (in.) Maximum Spacing of Guides (ft.)
1 22
1-1/2 23
2 24
2-1/2 25

Fig. 300-10 Recommended Guide Spacing (2 of 2)

Nominal Pipe Size (in.) Maximum Spacing of Guides (ft.)
3 27
4 29
6 33
8 37
10 41
12 45
14 47
16 50
18 53
20 56
24 60
Adjustable Pipe Supports

Adjustable supports are used where design loads must remain fully supported. This
generally occurs at the piping connection support closest to equipment such as at
pumps and compressors. Adjustable supports are also used for alignment of equip-
ment piping.
Adjustable supports are not appropriate for accommodating differential settlement
at pumps or compressors. Supports for this equipment should be anchored to the
pump or compressor foundation and not to an independent foundation.
Included on Standard Drawing GF-M-99874 are details and member sizes for
adjustable pipe supports:
Support Design Considerations

The following drawings provide standard details that may be used for secondary
pipe supports:
CIV-EF-799 (6 sheets A through F) Pipe Support Details
GF-M-99874 (2 sheets) Guide Sheet for Pipe Supports
GB-M-99653 Standard Pipe Shoe & Pipe Shoe Anchors (in Piping Manual)
Drawing GF-M-99874 provides typical details and member sizes for single post
supports up to 3 feet in width, and double post supports up to 6 feet in width, with
the height of pipe supports 3 feet or less. Support requirements outside the load
capacity and height limitations given in GF-M-99874 will require detailed design.
Wherever practical, designers should standardize the sizes of members used for
field fabricated supports. This will help to minimize the stock of material required
in the field, and maintain a uniform appearance. The size selected for support
members should present a balanced appearance consistent with the size of pipes

being supported. If the width of pipe supports is sufficient for lines to be added in
the future, make certain that this is considered in the design loads. If open space is
left on a pipe support it is natural for someone in the future to assume that the
supports are adequate for line additions. If in doubt use a uniform loading of 35 psf
of pipeway for such design loading.
Spring Supports
Vertical thermal expansion can cause unacceptable loads on connected equipment.
This problem can be overcome by providing flexible pipe supports which apply
supporting force throughout the expansion and contraction cycle of the system. The
most important consideration in the design of a spring support is defining the neces-
sary characteristics of the unit. These are rarely set by the thermal stresses in the
supported pipe, but usually are governed by permissible stresses on connected
mechanical equipment specified by the manufacturer, to avoid failure or undesirable
distortions in the equipment.
Spring supports should be provided with means to prevent misalignment, buckling,
eccentric loading of the springs, or unintentional disengagement of the load.
Materials, design, and manufacture of spring supports are covered in ANSI/MSS
SP-58 (Reference [19]). There are three basic types of spring units:
Spring Cushion Supports
Variable Spring Supports
Constant Support
Figure 300-11 illustrates the use of these support types and the principles of their
operation.
Spring Cushion Supports. This class of spring is characterized by having 2 inches
or less total deflection. As the name implies it is used to reduce localized stresses in
the line and dampen line vibration.
Variable Spring Supports. Variable spring hangers are used to support piping
subject to vertical movement where the more costly constant supports are not
required. The inherent characteristic of a variable spring is such that its supporting
force varies with spring deflection and spring scale. Therefore, vertical expansion
of the piping causes a corresponding extension or compression of the spring and
will cause a change in the actual supporting effect of the hanger. Since the pipe
weight is the same during any condition, cold or operating, the variation in
supporting force results in pipe weight transfer to equipment or adjacent hangers,
and consequently develops additional stresses in the piping system. When variable
spring hangers are used, the effect of this variation must be considered.
Constant Support. Constant support hangers provide constant supporting force for
piping throughout its full range of vertical expansion and contraction. This is
accomplished through the use of a helical coil spring working in conjunction with a
bell crank lever in such a way that the spring force times its distance to the lever
pivot is always equal to the pipe load times its distance to the lever pivot. The

Fig. 300-11 Spring Supports Courtesy ITT Grinnell
constant support hanger is used where it is desirable to minimize any pipe weight
load transfer to connected equipment or adjacent hangers.
Selection of Spring Supports

Selection of springs is usually made by piping or structural designers working with
the design data given in manufacturers catalogs. Requirements for springs are
generally developed from the results of a computer-generated piping stress analysis.
The type of spring support unit is determined by such considerations as the amount

of head room, support above the spring or below the spring, and geometry of the
support mechanism. The size of spring unit is based on operating loads, movement
from cold to hot position, and direction of movement from cold to hot position.
Using the example table in Figure 300-12, you can work through the following
example for selecting a variable spring support. This table has been excerpted from
a more comprehensive table in the Grinnell catalogue. All spring support manufac-
turers have similar tables.
Example:
Thermal expansion downward is 2-1/4 inches. Total operating pipe load 4700
pounds
Steps:
1. Enter hanger selection chart looking for a load of approximately 4700 pounds
(maximum load). In this example, you will find 4700 pounds under Hanger
Size 14.
2. Read deflection for a figure type that allows for a full range of deflection. In
this example, the deflection of the spring in the hot condition is 5-3/4 inches.
3. Check range of deflection. Hot deflection - cold deflection = 5-3/4 inches
- 2-1/4 inches = 3-1/2 inches
4. Read corresponding cold load by checking chosen hanger size at cold deflec-
tion = 3800 pounds (Size 14 hangar, 3-1/2 inches deflection)
5. Difference in pipe loads
4,700 hot
(3,800) cold
900 pounds
6. Hot and cold loads both within Working Range of Size 14 Figure 98 unit.
7. Order this support preset to 3-1/2 inch deflection.
Note The 900 pounds difference in loading will impose an equal but opposite
loading at other supports on equipment. There may be instances where moment
forces require even less deflection. In these instances, upsize your hangar selection.
Fig. 300-12 Example Load Table in Pounds for Selection of Hanger Size Courtesy ITT Grinnell (1 of 2)
Working Range (in.) Hanger Size Spring Deflection (in.)
13 14 15
1800 2400 3240 0
1875 2500 3375
1950 2600 3510
2025 2700 3645

Fig. 300-12 Example Load Table in Pounds for Selection of Hanger Size Courtesy ITT Grinnell (2 of 2)
Working Range (in.) Hanger Size Spring Deflection (in.)
0 2100 2800 3780 1
2175 2900 3915
2250 3000 4050
2325 3100 4185
1 2400 3200 4320 2

2475 3300 4455
2550 3400 4590
2625 3500 4725
2 2700 3600 4860 3

2775 3700 4995
2850 3800 5130
2925 3900 5265
3 3000 4000 5400 4

3075 4100 5535
3150 4200 5670
3225 4300 5805
4 3300 4400 5940 5

3375 4500 6075
3450 4600 6210
3525 4700 6345
5 3600 4800 6480 6

3675 4900 6615
3750 5000 6750
3825 5100 6885
3900 5200 7020 7

Spring Size - lb. per in. 300 400 540
Ordering Description
Information that must be provided when ordering spring supports may vary
between manufacturers, but the following data are normally required:
Support Type and Figure No. (from manufacturers catalog)
Size
Desired supporting force in operating position

Calculated amount and direction of pipe movements from installed to oper-

ating position
Customers identification number
Desired factory spring preset
Spring Support Installation and Maintenance

After installation, and in preparation for startup, field engineers should inspect the
springs and remove chocks, if any. Generally, spring supports do not require exten-
sive preventive maintenance, except for inspection and repainting as required to
control corrosion.
Manufacturers state that spring units are low maintenance items and that periodic
checking of operational loads and deflections is generally a more important consid-
eration than physical inspection and maintenance of the unit itself. A frequent
problem is that actual pipe loads exceed design loads, and the support bottoms out.
This could result in higher concentrated piping stresses. Replacement or readjust-
ment of the spring support is required if this condition is encountered.
330 Equipment Supports

This section of the guidelines discusses the design of elevated equipment support
structures. Examples of equipment requiring support include air coolers,
exchangers, horizontal vessels, catalyst handling equipment, conveyors, etc. This
section is limited in scope to the following situations:
To assist engineers reviewing design work by consultants.
To provide design guidelines for relatively simple structural supports.
For more complex structures and unusual loading situations, the design work
should generally be undertaken by an experienced Company or contractor
civil/structural engineer.
331 Design Requirements

Obtain certified vendor prints to define dry and operating weights, critical physical
dimensions, foot print of support points, details of equipment supports, and location
of appurtenances.
A complete understanding is required of the function of the equipment to be
supported.
The following items need to be addressed:
Access stairs, platforms, and ladders required by operators
Requirements for routine maintenance

Crane access or permanent lifting equipment, (davit or monorails) required for

handling equipment or parts which cannot be manually handled by two
persons. (Limited to approximately 100 pounds in easy-to-reach location.)
Testing plans (hydrotest), weights and sequence
Incremental platform space required as laydown area for equipment to be
cleaned or repaired
Special equipment loading conditions; for example, vibration or impact loads,
or earthquake or wind loads
Additional equipment and piping to be supported from the structure
Extent of fireproofing required
Limitations on vertical or lateral deflections because of closely interconnected
piping or equipment
Requirements for equipment and piping insulation. It frequently happens that
the thickness of insulation is overlooked when determining structural and
personnel clearances.
332 Design Loads

All equipment, piping, and electrical loads must be accounted for. Fluids, catalyst
or other operating loads must be included.
Consider special loading conditions imposed on the structure: thermal expansion,
hydrotest, upset conditions, impact loads, tube bundle pulling, etc.
For wind and earthquake loading, refer to Section 100.
333 Structural Analysis and Design

Two-dimensional or three-dimensional analysis of the structure is most easily done
with a structural computer program.
Not all designers, however, will have access to a suitable program, and hand calcula-
tions will be necessary. If the designer has limited experience in structural design,
the Pipe Support Design Manual (Reference [16]) may serve as a guide for analysis
of small support structures using hand calculations for relatively simple, braced
frame structures.
In the analysis and design of structures, the following important requirements are
occasionally overlooked:
1. Proper application of vertical and horizontal loads (bending about both prin-
cipal axes) to get the most severe combined axial and bending forces.
2. Code check of combined axial compression and bending stresses for structural
steel columns. (Refer to AISC Specification.)

