Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Preface viii
About eBookPLUS x
Syllabus grid xi
Acknowledgements xv
vi
Chapter 11: Mechanical interactions 225
11.1 The concept of energy 226
11.2 Transferring energy 226
11.3 Energy transformations in collisions 230
11.4 Momentum 231
11.5 Momentum and Newtons Third Law of Motion 240
Summary 242
Questions 242
Practical activities 246
Glossary 306
Appendix 1: Formulae and data sheet 309
Appendix 2: Periodic table 310
Appendix 3: Key words for examination questions 311
Answers to numerical questions 312
Index 315
vii
PREFACE
This third edition of Physics 1: Preliminary Course is published in response
to amendments made to the Stage 6 Physics syllabus for Year 11 students
in New South Wales in 2003 and beyond. This text, which is part of the
successful Jacaranda HSC Science series, meets all the requirements of the
amended content, has been thoroughly updated, and establishes a solid
grounding in concepts that are further developed in the revised edition
of the Year 12 book, Physics 2: HSC Course.
The text covers the four Preliminary core modules in detail in a full-
colour presentation, supported by stimulating and contemporary images
and clearly labelled diagrams. The content focuses carefully and compre-
hensively on the syllabus points and a syllabus table is provided on
pages xixiv to help students and teachers locate the particular pages of
the book where content is covered.
A range of features is included that aim to stimulate students interest
and build on their knowledge and understanding:
Key terms are shown in bold coloured type and the denition is given in
the margin. A comprehensive glossary of all key terms is included at
the end of the book.
Sample problems with worked solutions are interspersed to help students
understand and apply the formulae as specied in the syllabus.
Physics in focus and Physics fact boxes explain developments and high-
light applications of this dynamic science in the contemporary world.
Websites are included where relevant for extending students interest.
Chapter reviews consist of:
a Summary that lists the main points of the content, for revision and
to reinforce learning
a wide range of descriptive and numerical Questions that enable stu-
dents to address the syllabus outcomes.
The mandatory Practical activities are included at the ends of chapters
to meet syllabus needs. Within the chapters, an icon in the margin
indicates a relevant point or context where each practical activity
might be attempted.
The Appendices include a formulae and data sheet, the periodic table,
the list and denitions of key words used in HSC examination ques-
tions, and answers to the numerical questions.
Complete answers and worked solutions for the questions in both
Physics 1: Preliminary Course and Physics 2: HSC Course are available
online at the JacarandaPLUS website (www.jacplus.com.au).
The authors and consultant for Physics 1: Preliminary Course and
Physics 2: HSC Course are all experienced teachers and educators. They
have approached the topics with a keen sense of responsibility to students
to provide clear and accurate explanations and examples of the prin-
ciples of physics in the context of real-world observations, up-to-date
information and cutting-edge technology. They hope that students using
this text will meet the challenges and enjoy the rewards of the course
while developing a deeper appreciation of the relevance and fascination
of physics in their everyday lives.
viii
eBook plus Next generation teaching and learning
ix
Next generation teaching and learning
About eBookPLUS
Physics 1: Preliminary Course, 3rd edition features eBookPLUS: an electronic version of the entire textbook and
supporting multimedia resources. It is available for you online at the JacarandaPLUS website (www.jacplus.com.au).
LOGIN
Once you have created your account,
you can use the same email address and
password in the future to register any
JacarandaPLUS books.
x
SYLLABUS GRID
Module 1: THE WORLD COMMUNICATES (chapters 14, pages 173)
1. The wave model can be used to explain how current technologies transfer information
2. Features of a wave model can be used to account for the properties of sound
3. Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of the electromagnetic spectrum
4. Many communication technologies use applications of reection and refraction of electromagnetic waves
xi
5. Electromagnetic waves have potential for future communication technologies and data storage technologies
2. One of the main advantages of electricity is that it can be moved with comparative ease from one place to another through electric circuits
xii
5. Electric currents also produce magnetic elds and these elds are used in different devices in the home
2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of acceleration and deceleration
3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy, and energy transformations are an important aspect in understanding motion
xiii
4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver
2. The rst minutes of the Universe released energy which changed to matter, forming stars and galaxies
3. Stars have a limited life span and may explode to form supernovas
4. The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation and particles that inuence the Earth
xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the following people John Wiley & Sons Australia/photo by Ron Ryan;
for their support during the writing of this book: 5.16 based on Department of Land & Water
Michael Andriessen gives special thanks to his wife, Conservation map; 7.1 John Wiley & Sons Australia,
Christine, and sons, Sam and Luke, for their under- Ltd/photo by Claire Lord
standing and patience; Barry Mott is grateful to long- Loy Yang Power: 5.8
standing friend and colleague Bruce McKay for his National Archives of Australia: 5.17 A 8746, KN13/8/
patience and generous assistance; Ric Morante thanks the 75/62 dam and hydro-electric plant, part of the
boys, who generously missed the park. Yoka McCallums Snowy Mountains Scheme
comments and advice are also appreciated, and thanks NASA: 4.22, 12.2, 12.4, 12.17, 12.18, 12.20, 14.10 and
go to the staff of John Wiley for their attention to quality 14.19 NASA; 12.1 NASA/STSCI; 14.5 NASA/ ISAS/
and detail. Yohkoh; 14.7 NASA/Goren Scharmer/Swedish Solar
The authors and publisher would like to thank the Vacuum Telescope; 14.8 and 14.9 NASA/Big Bear
following copyright holders, organisations and indi- Solar Observatory/David Hathaway; 14.11 based on
viduals for their permission to reproduce copyright mat- Marshall Space Flight Center and Science @ NASAs
erial in this book. graph; 14.12 and 14.13 David Hathaway/NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center
Newspix: 3.15(c) Newspix; 5.1 Newspix/David
Images Geraghty; 9.6 Newspix/Dean Marzolla; 11.6 Newspix/
Austral International Press: 10.1 Austral International/ Sam Ruttyn; 11.7 Newspix/Glenn Miller
Pictor Uni Photo Photodisc: 1.1, 1.2, 3.1, 3.2(a), 3.3(a), 3.7, 3.14, 4.1,
AAP Image: 5.13 AAP Image/Dean Lewins 5.9, 5.12, 5.14, 9.9, 10.13, 10.26(a), 11.2 (cyclist), 11.8;
ANSTO: 14.3 reproduced with permission from the pages 1, 75, 171 and 249
Australian Nuclear Science and Technology photolibrary.com: 1.4 photolibrary.com/Science Photo
Organisation Library/Martin Dohrn; 2.1, 4.8 and 4.21
Carol Grabham: 8.29 Paul Grabham photolibrary.com/TEK image/Science Photo Library;
Coo-ee Historical Picture Library: 11.2 (coach) 2.10 photolibrary.com/Matt Meadows; 3.4(b), 12.16
Corbis Australia: 2.3 Corbis Australia/Zefa/Tony and 14.21 photolibrary.com/Science Photo Library/
Latham; 11.1 Corbis Australia/Tim Wright; 12.6 NASA; 3.15(b) photolibrary.com/Science Photo
Australian Picture Library/CORBIS/Geoffrey
Library/Adam Hart-Davis; 4.42 photolibrary.com/
Clements; 12.7 (top right) Australian Picture Library/
Science Photo Library/Cordelia Molloy; 5.2, 5.3, 5.4,
CORBIS/Enzo R Paolo Ragazzini
5.5, 5.7, 8.16, 12.9 (top right), 12.10 (both), 12.13,
Corbis Royalty Free: 3.3(b) and 11.2 (car) Corbis
12.14 and 14.1 photolibrary.com/Science Photo
Corporation; 3.4(c) and 3.6 Photodisc
Library; 5.6 photolibrary.com/Science Photo Library/
Coo-ee Picture Library: 5.10
Sheila Terry; 7.24 photolibrary.com/Science Photo
David Malin Images: 12.3 Anglo-Australian
Library/Andrew Syred; 10.7 photolibrary.com/Science
Observatory; 13.1 Akira Fujii/David Malin Images
Photo Library/Bill Sanderson; 11.2 (train)
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and
the Arts: 8.5 reproduced by permission of the photolibrary.com/Chris Jones; 12.7 (top left), 12.8
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and (bottom right) and 12.11 (a) photolibrary.com/
the Arts Science Photo Library/Dr Jeremy Burgess; 12.8
Digital Vision: 3.8, 6.1, 9.1 and 14.20 (bottom left) photolibrary.com/Science Photo
Energy Australia: 8.4 Library/Library of Congress; 12.9 (top left)
Fairfax Photo Library: 8.1 Fairfax Photo Library/ photolibrary.com/Science Photo Library/Jen-Loup
Penny Stephens Charmet; 12.12 photolibrary.com/Science Photo
Getty Images: 3.4(a) Getty Images/Stone/Raimund Library/George Bernard
Koch; 10.18 Getty Images Sport/Clive Brunskill; 11.10 Runion des Muses Nationaux: 6.3 Photo RMN
Getty Images/Stone Grard Blot
HarperCollins Publishers UK: 13.7(b) reprinted by Dr Ragbir Bhathal: 13.7(a) Bhathal, R, Astronomy for the
permission of HarperCollins Publishers Ltd HSC, Kangaroo Press 1993. Reproduced by permission
Illingworth 1994 of Ragbir Bhathal
Holden Ltd: 11.11 Russell Kightley Media: 12.22
imageaddict.com.au: 3.15(a), 4.9, 4.19, 6.47, 6.50 Scala: 12.11(b) Galileo Galilei (15641642): Galileo 48
and 8.26(b) c 28 r. Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale. Photo Scala,
John Wiley & Sons Australia: 3.13 John Wiley Florence, courtesy of the Ministero Beni e Att.
& Sons Australia/photo by Kari-Ann Tapp; 4.24 Culturali
xv
SnowyHydro Limited: 5.15 copyright Snowy Hydro
Limited. Only to be reproduced with the prior
permission of Snowy Hydro Limited
Space Environment Center: 14.17 and 14.18 Space
Environment Center, Boulder CO, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, US Dept of
Commerce
Text
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW, for
and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of
New South Wales, 2002 (syllabus grid, pages xixiv)
Data and Formulae sheets from Physics Higher School
Certicate Examination Board of Studies NSW, 2002
(formulae and data sheet, page 309)
Key words from: The New Higher School Certicate
Support Document Board of Studies, 1999. Most
up-to-date version available at www.boardofstudies.
nsw.edu.au/syllabus_hsc/glossary_keywords.html
(key words list, page 311)
xvi
PRELIMINARY MODULE
Chapter 1
Waves: movers of energy
Chapter 2
Sound is a wave
Chapter 3
Electromagnetic waves and
communication
Chapter 4
Reection and refraction of
electromagnetic waves
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
CHAPTER
1 WAVES:
MOVERS OF
ENERGY
Remember
Before beginning this chapter, you should be able to:
identify that waves carry energy
recall that the properties of waves include frequency,
wavelength and speed.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
describe waves as a way that energy is transferred
which, depending on the wave type and medium, can
occur in one, two or three dimensions
dene the wave model and apply the terms specic to
its denition: medium, displacement, amplitude,
period, compression, rarefaction, crest, trough,
transverse waves, longitudinal waves, frequency,
wavelength, velocity
represent diagrammatically the troughs and crests of
a transverse wave and calculate the wavelength and
amplitude
relate particle motion to the direction of energy
propagation in transverse and longitudinal waves
present diagrams of transverse and longitudinal
waves, showing wavefronts and direction of particle
motion and propagation
explain that mechanical waves need a medium in
which to propagate whereas electromagnetic waves
do not
gather information about the transmission of waves
in slinky springs, water waves and ropes
use displacementtime graphs to analyse transverse
wave motion
recognise the relationship between the velocity,
Figure 1.1 Mobile phones are now established frequency and wavelength of a wave and solve
as one of the fastest growing methods problems using v = f
of communication. describe the energy transformations that take place
when using a mobile telephone.
Our society is in the information age and relies on messages carried as
energy pulses by waves. Waves are carriers of energy and are used increas-
ingly as carriers of messages for communication. We use a broad range of
wave types to transfer messages by many different means, whether it is by
speaking to the person next to us, or by talking into a phone or typing an
email. Mass communication has become possible through the media of
television and the internet.
In this chapter we examine some of the basic properties of waves. In
chapters 2 and 3 we will look at the properties of sound waves and
electromagnetic waves and how we harness those waves to communicate.
Crest
Wavelength
Using the concept of a wave as a sine wave, we can name and measure
a number of wave features.
Crests are the highest points of the waves.
Troughs are the lowest points of the waves.
The wavefront is the face of the wave as it propagates forward. It can be
a trough or crest and it is perpendicular to the direction of wave travel.
Two points on a wave are in phase if, at a particular instant, they have
the same displacement and the same velocity.
The amplitude is the maximum size of the particle displacement from
the undisturbed state.
For all wave motions, whatever their origin, the transfer of energy is in
the direction in which the wave is travelling. That transfer of energy is
always away from the source of vibration. When the source of the waves is
from a point acting as a source of vibration (called a point source) the
waves radiate out from that point.
Depending upon the type of wave and the medium in which they are
travelling, waves may travel in one, two or three dimensions.
An example of a wave travelling in one dimension is the motion of either a
transverse or longitudinal wave in a slinky, or a transverse wave travelling
1.1 along a rope. In this case the medium connes the wave to the rope or slinky
Investigating waves in a (see gure 1.5). The energy of the wave motion has only one dimension in
slinky spring which to travel.
An example of a wave travelling in Point source of the waves
two dimensions is a transverse wave trav-
elling from a point source of disturb-
ance in still water. A pebble thrown
into a still, at-bottomed pond will pro-
duce a wave travelling outwards with a
circular wavefront away from the initial
disturbance (see gure 1.6). Circular wavefronts
Figure 1.5 In a wave that is made Figure 1.6 A circular wavefront propagating from a point source. Note that the further the
to travel along a rope, the wave is wave is from the source the straighter the wavefront appears because the wavefront represents
conned to the rope as the medium so a smaller arc of the circle as it expands. This implies that the energy in a constant area, or
it only travels in one dimension. length of wavefront, is lower the further the wavefront is from the source.
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Energy transfer see it, hear it and feel it!
E nergy transfer by waves is occurring all
around us.
Light waves travel from the Sun and provide
Infra-red waves from hot objects such as the
Sun or a radiator are detected by nerve end-
ings on our bodies. We absorb them and
the energy for photosynthesis and hence, life become warm ourselves.
on Earth. Microwaves are absorbed by water molecules
Vision is the result of energy transfer. We see causing the water molecules to gain kinetic
because light waves that reach our eyes stimulate energy. This energy cooks our food.
a response in nerve endings in the retina. Dif- Sound waves carry the energy to vibrate our ear-
ferent colours or intensities of light have different drums, allowing us, for example, to communi-
amounts of energy and so stimulate different cate or listen to our favourite music.
responses in the nerves. This stimulation infor- Earthquake waves transfer stored energy from
mation is relayed to the brain as nerve impulses the rocks of the Earths crust as a shake, often
representing the picture and is what we see. with catastrophic results.
Direction of motion
Figure 1.8 A transverse wave of particles Direction of
in a slinky spring energy transfer
Direction of
energy transfer and
propagation direction
(a)
Compression Rarefaction
Direction of
(b) Rarefactions wave motion
Compressions Direction of
particle motion
Figure 1.10 Longitudinal wave in (a) a slinky and (b) air
Mobile switching
Sectored centre
antenna
Base station
Fixed
telephone
Broadcast system
Receiving area
(base station) direction
point?
3. In the previous practical activity, you observed 4 1
that the energy carried by a pulse in the slinky 1 4
was gradually lost. The same thing happens with
the water waves. Compare the reasons for the
decrease in the amplitude, and hence energy of Analysis
a wave, in the slinky and in a wave spreading Study the graphs to ensure that you can identify
out on water. the features of amplitude and frequency.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
understand that sound waves are the vibrations or
oscillations of the particles of a medium
relate compressions and rarefactions of sound waves
to the crests and troughs of a transverse wave
representation from a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(CRO)
perform an investigation that enables you to gather
information to determine the relationship between
the frequency and wavelength of a sound wave in a
medium of constant properties
use a CRO to gather information about the
frequency, amplitude and velocity of sound waves and
to observe and analyse the different sources of sound
waves
explain that pitch is related to the frequency of a
sound wave, and volume is related to the amplitude
of a sound wave
explain that an echo is the reection of a sound wave
identify the conditions necessary to hear an echo
describe superposition and present graphical
information showing the superposition of waves
use a CRO to observe the superposition of two sound
waves travelling in air.