3. Consideration of biaxial bending and compression in the design of concrete

columns.
4. Appropriate adjustments to allowable stresses (structural steel) for seismic or
wind loading, or to factored loads (reinforced concrete).
The engineers should verify that these factors have been included in the analysis, if
appropriate.
Deflections
The following deflection limits are suggested:
Total deflection of beams should generally not exceed 1/250 of the span.
For beams supporting closely interconnected equipment, total deflection
should not exceed 1/500 of the span.
Sideways deflection of structures due to wind/earthquake loads should not
exceed 1/100 of the height.
Connections
Shop connections are generally welded.
Field connections are generally bolted. For most applications, including onshore
coastal areas, no special coating is required for structural bolts.
Bolted connections for main structural steel should generally be friction-type
connections made with minimum 3/4-inch diameter high strength bolts.
Bolted connections for secondary structural steel should be minimum 3/4 inch diam-
eter unfinished bolts, except bolts for stair bracing and handrails may be 1/2 inch
diameter, and for stair treads 3/8 inch diameter.
Beveled washers should be specified for connections where an outer face of the
bolted parts has a slope greater than 1:20. Connections should be designed to
provide the full strength of connected members in seismic zones. This allows for
absorption of a large amount of energy during an earthquake.
334 Design Considerations for a Corrosive Environment

If the expected atmosphere is corrosive or maintenance will be difficult, this fact
should be taken into account when designing steel structures. For example:
For primary steel members maintain a minimum thickness for angles and
flanges of beams and tees (e.g., 3/8 inch).
For secondary members and webs a suggested minimum thickness of 1/4 inch
may be appropriate.
Double-angle members back to back should be avoided.
All welds should be continuous.

Provide coatings for bolts.

Where corrosion protection coatings are used for bolts, these coatings should be
specified on the drawings or fabrication specifications. Following are comments on
the more common types of protective coatings used for corrosive atmospheres, or
for marine/coastal areas:
Galvanized. Good corrosion protection. May give some difficulty during removal
in the future, as nut may jam in the bolt threads.
Cadmium Plated. Good corrosion protection. Can suffer hydrogen cracking in
high strength bolts (UTS over 125 ksi) due to hydrogen charging during plating.
Controlled by baking out hydrogen after plating.
Teflon Coated. Good corrosion protection. Excellent for connections where a
future make & break requirement is anticipated. Quality varies, the problem
being the presence of holidays. Overtorqued nuts will damage threads. Double nuts
are commonly used to avoid loosening. This coating is used extensively in sub-sea
applications.
340 Stairs, Ladders, Walkways, Platforms, and Handrails
341 General
It is important that individuals involved in layout or design of stairs, ladders, walk-
ways, and platforms review the appropriate sections in the Safety in Designs
Manual (SID) (Reference 15). The Safety in Designs Manual provides a summary
reference of safety requirements and recommendations for Company facilities. New
facilities or modifications must meet the safety requirements of the Safety in
Designs Manual. Company standard drawings referenced herein conform to the
requirements of the Safety in Designs Manual and have been checked thoroughly
for compliance with the Occupational Safety and Health Act. Company standards
are considered more complete than minimum legal requirements and, according to
the Compliance Policy, must be followed. Engineering discretion may be used to
comply with the Safety in Designs Manual or standard drawing contents, but devia-
tions or omissions from established criteria are acceptable only when documented
and specifically authorized by appropriate Engineering supervision or management.
Particular attention should be paid to required overhead and side design clearances,
details of construction, and to the specific locations where each of the following
safety features is required:
Railings
Toeboards
Hoop guards, ladder safety guards and drop bars
Ladder cages
Landing areas for stairs, ladders and stiles
Intermediate landings for stairs and ladders

Compliance with Regulations

The contents of the Safety in Designs Manual are in compliance with OSHA
requirements. The 1996 version was generated after extensive review of Federal
and California OSHA standards, the Uniform Building Code, the Uniform Fire
Code and National Fire Protection Association Standards.
There may be local requirements which exceed OSHA or are more restrictive and
would therefore supersede the Safety in Designs Manual contents. Engineers,
construction reps, or inspectors must be reminded of this fact and encouraged to
discuss local requirements with knowledgeable local Company personnel.
Contract language should require compliance with current Company standards and
applicable laws.
Existing facilities need not be modified if they meet legal requirements and
adequate safety is provided.
Standard Drawings
Wherever possible use the Companys standard drawings for stairs, ladders, and
handrails. These drawings meet the requirements of the Safety in Designs Manual,
are based on the design loads specified herein, and provide uniformity in designs. A
list of standard drawings is in Section 382; the drawings are also included in the
List of Standard Drawings and Forms.
Design Uniformity
In all cases the design of walkways, ladders, and stairs should be uniform within
any operating area. For additions or modifications to existing facilities, the require-
ments of the Safety in Designs Manual should normally be followed. However, to
achieve uniformity within a specific operating area it may be desirable at times to
follow some existing practices. An example would be using tread run and riser
heights to match existing stairs. If legal requirements are not met or adequate safety
is not provided by following the existing practices in a given facility, then new or
modified facilities should comply with the Safety in Designs Manual requirements.
342 Design Loads

The Companys standard drawings and forms are based on the design loads given in
this section. There is no need for detailed design unless anticipated loads and condi-
tions differ from these standards.
Stairs
Suggested design load for stair stringers is 100 psf, but the load should not be less
than a 1000 lb. concentrated load on the horizontal projected area of the stairs. Stair
treads are normally selected from manufacturers standard sizes for a range of tread
widths and spans. Manufacturers commonly use a 300-pound design load plus an
additional 1/3 impact load for their calculation of recommended spans. This load is
applied at the centerline of the span, and is distributed over the tread nosing and 4
bearing bars.

Platforms/Walkways
Minimum design load for walkways is 75 psf live load.
Minimum design loads for maintenance platforms should be 75 psf live load, or
2000-pound, concentrated load placed upon any space 2'-6" x 2'-6". However, such
platforms should be designed for the maximum probable loads imposed by the
intended use, for example, equipment loads which can be set down on platforms by
fixed davits or monorails. Exchanger platforms should be designed to carry
exchanger channel and shell covers, but not tube bundles.
Ladders. Designed for anticipated usage, but not less than a single concentrated
load of 200 pounds. Companys Standard Drawing GF-M88575, Standard Ladders
and Guards, has rungs, stringers, and support details that are adequate for loads far
in excess of 200 pounds.
Railings. Anticipated loads but not less than 200 pounds at any point in any direc-
tion on the top rail.
343 Grating and Floor Plate Design and Selection

Grating
Serrated steel grating should be used in the following situations:
For platforms where there is a need to see through, such as furnace firing
platforms and plot limit block valve manifolds
For stair treads (with a distinctive, cast-abrasive, non-skid nosing)
For platforms where operating conditions make steel plate with non-skid
coating ineffective, such as areas where liquid spillage is expected
In wet and cold climates where snow and ice commonly create walkway
hazards
At one time, steel plate with non-skid coating was the recommended surface for
platforms and walkways above 6 feet from grade. Currently, serrated steel grating is
an acceptable option to steel plate. The disadvantages of grating include:
On elevated structures some individuals may find serrated steel grating
stressful because of the see through aspect.
Small objects and tools can drop through to walkways or surfaces below.
It is more difficult to work on, and is hard on the knees when kneeling.
Grating for coastal areas is normally ordered with galvanized coating. Galvanizing
permits an extended period of use before first maintenance, as compared to painted
grating. New galvanized grating is not normally painted. For inland areas (non-
corrosive climates), grating which is painted instead of galvanized may be used if
maintenance painting is not anticipated for five years. Maintenance painting of
grating has proven to be time consuming and costly. Fertilizer plants and other

areas may warrant special coatings or the use of aluminum or fiberglass-reinforced

plastic grating. Check with Fire Protection before specifying these materials.
Coating or galvanizing should be done after fabrication and attachment of banding.
Acceptable manufacturers and types of bar grating for walkways are listed in Speci-
fication CIV-EG-398. The type of grating acceptable to the Company is designated
as W-19-4, a designation that is universally accepted by the bar grating manufac-
turers. It has bearing bars on 1-3/16 inch centers, with cross bars at 4-inch centers,
and is welded steel. Standards for grating are given in the Metal Bar Grating
Manual published by National Association of Architectural Metal Manufacturers
(NAAMM). Acceptable grating and serrated surfaces are illustrated in Figures
300-13 and 300-14.
Fig. 300-13 W-19-4 Grating

Fig. 300-14 Serrations
Expanded metal gratings and mechanical locked gratings are not recommended.
The only type of expanded metal grating that is acceptable to the Company is Grip
Strut Safety Grating. Because of the higher cost over bar grating, Grip Strut is
used only in special applications.
Grating used in areas exposed to weather should have bearing bars with 3/16 inch
minimum thickness. Grating with 1/8 inch thick bearing bars may be used only in
areas protected from weather or corrosion. For most installations, the preferred
minimum bearing bar depth is 1-1/4 inch. Bearing bars with 1-inch depth should be
limited to stair treads, and short spans, such as over trenches, not subject to vehicle
loads.
Acceptable spans (the distance between supports in the direction bearing bars run)
for grating are based on manufacturers safe load tables, and with a unit stress of
18,000 psi. Figure 300-15 provides recommended maximum spans, safe loads, and
deflections for a range of spans and bearing bar sizes. Tables prepared by grating
manufacturers are based on the NAAMM table. The tables are designed to provide
safe live loads, and the weight of the grating does not have to be taken into account.
Safe load tables are based on plain bearing bar grating, and an adjustment must be
made for serrated grating to account for reduction in bar depth. This may be accom-
plished by applying the reduction factors listed in Figure 300-16 to the tabulated
safe loads.
Bearing Bar Direction

Grating is generally manufactured in panel sections 3 feet wide with lengths up to
24 feet. Bearing bars run the length of the panels. Layout and framing of walkways

Fig. 300-15 Load TableSteel Grating Courtesy Gary Grating

Fig. 300-16 Reduction Factors for Serrated Grating

Bar Depth (inches) Multiply by
1 0.82
1-1/4 0.86
1-1/2 0.88
1-3/4 0.90
and platforms, and the specified direction of bearing bars, should take into account
the orientation of the manufactured panels.
To a great extent it is a matter of personal preference as to the direction of run for
the bearing bars. Primary considerations are to simplify fabrication, make economic
use of material, and provide a consistent layout for a given area. The one exception
is that at locations where there is a need to see through, the bearing bars should
be oriented for maximum visibility.
It is good design practice in the selection of spans for deck grating to limit deflec-
tions to 1/4 inch to avoid discomfort to pedestrians from too much flexing of the
walking surface.
Fastenings
Normal fastening of platform grating is with 3/16 inch fillet weld 1-1/2 inches long,
spaced at intervals not exceeding 18 inches at edge supports, with a minimum of
four welds per panel. Grating should be tack welded at 18 inch centers over interme-
diate supports.
For removable grating, such as for access to equipment, use galvanized steel saddle
clips to fasten grating to support members as shown in Figure 300-17. Clips are
normally secured using Nelson studs welded to the structural supports. Clips may
also be secured with self-tapping screws, subject to approval by the operators.
Using clips for securing grating is recommended only in locations where panels
must be removable. The clips have a tendency to work loose, causing the grating to
become uneven, and creating a tripping hazard.
Some installations have used Ram set studs for fastening clips. Experience has been
mixed:
Sometimes they dont properly set.
They easily break.
They may locally overstress members.
Stair Treads
Stairs serving platforms with grating walking surfaces should be furnished with
treads fabricated from the same type grating as the platform. Typical bar size for
treads with serrated bars is 1-inch x 3/16 inch, which is suitable for spans up to
2'-6". For stairs wider than 2'-6" the bar size must be increased to 1-1/4 inch or
1-1/2 inch. Each tread should be furnished with a distinctive, non-skid, cast

Fig. 300-17 Steel Saddle Clips Courtesy NAAMM
abrasive nosing, which provides protection against slipping. The edge of the plat-
form at descending stairs should also be provided with cast abrasive nosing. Note
that actual tread width must equal or exceed the specified tread run. Available stan-
dard tread widths of 9-3/4 inches, 11 inches, or 12 inches are therefore required to
conform with Companys stair requirements. Refer to stair tread illustration shown
in Figure 300-18.
Fig. 300-18 Stair Tread Details
Stair treads are generally bolted to the stair stringers. This allows easy change out
of damaged or corroded treads without hot work.

Banding
Banding is the welding of a flat bar to a side or end of a grating panel, or along the
line of a cutout. The band does not extend above or below the bearing bars, except
when it serves as a toe plate.
Load-Carrying Band. A band used in a cutout to transfer the load from unsup-
ported bearing bars in the cutout to the supported bearing bars. The band should be
welded to one side of each bearing bar with a 1/8 inch fillet weld.
Trim Band. A band which carries no load, but is used chiefly to improve appear-
ance or eliminate a safety hazard. In this case, weld the band to every 4th or 5th bar.
However, in locations where corrosion is a problem, for example coastal areas, it
may be desirable to weld all bars to the band.
Steel Plate with Non-skid Coating

Plain steel plate with a non-skid coating is specified for platforms that do not
require grating. Non-skid coatings contain small, hard grit particles that give an
abrasive surface, and should be selected on the basis of severity of intended service.
For guidelines on the selection of the appropriate coating refer to the Quick Refer-
ence Guide in the Coatings Manual.
Checkered floor plate is not recommended for platforms and walkways, and its use
as stair treads is not permitted. The disadvantages of checkered plates are poor non-
skid qualities, difficulty in maintaining paint, and higher cost, which is more than
for plain steel plate.
Steel plating for platforms is generally fastened to supporting members with inter-
mittent fillet welding or plug welds at intervals not exceeding 18 inches. Where
removable plates are required, plate should be fastened with 3/8-inch diameter
cadmium plated steel flat head bolts which are countersunk at intervals not
exceeding 18 inches. For some installations it may be necessary to specify complete
seal welding to provide for liquid containment or because of environmental condi-
tions. Continuous welding of steel plate should be made with 1/8 inch welds to
minimize plate warpage.
Unless fluid containment is a requirement, a minimum of one 1/2 inch diameter
drain hole is generally provided near the center of each panel of platform floor
plate, to minimize collection of rainwater.
The thickness generally used for steel plate platform surfaces is 1/4 inch. A general
rule of thumb in using this size plate is to limit the product of the width and length
dimensions to around 24 square feet (example, 4 feet by 6 feet) when supported on
four sides. Much larger plate support dimensions could be used that would
adequately support a 40 psf live load; however, this would introduce excessive
deflection or bounce in the deck when walked upon. Longer support spans also tend
to accentuate ponding problems. For these reasons, the short span of the plate is
generally limited to a maximum of 4 feet-0 inches with supports at about 6-foot
spacing in the long span direction. For short spans, 3 feet-0 inches or less, the long
span is not limited. Where joining of plates occurs between framing members, an

angle 1-1/2 by 1-1/2 by 1/4 inch should be used under the joint. Gaps between floor
plates resting on a supporting member should be limited to about 1/4 inch.
Openings in Platforms
Attention must be given to openings through floorplate or grating required for
piping, conduit, or equipment, to avoid the hazard of dropping tools or parts, or
creating a tripping hazard. The following general guidelines apply. See the Safety in
Designs Manual for specifics.
If possible, keep gaps between the floor surface and equipment or piping less
than 1 inch. The larger the gap, the more likely a bolt or tool will fall through
the gap.
Platforms on a horizontal vessel must be extended under the vessels curvature.
If gap opening exceeds 1 inch, a toeboard must be provided.
Platforms on vertical vessels should not have a space exceeding 1 inch between
platform and vessel or surface of insulation for an insulated vessel. If the gap
opening exceeds 1 inch, a toeboard must be provided. If the gap is 3 inches or
more, guard railing is also required.
Platforms bounded by vertical pipes should extend to the centerline of the
pipes with cutouts around the pipes not exceeding 1 inch. If the spacing of the
vertical pipes exceeds 9 inches, then a guard railing is required.
Floor plate openings. Openings should have maximum 1 inch clearance
between floor plate and pipe, duct, or equipment. Circular openings 12 inches
in diameter and larger, and rectangular openings 12 inches and larger in the
smaller dimension should be banded with a toe plate if the opening between
the plate and the pipe, duct or equipment exceeds 1 inch. A toe plate increases
the maximum acceptable opening to 3 inches. If the gap is 3 inches or more,
guard railing is also required.
Floor grating openings. Openings in grating with a maximum diameter or side
dimension of 12 inches need not be banded, but should have a 1 inch
maximum clearance from the equipment. Circular openings 12 inches in diam-
eter and larger, and rectangular openings 12 inches and larger in the smaller
dimension should be banded with bearing bars, and should have a maximum
clearance between the equipment of 1 inch. A toe plate may be substituted for
a bearing bar, in which case the acceptable clearance is increased to 3 inches. If
the gap is 3 inches or more, guard railing is required.
All openings for pipe should be round.
Stairs
Stair access and platforms are required for:
Points which require access for servicing or operating during each 8 hour shift
Locations of mechanical equipment
Location at which samples are to be taken