C R C R C
Transmitter/receiver
Reflected signal
Transmitted signal
Adding waves
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.1 Add the two waves graphed in gure 2.11.
y y
x x
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Adding waves
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2.2 Add the two waves graphed in gure 2.13.
y y
x x
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
As you can see, the addition of rather simple wave shapes can form a
complex wave.
x x
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
This wave shows annulment of the waves. The two waves added were out
of phase by 180.
PHYSICS FACT
Timbre: Combining pure tones
The sound produced by a tuning fork is a pure tone. The CRO
trace of such a sound is a sine wave, as shown in gure 2.17.
Most sounds are not pure tones but are made up of a number of
pure tones that have been superimposed in a particular way to
produce a sound with a characteristic timbre (see gure 2.18).
2.3
Analysing sound waves from
musical instruments
Although the shapes of the waves for the gures above are
different, the frequencies are approximately the same. The differ-
ence is the timbre, or complexity of the note. This is borne out in the
(b) Piano difference in shape.
You are probably aware that different musical instruments playing
in an orchestra can play the same musical note. However, while
the sounds are of the same frequency, they do not appear to be the
same. This is because the sounds produced have their own particular
timbre. If viewed as a CRO trace, these common notes from the dif-
ferent instruments produce a differently shaped wave trace even
though the frequencies are common. Figure 2.19 shows the wave
(c) Clarinet traces for the same note played by a number of different instruments
into a microphone.
Figure 2.19 The CRO traces at the same settings of the same musical note played
with approximately the same volume by a variety of different instruments: (a) pipe
organ, (b) piano and (c) clarinet. These CRO traces are more complex than the sounds
produced by tuning forks and often lack symmetry about the base line.
Method Apparatus
1. Connect the microphone to the input of the tuning fork
CRO or the microphone input on the computer
if using a CRO simulation program. Theory
Each of the vibrating tuning fork prongs acts as a
coherent source of sound because it has the same
frequency, amplitude and phase in relation to the
Oscilloscope Sound other when producing a sound wave in air.
waves Hence, there are two sound waves generated by
the tuning fork prongs. Each one radiates from a
Wave pattern slightly different position. As a compression is
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Apparatus
access to a CRO or a CRO simulation computer
program
microphone
variety of musical instruments
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
identify electromagnetic waves in terms of their speed
and their lack of requirement of a medium for
transmission
identify how the atmosphere acts as a lter for
electromagnetic wavebands, especially UV radiation,
X-rays and gamma rays
identify ways to detect particular wavebands from
the electromagnetic spectrum
explain that the relationship between a change
in intensity of light and other examples of
electromagnetic radiation and a change in distance
1
from the source obeys the inverse square law I ----2
d
outline how information can be transmitted by
modulating the amplitude or frequency of visible
light, microwaves and radio waves
Figure 3.1 The Sun is the main source of electromagnetic
discuss the limitations of electromagnetic waves when
radiation reaching the outer atmosphere of the Earth.
used for communications
The Sun emits the full spectrum of electromagnetic
identify electromagnetic waves involved in the
radiation. Only the Earths atmosphere prevents
transfer of energy when using radar.
the catastrophic destruction of life as we know it by
absorbing harmful electromagnetic waves.
3.1 THE WAVES OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
The Sun, Earth and most other bodies in our universe radiate electro-
magnetic energy. Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium in
order to travel from place to place. In fact, they travel most efciently in
a vacuum, such as space. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of
light, can be reected and refracted, and can carry information as codes.
The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of electromagnetic
The electromagnetic spectrum is
the full range of wavelengths of all waves with articial divisions based on the frequency and wavelengths of
electromagnetic waves. the waves. There is no distinct point at which the frequency changes and
no special change in properties at particular wave boundaries. The con-
cept of a continuum can be illustrated by looking at a rainbow. As
gure 3.2a shows, boundaries between the individual colours are not
clearly dened yet we can see a transition from one colour to the next.
Figure 3.2b shows the wave types that make up the electromagnetic
spectrum and the wavelengths and frequencies of the different wave
types.
(a)
(b)
Visible spectrum
Increasing energy
Increasing frequency
104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022
Frequency (Hertz)
106 104 102 100(1) 102 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014
Wavelength (metres)
Increasing wavelength
Figure 3.2 (a) The continuum of the spectrum of visible light is apparent in the rainbow. (b) The electromagnetic spectrum
Radio waves
As well as their role in communication Radio waves have wavelengths ranging from 10 cm to 1000 m and are
technologies, radio waves of a few assigned to the AM, FM, VHF or UHF category based on their frequency.
centimetres in wavelength are used in Radio waves are used to transmit television, FM and AM radio, radar and
producing radar maps. If radio waves some mobile telephone signals. Tuning your television or radio to a par-
are transmitted from a satellite or ticular station means that you are tuning to a particular frequency range
plane, they can bounce off the surface or band that matches its signal, for example, Triple M at 104.9 MHz.
of the Earth to produce a reection
which, when detected by suitable
equipment, can create a picture of PHYSICS FACT
what lies below.
Infra-red radiation
(b)
Infra-red waves have wavelengths of around 700 nm to 1 mm.
Infra-red radiation levels can be measured using electronic
detectors.
Many electronic remote controls, such as those for garage doors
or the television, and remote-control wireless connections to com-
puters, use infra-red radiation to transfer the signal from the con-
trol device to the consumer item. Data can be broadcast over
relatively short distances from computer to computer by infra-red
signal without the need for wiring. In the telecommunications
Figure 3.3 Some applications of microwave technology industry, infra-red lasers send information down optical bres.
(a) Mobile phone signals (b) A microwave oven Other applications of infra-red radiation include medical
treatments for soft tissue injury and nding heat leaks from
houses. Switchboards in large buildings are photographed
1 nanometre (nm) = 10 m
9 using infra-red cameras to check for hot spots that might indicate
dangerous electrical faults or that electrical circuit overloading is occur-
ring. These problems cause the wiring to carry too much electrical cur-
Figure 3.4 Some applications of rent and thus heat up so that the wire gives off infra-red radiation.
infra-red radiation (a) The television Satellite infra-red images can give farmers information on the health of
remote control (b) Remote sensing of crops. Aeroplanes that carry infra-red detectors can identify forest-re
vegetation patterns (c) An infra-red hotspots even when hidden by a curtain of smoke.
photograph of a persons head
Ultraviolet radiation
Some scientists believe that the crew Ultraviolet (UV) radiation has wavelengths of 10400 nm. A small dose of
of aeroplanes have an increased risk this radiation is benecial to humans because it encourages the pro-
of cancer and that male crew have duction of vitamin D, which is essential for strong bones. Larger doses of
lower sperm counts because of their UV radiation can lead to cell and tissue damage, possibly causing skin
higher exposure to high energy cancer or eye cataracts that severely affect vision. Most harmful UV radi-
electromagnetic rays at high altitudes. ation is absorbed by the Earths atmosphere before it can reach the Earth
When participating in sporting (see gure 3.5. page 33).
activities such as skiing or The use of UV to cure plastics is becoming increasingly common.
mountaineering it is important to Liquid plastic components are designed to contain photo-initiator chem-
protect the skin and eyes. The icals that start the polymerisation reaction in plastics. This reaction does
increased risk of sunburn, even in the not produce gases as a by-product, so it is useful where maintaining trans-
cold, is due to the greater level of parency is important, such as repairing cracks in windshields.
penetration of the UV at higher Other applications of UV radiation include its use in making astro-
altitudes. nomical observations and for sterilising hospital equipment and hair-
dressers combs. High-output UV lamps can be used to sterilise water in
water purication systems, and in sh tanks a high-UV-emitting lamp
sterilises the upper few centimetres of water, killing off unwanted algae.
Because of the limited penetration of the UV into the water, the sh
are unharmed by this technique because they spend little of their time
within the high-UV-penetration zone.
Gamma rays
Gamma rays have wavelengths of less than 0.01 nm. They can have
medical applications, such as in the treatment of some cancers in radi-
ation therapy, and are used in astronomical investigations of high-energy
events in space. Such events include the study of remnant signals from
past supernovae. Gamma rays can be detected with a Geiger counter.
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Chandra X-ray telescope
T he Chandra X-ray tele-
scope is designed to study
the X-rays produced when gas is
surface because the telescope
sees 50 times more X-ray infor-
mation. The Chandra tele-
heated to millions of degrees by scope was placed in an orbit
violent and extreme conditions one-third of the distance to the
in aring stars, exploding stars, Moon. This was to ensure
Microwave penetration decreases as black holes and vast clouds of minimum absorption of the
the amount of water vapour in the air hot gas in galaxy clusters. X-rays by the atmosphere and
increases. This produces variation on Images from the Chandra tele- to escape the inuence of the
an almost daily basis for this scope show 50 times more Earths magnetic eld that
important communication wave-type detail than any previous X-ray affects the X-ray-detecting
that is used to carry the signal from telescope based on the Earths instruments.
mobile telephones.
Infra-red radiation and light are also used for communication over
long distances via optical bres. In this case, their use is not restricted by
the range of spectrum available because they are utilised within enclosed
systems where penetration and attenuation are the issues that restrict the
spectrum range used.
1
I = 4
I =1
Modulation of microwaves
The principle of modulating the frequency of electromagnetic waves to
carry a signal also applies to microwaves used for transmitting mobile
phone signals and mobile internet services. Microwaves are preferred over
longer wavelength radio waves for mobile telephone systems because:
the electromagnetic spectrum is limited and the microwave bandwidth
has the capacity available
Figure 3.13 Internet and email
capabilities along with the capacity to
microwaves do not spread out as rapidly as radio waves, so more of the
transmit digital images are now part
transmitted energy makes it to the next receiver dish
of mobile phone technology.
the number of signals able to be transmitted is dependent on the
number of frequencies available for frequency modulation. Because the
range of frequencies in the microwave transmission range is large, it is
possible to send a larger number of signals at once using the same wave.
Up to 20 000 telephone calls can be transmitted at once in the micro-
wave band.
The 3G mobile networks send and Microwaves require a line of sight from one antenna to the next. This
receive data in the 2100 MHz band. means that the proximity of transmitters is controlled by topography.
These networks provide access to This is less of a problem with the longer radio-wave transmissions. The
data, video and the internet on microwave signals are diffracted by objects larger than their wavelength.
mobile devices such as phones. The As a result, reception in buildings is more difcult for shorter wavelength
3G networks use a 6 MHz channel microwaves. Regular boosts to the signal and more sensitive receivers are
carrier width to deliver the higher required than is the case with radio-wave transmissions.
data transfer rates and increased Microwave transmissions also have their range affected by atmospheric
capacity necessary to deliver these conditions, such as the moisture content of the air. Oxygen also absorbs
services. Demand for these services microwave energy. Moisture and oxygen molecules absorb microwaves in
will increase in the future and may the atmosphere in the same way that water molecules absorb microwave
put pressure on the available energy in a microwave oven (thus generating heat).
spectrum set aside in this band.
Modulation of visible light
Light modulation is also used to carry signals. The earliest modulation of
a light signal by amplitude modulation was probably the helioscope,
where an on or off signal was ashed to communicate over a distance.
Laser light of a xed frequency range will allow transmission of AM sig-
nals from a laser transmitter to a receiver. The signal in this case is ampli-
tude modulated because the frequency of light from a particular laser is
of a xed range too small for effective frequency modulation.
Optical bres are discussed further in
A device such as the LaserDot transmitter and receiver can send and
receive sound waves transmitted across an open space by an amplitude-
chapter 4, pages 6162.
modulated laser beam. Such an open-to-air laser device is able to reliably
transfer a sound or data signal around 200 m, without the use of bre-optic
cable. Longer distance transmission is less reliable because of the possibility
of interference. For that reason, long distance communication by shorter
wave electromagnetic radiation, such as infra-red radiation and light, is
accomplished along bre-optic cables to eliminate the chance of
interference to the signal.
(b)
1
versus 2
.
(distance units)
Results
DISTANCE
UNITS FROM
THE BALLOON AREA OF THE 1 1
2
CENTRE SQUARE AREA DISTANCE UNITS
2
1 1 cm
3.2 Method
1. Set up the light globe in the centre of a dark
INVESTIGATING room.
2. Point your light intensity probe directly at the
THE INVERSE light globe, close to the globe (around 0.01 m
from it). Record the light intensity or set your
SQUARE LAW data logger to initiate recording readings.
3. Record readings of light intensity at 1 m, 2 m,
Aim 3 m and 4 m distances from the light source.
4. Plot your values of light intensity against the
To use a data logger or light meter to investigate 1
the relationship between light intensity and dis- 2
. This will give you a graph of light
distance
tance from the light source intensity versus the inverse of the square of the
distance from the light globe.
Apparatus
light globe Question
a room able to be blacked out Does your analysis conrm this relationship
light meter or light metering probe for a data 1
( I -----2 )?
logger d
tape measure
CHAPTER
4 REFRACTION OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Remember
Before beginning this chapter, you should be able to:
understand the difference between the absorption, reection,
refraction and scattering of light and suggest situations where
they occur
describe some of the common uses of electromagnetic
radiation, in particular its use in communication applications.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
discuss the law of reection and use it to explain the reection
of waves from a plane surface
construct ray diagrams indicating the direction of travel of
light rays and relate this to a propagating wavefront
describe how the reection of light and radio waves is used to
transfer information
present information to show the paths of light rays reected
Figure 4.1 Optical bres.
from plane surfaces, concave surfaces and convex surfaces,
Transmission of information through
and describe an application of reection for each type of
optical bres relies on the phenomenon
surface
of total internal reection of the light or
draw a diagram to show the path of a short-wave radio signal
radiation carrying the information.
that has been bounced off the ionosphere
explain that refraction is related to the velocities of waves in
different media and outline how this may result in the
bending of a wavefront
perform an experiment to measure the angles of incidence
and refraction of light that encounters an interface between
the media and show the relationship between these angles
calculate the refractive index of glass or perspex
v sin i
dene, apply and solve problems using Snells Law: ---1- = ----------
-
v2 sin r
identify the conditions necessary for total internal reection,
referring to the critical angle
outline uses of refraction and total internal reection in
optical bres
identify the types of communication data that are stored or
transmitted in digital form
identify the developments of communication technology with
reference to current research, and discuss the physical
principles involved in CD technology, DVD technology and
global positioning systems.
Many of the technologies used in communication rely directly on the
properties of electromagnetic radiation called refraction and reection.
These properties have direct analogies in other types of waves, such as
water waves and sound.
eBook plus
Weblink:
Concave
mirror applet
There are many types of curved mirrors that are designed for specic
uses. The most common type of curved mirror is the spherical mirror.
Spherical mirrors are easy to make. Spheres of glass are blown by glass
blowers, cut into hemispheres, then silvered on one side to make a con-
cave or convex spherical mirror. The terminology to describe these types
of mirror is used because they are originally made from a sphere.
Reflecting Reflecting
surface surface
Principal axis C F P
Figure 4.12 A concave mirror, also
called a converging mirror because the
reected rays converge at the focus in
front of the mirror
When light is reected by a convex mirror, any incident rays hitting the
mirror (with a direction parallel to the principal axis) are reected and
diverge as though they originate at a point behind the mirror. In a
similar way to nding the apparent location of the image produced by a
plane mirror, the point where these reected rays appear to diverge
Figure 4.13 A convex mirror behind the convex mirror is the focus.
showing the parallel incoming rays
Convex mirror
diverging apparently from a focus,
F, located behind the reecting surface
of the mirror. The distance between
Principal axis Focal point, F
the focus and the pole of the mirror, P, P C
is the focal length. Note that, because
the focus is behind the reecting
surface, the convex mirror can never
produce a real image, although an
observer looking into the mirror can
see the virtual image it produces. Focal length, l
PHYSICS FACT
Finding the image produced by a curved mirror
Y ou can use ray tracing to determine the posi-
tion and nature of an image formed by a
curved mirror. We will start with the concave
the principal axis. This ray obeys the Law of
Reection at the pole of the mirror where the
principal axis is the normal ray to the mirror
mirror, but you will see that the principles are the at this point.
same for the convex mirror. 4. The fourth ray travels from the top of the
One important principle that helps in locating object through the centre of curvature to the
images, or the position of the object that created mirror. This will x the top of the image at the
the image, is that the paths followed by light rays mirror. Such a ray reects back on itself
are reversible. This is the Principle of Revers- because it is incident normally on the mirrors
ibility of Rays. This principle is used extensively in reecting surface.
reectors for car headlights. The lament of the
The bottom of the object lies on the principal
light globe is placed at the focus of the curved
axis. A ray projected along the principal axis is
reector and the result is an emergent reected
always projected back on itself. That rays projec-
beam of light that is parallel. This feature enables
tion behind the mirror denes the image
the light from the headlights to be concentrated
bottom.
forward.
The intersection of these four rays denes the
The nature of an image formed by a mirror
position and the nature of the image formed by
is determined by constructing any two of the
an object on reection from the mirror. The
following four rays using a scale diagram. It is
nature of the image can be predicted based on
vital that accurate drawings are made to ensure
the position of the object and the mirror type.
the position and nature of the image is
For concave mirrors, if the object is:
determined.
inside the focal length of the mirror, the image
will be virtual, upright and enlarged (as shown
in gure 4.14)
between the focal length and the centre of cur-
vature, the image will be real, inverted and
1. The rst ray to be
enlarged
drawn travels in a
beyond the centre of curvature, the image will
direction that is par-
be real, inverted and diminished (as shown in
allel to the principal
4.2 axis and is from the
gure 4.15 on page 52).
Reection in concave and top of the object to
convex mirrors the mirror surface. Figure 4.14
After reection, this Locating an 2
ray passes through the focus, or should be image where the
drawn as if it comes from the focus if the object is closer to
mirror is convex. the mirror than
Object
2. The second ray should be drawn from the top the focal length Image
of the object through the focus, and on reec- of the mirror.
C F
tion becomes parallel to the principal axis. The image
formed in this 4
3. The third ray is drawn towards the pole of the
case is virtual,
mirror and is reected such that the angle of 1
enlarged and
reection it makes with the principal axis is 3
upright.
identical to the angle of incidence the ray
makes with the principal axis. However, the
angle of incidence is on the opposite side of (continued)
Object C F
Image
3
1
4
Figure 4.15 Locating an image of an object reected from a concave mirror where the original object is beyond the focal length of
the mirror. The image formed is inverted (upside down), and in this case is diminished (smaller than the object).
If the object is at the focal length, it is a special 2. The second ray is projected parallel to the
case where the image actually forms at innity. If principal axis, strikes the mirror and is
the object is at the centre of curvature, the image reected as though it originated at the focus
that forms is real, identical in size to the original behind the mirror. If the reected ray is pro-
object and inverted. jected back, it passes through the top of the
For convex mirrors, if the object is anywhere in image behind the mirror.
front of the mirror, it produces an image that is 3. The third ray is drawn as though it will pass
upright and diminished in size. The further the through the focus and is reected back from
object is from the reecting surface the smaller it the surface parallel to the principal axis.
will appear. The image will always be virtual and Any two rays intersecting will dene the top of
will appear to be behind the reecting surface. the image. The bottom of the object is the prin-
Determining the image position and character cipal axis. A ray projected along the principal axis
for a reection of an object by a convex mirror can always gets projected back on itself. That rays
be accomplished by using any two of the following projection behind the mirror denes the image
three rays. bottom. Figure 4.16 represents this method of
1. The rst ray is drawn as though it passes determining the nature of an image.
through the centre of curvature of the mirror The projected rays are broken lines to indicate
and reects back on itself. If the reected ray that the light doesnt actually travel from these
is traced back it will dene the top of the points behind the mirror. The image is:
upright image behind the mirror. virtual
upright
diminished.
1
Object
3
P C
Axis F
Figure 4.16 Determining the image position and character of a reection of an object by a convex mirror
Satellite
Io n o s p h e r e D -l a y e r
of the
io nos
pher
e
Space waves Sky waves
Transmitter
Figure 4.23 Radio waves used in
communication. Sky waves bounce
off the ionosphere and the surface of
Earth
the Earth and hence, bounce around
the globe.
Surface
Apparent bend
Apparent position of stick
Water
Source
Figure 4.25 Plane water waves in a ripple tank of plane
bunch up in the shallower water. Note that the waves
frequency or number of waves doesnt change
Depth shallowing causes
when the waves bunch up. It is only the
the water waves to slow
wavelength and speed of the waves moving down. Note the curvature
forward that change. of the wavefronts.
Notice that the absolute refractive index for air is 1.000 28. This is very
close to the refractive index for a vacuum, hence you can use the approx-
eBook plus imation that the refractive index of air is 1.0 for most purposes and com-
pare the refractive index of other substances to that of air. In other
eLesson:
Refraction and
words, assume nair = 1.0.
Snells Law Snells Law applies equally to waves slowing down and speeding up as
eles-0037 they move across the interface between one medium and another. As with
Interactivity: water waves at an interface, the frequency of the waves does not change as
Refraction and
Snells Law
they speed up or slow down, so it is the wavelength of the wave that changes.
int-0056 v sin i
This is expressed in the Snells Law relationship: -----1 = ----------- = -----1 .
v2 sin r 2
The refractive index is useful for determining what will happen to
electromagnetic waves that pass across an interface between transparent
materials. The absolute refractive indices can be used directly to determine
v sin i n
a number of factors. This comes about because -----1 = ----------- = -----1 = -----2 .
v2 sin r 2 n1
40
Air
Interface
Perspex
Figure 4.32 Ray diagram showing
refraction of light as it passes from air
Refracted ray r into perspex
(b) The ratio of the velocities can be determined directly from the ratio
of the absolute refractive indices of air and perspex.
v n
-----a = ----p-
vp na
na va
vp = --------------- -
np
1.00 3.0 10 8
= ---------------------------------------
1.46
8 1
= 2.055 10 m s
Normal
(a) Before critical angle (b) At critical angle (c) After critical angle
(total internal reflection)
Laser beam
Figure 4.41 How a CD or DVD reads
Reflected laser beam
from the same pit that the signal. A disc player converts the
has moved on pictures and sounds recorded in digital
form on a disc into a visible or audible
signal. The laser inside the reader aims
Light sensitive receiver
a very thin beam of light at the
converts light signal into an
electrical impulse signal. spinning disc, precisely following the
spiralling pit track out from the centre
of the disc. Another device then reads
the pattern of light reected off the disc
and converts the information into a
useful form that is read and processed
by the decoding machine.
PHYSICS FACT
Satellite 4
PLANE MIRROR
Source P P' image
Aim
To locate the position of an image in a plane
mirror using a geometrical construction and the y
Law of Reection y
Apparatus Ray A
small plane mirror on a stand (if the mirror is not x
front silvered you will have to make allowance x
for the protective glass when interpreting your
ndings)
four pins
newspaper
sheet of writing paper
ruler
pencil Figure 4.44 Image formation in a plane mirror
protractor
Theory Analysis
The angle of incidence should equal the angle of The image in the mirror is not a real image. This
reection from a plane mirror. means P is a virtual image. The rays of light producing
the image do not really pass through or derive from
Method the point P, they only appear as if they do.
1. Use a pin located at a point, P, as a source of
light rays. Stick the pin in the paper sheet on Questions
which you intend to draw your construction so 1. How do you know the image produced is not a
that it cannot move. To make this simpler, do real image?
this activity on a newspaper with a clean sheet 2. How could you improve on this experiment?
of paper overlain.
2. Find the position of its image in a plane mirror
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Theory
The refractive index of a ray produced by a pair of
pins can be traced as the path of four pins through
a glass slab. Two pins can be used on each side of
the slab of glass to dene the straight ray path.
Method
1. Place a rectangular slab of glass on a blank
sheet of paper sitting on a soft surface (that can
be damaged by inserting pins) and trace
around the glass slab. A newspaper makes a suit-
able surface into which to insert the pins. Figure 4.46 All four pins look
2. Keep the slab in the same place over the trace to be lined up when looking from
mark and on one side of it push two pins into the side of the slab.
the page, as shown in gure 4.45.
5. Remove the slab and pins, carefully noting
where the pin holes are.
6. Rule a line through each set of two pin holes on
each side of the slab so that the lines extend to
the outline of the slab as shown in gure 4.47.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Figure 4.45 The glass slab and pins inserted on one side
Normal
Normal
Chapter 6
Electric charges, elds and
currents
Chapter 7
The household electricity supply
Chapter 8
Using electricity in the home
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
IN THE HOME
DISCOVERY AND
CHAPTER
5 DEVELOPMENT OF
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY
Remember
Before beginning this chapter, you should be able to:
identify situations or phenomena in which different
forms of energy are evident
qualitatively account for the total energy involved in
energy transfers and transformations, referring to the
Law of Conservation of Energy.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
identify the differing views of Galvani and Volta about
animal and chemical electricity, and discuss whether
their different views contributed to an increased
understanding of electricity
discuss how the main sources of domestic energy
have changed over time
assess some of the effects of changes in, and
increased access to, sources of energy for a
community
discuss some of the ways in which electricity can be
provided in remote locations.
Luigi Galvani
Luigi Galvani (17371798), was an Italian physician and physicist. His name
is perpetuated in the name galvanometer, for a sensitive current detector,
and in the term galvanic cell.
In 1772, Galvani acquired an electrostatic
machine (a device for making sparks). Using
dissected frogs legs, he began to investigate the
muscular contractions produced by electricity.
Galvani found that a dissected frogs leg would
contract if a scalpel touched the frogs nerves
when the electrostatic machine was working or
when there was a lightning strike in the vicinity.
In 1786, Galvani made a startling new observ-
ation. He found that he could produce contrac-
tions of a frogs leg even if there were no source
of electricity present. If two different metals
were attached to the dissected frog one to a
leg muscle and the other to the spinal cord
the leg muscle would contract if the two metals
were touched together. (Galvani discovered this
Figure 5.2 Luigi Galvani, more or less accidentally when he suspended a
Italian physician and dissected frog from an iron railing using a brass
physicist hook.)
Alessandro Volta
Alessandro Volta (17451827) was an Italian physicist. His name is
perpetuated in the term voltage and its unit the volt.
Volta carried out experiments to conrm
Galvanis work and at rst accepted Galvanis
theory of animal electricity. Galvanis theory,
however, did not explain why two different
metals were needed to produce contractions of
the frogs leg. Volta became convinced that the
source of the electricity was the contact
between two different metals. He considered
that the frogs leg contracted because the
contact of two different metals produced
electric charge. In Voltas view there was no
animal electricity and no vital force. The
frogs leg just acted as a detector of the
electricity produced by the metals.
In modern terminology, Volta believed that
Figure 5.4 when two different metals are brought into
Alessandro Volta, contact, one becomes positively charged and
Italian physicist the other becomes negatively charged.
Wood Chemical energy of wood converted into Fire helped keep erce animals at bay
heat energy Food could be cooked
First energy source used by humans Points of sticks could be hardened for
Used to produce re weapons
Humans able to live in colder climates
Domesticated animals Source of mechanical energy More food could be produced, providing a
Used to pull ploughs surplus
Used to raise water from rivers and Not everybody need be employed in
wells for irrigation producing food
Used for transport Population increased
Used to turn grindstones Food transported from farms to markets
Used to lift heavy burdens Towns developed
Coal Has been used as a fuel since about Increased use of coal led to the development
1000 BC of the steam engine to pump water from
Became main fuel in nineteenth century as a coal mines
result of dwindling supplies of wood and Higher energy content of coal enabled
superior energy content of coal production of steel, an alloy of iron and
carbon
Production of steel was one of the factors
leading to modern industrial age
Manufacturing carried out in factories
Migration of workers from rural areas to
cities
Subsequent overcrowding leading to
development of slums
Spread of disease
Atmospheric pollution in cities
Coal gas Fuel produced by heating coal in absence Streets safer at night
of air Greater social activity at night
Street lighting
Source of heat and light in houses
11 000 volts
11 000 volts
240 volts
Tumut River
Figure 5.16
A simplied map showing the
underground pipelines of the (Murrumbidgee River
turns north and then
Snowy Mountains Scheme flows westward)
To Murray River
Lake
Eucumbene
Geehi
Figure 5.17 Hydro-electric River
Eucumbene River
power plant part of the
Snowy Mountains Scheme
Lake
Jindabyne
Snowy River
Snowy River
1940 5 180
ENERGY IN 1950 8 475
AUSTRALIA 1960 21 449
Population of Australia
Method
This is an activity involving interpretation of data. YEAR POPULATION
The rst table shows electrical energy consump-
1921 5 435 734
tion in Australia between 1920 and 1980. The
second table below shows the population of 1933 6 629 839
Australia over the same period.
Using the information in the tables draw the fol- 1947 7 579 358
lowing graphs:
1. electrical energy consumption against time 1954 8 986 530
2. population against time
1961 10 508 186
3. electrical energy consumption per head of
population against time. 1966 11 550 462
Questions
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
describe the behaviour of electrostatic charges and the properties of
the elds associated with them
dene the unit of electric charge as the coulomb
dene the electric eld as a force eld with a eld strength at a
point equal to the force per unit charge placed at the point
dene the direction of the electric eld at a point as the direction
of the force on a small positive charge placed at the point
F
solve problems and analyse information using E = ---
q
present diagrammatic information to describe the electric eld
about and between a positive and negative point charge and
between oppositely charged parallel plates
dene electric current as the rate at which charge ows under the
inuence of an electric eld
dene the unit of electric current as the ampere and identify that
one ampere is equivalent to one coulomb per second
identify that current can be either direct or alternating
describe electric potential difference (voltage) between two points
as the change in potential energy per unit charge moving from one
point to the other
identify the unit of electric potential difference (voltage) as the volt
and that one volt is equivalent to one joule per coulomb
discuss how potential difference changes at different points around
Figure 6.1 Lightning is a naturally occurring a DC circuit
example of electrical phenomena. identify the difference between conductors and insulators
dene resistance as the ratio of voltage to current for a particular
V
conductor, and solve problems using R = ---
I
describe qualitatively how the movement of electricity through a
conductor is affected by length, cross-sectional area, temperature
and material
identify conductors commonly used to provide household electricity
identify uses of voltmeters and ammeters and explain why they are
connected differently in a circuit.
6.1 ELECTRIC CHARGE
The words electric and electricity are derived from the Greek word for
amber: electron. Amber is a naturally occurring substance exuded as a
resin from certain trees. As long ago as 500 BC, the Greeks had
observed that if amber was rubbed it would attract small pieces of
material. Today we can observe this phenomenon more conveniently
using certain man-made materials such as perspex. When a perspex rod
is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires the ability to attract small pieces of
materials such as paper. The rod is said to have become electrically
charged.
Some other common observations of bodies becoming electrically
charged are:
when you walk on a carpet on a dry day your body becomes electrically
charged. If you touch a metal door handle you feel a slight shock as
your body is discharged.
on a dry day a car becomes electrically charged as it moves through the
air. If you touch the car you feel a slight shock as the car discharges
through your body.
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Figure 6.2 The structure of an atom
(a) Glass and silk (b) Glass and silk are (c) Glass and silk are
Silk +
separate + rubbed together now charged
+ +
+
+ + +
+ + +
+ + Negatively
+ +
+ charged
+
+ +
+ Glass Positively charged
+ Wool +
+ +
+
+ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + Positively
+ +
+ + charged
Figure 6.7 Negatively charging + +
Perspex Negatively
perspex by friction charged
Charging by contact
If a charged conductor is brought into contact with an uncharged
conductor, the charge will be shared between the two conductors. The
uncharged conductor will be charged by contact.
Figure 6.8 shows a neutral conductor being charged by contact with a
positively charged conductor. Figure 6.9 shows a neutral conductor being
charged by contact with a negatively charged conductor.
(a) Before contact (b) During contact electrons transfer to charged conductor (c) After contact
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
++ + + +
+ + +
(a) Before contact (b) During contact electrons transfer to neutral conductor (c) After contact
Induced charges
In gures 6.8 and 6.9 the metal As an example of induced charges, consider what happens when a posi-
spheres are on insulating stands. tively charged body is brought near an insulated, uncharged conductor.