Locations for servicing, maintaining, or operating equipment handling H2S

Plot limit manifolds
Stair Design
The exact number and locations of stairs will need to be reviewed and accepted by
Operations and Safety. For platforms served by stairs, it is convenient to set the
elevation above grade, or between platforms, at even multiples of 7-3/4 inches. This
will facilitate the use of the Companys recommended standard riser and tread
dimensions.
Riser = 7-3/4 inches
Tread = 9-3/4 inches
Where a stairway cannot meet the above requirements, the riser heights and tread
run dimensions may be varied provided:
Tread run plus riser height dimension equals 17-1/2 inches.
Stair slope is between 30 degrees and 40 degrees.
All riser heights in any one structure or platform are the same.
To the greatest extent possible, all riser heights in a general area are the same.
For stairways starting at grade, where paving is concrete, the stair stringer should
be bolted to the concrete. If necessary to maintain riser height, the paving at the
bottom of the stair may be raised in height 2 inches to 3 inches and sloped gradu-
ally (1:10 max) down to the adjoining paving. If the stair ends on asphaltic
concrete, a concrete pad 2 feet-6 inches by 3 feet or larger, should be installed. If
necessary, feather the paving up to meet the pad. For unpaved areas with gravel or
crushed rock surface, a concrete pad with a minimum landing area of 2 feet-6
inches square or larger, should be provided. The height of this pad should be flush
with the surrounding grade, or be set at 3 inches above grade. Refer to
Figure 300-19.
The top flanges of the channel stair stringers at the base of the stair should be cut
off at an angle of 45 degrees, ground smooth, and stringers cut off vertically to
match front edge of first tread to avoid creating a tripping hazard.
Handrails and midrails should be provided on both sides of stairs serving walks or
platforms requiring guardrails and midrails. Midrails should be omitted on the wall
side of stairways adjoining walls.
In spite of careful planning and effort, it is difficult to make stair stringers at the
bottom of a flight of stairs terminate at the as built concrete slab elevation. The
reasons for this include:
Frequently because of sloping slabs, the exact final grade elevation at the stair
location is not known at the time the stair design is executed.
Working to normal construction tolerances contributes to dimensional prob-
lems in final fit-up of stairs.

Fig. 300-19 Stair Landings

Slabs adjacent to pile-supported foundations may settle with respect to the

structure. This can be a continuing problem during the life of the installation. If
this problem is expected to occur, it may be desirable to support the bottom of
the stair off the foundation, or a pile-supported landing pad might be consid-
ered.
The normal remedy for correcting elevations at the bottom of stairs is to build up
the slab, and to slope up the paving around it as illustrated in the Safety in Designs
Manual. The 2 feet-6 inches by 2 feet-6 inches minimum flat landing area dimen-
sion must be maintained.
344 Ladders, Cages, and Guards

Platforms for which ladder access must be provided include:
Locations which require access for operating equipment such as valves and
motors, when access is required less frequently than once per 8-hour shift.
Locations requiring access for maintenance only of appurtenances such as
manholes, column or vessel nozzle flanges, relief valves, removable heads or
covers, for example. Platforms need not be provided for services less than 15
feet above grade when access is required only for maintenance, if they can be
reached from temporary tubular scaffolding without interfering with operating
or emergency access to equipment.
For platforms served by ladders it is generally desirable to set the elevation above
grade, or between platforms at even multiples of 1 foot-0 inches.
Inclined ladders are undesirable. If used, because clearance problems require the
ladder to be sloped, the incline forward shall not be greater than 15 degrees from
the vertical.
Side access ladders are preferred to front access ladders, as entry at the top of the
ladder is easier and safer.
Ladders should be arranged so the user faces toward equipment or structures rather
than facing open space.
Ladder rungs must be positioned so that the centerline of the rung at the top plat-
form is at the same elevation as the top of the platform walking surface. Where
more than one platform is served by a ladder, intermediate platforms should be
located so that the top of each platform lines up with the centerline of a ladder rung.
The spacing between ladder rungs should be maintained at 12 inches and the
bottom rung should be 6 inches to 18 inches above the platform or finished pave-
ment.
The space around a ladder that must be kept free from obstructions is the same as
the space required for a standard ladder cage, whether a ladder cage is provided or
not. The minimum clearance behind ladders is 7 inches measured from the center-
line of the ladder. Common problems are conduits, stiffening rings, foundations,
field routed small piping, or insulation that reduce the 7 inch clearance. Minimum

side clearance is 15 inches from centerline of ladder with minimum 30 inches clear-
ance in front of ladder. This 30 inch by 30 inch clearance envelope includes the
bottom landing area of the ladder and extends upward for the full length. Ladder
stringers and rungs must be kept free of attachments other than those required to
support the ladder.
Ladders which could be climbed inadvertently on the back side must have a barrier
installed per Drawing GF-M88575. The maximum vertical run of ladder must be 30
feet.
Ladders attached to equipment subject to thermal expansion must be provided with
slotted support clips at the ladder feet.
Cages must be provided on all ladders serving platforms 20 feet or higher above
grade.
Drop bars must be provided on all ladders serving platforms which are 2 feet-6
inches or higher above grade.
Hoop guards must be provided on all ladders serving platforms 10 feet or higher
above grade.
350 Guyed Stacks

This subsection discusses the use, design, and installation of guys for stack support.
Discussion of other structural topics, such as vortex shedding, foundations, or
deadmen, is not included.
351 Use and Layout

Guys are required to provide structural stability for furnace stacks and flare stacks
that cannot be designed as self-supporting. Layout of guys is dependent on space
availability, height of stack, number of guys required, obstructions, clearances over
roads, and layout of roads and other facilities in the area.
The primary objective must be to provide:
A safe design for structural support of the stack under all conditions
Physical protection of the guys themselves from moving vehicles or construc-
tion equipment
Except where there is no alternative, guys should be oriented to avoid crossing
roads. Where guys cross roads, the minimum clearances given in the Safety in
Designs Manual (Reference [15]) should be maintained.
Deadmen should be located as far from roads as possible, but a minimum of 25 feet
outside of road shoulder is recommended. If guys and deadmen could be exposed to
vehicle damage, or if there is a hazard to personnel, suitable guy protectors should
be provided.

The most efficient angle of inclination from the horizontal for guys is 45 degrees.
In practice this is not always possible due to layout requirements, and frequently
guys attached at multi-levels to the stack will be anchored at the same deadman.
Guys with angles of inclination less than 30 degrees are not as efficient because the
corresponding sags and cable elongation are greater than for guys with steeper incli-
nation. The effect is greater stack deflection under design loading conditions. Guys
with inclination angles over 60 degrees are subject to greater axial tension, and the
vertical component of the guys increases axial loads to the stack.
352 Design
The maximum working loads for guys are determined from the following parame-
ters:
Geometry of guys
Number of guys at each level
Number of guy levels
Wind/seismic loading
Weight of guy itself
Ambient temperature changes
Stack temperature changes
Initial guy tension
Coefficient of thermal expansion (guys and stack)
Modulus of elasticity for guys
The calculation of maximum working loads usually requires consideration of a
number of loading cases for the various environmental loads and operating tempera-
tures. Because of the inelastic properties of guy systems, analysis can be done more
quickly and accurately with computer programs. However, the relationships shown
in Figure 300-20 will provide reasonable approximation of design guy loads.
Guyed Stack Design

Stresses in guyed stacks include:
Compressive stresses from combined stack weight, lining, attached equipment
and the vertical component from guy tension
Bending moment stresses from wind or earthquake
Shear stresses due to wind or earthquake
Local Buckling Stresses

Unstiffened cylindrical shells fabricated from carbon and low-alloy steels should be
investigated for local buckling due to axial compression and bending when:
D/t > 60

Fig. 300-20 Uniformly Loaded Cables with Inclined Chords
where:
D = diameter (inches)
t = shell thickness (inches)
For cylindrical shells not subject to internal or external pressure, the longitudinal
tensile stress under loading conditions including wind or earthquake should not
exceed 85% of the yield stress at the operating temperature at the section under
consideration. The efficiency of full-penetration, butt-weld joints should be taken as
1.0. The compressive stress for carbon and low-alloy steel shells operating at atmo-
spheric temperature should not exceed 2/3 of the minimum specified yield stress
nor 2,320,000 t/R (psi) where t is the shell thickness and R is the radius, both in
inches. The expression 2,320,000 t/R is based on modifying the classical buckling
stress formula for a cylindrical shell given as CE t/R with C = 0.08 and
E = 29,000,000 psi. For shells operating at high temperatures, and for other mate-
rials, the allowable compressive stress should not exceed the following:

For cylindrical shells designed prior to the Summer of 1983 Addenda of the
ASME Code: 1/3 greater than the allowable compressive stress permitted by
the applicable edition of the ASME Code.
For cylindrical shells designed in accordance with the Summer 1983 Addenda
or subsequent editions: the allowable compressive stress permitted by the
ASME Code.
For structural analysis of the stack see References [11] and [13]. These references
also address the analysis and design of ring girders and stiffeners at guy line
supports to the stack.
In structural analysis of stacks, it is important to establish the amount of corrosion
allowance to be considered.
For a discussion of vortex shedding for stacks, refer to Section 100, Wind and Earth-
quake Design Standards.
Initial Guy Tension

Initial tension, applied to the guys during erection, is between 5% and 12% of the
minimum breaking strength. In selecting the amount of initial tension, the intent is
to maintain some tension at all times on each of the guys regardless of the direction
of the full design wind load.
For the maximum operating condition (thermal expansion of the stack) the
maximum working loads for guys is kept to about 20% of the minimum breaking
strength.
For combined operating conditions and wind or earthquake loading, the maximum
guy loads are kept to 25% to 40% of the minimum breaking strength.
Maximum Design Loading Conditions

Steps for determining maximum design loading conditions on guys:
1. Select wind direction for maximum wind loads for any individual guys.
Calculate wind loads on contributory area of stack, attachments, and guys.
Refer to Section 100 for wind forces and shape factors.
2. Determine loads contributed by opposing guys under the design wind load
conditions. This is an iterative process taking into account initial guy tensions
and stack deflection.
3. Determine added loads from thermal expansion or contraction of the stack and
guys.
4. Check for seismic loading on the stack.
Judgment will be required as to how these loads are combined. For many cases the
maximum design wind loads and thermal loads are directly additive. In other cases
the maximum wind loads (hurricane) would not be expected to occur concurrently

with maximum operating thermal loads. In such cases it would be appropriate to

establish a maximum operating wind load.
For a detailed discussion of guyed stack design refer to Structural Engineering
Handbook (Reference [11]).
Guy Wire Material

For most guys, it is recommended that structural strand (or Bridge Strand) be
specified rather than wire rope.
Strand
The carrying capacity of a strand is greater than that of a rope of the same
diameter.
The outside surface of strand is smoother than that of wire rope. It is easier to
protect with paint or other covering.
Accessory fittings used with strands are smaller than those used with a compa-
rable capacity wire rope because the strand diameter required for a given load
is smaller.
Strand has a higher modulus of elasticity than wire rope.
Strand provides the minimum exposed surface area to the environment.
Wire Rope
Wire rope is easier to handle in the field than strand because it is more flexible.
Because wire rope can be bent to a shorter radius than strand, smaller diameter
ropes can be installed using thimbles and clips. This makes the fabrication of
guys much easier in the field.
The following ASTM Specifications apply:
A-475 Zinc-Coated Steel Wire Strand (for sizes up to 5/8 inch)
A-586 Zinc-Coated Structural Strand (for sizes over 5/8 inch)
A-603 Zinc-Coated Structural Wire Rope
Structural strand and wire rope are specified as 1 x (number of wires around the
core combined in sets of 6); for example, 1 x 7, 1 x 19, 1 x 37, 1 x 61. The core
recommended is an Independent Wire Rope Core (IWRC). The use of fiber core is
not recommended because of reduced physical properties during the life of the guy.
Coatings
Three different zinc coating weights are available. Class A is the equivalent of
double galvanized coating weight. Class B is twice the weight of A, and
Class C is three times A. All conform to ASTM specifications. Structural
strand or structural wire rope are available in A, B, and C coating weights. Combi-
nations are also available with Class A for inner wires, and the heavier galvanizing,
Class B or C, used for outer wires. The choice of coatings should be based on

review of the environmental exposure, and experience with other galvanized

surfaces at the same location.
For most applications, Class A coating is appropriate. In locations where galva-
nized surfaces experience problems, then Class B or C would be justified.
Tables in ASTM A-586 and A-603 give minimum breaking strength for structural
strand and structural wire rope respectively. These tables are based on 220,000 psi
minimum ultimate tensile strength. The table for strand generally applies to guy
material that is over 5/8 inch diameter. For strand 5/8 inch and smaller, the most
readily available strand conforms to ASTM A-475. This strand comes in 4 grades:
Common, Siemens-Martin, High Strength, and Extra High Strength. For general
guy wire applications, the grade most readily available is Siemens-Martin.
Prestretching
Elongation of a steel cable results from a combination of elastic or recoverable
stretch of the steel and inelastic or constructional stretch. Constructional stretch is a
variable quantity governed by the size of equipment utilized in the manufacture of
the cable, the arrangement of the steel wires within the cable, and the length of
helical pitch of the cable components. To minimize the effect of the constructional
stretch, the cable can be prestretched by applying a predetermined tension, gener-
ally not exceeding 55% of the rated breaking strength of the cable. Prestretching
takes up slack in the cable construction (windings) without plastically deforming
the wire. It leaves the cable with well defined and uniform elastic properties. A
tolerance of 1 inch in 100 feet can be expected if proof loading and prestretching
are performed at the manufacturing plant. Prestretching makes determination of
lengths and fitting positions much easier in the field.
The requirement for prestretching is based on the judgment of the designer. For
long or large diameter guys, specify prestretching per ASTM A-586. For guys less
than 1 inch in diameter and 250 feet long, prestretching will probably not be
required, but manufacturers estimate of constructional stretch should be consid-
ered.
353 Installation
Guy Fittings
End terminations for structural strand are most often done with socket fittings, as
shown on CIV-EF-336. Use Type 6 to avoid creating any bending in the strand.
Sockets are designed to develop the full breaking strength of the strand, and are
attached by brooming out the end of strand after it is installed through the socket
and filling the socket cavity or basket with molten zinc or special epoxy designed
for this application.
Turnbuckles are commonly used for adjusting the guy length during installation and
for tension adjustment in service. Turnbuckles should be specified with jaw or
eye type terminations and not hook type.

An alternative to turnbuckles is the bridge strand socket as illustrated in

Figure 300-21. Bridge strand sockets are manufactured by Esco Ltd., Scarborough,
Ontario.
Fig. 300-21 Bridge Strand Socket Courtesy ESCO
The advantages of the bridge strand socket are:

Much greater takeup - up to 72 inches
Easier to make the takeup - less torque required
Does not tend to twist the guy during tightening
Installation Planning
Before installing a guyed stack, a detailed procedure should be prepared. Items that
should be included are:
Ground assembly of stack or stack sections
Lifting procedures for stack or section, supported by calculations to demon-
strate that stresses during lifting or upending do not exceed allowables
Temporary supports if required during installation
Handling and attachment procedures for guys to the stack
Detailed procedures outlining the equipment and the steps required to attach
lower guy connection to deadman
Procedures for tensioning and measurement of guy tension. These procedures
should address the steps to be taken to assure that all guys connected to the
same attachment level on the stack are tensioned uniformly throughout the
procedure.
Guy Tensioning
For guys over 5/8 inch, a separate tensioning device is frequently used for installa-
tion. This may be a hydraulically operated tensioner, in which case a direct

measurement of tension can be calculated. With this procedure the turnbuckle or

bridge strand socket is tightened only after the guy is tensioned to the full design
initial tension. When it is noted that the load is fully transferred from the installa-
tion device by takeup of the turnbuckle or bridge strand socket, the desired guy
tension has been reached.
Another method of checking for guy tension during installation or in service is with
a tension indicator. The measuring device is mounted directly on the guy. Instru-
ments are available from Martin-Decke-Division Cooper Industries, Inc., for guys
from 1/4 inch to 1-1/2 inches. The tension indicator operates by producing a slight
calibrated offset in the guy wire between two fixed points. The pressure to make
this offset is a measure of the load on the line. The deflection is slight so that no
permanent set or distortion takes place.
Guy Protectors
Where guys are located near roads, pathways, or structures requiring frequent atten-
dance, attach protectors made of wood moulding of 4 inch boards painted yellow
and black and extending at least 7 feet above the ground. Where vehicles may be a
hazard to guys, install guard posts in accordance with Standard Drawing
GA-S99975.
354 Maintenance
Provided guys are adequately protected from corrosion and have not suffered from
physical damage, a long service life is expected. They should, however, be regu-
larly checked visually for their condition, and for loss of tension. Changes in
tension can frequently be observed visually by viewing the entire length of the guy
from a point directly off to one side. Guys under design initial tension exhibit little
or no observed sag (catenary) when viewed in this manner. If an increase in sag is
observed, a program to make actual tension measurements should be initiated. Guys
that are viewed along the length of the guy, from the deadman to the attachment of
the stack, will exhibit some catenary regardless of the amount of tension.
If for some reason it becomes necessary to replace a single guy or a group of guys,
a carefully planned procedure to do this work must be developed. Temporary
bracing should be provided to accommodate all loads normally taken by the guy(s)
being replaced. When releasing the tension of any guy, all other guys connected to
the same stack level shall be slackened at the same time to maintain balanced loads
on the stack. Maintaining structural integrity of the support system is paramount.
The connection of guys to the top of flare and furnace stacks should be checked
regularly, probably not exceeding 5-year intervals. This area could be subject to
corrosion because of the flue gas. Interior shell corrosion has also been found at the
location of attachments either because of differential cooling, or because the area
was affected by the welding.
The thickness of the stack must also be checked on a regular basis. The guy/stack
system depends upon the stack to provide some structural support. When the stack
thins due to corrosion, the stack can be overstressed and buckle during a design

wind or seismic event. The critical section of the stack is usually at the bottom, so
that area should be checked more carefully.
360 Pipeway Crossings and Roadway Bridges