The positively charged body will attract electrons in the conductor. Some
of these electrons will move to the area of the conductor closest to the
positively charged body. As a result,
that end of the conductor will have an
excess of electrons (be negatively
+
charged) and the opposite end of the +
++ +
conductor will have a deciency of +++ +
Induced charges are charges +
produced in a body when another electrons (be positively charged). The
charged body is near it. charges on the conductor are called
Induction is the production of
induced charges and the process is
induced charges. called induction. This is illustrated in Figure 6.10 Induced charges in an
gure 6.10. insulated conductor
+ + + + + + + + +
++ + + + + + + + + +
++ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + +
+
++ +
+++ + ++ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + + +
(a) Bring the charged body near two (b) Move the insulated conductors (c) Remove the charged body.
touching, insulated conductors. apart.
Conservation of charge
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6.2 Two identical, insulated metal spheres carry charges of +3.0 C and
7.0 C. The spheres are brought into contact and then separated.
Calculate the new charge on each sphere.
SOLUTION The total charge is 4.0 C. As the spheres are identical, this charge
will be shared equally by the two spheres. Therefore, the charge on
each sphere will be 2.0 C.
F F
+ + + +
q1 q2 q1 q2
SOLUTION The magnitude of the electric eld strength is given by the formula:
F
E = --
q
( 2.0 10 4 )
= ----------------------------
6
-
( 3.0 10 )
= 6.7 10 1 N C 1 .
The positive charge experiences a force to the east, therefore the
direction of the electric eld is east.
SOLUTION F
E = --
q
F
6.0 10 3 = ----------------------------
-
Note that the sign of q is not used in ( 4.0 10 6 )
this calculation. 2
F = 2.4 10 N
As the charge is negative, it will experience a force in the opposite direc-
tion to the eld. Therefore, the direction of the force is south.
Force and electric eld strength are vector quantities they have
magnitude and direction. We have dened the magnitude and the direc-
tion of the electric eld strength separately, but it is possible to use a
single denition that covers both.
If a force, F, acts on a positive charge, +q, placed at a point in an elec-
tric eld, then the electric eld strength, E, at the point is given by the
F
equation: E = ----- . That is, the magnitude and direction of the electric
+q
eld strength at a point is equal to the magnitude and direction of the
force per unit positive charge placed at the point.
Note the use of bold to indicate vector quantities. Vector quantities are
studied later in the course.
F
+q
In diagrams, electric elds are E
represented in two dimensions. It +Q +Q
F
should be noted that electric elds are
three dimensional. q
Figure 6.23 Electric eld surrounding Figure 6.24 Forces on charges placed in
a positive point charge the eld surrounding a positive point
charge
E F E
Q Q
q
+ n + E n E + E
Figure 6.29 Electric eld due to Figure 6.30 Electric eld due to two Figure 6.31 Electric eld due to
two equal positive point charges equal negative point charges equal positive and negative point
charges
Figure 6.32 Electric eld surrounding Figure 6.33 Electric eld surrounding
unequal positive and negative point charges two unequal positive point charges
V= W
q
W
The volt (V) is the SI unit of The equation V = ----
-
q is not required by the syllabus. It is included here
potential difference.
as a useful formula for making clear the meaning of potential difference.
Voltage is another name for
potential difference. The SI unit of potential difference is the volt (V). A volt is equivalent to
1
a joule coulomb . Potential difference is also referred to as voltage.
Increase in potential
Decrease in height
Increase in height
W
SOLUTION (a) V = -----
q
( 5.00 10 2 )
= -------------------------------
-
( 2.50 10 4 )
2
= 2.00 10 V
W
(b) V = -----
q Gravitational Electric
field field
2 W
2.00 10 = -------------------------------
- Figure 6.37 Comparison between
( 7.60 10 2 )
2
electric potential difference and
2
W = (2.00 10 ) (7.60 10 ) change in height in a gravitational
1
= 1.52 10 J eld
Connecting
wire
Resistor
eBook plus +
Battery
eLesson:
The hydraulic
model of current
Switch
eles-0029 Figure 6.39 Symbols for circuit Figure 6.40 Circuit diagram for
Interactivity:
components circuit shown in gure 6.38
The hydraulic
model of current
int-0053
What is an electric current?
Electric current is the rate at which charge ows under the inuence of
Electric current is the rate at which
charge ows under the inuence of an electric eld. The moving charges are called charge carriers.
an electric eld. In a television tube, a beam of electrons travels along the tube to the
screen. This is an electric current (see gure 6.41a on page 105).
When an electric current passes through a salt solution, positive and
negative ions move in opposite directions through the solution (see
gure 6.41b on page 105).
If a neutral body is moving, there are equal numbers of protons and
electrons moving in the same direction at the same speed. There is no
net movement of charge and therefore no current (see gure 6.41c).
+
+ +
+ + +
(b) This is an electric current. Movement of ions in a salt solution.
+
+
+ + +
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
Figure 6.41 Electric currents (c) This is not an electric current. Movement of a neutral body.
Figure 6.44 Motion of free electron (a) with no electric eld (b) with an electric eld
SOLUTION As the current is 5.00 A, a charge of 5.00 C will pass through a cross-
section of the wire in 1 s. Therefore, in 6.00 s a charge of 6.00 5.00 C
18
will pass through. 1 C of charge is equivalent to 6.25 10 electrons. If n
is the number of electrons, then:
18
n = 6.00 5.00 6.25 10
20
= 1.88 10 .
Power supply
When a current ows through a resistor, electric potential energy is
transformed into heat energy. Therefore, to maintain a current, there
must be a source of electric potential energy. The source of electric
potential energy in a circuit is called the power supply.
The power supply is a source of
electric potential energy. Most power supplies convert another form of energy into electric
potential energy. For example, a battery converts chemical energy into
electric potential energy, while a photoelectric cell converts light energy
into electric potential energy.
In the school laboratory, the power supply is usually a power pack that
converts electric potential energy from the mains supply into a form of
electric potential energy that is more suitable for school use. How this is
done will be studied in the HSC course.
+
Figure 6.45 Movement of free
electrons in a metal joining the
terminals of a power supply
SOLUTION
W
V = -----
q
2 W
1.50 10 = ----------
2.00
2
W = 3.00 10 J
A1 A2
A
Potential differences
across components
of a circuit
A voltmeter is used to
A voltmeter is an instrument used
to measure the potential
measure the potential differ-
difference across a component in ences across components of
an electric circuit. A voltmeter is a circuit.
connected into a circuit in parallel. Figure 6.50 shows a volt-
meter. To measure the
potential difference across a
component of a circuit, the
voltmeter is connected in
A voltmeter has a very high parallel with the component.
resistance. When it is connected in This is illustrated in
parallel it does not signicantly gure 6.51. (Note the Figure 6.50 A voltmeter
change the currents and voltages in symbol for a
the circuit. voltmeter.)
Figure 6.51 Voltmeter measuring potential difference across (a) a power supply and
(b) a resistor
V
SOLUTION R = ---
I
2.0 10 1
= -----------------------
-
5.0 10 1
1
= 4.0 10
SOLUTION V = IR
= 3.0 6.0
1
= 1.8 10 V
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Ohms Law
hms Law states: The potential drop across a (where R is constant). Ohms Law can be written:
O resistor is proportional to the current passing
through the resistor: V I.
V = IR (where R is constant).
Resistors that obey Ohms Law are called
Ohms Law applies only to resistors with con- ohmic resistors. For an ohmic resistor, the graph
stant resistance; that is, to resistors whose resis- of V against I will be a straight line. The slope of
tance is the same no matter what current is the graph will equal the constant resistance. This
V is illustrated in gure 6.54a.
passing through them. For such resistors: --- = R (continued)
I
x
Current through resistor
Figure 6.54 (a) Graph of V against I for an ohmic resistor (b) Graph of y = mx where m is constant
R1 R2
SOLUTION 1.6
The resistance of 1.0 cm of the wire is ----------------- .
2.0 cm
2
Therefore, the resistance, R, of 1.0 10 cm of the wire will be:
1.6
------- (1.0 10 ) .
2
2.0
1
Therefore, R = 8.0 10 .
R1 R2
5.00 4.00
Therefore: -------------------------------------- = ---------- .
Resistance of Y 1.00
5.00 1.00
Therefore: Resistance of Y = ----------------------------
4.00
= 1.25 .
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Resistance thermometers
T he change of resistance of a conductor with
temperature change can be used to make a
thermometer. Such a thermometer can be used
relative resistance of a metal at a particular tem-
perature is the ratio of the resistance of the metal
at that temperature to its resistance at 0C.
over a much greater range of temperatures than
a liquid-in-glass thermometer. 8
The metal element of such a thermometer con- 7
Relative resistance
4
sists of a ne wire (approx. 10 m diameter). As 6
this element is fragile, it is wound around a sup- 5
4
port made of mica, a mineral which is an insu- 3
lator with a high melting point. The element is 2
connected to an electrical circuit so that its resis- 1
tance can be measured. To use the thermometer, 0
200 0 200 400 600 800 1000
the element is inserted into the place where the
Temperature (C)
temperature is to be measured. The resistance of
the element is measured using the electric circuit Figure 6.58 Relative resistance against
connected to it, and the temperature is calcu- temperature for copper
lated from the known temperatureresistance
characteristics of the element. Copper wire elements are used between 120C
The most common metals used to make resis- and 200C; nickel elements between between
tance thermometers are platinum, nickel and 150C and 300C; platinum elements between
copper. Figure 6.58 shows how the relative resis- 258C and 900C. A resistance thermometer can
tance of copper varies with temperature. The measure temperature to an accuracy of 0.01C.
The SI unit of current is the ampere (A). One (a) excess of electrons
ampere is equivalent to one coulomb per (b) deciency of electrons.
second. 3. If one coulomb is equal to the charge on
18
Metals are electrical conductors because they 6.25 10 electrons, calculate the charge in
have free electrons that act as charge carriers. coulombs on one electron.
6
Insulators are materials that have no charge 4. A body has a positive charge of 2.00 10
carriers and therefore, cannot carry an electric coulombs. Calculate the number of electrons
current. it has lost.
The potential difference (voltage) between the 5. When a piece of perspex is rubbed with a piece
5
terminals of a power supply is the number of of silk, 3.40 10 electrons are transferred
(f ) 5.00 2.00
+
V
Apparatus
power supply
voltmeter
two resistors, R1 and R2, of different resistance
switch
connecting wires
+ Theory
A A Potential difference is the change in electric
+ potential energy per coulomb of charge. When a
current ows through a circuit, several changes in
+
potential occur. In the power supply there is an
increase in electric potential energy and therefore,
a potential rise. In a resistor, there is a decrease of
electric potential energy and therefore, a potential
+
drop. In a connecting wire, there is no change of
V electric potential energy and therefore, no
potential difference.
Figure 6.60 Connecting ammeters and voltmeters to
a power supply Method
1. Connect the apparatus as shown in gure 6.61.
If there is more than one range on a meter, start Use R1.
with the largest range (for example, if there is a
01 A range and a 05 A range on an ammeter,
start with the 05 A range).
Start with the lowest voltage setting on the power Connecting Connecting
supply. wire 1 wire 2
If using a variable resistor to vary the current,
start with its highest resistance.
Connecting
Tap the switch closed to check that the wire 3
ammeters and voltmeters are correctly con-
nected. Figure 6.61
When making a measurement, close the switch 2. Set the voltage of the power supply to a low
just long enough to make the measurement. voltage.
Ask your teacher to check your circuit before 3. Connect the voltmeter, in turn, across each of
switching on the power supply. the following components shown in gure 6.61:
Your teacher will advise you about what power supply
maximum current or maximum voltage you resistor
should use in a particular experiment. connecting wire 1
Results Method
Record the results in a table as shown below. 1. Connect the apparatus as in the circuit diagram
in gure 6.62, using R1.
R1, low power supply voltage
MEASURING
RESISTANCE
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Aim
To show the relationship between voltage and
current, and measure the resistance of a resistor
Apparatus
power supply
ammeter Analysis
voltmeter 1. For each resistor, draw a graph of V against I
variable resistor using the same sheet of graph paper.
two resistors, R1 and R2, of different resistance 2. Measure the slope of each graph.
connecting wires 3. Use the slopes of the graphs to nd the values
switch of the resistance.
A
6.3
DEPENDENCE OF
RESISTANCE ON
Figure 6.64
LENGTH OF 3. Vary the voltage of the power supply and the
RESISTANCE WIRE resistance of the variable resistor until the
current has the maximum value given by your
Aim teacher.
To investigate how the resistance of a resistance 4. Measure the voltage and the current with the
wire varies with length switch closed.
5. Repeat using the other length of resistance wire.
Apparatus
power supply Results
voltmeter Record your results in a table as shown below and
ammeter calculate the resistances.
variable resistor
switch RESISTANCE
two different lengths of resistance wire, l1 and l2 ( )
gas jar LENGTH OF V
R = ---
metre rule WIRE (cm) CURRENT (A) VOLTAGE (V) I
Theory
The resistance of a conductor of constant thick-
ness increases as its length increases. Resistance
V
can be calculated by the formula: R = --- .
I Analysis
Method 1. What is the ratio of the lengths of the wires?
Glass
rod 2. What is the ratio of the resistances of the wires?
As the resistance of
a wire varies with 3. What conclusion can you draw from these
Gas jar values?
temperature, it is
necessary to keep Water
the resistance wire Questions
at constant tem- 1. What would be the resistance of a 30 cm length
perature. This is Resistance of this wire?
wire
done by immersing 2. What would be the resistance of a 2 cm length
the resistance wire of this wire?
in water as shown Figure 6.63 Set-up for 3. What is the resistance per unit length of this
in gure 6.63. resistance wire wire?
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
identify the difference between series and parallel
circuits
compare series and parallel circuits in terms of
voltage across components and current through
them
explain why there are different circuits for lighting,
heating and other appliances in a house
discuss the dangers of an electric shock to the
muscles of the body from a 240 V AC mains supply
and from DC voltages from appliances
describe the functions of circuit breakers, fuses,
earthing, double insulation and other safety devices
in the home.
Current in circuits R1 R2 R3
7.1(b) 2
R2 I = I1 + I2 + I3
Current in a parallel circuit If resistors with equal resistance are con-
R3 nected in parallel, the current will divide equally
3
between them. If resistors with unequal resis-
tance are connected in parallel, the current will
Figure 7.5 Current in a
divide unequally, with the greater current
parallel circuit
owing through the resistor with the lesser
resistance.
Voltage in circuits
Recall from the previous chapter:
the voltage rise in a power supply is equal to the electric potential energy
given to each coulomb of charge that passes through the power supply
the voltage drop in a resistor is equal to the electric potential energy
lost by each coulomb of charge that passes through the resistor.
SOLUTION (a) The two resistors are in series with the power 80.0 V
supply. Therefore:
Figure 7.9
Vps = V1 + V2
80.0 = 50.0 + V2.
So,V2 = 30.0 V.
(b) The greater resistance will have the greater
voltage drop across it, therefore R1 has the
greater resistance. 10.0 V
R1 R2
Voltage across equal series resistors
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7.5 For the circuit shown in gure 7.10, calculate:
12.0 12.0
SOLUTION (a) Since the resistors are in parallel with the power supply:
V1 = Vps
= 24.0 V.
R1
For the 4.00 resistor:
4.00 V
I1 = -----1-
R1
R2
24.00
= --------------
8.00 4.00
= 6.00 A.
(b) By similar reasoning applied to the 8.00 resistor:
I2 = 3.00 A.
24.0 V
(c) As the resistors are in parallel with the power supply:
Figure 7.15 I = I1 + I2
= 6.00 + 3.00
= 9.00 A.
SOLUTION Let the number of resistors connected in series be N. The sum of the
voltage drops across the resistors will equal the voltage gain across the
power supply (24.0 V). As the resistors have equal resistance, there will be
the same voltage drop across each.
SOLUTION As the resistors are in parallel with the power supply, the voltage drop
across each resistor will be 2.00 V.
For one of the resistors:
V = IR
2.00 = I 20.0.
Therefore, I = 0.100 A.
The sum of the currents through the resistors will equal the current
through the power supply (1.00 A). If there are N resistors, each with a
current of 0.100 A, the current through the power supply will be N 0.100 A.
As the current through the power supply is 1.00 A, N 0.100 = 1.00.
Therefore, N = 10.
Addition of resistances
Problems involving resistors in series and parallel can always be solved by
the methods used in the previous sections. However, it is sometimes
easier to solve these problems by theoretically replacing all the resistors
in a circuit by a single equivalent resistor. This single resistor would cause
the same current to ow through the power supply as the original
7.2 combination of resistors. Finding the resistance of the equivalent resistor
is called addition of resistances. The equivalent resistance is also referred
Addition of resistances
to as the total resistance.
SOLUTION The two resistors are equivalent to a single resistor whose resistance is
given by:
R series = 12.0 + 18.0
= 30.0 .
V
I = ---
R
60.0
= ----------
30.0
= 2.00 A
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Derivation of rules for addition of resistances
(a) Derivation of the formula for addition of When a current, I, passes through a
resistances in series. resistor with resistance R, the voltage drop, V,
Consider a circuit with n resistors in series across the resistor is given by the formula:
with a power supply. The resistor with resistance V = IR.
R series will produce the same current when con- In each circuit in gure 7.17, the sum of
nected to the power supply as the series combi- the voltage drops across the resistors equals
nation of resistors. This is shown in gure 7.17. the voltage gain across the power supply.
In circuit (a):
V1 V2 Vn Vps = IR1 + IR 2 + . . . + IR n.
In circuit (b):
R1 R2 Rn Rseries Vps = IR series.
Therefore:
IR series = IR1 + IR 2 + . . . + IR n
= I(R1 + R 2 + . . . + R n).
Vps Vps
Therefore:
(a) n resistors in series (b) The equivalent resistor R series = R1 + R 2 + . . . + R n.
Figure 7.17 Addition of resistances in series (continued)
+340 V
0
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Time (s)
340 V
As the voltage between the active lead and the neutral lead is varying,
an average value is used. A DC voltage of 240 V has the same heating
effect when applied across a resistor as the household AC supply has. The
household supply is therefore called a 240 V AC supply, and this value
can be used in all current and energy calculations involving the alter-
nating household supply.
A cycle is a complete variation in A complete variation in the voltage is called a cycle. For the electricity
the voltage. supply a cycle takes 0.02 s. There are therefore 50 cycles per second (also
referred to as 50 hertz or 50 Hz).
An alternating voltage produces an alternating current.
SOLUTION V
I = ---
R
240
= ----------------------3
2.0 10
= 0.12 A AC
Electric shock
Electric shock, or electrocution, is caused when an electric current passes
An electric shock is a violent
disruption of the nervous and through the body and causes a violent disturbance of the nervous system.
muscular systems caused by the The disturbance of the nervous system produces effects on the muscles
passage of an electric current of the body.
through the body. In household situations, electric shock most commonly happens when
a person who is in contact with the ground touches something that is
live; that is, in contact with the active wire. For example, many people
have been electrocuted while cleaning the gutters on their roofs when
they have accidentally touched the active wire bringing electricity to the
house, thus making a connection through the ladder to the ground.
Some appliances also produce DC voltages that can cause electric
shock. For example, television sets produce DC voltages of the order of
1000 V.
Table 7.1
01 Not perceptible.
Electrical res
A household circuit can cause re if it is overloaded or if a short circuit
An overloaded circuit carries a
current higher than the maximum occurs.
safe value for which the circuit was
designed. Overloading the electrical wiring
A short circuit is where an active When a current passes through a conductor, heat is generated. The
wire comes in contact with the amount of heat generated increases as the current through the
neutral wire or is earthed. conductor increases. Each piece of household wiring is designed to carry
a certain maximum current without overheating.
Wiring that has to carry a high current is made thicker to decrease the
resistance and thus decrease the heat generated. If a wire is overloaded
by passing excessive current through it, it can become sufciently hot to
cause a re.
The diameter of the wiring and the maximum currents for each type
of household circuit are shown in table 7.2.
Table 7.2
Lights 2.5 8
Safety devices
A number of safety measures are used in household circuits. These
include:
double insulation
fuses
circuit breakers
earth wires
residual current devices.
Earth wires
N A The function of the earth wire is to provide protection from electric
shock for people using electric appliances.
When household wiring is installed, a good conductor is used
Neutral Fuse
link
to connect the fuse box to the earth. At the fuse box, the wire
Active coming from the earth is (a) connected to the neutral wire from
3-point the electricity supply and (b) connected to earth wires that go
socket from the fuse box to each power outlet.
Power outlets have three wires connected to them from the
fuse box the active wire, the neutral wire and the earth wire.
Neutral Figure 7.21 shows the earth-wire connections at the fuse box and
Earth the connections to a power outlet.
Most appliances are connected to the power outlet by a three-
Figure 7.21 The earth wire and connections point plug, connected to a lead containing three wires which
to a power outlet continue the active, neutral and earth wires to the appliance.
Figure 7.22 shows a power outlet and a three-point plug.
(a) (b)
Neutral
Active Neutral Active
Earth
Switch
Figure 7.22 (a) A power outlet and Earth
(b) a three-point plug
(Previously the active wire was coloured red, the neutral wire was
coloured black and the earth wire was coloured green. The colours were
changed to avoid mistakes due to redgreen colour blindness. Some old
houses have these colours in their wiring.)
Lighting
circuit
7.5
Designing a household wiring
system
Lighting
circuit
Power
circuit
Power
circuit
neutral wire. Figure 7.26 shows how the mains 3402 = 120 000
voltage varies with time.
58 000
+340
340
An average can now be found of the squared
values. This is called the mean-square-voltage
(mean is another word for average). Its value is
2
Figure 7.26 Graph of voltage against time approximately 58 000 V and is marked on the
vertical axis in gure 7.27.
When the voltage is positive, the (conven- The mean-square-voltage has the dimension
2
tional) current ows from the active wire to the volt . To obtain a value with dimension volt, the
neutral wire. When the voltage is negative, the square root of the mean-square-voltage is found.
current ows from the neutral wire to the active This yields a value known as the root-mean-square
wire. As the voltage varies equally between posi- voltage. This is usually abbreviated to RMS voltage.
tive and negative its average value is zero. If an For the household circuit the RMS voltage is
individual current carrier (free electron in a 240 V.
metal) could be observed, it would vibrate back As the current in an AC circuit is also
and forth but would not progress in either alternating, there will also be an RMS current
direction. V
value. When I = --- is used in an AC circuit, the
To obtain a value of the voltage that can be R
used in calculations, the voltage is rst squared. RMS voltage and RMS current are used. The RMS
This makes all the values positive. Figure 7.27 values are also used in energy and power
shows the result of squaring the voltage. calculations.
Figure 7.34
9. In the circuit shown in gure 7.35, the
Figure 7.31 current through the 5.00 resistor is 4.00 A.
Calculate:
6. In the circuit shown in gure 7.32, the power
supply has a voltage of 20.0 V and the voltage (a) the voltage drop across the 5.00 resistor
drop across the 6.00 resistor is 12.0 V. Calcu- (b) the voltage drop across the resistor R
late the voltage drop across each of the 2.00 (c) the current through the resistor R
resistors. (d) the resistance of the resistor R.
5.00 R
6.00 2.00 2.00
60.0 V
7. In the circuit shown in gure 7.33, the voltage 10. For the circuit shown in gure 7.36, calculate
drop across the 5.00 resistor is 20.0 V. the current through the circuit.
Calculate: 2.00 3.00
(a) the voltage drop across the 8.00 resistor
(b) the voltage of the battery.
5.00
8.00
20.0 V
Figure 7.36
Apparatus
power supply
7.1(b)
ammeter
two resistors, R1 and R2, with different resistances CURRENT IN A
switch
connecting wires PARALLEL
Theory CIRCUIT
In a series circuit the same current ows through
each resistor. Aim
To investigate current in a parallel circuit
Method
1. Connect the apparatus as shown in gure 7.40. Apparatus
2. Connect the ammeter in turn to measure the cur- power supply
rent at each of the points X, Y and Z, when the ammeter
switch is closed. two resistors, R1 and R2, with different resistances
switch
R1 R2
Y connecting wires
Theory
X Z
When current passes through resistors in parallel,
the current passes partly through each of the resis-
tors. The current through the power supply is equal
to the sum of the currents through the resistors.
Current at Y
Current at Z Z
Figure 7.41
Analysis
1. What is the current passing through the power 2. Connect an ammeter in turn to measure the
supply? current at each of the points X, Y, and Z, when
2. What is the current passing through R1? the switch is closed.
3. What is the current passing through R2?
4. Write a sentence to sum up what you have Results
observed about the current in a series circuit. Record your results as in the table on page 142.
V across R1
Analysis
V across R2
1. What is the sum of the currents through the
two resistors in parallel?
2. Compare this with the current through the Analysis
power supply. 1. What is the sum of the voltage drops across the
3. Write a sentence to sum up what you have resistors?
observed about currents in a parallel circuit. 2. Compare this with the voltage gain across the
power supply.
Questions 3. Write a sentence to state the relationship
1. Which resistor had the higher current passing between the voltage across the power supply
through it? and the voltage drops across the resistors.
2. What is the ratio of current through R1 to the
current through R2? Questions
3. What is the ratio of R1 to R2? 1. Which resistor had the higher voltage drop
4. Comment on your answers to questions 2 and 3. across it?
2. What is the ratio of the voltage drop across R1
to the voltage drop across R2?
3. What is the ratio of R1 to R2?
7.1(c) 4. Compare your answers to questions 2 and 3 and
make a comment.
VOLTAGE IN A
SERIES CIRCUIT 7.1(d)
Aim VOLTAGE IN A
To investigate voltage in a series circuit
Apparatus PARALLEL
power supply
voltmeter
CIRCUIT
two resistors, R1 and R2, with different resistances Aim
switch To investigate the voltage in a parallel circuit
connecting wires
Theory Apparatus
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
In a series circuit, the voltage rise across the power power supply
supply equals the sum of the voltage drops across voltmeter
the resistors. two resistors, R1 and R2, with different resistances
switch
Method connecting wires
1. Connect the circuit
as in gure 7.42. Theory
R1 R2
2. Connect the volt- In a parallel circuit, the voltage drop across each
meter in turn across resistor is equal to the voltage gain across the
the power supply power supply.
and each of the
resistors and record Method
the readings when Figure 7.42
1. Connect the apparatus according to the circuit
the switch is closed. diagram in gure 7.43.
Theory
The total resistance, R series, of two resistors, R1 and
R2, connected in series, is given by the rule:
Rseries = R1 + R2.
The total resistance, R parallel, of two resistors, R1
and R2, connected in parallel, is given by the rule:
Figure 7.43
1 1 1
------------------ = ------ + ------ .
R parallel R1 R2
Results To measure the total resistance of a combination
Record your results as in the table below. of resistors, measure the voltage drop, V, across the
combination, and the current, I, passing through
V across power supply
the combination. The total resistance is given by
V across R1 V
the formula: R = --- .
V across R2 I
Method
Analysis 1. Connect the circuit as shown in gure 7.44.
Write a sentence to sum up these results. Between the points X and Y, connect in turn:
(a) R1
Questions (b) R2
1. Does any current pass through both R1 and R2? (c) R1 and R2 in series
2. Consider only that part of the current that (d) R1 and R2 in parallel.
passes through R1.
(a) What is its voltage gain in the power supply? V
(b) What is its voltage loss in R1?
3. Consider only that part of the current that
passes through R2.
(a) What is its voltage gain in the power supply? A
(b) What is its voltage loss in R2? X Y
4. Consider the total current in the circuit.
(a) What is its voltage gain in the power supply?
(b) What is its voltage loss in the resistors?
7.2
ADDITION OF
RESISTANCES Figure 7.44
2. In each case adjust the voltage of the power
Aim supply and the resistance of the variable resistor
To use the laws of addition of resistances to predict so that the current has the value suggested by
the resistance of two resistors connected (a) in your teacher.
series and (b) in parallel and to test the predic- 3. With the switch closed, measure the total current
tions experimentally passing from X to Y and the voltage across XY.
R1 and R2 in parallel
Results
7.3 Record your results as in the table below.
FUSES
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Aim
To make a model fuse which will pass a current of
2 A but not a current of 5 A
Theory
For wires of the same material and of the same
length, the thinner the wire the greater its resis- Question
tance and the greater the rate at which heat is gen- On the basis of your experiment which would you
erated in it. expect to be thicker, a 2 A or a 10 A fuse wire?
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
explain that power is the rate at which energy is
transformed from one form to another
identify the relationship between power, potential
difference (voltage) and current
solve problems and analyse information using P = VI
identify that the total amount of energy used
depends on the length of time that the current has
been owing, and solve problems using Energy = VIt
explain why the kilowatt-hour is used to measure
electrical energy consumption rather than the joule
describe the behaviour of the magnetic poles of a bar
magnet when they are brought close together
Figure 8.1 Some of the wide variety of electrical
dene the direction of the magnetic eld at a point
appliances available for use in Australian households
as the direction of the force on a very small north
magnetic pole placed at that point
describe the magnetic elds around pairs of magnetic
poles
describe the production of a magnetic eld by an
electric current in a straight conductor
describe how the right-hand grip rule can be used to
determine the direction of current and eld lines
compare the nature and generation of magnetic
elds by bar magnets and solenoids
describe the direction of current and magnetic eld
using the symbols and 3
explain one application of magnetic elds in
households.
In this chapter, the principles involved in the operation of many
domestic appliances will be studied. Most domestic appliances depend
on heating effects of currents or on electric motors.
P = VI P = VI
1
= (1.2 10 ) 6.0 1 3
= (1.2 10 ) (6.0 10 )
1
= 7.2 10 W 4
= 7.2 10 W
R1 R2 R2
(b)
Figure 8.4 (a) A section of the front part of an electricity account (b) A section of the back part of an electricity account
8.2 MAGNETISM
The words magnet, magnetism and magnetic are derived from the name of a
district in Greece called Magnesia. By 600 BC, the Greeks had discovered
a mineral there, now called magnetite, with the property of attracting
iron.
In any sample of the mineral, the property of attracting iron is
concentrated in two regions called the poles. If the sample of mineral is
suspended freely it will align itself so that one pole points roughly north
and the other pole points roughly south. The pole that points north is
called the north-seeking pole; the pole that points south is called the
south-seeking pole. These names are now abbreviated to north pole and
south pole.
A natural magnet is made by shaping a piece of magnetite so that the
poles are at the ends. Early compasses were made using natural magnets.
Today, natural magnets are not used, as better magnets can be made
articially. The method of making these articial magnets will be described
later in this chapter.
Magnetic elds
S
The magnetic eld is a force eld
Interactions between magnetic poles
surrounding a magnetic pole that can be described by magnetic elds, in
exerts forces on other magnetic the same way that interactions between N
poles placed in the eld. electric charges were described by elec- Field produced by N
The direction of a magnetic eld is tric elds. In the eld picture of mag-
the direction of the force on a very netic interactions, each magnetic pole is The field surrounding N exerts
small magnetic north pole placed surrounded by a magnetic eld that a force on S.
in the eld. exerts forces on other magnetic poles Figure 8.9 Magnetic eld picture
placed in the eld. This is illustrated in of magnetic interactions
gure 8.9.
The magnetic eld strength, B, which
When a magnet is placed in a magnetic eld, the north and south
is studied in the HSC course,
poles experience forces in opposite directions. The direction of the
corresponds to the electric eld
magnetic eld at a point is dened as the direction of the force on a very
strength, E.
small north pole placed at the point. The directions of the forces on the
B north and south poles of a magnet placed in a magnetic eld are shown
S N in gure 8.10. (In diagrams, a magnetic eld is labelled B.)
F F A compass consists of a magnet suspended so that it is free to rotate.
When a compass is placed in a magnetic eld, the forces on the north
and south poles cause the compass to rotate until the north pole of the
Figure 8.10 Forces on the north and compass points in the direction of the magnetic eld. This is illustrated
south poles in a magnetic eld in gure 8.11.
N S N
Figure 8.11 Forces on a compass
F F F
in a magnetic eld. (a) Forces
causing compass needle to rotate
F
and (b) compass needle aligned
S
with magnetic eld
B
(a) B
(b)
N S
N N S S
The direction of the magnetic eld is given by the right-hand grip rule
The right-hand grip rule is a rule
for nding the direction of the (see gure 8.18). This states:
magnetic eld surrounding an Grip the wire with the right hand, with the thumb pointing in the direction of
electric current. the conventional current and the ngers will curl around the wire in the direction
of the magnetic eld.