This section discusses the typical options available for pipeway crossings at roads
and railroads. The topics discussed include:
General Considerations
Buried Lines Without Casings
Buried Lines with Casings
Corrugated Pipe Arches
Overhead Pipeway Crossings
Bridges for Pipeway Crossings
Design Considerations
Design Loads
Types of Bridge Construction
Design of pipeway crossings is normally done by civil engineers. To comply with
local requirements it may be necessary to have drawings and specifications for
crossings signed by a registered engineer. For additional guidance, consult the
Companys Pipeline Manual (Reference [21]) and API RP1102 (Reference [14]).
361 General Considerations

The type of pipeway crossing for a particular installation must be determined after
consideration of the following:
For crossing outside of Company facilities the design requirements mandated
by the local or state highway authorities, or railroad company, that have
authority for review and approval of crossings
Elevation of lines with respect to the roads or railroads to be crossed
Traffic volume
Requirements for rail, truck or crane loadings
Number of lines in the pipeway. Expectations for future lines
Possible obstructions, particularly underground
Soil conditions, including requirements for piling
Elevation changes to roads required to accommodate crossing (dictated by
depth of bridge structure or minimum earthfill over lines)
Requirements for removable deck rather than fixed deck for bridges
Area drainage

Leak detection requirements

Future maintenance requirements
Work space limitations
Overhead power lines and other obstructions that could restrict construction
equipment
Acceptable interruptions to traffic flow
Available detours for traffic
362 Buried Lines

Buried Lines Without Casing
Uncased lines in earthfill are the least expensive crossings to install. They are
normally limited to crossings within Companys own facility or to rural roads with
low traffic loads. Uncased crossings are commonly used when only one or a few
lines are involved in the crossing, and the probability is low that future lines will be
installed at the same crossing. Because of concerns for corrosion and physical
damage to buried lines, and the consequences related to repairing or replacement at
a road crossing, attention should be paid to pipe coatings, pipe wall thickness, and
details of the installation. For information on acceptable coatings used on buried
lines refer to the Companys Coatings Manual.
The disadvantages of the uncased crossing include: future repair or replacement
costs for the lines can be higher than other crossings; spacing between lines is
greater than normal pipeway spacing; the addition of future lines or other work in
the vicinity of the crossing will be made more difficult; and detection of leaks is
difficult.
Installation. Installation of uncased crossings can be made with an open trench
when traffic can be diverted. At other times it may be necessary to install lines by
jacking or drilling operations. The diameter of hole for bored or jacked installations
should not exceed the pipe diameter (including coating) by more than 1 to 2 inches
to avoid excessive settlement around the pipe. If the pipeline is installed within an
open trench, care must be taken to ensure that the line is uniformly supported
throughout its length and backfill is thoroughly compacted. For open trench installa-
tion, the width of the trenching should not exceed the nominal pipe diameter by
more than 2 feet. For determination of pipe stress due to external loads, and
combined internal and external loading stress, refer to API RP 1102, Recommended
Practice for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines Crossing Railroads and Highways (Refer-
ence [14]), or the Companys Pipeline Manual (Reference [21]) Section 400 and
Appendix I. Refinery piping may not be considered a pipeline, but the principles
in this procedure are the same as for piping. Typical installations for the uncased
crossing are illustrated in the sketches in Figure 300-22.

Fig. 300-22 Example of Uncased Crossing Installations Courtesy API
Buried Lines With Casing

Cased lines through earthfill are more expensive than uncased, but less than other
types of crossings. They are the common requirement for crossing single lines or a
few lines under highways or railroad rights-of-way. The counties or other local juris-
dictions where these crossings are located, or the railroad involved, will have regula-
tions governing the requirements for cased crossings. Each line should be placed in
its own casing. Cased lines are less subject to physical damage and line integrity at
the crossing is more easily monitored. For selection of coatings for the line and
casing refer to the Companys Coatings Manual.
The disadvantages of the uncased pipeway crossing with regard to additional
pipeway width and future line installation applies equally to cased lines.
The major problem with cased lines is maintaining electrical isolation between the
line and the casing. This is particularly true for lines that are continuously buried,

that is, the ends of the casing do not daylight on both sides of the crossing. If the
pipe shorts out against the casing, corrosion of the line will occur as it becomes
anodic with respect to the casing, and a heavy drain on a cathodic protection system
can result.
Methods to limit problems include:
Use cased line crossings only where required.
Avoid, if possible, placing cased crossings where ground water is present.
Take special care to avoid damage to coatings during installation.
Use care to design and install line support insulators and end seals to centralize
and isolate line.
Provide corrosion protection coating for casing.
Provide a secondary seal over the end seal. This can be a vinyl sleeve fitted and
clamped to the line and to the casing.
Installation. Installation methods for cased lines are similar to those used for
uncased lines. For determination of wall thickness for the casing refer to API RP
1102 (Reference [14]).
Refer to Figure 300-23 which illustrate cased rail and highway crossings showing
the recommended cover given in API RP 1102 (Reference [14]). For additional
details and construction notes refer to API RP 1102
Figure 300-24 shows details of end seals and concentric support insulators for
cased pipe crossings. The end seals are designed to provide positive hydrostatic
protection from water or soil entering between the pipeline and casing. The concen-
tric support insulators center the pipe within the length of the casing, making it
easier to install the end seals, and to electrically isolate the carrier pipe from the
casing pipe. After installation, a resistance check must be made to confirm that the
carrier pipe is isolated from the sleeve.
API Recommend Practice 1102 states that vents are not required for casings.
However, this requirement should be determined for each individual installation,
and may be mandatory for rail and highway crossings.

Fig. 300-23 Example of Cased Crossing Installations Courtesy API
Railroad Crossing Minimum Cover

Location Minimum Cover
Under track structure proper, except 5.5 feet (1.7 meters)
secondary and industry tracks
Under track structure proper for 4.5 feet (1.4 meters)
secondary and industry tracks
Under all other surfaces within the right- 3 feet (0.9 meters)
of-way from bottom of ditches
For pipelines transporting HVL 4 feet (1.2 meters)
Fig. 300-24 Cased Crossing With Concentric Support Insulators (Lines Under 150F)

363 Corrugated Pipe Arches

The use of corrugated steel pipe arches to protect lines crossing under roads permits
the installation of a number of lines within the same enclosure. Figure 300-25 illus-
trates the use of this type of structure for crossings.
Fig. 300-25 Corrugated Pipe Arch
Corrugated pipe arches can be obtained in a variety of spans from 6 feet to 20 feet
wide with rise dimensions from about 4 feet to 13 feet. Since the arches are field-
assembled of individual standard-sized corrugated sheets bolted together, there is
no restriction on the overall length for arched enclosures. The corrugated sheets are
available in a number of thicknesses to safely support various combinations of dead
and live loads.
Corrugated pipe arches offer these advantages:
Permit normal pipe spacing to be continued through the crossing
Allow personnel access to lines for inspection, leak detection, and maintenance
Provide space for future lines
Disadvantages include the need to reroute traffic for a considerable period of time
in order to excavate a large cut through the roadway to install the arched structure.
Corrugated pipe arches are more expensive than cased and uncased lines.
Depending on the relative elevations of the pipeway and road, it may be necessary
to elevate the road at the crossing to adequately clear the arched pipe enclosure.
Manufacturers catalogs for corrugated pipe arches provide loading tables for their
product. Selection of appropriate thickness of corrugated plate is relatively straight-
forward, and is based on earth fill over the structure, vehicle live loads, and span
dimensions.