Current
Direction of conventional
current
Figure 8.19 Magnetic elds surrounding currents passing into and out of the page
N S
Conventional current
Thumb points
to north pole
of solenoid
Conventional
Conventional current Current clockwise
N S N current when observed
from this end
Figure 8.24 Poles of a solenoid second method
(a) Iron becomes magnetised and is
attracted to the north pole
Magnets and electromagnets
When a magnetic material, such as iron, is placed in a magnetic eld, it
S N S becomes magnetised. Soft iron is a type of iron that becomes magnetised
very quickly when placed in a magnetic eld, and loses its magnetism very
quickly when removed from the eld. When soft iron is magnetised by
(b) Iron becomes magnetised and is being placed in a magnetic eld, it is said to be a temporary magnet.
attracted to the south pole A piece of iron is attracted to a magnetic pole because it becomes mag-
Figure 8.25 Attraction of iron to netised by the magnetic eld surrounding the pole. Figure 8.25 shows a
(a) a north pole and (b) a south pole piece of iron being attracted by (a) a north pole and (b) a south pole.
N S
Release
8.5 button
Building an electromagnet
Catch
Spring
Switch-
operating
button
Field lines
Air gap
Soft iron core Magnetic coating
Tape
Input current
(d) 16 2.0
Y
2 1
(e) 1.0 10 1.5 10
2 2
(f ) 5.00 10 2.00 10
X X
Y
S S S N (in)
(out)
Figure 8.32 Z
10. In each of the cases shown in gure 8.33, sketch Figure 8.35
the magnetic eld and mark the direction of 13. In each of the cases shown in gure 8.36, show
the magnetic eld at the points X, Y and Z. the magnetic eld using the symbol x to
represent a eld into the page and the symbol
(a) Y
Z to represent a eld out of the page.
N S
(a) (b)
X
CHAPTER REVIEW
(b)
Y
N N
Z
X Figure 8.36
Figure 8.38
Apparatus
power supply
variable resistor
graduated beaker Figure 8.39 Circuit diagram
ammeter
voltmeter 7. Use the power supply and the variable resistor
switch
to set the current to the required value.
connecting wires
thermometer 8. Test your coil by heating 200 mL of water and
resistance wire of known resistance per centimetre measuring the time taken to raise the tem-
centimetre ruler perature to boiling point.
Theory Results
1. The energy (W ) needed to raise the tem- Record your results as:
perature of water is given by: Temperature of water =
W = (mass of water in grams) 4.2 (change in Rise in temperature of the water =
temperature in C).
Energy required to raise temperature of water
2. The power required is given by the formula: to 100C =
W Power to raise temperature in 10 minutes =
P = ----- . Current =
t
Resistance of coil =
3. The resistance needed to generate this power Resistance per centimetre of resistance wire =
P Length of resistance wire required =
can be calculated using the formula R = -----2 .
I Time taken to raise temperature of water =
4. 1 mL of water has a mass of 1 g.
Analysis
Method
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Aim Analysis
To use a compass to map the magnetic eld 1. At which pole do the magnetic eld lines
surrounding a bar magnet begin?
2. At which pole do the magnetic eld lines end?
Apparatus 3. Where is the magnetic eld strongest? How is
bar magnet this shown by the magnetic eld lines?
compass
large sheet of paper
Theory
The direction of a magnetic eld at a point can be
found by placing a small compass at the point. The
north pole of the compass points in the direction
of the magnetic eld at the point.
8.3
Method MAGNETIC FIELD
1. Place the sheet of paper on a horizontal surface.
2. Use the compass to nd the NS direction and
PRODUCED BY
mark this direction at the centre of the paper.
3. Place the bar magnet on the paper along the
A CURRENT IN
NS line marked on the paper with the north
pole of the magnet pointing north. A LONG,
4. Mark on the paper the outline of the magnet
and label the poles N and S. STRAIGHT WIRE
5. Place the compass at a point near the north
pole of the magnet. Mark with two points the
position taken up by the compass needle.
Aim
6. Move the compass to a new position so that To map the magnetic eld surrounding a long,
the position of the compass needle follows straight wire carrying an electric current
from the previous position. This is illustrated
in gure 8.40. Apparatus
50 cm length of straight wire
sheet of cardboard approximately 20 cm 20 cm
power supply
S N variable resistor
(a) Mark first direction of compass. connecting wire
switch
compass
some means of supporting the wire
some means of supporting the cardboard
S N Method
(b) Place compass so that the direction follows on from 1. Set up the apparatus as shown in gure 8.41. To
the previous direction.
increase the strength of the magnetic eld, a
Figure 8.40 number of loops of wire can be used.
A
Analysis
Show that your result is compatible with the right-
hand grip rule.
Figure 8.42
8.5 A
Figure 8.43
BUILDING AN 3. Test the magnetism of the electromagnet by
ELECTROMAGNET observing the attraction of small iron nails to
the end of the soft iron rod. The greater the
Aim number of iron nails attracted to the rod, the
greater is the magnetism.
To build an electromagnet and observe its
4. Observe the magnetism of the electromagnet
properties
when there is no current.
Apparatus 5. Observe the magnetism of the electromagnet
for a range of currents.
iron rod for core of electromagnet
6. Observe how much time is taken for the elec-
insulated conducting wire for coil
tromagnet to gain and lose its magnetism when
power pack
the current is switched on and off.
connecting wire
variable resistor
ammeter Analysis
small iron nails 1. How did the magnetism change as the current
was increased?
Theory 2. Was there any delay observed in the gain or loss
A soft iron core is placed in a solenoid carrying a of magnetism when the current was switched on
current and becomes magnetised. When the or off?
current is switched off the soft iron core loses its 3. Was there any magnetism left when the current
magnetism. was turned off?
Chapter 10
Force and Newtons laws of
motion
Chapter 11
Mechanical interactions
MOVING ABOUT
CHAPTER
9 DESCRIBING
MOVEMENT
Remember
Before beginning this chapter, you should be able to:
describe the relationship between distance, speed
and time
relate acceleration to change in speed and/or
direction of an object over a period of time.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
distinguish between scalar and vector quantities
identify changes in speed and velocity during a
journey
compare the instantaneous speed and instantaneous
velocity of moving objects
distinguish between instantaneous and average
speed, and between instantaneous and average
velocity
describe the speed of one vehicle relative to another
vehicle
r
dene average velocity as ------
t
v
dene average acceleration as ------ and
t
vu
therefore -----------
Figure 9.1 Whether youre riding a bike, driving a car t
or bus, or even ying a plane, you need to be able to use vector diagrams to determine displacement,
describe your movement in terms of your position, change in velocity, and acceleration
speed, direction and acceleration. use equations relating a, v, u, r and t to make
predictions about the motion of objects
use graphical methods to record and make
predictions about the motion of objects.
Vector quantities can be described in Most people today rely on some form of transport to get to school or
writing or by labelled arrows. If a work and to get around on weekends or during holidays. Whether you
symbol is used to represent a vector ride, drive, y or sail, you need to know how far you are going, in which
quantity, it may have a half-arrow direction and when you intend to arrive. Whether or not you arrive on
above it or a squiggly line below it. time depends on how fast you move and the direction you take.
In this text, vector quantities are Describing motion is important in planning a journey, even if it is by
represented by symbols in bold italic foot. The study of motion is called kinematics.
type.
Adding vectors
The total displacement of the cyclist in sample problem 9.1 is a measure
of the cyclists change in position. However, it is also the sum of two other
10 km displacement vectors. When vector quantities like displacement are added,
6 km
53.1 the labelled arrows that represent the vectors are placed head to tail. The
sum of the vectors is represented by the arrow drawn from the tail of
8 km the rst vector and the head of the second vector. The order in which the
Figure 9.3 The order in which vectors are added does not matter (see gure 9.3). For example, if
vectors are added doesnt affect the the cyclist travelled 8 km east before travelling 6 km north the sum of the
result. displacement vectors would be the same; that is, 10 km north 53.1 east.
SOLUTION (a)
40 m 30 m
Total displacement
(b) 40 m
N
Total 30 m
displacement
W E
t S
en
em
(c) lac
disp 30 m
l
ta
To
Figure 9.4 40 m
PHYSICS FACT
A snail would lose a race with a giant tortoise! A giant tortoise can
1
reach a top speed of 0.37 km h . However, its cruising speed is
1
about 0.27 km h . The worlds fastest snails cover ground at the
1
breathtaking speed of about 0.05 km h . However, the common
1
garden snail is more likely to move at a speed of about 0.02 km h .
Both of these creatures are slow compared with light, which travels
1
through the air at 1080 million km h , and sound, which travels
1
through the air (at sea level) at about 1200 km h .
How long would it take the snail, giant tortoise, light and sound
respectively to travel once around the equator, a distance of 40 074 km?
Velocity is a measure of the time In everyday language, the word velocity is often used to mean the same
rate of displacement, or the time thing as speed. In fact, velocity is not the same quantity as speed. Velocity
rate of change in position. It is a is a measure of the time rate of displacement, or the time rate of change
vector quantity. in position. Because displacement is a vector quantity, velocity is also a
vector quantity. The velocity has the same direction as the displacement.
The symbol v is used to denote velocity.
distance travelled
SOLUTION (a) Average speed = ---------------------------------------------
time taken
1500
= ------------------
15 60
1
= 1.7 m s
r
(b) Average velocity = ------
t
0
= ------------------
15 60
1
=0ms
W E 100 km h1 90 km h1
Observer
The velocity of the car on the left relative to
(b)
the observer is 10 km h1 due west.
100 km h1 90 km h1
Observer
The velocity of the car approaching from the left
relative to the observer is 190 km h1 due east.
Velocity calculation
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.4 A cyclist is riding along a straight road at a constant velocity of 36 km h
1
1
(10 m s ) in an easterly direction. A car approaches the cyclist from
behind and is initially 360 m behind the cyclist. If the car is travelling at a
1 1
speed of 100 km h (28 m s ), how long will it take to catch up to the
cyclist?
SOLUTION The velocity of the car relative to the cyclist is the difference between
the velocity of the car relative to the ground and the velocity of the
1 1
cyclist relative to the ground. That is, 28 m s due east minus 10 m s
1
due east equals 18 m s due east. The time taken can be calculated
using the formula:
r
vav = ------ .
t
1 360 m due east
18 m s due east = ---------------------------------------
t
360
t = ---------
18
= 20 s.
D o you always feel like youre on the move? No wonder! When you
are standing still, you are actually moving through space at a
1 1
speed of about 30 km s . Thats about 110 000 km h ! This is the
speed at which the Earth is hurtling through space in orbit around
the Sun. An observer on the Sun could measure that speed. If you
were standing still in Sydney, a person high above the South Pole
would say that you were rotating with the ground around the Earths
1
axis at a speed of over 1300 km h .
The speed you measure depends on your position, how fast you are
moving and your direction of movement.
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
add
d
to c
Subtracting vectors
In order to determine a change in velocity it is necessary to subtract the
d vector u from the vector v. One vector can be subtracted from another by
which gives simply adding its negative. This works because subtracting a vector is the
c
cd same as adding the negative vector (just as subtracting a positive number
is the same as adding the negative of that number). The method of
Figure 9.7 Subtracting vectors adding vectors is shown on page 173. Two examples of vector subtraction
are shown in gure 9.7.
Acceleration of a car
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.5 1
A car starts from rest and reaches a velocity of 20 m s due east in 5.0 s.
What is its average acceleration?
vu
SOLUTION aav = -----------
t
1
v u = 20 m s due east 0
1
= 20 m s due east (no vector diagram needed here)
20 m s 1 due east
aav = --------------------------------------------
5.0 s
2
= 4.0 m s due east
Acceleration of a cyclist
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9.6 What is the average acceleration of a cyclist riding north who slows down
1 1
from a speed of 8.0 m s to a speed of 5.0 m s in 2.0 s?
vu
SOLUTION aav = -----------
t
1 1
v u = 5.0 m s north 8.0 m s north
1
= 3.0 m s north (no vector diagram needed here)
3.0 m s 1 north
aav = ------------------------------------------
2.0 s
2
= 1.5 m s north
A negative acceleration is called a deceleration. This acceleration could
2
also be expressed as 1.5 m s south.
r = 1--- (u + u + at)t
2
(a) u = 0
2
a = 9.8 m s
t = 3.0 s
The appropriate formula here is v = u + at.
v = 0 + 9.8 3.0
1
= 29.4 m s
1
The coin is travelling at a velocity of 29 m s down as it strikes the
water.
1 2
(b) The appropriate formula here is r = ut + --2- at because it includes the
three known quantities along with the unknown quantity r.
1 2
r=0+ --- 9.8 (3.0)
2
= 44.1 m
The coin falls a distance of 44 m.
12 = 1--- (u + 0) 2.0
2
1
u = 12 m s .
1 1
The car was travelling at a speed of 12 m s . Thats about 43 km h .
(b) The appropriate formula is:
v = u + at
0 = 12 + a 2.0
12
a = ---------
2.0
2
= 6.0 m s .
2
The acceleration of the car was 6.0 m s .
0.0 0 0
3.0 43 20
6.0 64 40
9.0 78 60
12.0 90 80
am
te
since:
ol
S
B
y
ad
te
40
r
S
vav = ------
t
20
100 m west rise
= ---------------------------- = ---------- = gradient.
15 s run
0
3 6 9 12 15 1
Time (s)
Sams average velocity is 6.7 m s west. His instantaneous velocity
1
at every instant throughout the race is also 6.7 m s west.
Figure 9.10 The graph of Bolter Beryl makes a ying start but, after her initial burst,
displacement versus time provides her instantaneous velocity decreases throughout the race as
valuable information about the way she tires. Beryls average velocity cannot be determined by cal-
that the race was run. culating the gradient because the gradient changes. Beryls
average velocity for the whole race can be determined using
r 1
the formula vav = ------ . Her average velocity is therefore 6.7 m s
t
west, the same as Sams. However, Beryls instantaneous velo-
city changes throughout the race.
AVERAGE VELOCITY
DURING INTERVAL
TIME INTERVAL DISPLACEMENT Dr r 1
vav = ------ (m s west)
(s) (m west) t
03.0 43 0 = 43 14
3.06.0 64 43 = 21 7.0
6.09.0 78 64 = 14 4.7
9.012.0 90 78 = 12 4.0
The average velocity during each interval is the same as the gradient of
the straight line joining the data points representing the beginning and
end of the interval.
Figure 9.11 shows how small time intervals can be used to nd Beryls
instantaneous velocity at an instant 4.0 seconds from the start of the
race. Her instantaneous velocity is not the same as the average velocity
during the 3.06.0 second time interval shown in table 9.2. However, it
can be estimated by drawing the line AD and nding its gradient. The
gradient of the line BC would provide an even better estimate of the
instantaneous velocity. If you continue this process of decreasing the
time interval used to estimate the instantaneous velocity, you will eventu-
ally obtain a line that is a tangent to the curve. The gradient of the tan-
gent is the same as the gradient of the point on the curve at which it is
drawn. It is therefore equal to the instantaneous velocity at the instant
represented by the point on the curve. The gradient of the tangent to
the curve at 4.0 seconds in gure 9.11 can be determined by using the
points P and Q.
Tangent
Q
80
Displacement (m) west
D
C
60
B
40 P
A
20
0
Figure 9.11 The rst 9.0 seconds of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bolter Beryls run Time (s)
SOLUTION (a) The displacement can be read directly from the graph. After 60 s it is
100 m north.
(b) The distance travelled by the cyclist = 200 + 100
= 300 m.
r
(c) vav = ------
t
100 m north
= --------------------------------
20 s
1
= 5.0 m s north
(d) The instantaneous velocity is equal to the gradient of the displace-
ment-versus-time graph. Twenty seconds from the start of the motion
rise
the gradient is equal to ---------- :
run
200 50
= ---------------------
30 15
150
= ---------
15
1
= 10 m s north.
20
15
Velocity (m s1 west)
Bolter Beryl
10
Steady Sam
0
Figure 9.13 Graph of velocity 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
versus time for the race Time (s)
Velocity (m s1)
and back down again. It stops A
5
briey at the top oor to pick D
0
up a passenger. For con- 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
10
Time (s)
E
G
On your bike F
dened as positive. The graph
15
has been divided into seven
sections labelled AG.
The acceleration at any Figure 9.15 The motion of an elevator
instant during the motion can
be determined by calculating
The acceleration of an object can be the gradient of the graph. This is a consequence of the denition of
obtained from the gradient of its acceleration. When the acceleration is constant:
velocity-versus-time graph.
v
a = aav = ------
t
= gradient of a velocity-versus-time graph.
rise + 8.0
a = ---------- = --------------
run 5.0
2 2
= +1.6 m s or 1.6 m s up.