364 Overhead Pipeway Crossings

The advantages of using overhead pipeway crossings include easy access for inspec-
tion and maintenance work on lines and the ability to add more lines in the future.
Disadvantages may include building pockets in lines that trap fluid and other mate-
rial, and greater exposure to physical damage.
Costs associated with overhead pipeway crossings are probably midway between
costs for buried crossings and for bridges.
Overhead pipeway crossings over unrestricted roads or railroads should have a
minimum clearance of 22 feet-6 inches for a width equal to the width of the
approaching road including shoulders. For limited access roads a vertical clearance
of 15 feet-0 inches should be maintained. In any event, the clearances provided will
require approval by facility operators on Company property, and the designated
authorities for highway or rail crossings.
For design of overhead pipeway crossings, see Section 320, Piping Support.
365 Bridges for Pipeline Crossings

This section discusses basic considerations for designing bridges for pipeway cross-
ings. Design loadings and types of construction are discussed.
References:
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, adopted by the American Associ-
ation of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
PCI Design Handbook - Precast and Prestressed Concrete
ACI Manual of Concrete Practice
AISC Manual of Steel Construction
ACI 318 Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
Design Considerations
Engineers designing bridges should be familiar with AASHTO Standard Specifica-
tion for Highway Bridges. Good judgment should be exercised in using the design
criteria set forth by AASHTO because of the following special conditions appli-
cable to Company bridges:
Better control of bridge loading of heavy construction equipment than heavy
equipment loading on public highway structures
Low volume of vehicle traffic
Better control over physical inspections
Vehicle speed control to reduce vehicle impact loads
Better recorded history of extreme loading conditions

Maximum vehicle loads may be considered individually and may not have to
be combined with concurrent loading from other vehicles.
In addition to designing bridges, engineers frequently are called upon to provide
load ratings for existing bridges. To assist in this effort, a Bridge Rating Procedure
is included in an appendix to the AASHTO document.
Design Loads
Historically, bridges tend to be under-designed for the vehicle loads that occur
during their lifetime. Bridges, however, have a long service life if properly main-
tained. Some Company facilities have operable and safe bridges that were
constructed in the 1930s, but vehicle loads from cranes and heavy transport trucks
have gone up dramatically over the past 40 years.
Further escalation in loadings cannot be ruled out, and the possibility of future
increases should be considered when load criteria are established for new bridges.
Figures 300-26 and 300-27 define AASHTO H15, H20, HS15, and HS20 standard
truck dimensions, and lane loading.
Fig. 300-26 Lane Loading

The table in Figure 300-27 compares axle loads for AASHTO design loading with
vehicles commonly used within Company facilities, in this case the Richmond
Refinery.
For any new installation it will be necessary to consider present and future loading
requirements with the facility operators.
The AASHTO specification provides procedures for determining impact loads and
longitudinal loads. Since Company-owned bridges are subject to restricted loading
and use, as previously discussed, designers may find it appropriate to make adjust-
ments to these loads. Lateral vehicle loading can generally be neglected.
Types of Bridges
Selection of the type of bridge construction to be used for a particular installation
will depend on:
Design vehicle live loads
Requirements for removable deck panels
Required number of spans
Economics
Construction schedule
Underground obstructions or existing pipeway that will dictate location of
bridge abutments and intermediate piers
Working space between pipeway elevation and desired roadway elevation
Five types of bridge structures, based on the materials of construction, are:
Reinforced concrete, cast-in-place with fixed deck
Removable precast, prestressed deck slabs
Removable precast reinforced concrete deck slabs, supported on steel beams
Fixed composite deck of reinforced concrete slab and steel
Removable steel deck grating supported on steel beams
The five types are illustrated in Figure 300-28 and a comparison of advantages and
disadvantages is given in Figure 300-29.

Fig. 300-27 Axle LoadsCranes and Trucks Courtesy AASHTO
Axle Loads(1) Feet

Cranes F1 F2 F3 F4 A B
75 ST P & H (W/12K CWT + 105' Boom) 19.0K 19.0K 38.5K 38.5K 4.5 14.15
80 ST Grove (W/13K CWT + 114' Boom) 20.3K 20.3K 39.2K 39.2K 4.5 14.25
90 ST P & H (W/25K CWT +50' Boom) 25.8K 25.8K 40.1K 40.1K 4.5 14.7
140 ST P & H (W/30K CWT + No Boom) 37.0K 37.0K 33.7K 33.7K 4.5 14.83
40 ST Link Belt HSP-8040 0 41.3K 38.4K 0 0 12.6
Axle Loads Feet

Trucks F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 A B C D
AASHTO H-15 6.0K 24.0K 0 0 0 14.0 0 0 0
AASHTO HS-15 6.0K 24.0K 0 24.0K 0 14.0 0 14 TO 30 0
AASHTO H-20 8.0K 32.0K 0 0 0 14.0 0 0 0
AASHTO HS-20 8.0K 32.0K 0 32.0K 0 14.0 0 14 TO 30 0
LPG Truck40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 15.0 5.0 28.0 4.0
Vacuum Truck40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 15.0 5.0 28.0 4.0
Flat Bed40 SST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 15.0 5.0 28.0 4.0
Container40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 15.0 5.0 28.0 4.0
Asphalt Truck40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0 4.0 19.0 19.0
Gasoline Tanker40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0 4.0 19.0 19.0
Flat Bed40 ST 8.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0K 18.0 4.0 19.0 19.0
(1) Axle loads for cranes are based on normal travel position with boom facing rear or forward for best distribution of loads.

Fig. 300-28 Typical Bridge Types

Fig. 300-29 Comparison of Bridges for Pipeline Crossings

Advantages Disadvantages
Cast in Place Concrete Probably the lowest cost structure. Limits access to lines below.
Long service life expected with low Limited to shorter span lengths (8'-10')
maintenance. without intermediate piers.
Low elevation of roadway above lines. Makes future expansion more difficult.
Removable Prestressed, Deck is removable for access to lines. Limited to short span lengths for heavy
Precast Concrete Panels Long service life. loads without intermediate piers.
Low elevation of roadway above lines. Special equipment required in precast

yard or in field for prestressing.
Cost may be lower than other remov-
able panels depending on availability Deck panels can be damaged during
of precast yards. handling when removed.
Removable Concrete Deck Long service life. Total depth of bridge is greater than
Slabs on Steel Beams Can be used for longer spans than other bridge types, increasing the
prestress panels only. distance between the pipeway and
roadway elevations. May require
Deck is removable for access to lines ramping up of road at crossing.
and inspection of bridge structural
members. Structural steel beams will limit
access to lines for minor alterations.
Structural steel is subject to corrosion.
Fixed Reinforced Composite The continuous concrete bridge deck Cost is high relative to other bridge
Deck provides a near trouble-free surface. types.
Can be used for longer spans without No direct access to the lines in the
intermediate supports. pipeway under the bridge.
Structural steel is subject to corrosion.
Removable Steel Deck Provides full access to the lines below. Higher maintenance because of the
Grating Supported on Steel Can be used for a range of widths and exposed steel.
Beams span lengths. Cost is relatively high.
Lines below are not protected from
falling debris.
Surface does not provide as good trac-
tion as concrete in bad weather.
370 Computer Programs For Designers

PC-based computer programs for the analysis and design of frame structures are
available from outside vendors. The Civil & Structural (C&S) Technical Services
Team supports such programs. Contact the C&S Team for assistance in accessing
and using the programs. An example is STAAD III Analysis and Design of Three-
Dimensional Structures, discussed below. Other examples include SAP 90, RISA,
STARDYNE, and PCA.

371 STAAD III

General Information
STAAD III performs analysis and design of three-dimensional steel, concrete, and
timber structures subject to static or dynamic loading. Structure models may
include beam, truss, and user defined elements. Models may be input using either a
text file or a graphic input generator. The program will design steel, concrete, and
timber structures to AISC (both ASD and LRFD), ACI, and AITC codes, respec-
tively. The dynamic analysis module allows both response spectrum and time
history analysis.
Output
Printed analysis results include the following:
Support Reactions
Member Forces
Joint Displacements and Rotations
Code Checking / Design Results
Plots of input geometry, applied loads, mode shapes, deformed shapes, and shear
and moment diagrams can be generated and printed on either a printer or plotter.
380 Model Specification, Standard Drawings, and Engineering Forms
381 Model Specification

CIV-MS-398 Steel Fabrication is included in the Specification section of this
manual. This Model Specification lists acceptable steel materials and welding
processes, describes the minimum requirement for fabrication, surface preparation,
painting, and marking, and includes inspection guidelines.
382 Standard Drawings

The following standard drawings either are included in the Standard Drawings and
Forms section of this manual or are available in other manuals as indicated.
GA-M1001 Standard Stile, Type 1
GB-M1002 Standard Stile, Type 2
GD-M13909 Standard Clips
GD-M13966 Standard Steel Stairs
GF-M88575 Standard Ladders and Guards
GF-D99639 Circumference Stair, Platform for Tanks (in Tank Manual)
GF-M99645 Standard Railing

GB-M99653 Standard Pipe Shoes and Pipe Shoe Anchors (in Piping
Manual)
GF-C99694 Standard Details for Support Feet for Horizontal Vessels
(in Pressure Vessels Manual)
GF-M99874 Guide Sheet for Pipe Supports (2 pages)
GF-M99931 Guide for Typical Details of Platforms for Vertical Vessels
GD-M99971 Design Guide for Cantilever Brackets for Vertical Vessel
Platforms
GA-S99975 Standard Details for Removable and Stationary Guard Posts
383 Engineering Forms

The following Standard Engineering Forms relating to this section are included in
the Standard Drawings and Forms section of this manual or are available in other
manuals as indicated.
CIV-EF-79 Details of Stanchions
CIV-EF-336 Details for Guys and Deadmen
CIV-EF-588A Precast Concrete Stanchions
CIV-EF-588B Precast Concrete Stanchions T Type
PIM-EF-595 Clips for Vertical Vessels (in Pressure Vessels Manual)
CIV-EF-632 Low Walks
PIM-EF-739 Clips for Horizontal Vessels (in Pressure Vessels Manual)
CIV-EF-799 Pipe Support Details
A through F
390 References
1. Manual of Steel Construction. American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc.
Summary: Manual includes the dimensions and properties of standard struc-
tural members for design and detailing. Includes sections on beam, column,
and connection designs. Includes AISC Specification for the Design, Fabrica-
tion & Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings.
2. Structural Welding Code AWS D1.1. American Welding Society.
Summary: Covers welding requirements applicable to welded structures. Estab-
lishes qualification standards and testing requirements for weld procedures,
tackers, and welders.
Establishes standards for inspection and nondestructive testing of welds.
3. The Companys Welding Manual.