( 1--- 5.0 8.0) + (12.5 8.0) + ( 1--- 2.5 8.0) + ( 1--- 2.5 12)
2 2 2
+ (7.5 12) + ( 1--- 5.0 12)
2
= 20 + 100 + 10 15 90 30
= 5.0 m.
PHYSICS FACT
acceleration is constant.
(b) a cyclist travelling due west at a speed of (a) Calculate the time taken for Amy to reach
1
15 m s , who turns to cycle due north at a her brother.
1
speed of 20 m s (the change occurs in a
time interval of 2.5 s) (b) Calculate Amys acceleration.
(c) a bus travelling due north at 8.0 m s ,
1 (c) At what instant was Amys instantaneous
which turns right to travel due east without velocity equal to her average velocity?
changing speed, in a time interval of 4.0 s. 16. The position-versus-time graph in gure 9.17
12. In Acapulco, on the coast of Mexico, pro- describes the motion of six different objects
fessional high divers plunge from a height of labelled AE.
Displacement (m)
position, but at different times?
80
(b) Which two objects start at the same
position at the same time? 60
(c) Which two objects are travelling at the
40
same speed as each other, but with
different velocities? 20
(d) Which two objects are moving towards C D
Starting 0
each other? point 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
(e) Which object has a lower speed than all of A B Time (s)
20
the other objects? E
40
17. The velocity-versus-time graph in gure 9.18
describes the motion of a car as it travels due
south through an intersection. The car was Figure 9.19
stationary for 6 s while the trafc lights
were red. (a) During which section of the interval was
the skateboard rider stationary?
(b) During which sections was the skate-
boarder travelling north?
10
(c) At what instant did the skateboard rider
Velocity (m s1) south
v v v
1.0
0 0 0
0.75 t t t
0.50
a a a
0.25
Starting 0 C D E F G
0 0 0
point 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 t t t
A B Time (s)
0.25
Figure 9.21
0.50
22. Figure 9.22 compares the straight-line motion
0.75 of a jet ski and a car as they each accelerate
1
from an initial speed of 5.0 m s .
1.0
Figure 9.20
6
(a) During which sections is the acceleration
of the car zero?
Acceleration (m s2)
direction? 2
(e) At what instant did the car rst return to
CHAPTER REVIEW
Stuntman
10
Bus
8
Velocity (m s1)
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (s)
Figure 9.23
Results
0 0.05 1 km Construct a table similar to the table below in
which to record your results.
Time to travel home: 10 min
Displacement: 3 km S30E TIME (s) DISPLACEMENT (m)
3000 m 1
Average velocity: 600 s = 5 m s
S30E
Total distance travelled: 4.2 km 0
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
4200 m 1
Average speed: 600
= 7 m s
s
10
Figure 9.24 A map showing a journey from school to home
20
Results
Draw and label your displacement on the map.
Analysis and questions
Analysis and questions 1
1. What was the average speed (in m s ) of the
Determine and specify fully: cyclist?
(a) your displacement Use the table to construct a graph of displacement
(b) your resultant average velocity during the versus time. Use the graph to answer the following
journey home questions.
(c) the total distance travelled 2. What information does the gradient of the
(d) your resultant average speed during the displacement-versus-time graph provide?
journey home. 3. At what instant did the maximum speed occur?
Velocity
velocity-versus-time graph to answer the following vav vav = u+v
2
questions.
6. How can the acceleration be determined from
u
your velocity-versus-time graph?
7. During which time interval was the accel-
t Time
eration greatest? 2
t
8. Was the acceleration zero at any time during
the ride? If so, at what instant, or during which Figure 9.25 When acceleration is constant, the instantaneous
time interval, was the acceleration zero? velocity at time t is equal to the average velocity during the time
2
interval t.
9. During which time interval (if any) was the
acceleration negative? Method
Calculate the area under the velocity-versus-time
graph. Make an inclined plane by raising one end of a
laboratory bench or a linear air track. Use an angle
10. Did you get the result that you expected? What of approximately 10 to the horizontal. Prepare
does your result indicate about your graph? the recording device and record the motion of a
low-friction trolley or air-track glider as it
accelerates down the inclined plane.
9.3
Results
ANALYSING If your data is recorded on ticker tape, nd at least
eleven consecutive clear dots.
MOTION WITH Analysis
A CONSTANT Use your data to determine the instantaneous velocity
at enough instants of time to allow you to plot a graph
ACCELERATION of velocity versus time. Use a table to record time and
instantaneous velocity. Include a third column in the
Aim table in which to record the acceleration.
Use your velocity-versus-time graph to determine
To record the motion of a object down an inclined the acceleration at a number of instants. Record
plane and use a graphical method to describe and the acceleration in your table and plot a graph of
analyse the motion acceleration versus time.
Apparatus Questions
trolley or linear air-track glider 1. What was the average acceleration of the trolley
brick or other object (or objects) to raise one end or glider?
of the plane 2. Describe how the acceleration changes (if it
timing and recording device (e.g. ticker-timer, does) while the trolley or glider moves along
spark generator, photogates or motion detector the inclined plane.
and computer interface) 3. If the acceleration is not constant, explain why
metre rule and suggest how the experiment could be
improved so that it was constant.
4. What is the greatest source of error in measuring
Theory the instantaneous velocity of the trolley or glider?
If you are using ticker-timer, a spark generator or 5. How could the experiment be changed so that
photogates to record the motion, you will need to the error in measuring the instantaneous velo-
make use of the following observation. For an city of the trolley or glider was reduced?
object moving with a constant acceleration, the 6. Use your graph of velocity versus time to
instantaneous velocity mid-way through a time estimate the distance travelled by the trolley or
interval is equal to the average velocity during that glider. How does this distance compare with the
time interval. distance measured with a metre rule?
An attraction to Earth
The apple in gure 10.2 is attracted to
the Earth by the force of gravity. Even
before it falls, the force of gravity is
pulling it down. However, before it falls,
the tree branch is also pulling it up with
a force of equal magnitude.
The force of gravity is a force of attrac-
tion that exists between any pair of objects
R Air resistance (R)
that have mass. Gravity is such a small force upwards
that, unless at least one of the objects is as
massive as a planet or a natural satellite W Weight (W)
like the Moon, it is too small to measure. downwards
The force on an object due to the pull
Weight is the force applied to an
of gravity is called weight and is usually
object due to gravitational given the symbol W. The magnitude of Figure 10.2 Force is a vector
attraction. the weight of an object is directly quantity. Symbols representing vector
proportional to its mass (m). Thus, quantities are in bold italic type in
W m. this text.
The weight of an object also depends
on where it is. For example, the weight of your body on the Moon is
considerably less than it is on Earth. Your mass remains the same
wherever you are because it is a measure of the amount of matter in an
Gravitational eld strength (g) is
object or substance. The gravitational eld strength, which is usually
the force of gravity on a unit of given the symbol g, is dened as the force of gravity on a unit of mass.
mass. Gravitational eld strength is a vector quantity. In symbols,
W
g = ----- .
m
Thus:
W = mg.
1
The gravitational eld strength, g, can be expressed in units of N kg .
2
2
However, g can also be expressed in units of m s because it is also equal to
the acceleration due to gravity. The reason for this is explained , on page 210.
The magnitude of the gravitational eld strength, g, at the Earths
2
surface is, on average, 9.81 m s 2. Its magnitude decreases as altitude
(height above sea-level) increases. The magnitude of g also decreases as
one moves from the poles towards the equator. The magnitude of the
gravitational eld strength at the surface of the Moon is approximately
one-sixth of that at the surface of the Earth. Table 10.1 shows the
magnitude of g at several different locations on Earth.
Equator 0 0 9.780
2
The magnitude of g at the Earths surface will be taken as 9.8 m s
throughout this text. At the surface of the Moon, the magnitude of g is
2
1.6 m s .
Calculating weight
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10.1 Calculate the weight of a 50 kg student:
(a) on the Earth
(b) on the Moon.
PHYSICS FACT
Normal B
reaction
forces
Net force = 0
W
B = pull of branch
W = weight of apple
Weight
R = air resistance
Figure 10.3 There is more than one
force acting on you when you sit on a
chair. R
Figure 10.4 The motion of the apple does not change if the net force acting on it is zero.
S
(b) 30 N 40 N
F = 10 N 40 N
SOLUTION Figure 10.6 shows a diagram of the tug-of-war and two different ways of
determining the net force on the knot. The net force is 800 N in a
direction 15 east of south.
Team A
W E
135 135
90
F
B Team C F
Team B C
2500 N
2800 N
A
3000 N
A
3000 N
C
2800 N B
2500 N
Figure 10.6
PHYSICS FACT
ir Isaac Newton (16431727) was one of many famous scientists
S who were not outstanding students at school or university. He
left school at 14 years of age to help his widowed mother on the
familys farm. He found himself unsuited to farming, spending
much of his time reading. At the age of 18, Isaac was sent to
Cambridge University, where he showed no outstanding ability.
When Cambridge University was closed down in 1665 due to an
outbreak of the plague, Newton went home and spent the next
two years studying and writing. During this time, he developed the
law of gravity, which explains the motion of the planets, and his
three famous laws of motion. Newton also explained that white
light consisted of many colours, and he invented calculus.
Newtons laws of gravity and motion were not published until about
twenty years later. They were published in Latin in a book entitled
Philosophia Naturalis Principia. The cost of publishing was paid by
Sir Edmond Halley, the person who discovered Halleys comet.
Newton later became a member of Parliament, Warden of the
Mint and President of the Royal Society. After his death in 1727,
Newton was buried in Westminster Abbey, London, alongside Figure 10.7 Sir Isaac Newton
many English kings, queens, political leaders and poets.
Cruising along
The forces acting on a car being driven along a straight horizontal road
are shown in gure 10.8 and described below.
Air resistance
Normal reaction force
Normal reaction force
Rolling downhill
A car left parked on a hill will begin to roll down the hill with increasing
speed if it is left out of gear and the handbrake is off. Figure 10.9 shows
the forces acting on such a car. In order to simplify the diagram, all of the
forces are drawn as if they were acting through the centre of mass of the
car. The direction of net force acting on the car is down the hill. It is clear
that the pull of gravity (the weight of the car), is a major contributor to
the downhill motion of the car.
A component is a part. Any vector
It is often useful to divide vectors into parts called components.
can be resolved into a number of Figure 10.10 shows how the weight can be broken up, or resolved into
components. When all of the two components one parallel to the slope and one perpendicular to
components are added together, the slope. Notice that the vector sum of the components is the weight. By
the result is the original vector. resolving the weight into these two components, two useful observations
can be made.
1. The normal reaction force is balanced by the component of weight that
is perpendicular to the surface. The net force has no component
perpendicular to the road surface. This must be the case because there
is no change in motion perpendicular to the slope.
2. The net force is the vector sum of the component of the weight that
is parallel to the surface, and the sum of road friction and air
resistance.
Weight Components
Weight of weight
Figure 10.9 A simplied diagram showing the forces acting Figure 10.10 Vectors can be resolved into components. In this
on a car rolling down a slope case, the weight has been resolved into two components. The net
force is parallel to the slope, and the car will accelerate down
the slope.
Road
Figure 10.11 This diagram shows the friction and
forces acting on a car driven up a slope. air resistance
Components
In this case, the car is accelerating up the slope. Weight of weight
SOLUTION Because the car is rolling at constant speed, the net force acting on it
must be zero. The weight, W, can be resolved into two components
one down the slope, Wx, and one perpendicular to it, Wy . The perpen-
dicular component of the weight, Wy , is balanced by the normal reaction
force. The magnitude of the road friction must be equal to the
magnitude of the weight component down the slope, Wx .
In the triangle formed by the weight and its components:
eBook plus W
sin 15 = ------x-
W
eLesson: Wx = W sin 15
Friction as a
driving force
= mg sin 15
eles-0032 = 1600 9.8 sin 15 (substituting data)
Interactivity: 3
Friction as a = 4.1 10 N.
driving force
int-0054 The magnitude of the road friction is therefore 4100 N while the car is
rolling with a constant speed.
SOLUTION F = ma
= 1600 2.0
= 3200 N
SOLUTION Because the table is described as smooth, friction can be ignored. The
force of gravity (weight) and normal reaction have no horizontal
components. Because the net force is horizontal and also has no vertical
component, these two vertical forces must add to zero. The net force is
therefore the pull of the spring balance on the car.
F = ma
2.0 N = m 2.5
2.0
m = -------
2.5
= 0.80 kg
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
We have lift-off!
H ave you ever watched a space shuttle taking
off and wondered why it seems to take so
long to gain speed at lift-off? Despite the huge
thrust provided by its three liquid-fuel motors
and two rocket boosters (resulting in an initial
upward thrust of about 29 million newtons!), the
initial acceleration of the space shuttle is only
2
3.2 m s upwards.
Newtons Second Law of Motion provides the
answer. The mass of the space shuttle at blast-off
(most of which is fuel) is about 2.2 million kilo-
grams. Its weight is
W = mg
6
= 2.2 10 9.8
7
= 2.2 10 N
= 22 million N
The net force on the space shuttle at blast-off is
therefore 7 million newtons up.
F
a = -------
m
7 000 000
= ----------------------- up
2 200 000
2
= 3.2 m s
As fuel is burnt, the mass of the space shuttle
decreases and the acceleration increases. Two Figure 10.13 Why does the
minutes after lift-off, as the rocket boosters fall space shuttle seem to take so long
2
off, the acceleration is about 30 m s . to gain speed at lift-off?
SOLUTION A diagram (gure 10.14) is used to show the forces acting on the skier.
Assign the positive direction as north.
N
Normal reaction force = 784 N
Tension = 240 N
Resistance
forces
Weight = mg
= 784 N
Figure 10.14
(a) The net force cannot be determined by adding the individual force
vectors because the resistance forces are not given. There is no
information in the question to suggest that they can be ignored.
However, if the acceleration is known, the net force can be calculated
by applying Newtons Second Law.
1
u = 0, v = 12 m s , t = 6.0 s, a = ?
v = u + at
12 = 0 + a 6.0
a 6.0 = 12
2
a = 2.0 m s
Thus:
F = ma
= 80 2.0
= 160 N north.
(b) The net force on the skier is horizontal. If the tension were the only
horizontal force acting on the skier, it would be equal to the net force
since the vertical forces on the skier add to zero.
Thus, the acceleration would be given by:
F
a = -------
m
240
= ---------
80
2
= 3.0 m s north.
(c) The sum of the resistance forces (friction caused by the water surface
and air resistance) on the skier is the difference between the net
force and the tension.
Sum of resistance forces = F tension
= 160 N north 240 N north
= 80 N south
Falling down
Objects that are falling (or rising) through the air are generally subjected
to two forces weight and air resistance. The weight of the object is
constant. The magnitude of the air resistance, however, is not constant. It
depends on many factors, including the objects speed, surface area and
density. It also depends on the density of the body of air through which
the object is falling. The air resistance is always opposite to the direction
of motion. The net force on a falling object of mass m and weight W can
therefore be expressed as:
F = ma (where a is the acceleration of the object)
W air resistance = ma.
When dense objects fall through small distances near the surface of
the Earth it is usually quite reasonable to assume that the air resistance is
negligible. Thus:
W = ma
mg = ma (where g is the gravitational eld strength)
g = a.
1 2
The units N kg and m s are The acceleration of a body in free fall in a vacuum or where air
equivalent. resistance is negligible is equal to the gravitational eld strength. At the
1 2
1 N = 1 kg m s
2 Earths surface, where g = 9.8 N kg , this acceleration is 9.8 m s .
1
1 N kg = 1 kg m s kg
2 1 If a bowling ball, a tennis ball and a table-tennis ball were dropped at
1
(multiplying both sides by kg ) the same instant from a height of 2.0 m in a vacuum, they would all reach
1
1 N kg = 1 m s
2 the ground at the same time. This is because each ball would have the
same initial velocity of zero and the same acceleration.
If, however, the balls are dropped either in a classroom or outside, the table-
tennis ball will reach the ground a moment later than the other two balls.
The acceleration depends on the air resistance and the mass of each ball
as well as g.