Summary: This manual gives a good technical explanation of welding

processes, equipment, inspection methods, and guide to weld inspection.
4. ACI Manual of Concrete Practice. American Concrete Institute Publication.
Part 1 Materials and General Properties of Concrete
Part 2 Construction Practices and Inspection
Part 3 Design, Specifications, and Related Topics. (Includes ACI 318,
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.)
Part 4 Bridges, Substructures, Sanitary and Special Structures. Structural
Properties.
Part 5 Masonry, Precast Concrete
Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI Standard 318)

provides the minimum requirements for any reinforced concrete design or
construction that is regulated by a general building code. Includes: analysis
and design, development of reinforcement, and reinforcement details.
5. Uniform Building Code. International Conference of Building Officials.
Summary: A general building code that provides the minimum requirements
for fire, life, and structural safety aspects for buildings and related structures. It
includes engineering regulations on quality and design for steel, concrete, and
other materials. Editions of this code are published at approximately three-year
intervals.
6. ASTM Standards in Building Codes. American Society for Testing Materials.
Summary: Provides standard specifications, test methods, and definitions for
structural steel shapes and plates, cement, concrete, reinforcement, and other
materials used for buildings and structures.
7. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges. Adopted by The American Asso-
ciation of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Summary: Provides a standard specification for the design of highway bridges
including standard vehicle loads, placement of loads for maximum moment,
shears, and reactions.
8. Design Handbook in Accordance with the Strength Design Method of ACI 318.
American Concrete Institute. ACI 340.1 R, 340.2 R
Summary: A general handbook used for design of flexural members, stirrups,
columns, and footings. Includes tables and diagrams and example calculations
that will assist the designer to size structural members, determine reinforce-
ment, and calculate stresses.
9. The Companys Coatings Manual.
Summary: Provides technical information for the structural designer on types
of coating materials, selection of coating systems, surface preparation, applica-
tion, and inspection of coatings. Includes Companys color standards.

10. Metal Bar Grating Manual. The National Association of Architectural Metal
Manufacturers (NAAMM).
Summary: Provides industry standards for steel and aluminum grating
including: standard grating designations (size and spacing of bearing bars) stan-
dard marking system, load tables, anchoring details, manufacturing tolerances
and standards for stair treads.
11. Structural Engineering Handbook. Gaylord, Edwin H., Jr. and Gaylord,
Charles N. (Editors).
Summary: An all-inclusive handbook that includes information on structural
analysis, steel and reinforced concrete design, bridges, and guyed towers.
12. Design of Welded Structures, Blodgett, Omer W., The James F. Lincoln Arc
Welding Foundation.
Summary: A dual purpose textbook and reference manual that discusses beam,
column and girder design, welded connection design, and welded joint design.
13. Tubular Steel Structures - Theory and Design, Troitsky, M.S., The James F.
Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation.
Summary: Presents a guideline for the structural analysis and design of thin-
walled, large diameter tubular steel structures, such as self-supporting and
guyed stacks.
14. API RP 1102Recommended Practice for Liquid Petroleum Pipelines
Crossing Railroads and Highways. American Petroleum Institute.
Summary: Covers the design, installation, inspection, and testing required to
ensure safe crossings of pipelines under railroads and highways.
15. The Companys Safety in Designs Manual.
Summary: This manual highlights and supplements the safety requirements in
local, state, and Federal regulations, and is in accordance with Company poli-
cies, standards, and practices.
16. Pipe Support Design, Chevron Research and Technology Company.
Summary: This manual, developed for the Richmond Refinery, provides the
techniques required to design pipe supports, check the adequacy of existing
supports, or design modifications to existing supports to enable them to carry
additional loads. Copies of this manual may be obtained through Chevron
Research and Technology Company, Civil and Structural Technical Services
Team.
17. PCI Design Handbook - Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Prestressed
Concrete Institute.
Summary: Provides for analysis and design, safe load tables for standard
precast shapes, design of components, handling and erection, and design of
connections.

18. American Society of Civil Engineers Minimum Design Loads for Buildings
and Other Structures. ASCE 7-95.
Summary: Provides requirements to govern assumptions for dead, live, and
other loads in the design of structures.
19. Pipe Hangers and Supports - Materials, Design and Manufacture, ANSI/MSS
SP-58.
20. Guidelines for the Seismic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical Facilities,
ASCE Task Committee on Seismic Evaluation and Design of Petrochemical
Facilities, Draft Report.
Summary: Offers commentary and guidance in the design of petrochemical
facilities. It provides interpretation of various design issues not explicitly
addressed in the Building Codes.
21. Chevrons Pipeline Manual.
Summary: Provides technical and design information for the various facets of
pipeline assessment and design.

Fig. 300-30 American Welding Society Standard Welding Symbols, A2.4-98 (It should be understood that these charts are intended only as shop aids. The only complete and official presentation of the standard welding symbols is in A2.4.)(Courtesy of AWS)

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300 Industrial Structures

310 Introduction 300-3

Chevron Corporation 300-1 June 1997

344 Ladders, Cages, and Guards

June 1997 300-2 Chevron Corporation

311 Background Information

Chevron Corporation 300-3 June 1997

312 People and Organizations

June 1997 300-4 Chevron Corporation

Fire Protection Engineer

Drafting and Engineering

313 Industry Codes and Practices

Chevron Corporation 300-5 June 1997

Structural Welding Code - AWS D1.1, American Welding Society (AWS)

320 Piping Support

June 1997 300-6 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 300-1 Pipeway Stanchion

Chevron Corporation 300-7 June 1997

321 Design ConsiderationsElevated Pipeways

June 1997 300-8 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 300-2 Pipeway Isometric Illustration of Terms

Chevron Corporation 300-9 June 1997

Fig. 300-3 Clearances for Piping

June 1997 300-10 Chevron Corporation

Minimum Thickness(1) Fire Rating (Hours)

For main support members that require fireproofing, it is customary to provide a

Chevron Corporation 300-11 June 1997

Fig. 300-4 Fire Proofing Cover

6. Steel vs. Concrete

June 1997 300-12 Chevron Corporation

Differences in weather impacts. For example, steel might be preferred over

Fig. 300-5 Typical Column-to-Footing Connections

Chevron Corporation 300-13 June 1997

8. Longitudinal Struts or Tiebeams

June 1997 300-14 Chevron Corporation

Electrical and control conduit loads

Pipe Gravity Loads

Chevron Corporation 300-15 June 1997

322 Design Guidelines

June 1997 300-16 Chevron Corporation

Construction Details for Earthquake Resistance

Column Orientation (Structural Steel)

Attachments and Inserts for Concrete Supports

Chevron Corporation 300-17 June 1997

Fig. 300-6 Column Orientation for Rigid Frame

Standard Form CIV-EF-588 (A&B)

323 Low-Level Pipeways and Sleepers

June 1997 300-18 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 300-7 Types of Piers for Supporting Low Level Pipeways

Chevron Corporation 300-19 June 1997

Sub-section 321 (stanchions), or by calculating the actual weight of proposed lines.

Fig. 300-8 Allowable Foundation Pressure Courtesy ICBO

June 1997 300-20 Chevron Corporation

324 Secondary Pipe Supports, Springs, and Hangers

Vertical Design Loads

Chevron Corporation 300-21 June 1997

Horizontal Design Loads

Fig. 300-9 Recommended Spans and Deflection (1 of 2)

June 1997 300-22 Chevron Corporation

Fig. 300-9 Recommended Spans and Deflection (2 of 2)

Fig. 300-10 Recommended Guide Spacing (1 of 2)

Chevron Corporation 300-23 June 1997

Fig. 300-10 Recommended Guide Spacing (2 of 2)