A
The term ---- is very small for the bowling ball and the golf ball. Even
m
though the air resistance on the table-tennis ball is small, its mass is also
A
small and the term ---- is not as small as it is for the other two balls.
m
WARNING: Do not drop a bowling ball. If you wish to try this experi-
ment, replace the bowling ball with a medicine ball and keep your feet
out of the way!
Arm
pulls
bag
Bag
pulls
arm
Student
pushes
chair
Figure 10.17 Forces always act in pairs. (a) The arm pulls up on the bag; the bag pulls down on the arm. (b) The student
pushes down and back on the chair; the chair pushes up and forward on the student. (c) The hand pushes on the ball; the ball pushes
on the hand.
Sir Isaac Newton recognised that forces always acted in pairs in his
Third Law of Motion, which is most commonly stated as:
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Weight
Resistance System
forces on Thrust
both boats
Newtons Third Law of Motion is The thrust which acts on the larger boat and the system is provided by
discussed again in chapter 11 in the water. The propeller of the larger boat pushes back on the water and
relation to the conservation of the water pushes forward on the propeller blades. The only force that
momentum. can cause the small dinghy to accelerate forward is the tension in the
rope. If the tension in the rope is greater than the resistance forces on
the dinghy, it will accelerate. If the tension in the rope is equal to the
resistance forces on the dinghy, it will move with a constant velocity. If the
tension in the rope is less than the resistance forces on the dinghy, it will
slow down. That is, its acceleration will be negative.
The rope pulls back on the larger boat with the same tension that it
applied in a forward direction on the small dinghy. This is consistent with
Newtons Third Law of Motion. Through the rope, the larger boat pulls
forward on the small dinghy with a force that is equal and opposite to the
force with which the smaller dinghy pulls on the larger boat.
Driving force
Coupling
Figure 10.21 The car towing a trailer. The only external horizontal force is the
driving force.
SOLUTION (a) Because the coupling between the car and trailer is rigid, they have
equal accelerations. Newtons Second Law of Motion can be applied
to the system of the car and trailer.
F = ma
F
a = -------
m
5400
= ------------
2000
2
= 2.7 m s east
(b) Apply Newtons Second Law of Motion to the trailer.
F = ma
= 400 2.7
= 1080 N east
(c) The only horizontal force acting on the trailer is the force applied by the
car. The force applied on the trailer by the car is therefore 1080 N east.
(d) According to Newtons Third Law of Motion, the force applied on
the car by the trailer is equal and opposite in direction to the force
applied on the trailer by the car. That force is therefore 1080 N west.
Circular motion
To move in a circle, or even part of a circle, at
constant speed, requires a constant net force
towards the centre of the circle. This can be best
illustrated by swinging a rubber stopper tied to a
string in a circle above your head. Of course, this
should be done outdoors, with no other person
within range of the rubber stopper.
v2
B
R v1
v1 v2
R A
v
Figure 10.23 Motion at a constant speed, v, in a circle of radius R
r2
r = r2 r1
=vt
r1
B
r2
r1
A
Figure 10.24 The displacement is the change in position of the object during the small
time interval.
The triangles shown in gures 10.23 and 10.24 are similar triangles.
Therefore the ratios of the magnitudes of their corresponding sides are
equal. The magnitude of each of v1 and v2 is v. The magnitude of each of
r1 and r2 is r.
v v
-------- = --
vt r
2
v v
------ = -----
t r
Therefore the magnitude of the acceleration of an object travelling at a
constant speed v in circular motion of radius r can be expressed as:
2
v
a = -----
r
N N sin
N
(a) (b)
Fr cos
Fr
SF Sideways SF
friction (Fr)
W
W
Figure 10.25 (a) For the vehicle to take the corner safely, the net force must be towards the centre of the circle. (b) Banking the road
allows a component of the normal reaction to contribute to the centripetal force.
When an object applies a force (an action) to a (c) your mass on the planet Mars.
second object, the second object applies an
6. The set of kitchen scales in gure 10.26a is
equal and opposite force (a reaction) to the
used to determine mass. As the spring inside is
rst object. This statement is an expression of
compressed, the pointer in front of the scale
Newtons Third Law of Motion.
moves. The beam balance in gure 10.26b is
An object moves in a circle with constant speed used in many school laboratories to determine
if it experiences a net force of constant magni- mass. Which of the two instruments would you
tude towards the centre of the circle. This net prefer to use to measure the mass of a small
force towards the centre of the circle is called rock (with a mass of less than 300 grams) on
the centripetal force. the Moon? Explain your answer.
GOING UP
Cable
4
3
2
1
(b)
(a) Calculate the net force on the bicycle eration of the car.
cyclist system. (c) Calculate the speed of the car after 5.0 s.
(b) The sum of the magnitudes of the road (d) Calculate the distance the car has travelled
friction and air resistance on the system is after 5.0 s.
10 N. What is the magnitude of the com- 6
ponent of the weight of the system that is 23. A train of mass 8.0 10 kg, travelling at a
1
parallel to the road surface? speed of 30 m s , brakes and comes to rest in
(c) Calculate the magnitude of the driving 25 s with a constant deceleration.
force D. (a) Calculate the frictional force acting on the
(d) Calculate the magnitude of the normal train while it is decelerating.
reaction force on the bicyclecyclist system. (b) Calculate the stopping distance of the train.
6
The Earth pulls down on
4
your body.
2 You push on a broken-
down car to try to get it
0 2 4 6 8 moving.
Time (s)
Figure 10.32 A hammer pushes down
on a nail.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the net force
on the skateboarder. 30. What force provides the forward thrust that
(b) If the friction force resisting the motion of gets you moving when you are:
the skateboarder is a constant 140 N, at (a) cycling
what angle is the slope inclined to the (b) downhill skiing
horizontal? (c) water skiing
(d) skateboarding
27. The magnitude of the air resistance, R, on a
(e) swimming
car can be approximated by the formula: (f) rowing?
2
R = 1.2 v
31. Two loaded trolleys of masses 3.0 kg and 4.0 kg
where R is measured in newtons and v is the
1 (which are joined by a light string) are pulled
speed of the car in m s .
by a spring balance along a smooth horizontal
(a) Design a spreadsheet to calculate the mag- laboratory bench as shown in gure 10.33.
nitude of the force of air resistance and The reading on the spring balance is 14 N.
the net force on the car for a range of
1
speeds as it accelerates from 20 km h to
1
60 km h on a horizontal road. Assume 3.0 kg 4.0 kg
0
10
20
N
Figure 10.35
FORCE AS A x
VECTOR
P
Aim F2
90
(a) To show that force is a vector and that the net
force is the vector sum of all the forces acting
on an object
(b) To analyse the forces acting on an object by
resolving the forces into components
Apparatus
three spring balances (5 N)
slotted masses (set of nine 50 g masses and carrier) Sheet of A4 paper
marking pen
sheet of A4 paper F1
10.2
NEWTONS
SECOND LAW
OF MOTION Load
can be expressed as F = ma. 1. If the force applied by the load through the
string was the only horizontal force acting on
Method the trolley, where would the graph cross the
1. Use the balance to measure the mass of the vertical axis?
trolley. Record its mass. 2. What quantity does the intercept on the vertical
2. Place 400 g of slotted masses on the trolley. Con- axis represent?
nect a load of 100 g to the trolley with a light 3. Using your estimate of the mass of the system,
string over a pulley as shown in gure 10.37. The what is your estimate of the mass of the trolley?
load provides a known external force on the 4. How does your estimate of the mass of the trolley
system of the trolley and all of the slotted masses. compare with the mass measured by the bal-
The magnitude of this external force is equal to ance? Suggest reasons for differences between
the magnitude of the weight of the load. the estimated mass and the measured mass.
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
recognise that moving objects possess kinetic energy
dene work done on an object and identify its
relationship with an increase in energy of that object
describe energy transformations that take place
during collisions
dene the Law of Conservation of Energy
dene momentum as the product of mass and
velocity
dene impulse as the product of force and the time
interval during which the force acts
explain why momentum is conserved in collisions if
Figure 11.1 This collision is a mechanical interaction. there are no unbalanced external forces acting
The motion of a car is changed as a result of the action of a evaluate the benets of some of the safety features of
force. The change in motion depends on the size of the force motor vehicles, including crumple zones, in terms of
and the mass of the car. However, it is obvious that its not the concepts of impulse and momentum
just the motion of the car that has changed. Some of the explain conservation of momentum in terms of
cars kinetic energy has been transferred to the object with Newtons Third Law of Motion
which it has collided making it vibrate and even explain the reasoning behind the introduction of
changing its shape. Some of the cars kinetic energy has been low-speed zones in built-up areas.
transformed into other forms of energy for example,
sound, heat and energy stored in the deformed panels.
An understanding of mechanical interactions such
as this can teach us how to design safer cars, save
countless lives and reduce serious injuries.
11.1 THE CONCEPT OF ENERGY
Energy can be dened as the
The word energy is often used to describe the way that you feel. For
capacity to do work. It is a scalar example, you might say I dont have a lot of energy today or on a better
quantity. day you might say I have enough energy to run a marathon. The word
Work is done when an object moves energy is also used to describe something that food has. In each of these
in the direction of a force applied cases, the word energy is being used to describe something that
to it. The amount of work done is provides you with the capacity to make something move. It could be a
the product of the magnitude of the heavy object, a bicycle or even your own body. Most dictionaries and
force and the displacement of the
object in the direction of the force.
some physics textbooks dene energy as the capacity to do work. Work is
Work is a scalar quantity. done when an object moves in the direction of a force applied to it.
The following list of some of the characteristics of energy provides
some further clues as to what it really is.
All matter possesses energy.
Energy is a scalar quantity it does not have a direction.
It is important to distinguish between the Energy takes many different forms. It can therefore be classied. Light
(a)
words transferred and transformed energy, sound energy, thermal energy, kinetic energy, gravitational
when describing energy changes. potential energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy are some of the
The word transfer, when used as a different forms of energy.
verb, is dened in The Macquarie Energy can be stored, transferred to other matter or transformed from
Dictionary as meaning, among other one form into another. For example, when you hit a cricket ball with a
things: . . . to convey or remove from bat, energy is transferred from the bat to the ball. When you dive into
one place, person, etc. to another. a swimming pool, gravitational potential (stored) energy is trans-
Energy can be transferred from one formed into kinetic energy.
object to another. Some energy transfers and transformations can be seen, heard, felt,
The word transform is dened in smelt or even tasted.
The Macquarie Dictionary as It is possible to measure the quantity of energy transferred or trans-
meaning, among other things: . . . to formed.
change in form; change to something Energy cannot be created or destroyed. This statement is known as the
of a different form; metamorphose
Law of Conservation of Energy. The quantity of energy in the universe
. . .. Energy can be transformed from
is a constant. However, nobody knows how much energy there is in the
one form into another form.
universe.
(b)
11.2 TRANSFERRING ENERGY
Energy can be transferred to or from matter in several different ways.
Energy can be transferred by:
emission or absorption of electromagnetic or nuclear radiation
heating and cooling an object or substance as a result of a temperature
difference
the action of a force on an object resulting in movement.
The transfer of energy by the action of a force is called mechanical
energy transfer.
Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with the movement of an object.
Kinetic energy is the energy
associated with the movement of By imagining how much energy it would take to make a stationary object
an object. move, it can be deduced that kinetic energy depends on the mass and
speed of the object.
The change in kinetic energy of an object is equal to the work done on
it by the net force acting on it. If an object initially at rest is acted on by a
net force of magnitude F and moves a distance s (which will necessarily
be in the direction of the net force), its change in kinetic energy, Ek,
can be expressed as:
Ek = F s.
Ek = F s
Ek = mas
where
m is the mass of the object and a is its acceleration.
The movement of the object can also be described in terms of its nal
velocity u and its initial velocity v. The magnitudes of the quantities a, s, v
and u are related to each other by the equations:
vu
a = ------------
t
and s = r = 1--- (u + v) t.
2
Ek = mas
(v u)
= m ----------------- 1--- (u + v) t
t 2
1 2 2
= --- m (v u )
2
2 2
= 1--- mv 1--- mu .
2 2
1 1 1 2
60 km h (16.7 m s ) with the same car travelling = --- 1500 (33.3)
1 1 2
at 120 km h (33.3 m s ). 5
= 8.32 10 J.
1
At 60 km h its kinetic energy is: A doubling of speed produces a four-fold increase
2
in the kinetic energy and, therefore, a four-fold
E k = 1--- mv increase in the work that needs to be done on the
2
1 2 car to stop it during a crash. It also means that four
= --- 1500 (16.7) times as much energy has to be transformed into the
2
= 2.09 10 J.
5 energy of deformation, heat and sound or trans-
ferred to other objects.
PHYSICS FACT
F = ma
v
F = m ------
t
Ft = mv
The product Ft is called the impulse of the net force. The impulse
Impulse is the product of the force
and the time interval over which it of any force is dened as the product of the force and the time interval
acts. Impulse is a vector quantity over which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity with SI units of N s.
with SI units of N s. The product mv is the change in momentum.
mv = m(v u)
= mv mu
= pf pi
where
pf = nal momentum of the object
pi = initial momentum of the object.
(d) Impulse = mv
= 1200 (3 15)
= 1200 18
4
= 2.16 10 N s
4
2.16 10 = Ft
4
2.16 10 = F 0.06
2.16 10 4
F = -------------------------
0.06
5
= 3.6 10 N
400
300
C
Force (N)
200
A
100 B
Figure 11.5
SOLUTION The magnitude of the impulse on the skater can be determined by calcu-
lating the area under the graph. This can be determined by either
counting squares or by nding the shaded area.
As her initial speed is zero (she started from rest), her speed after
1
2.0 seconds is 12 m s .
Dont be an egghead
In a serious bicycle accident, the head is likely to collide at high speed
with the road or another vehicle. Even a simple fall from a bike can
result in a collision of the head with the road at a speed of about
1
20 km h . Without the protection of a helmet, concussion is likely as
the skull decelerates very quickly due to the large net force on it. It
will come to rest while the brain is still in motion. The brain will col-
lide with the skull. If the net force on the skull and its subsequent
deceleration is large enough, the brain can be severely bruised or
Inertia-reel seatbelts
Inertia-reel seatbelts allow car occupants some freedom of movement while
they are worn. However, in the event of a sudden change in velocity of the
car, they lock and restrain the occupant (see gure 11.9). Inertia-reel
Seatbelt
Inertia shift
wheel
Front of car
Pendulum
Figure 11.9 Operation of an inertia-reel seatbelt. This reel is shown in the locked position.
PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Airbag technology
A irbags are designed to increase the time
interval during which the occupants
momentum decreases in a collision, reducing the
must be rapid enough to allow a driver to see
after the accident.
(continued)
net force on the occupant. Airbags inate when
the crash sensors in the car detect a large
deceleration. When the sensors are activated, an
electric current is used to ignite the chemical
compound sodium azide (NaN3), which is stored
in a metal container at the opening of the airbag.
The sodium azide burns rapidly, producing
other sodium compounds and nitrogen gas.
The reaction is explosive, causing a noise like the
sound of gunre. The nitrogen gas inates
the airbag to a volume of about 45 litres in only
30 milliseconds.
When the occupants body makes contact with
the airbag, nitrogen gas escapes through vents in
the bag. The dust produced when an airbag is
activated is a mixture of the talcum powder used
to lubricate the bags and the sodium compounds Figure 11.10 Airbags increase the time interval during
produced by the chemical reaction. Deation which the occupants momentum decreases.
11.2 If the net force acting on a system is zero, the total momentum of the system does
not change.
Simulating a collision
This expression is a statement of the Law of Conservation of Momentum.
It is often expressed as follows:
eBook plus If there are no external forces acting on a system, the total momentum remains
constant. In symbols, if F = 0, p = 0.
Weblink: The two blocks labelled A and B in gure 11.12 comprise a system. The
Elastic and inelastic
collisions applet
net force on the system is zero. Therefore, the total momentum of the
system remains constant.
pA + pB
pAB
The total momentum of the system pAB after the collision is the same as the total momentum
of the system before and during the collision.
Figure 11.12 The net force on this system of two blocks is zero.
SOLUTION (a) Assign the direction in which the rst car is moving as positive.
1
1500 kg car: m = 1500 kg, v = 12 m s
p = mv
= 1500 12
1
= 18 000 kg m s
1
1200 kg car: m = 1200 kg, v = 12 m s
p = mv
= 1200 12
1
= 14 400 kg m s
pi = 18 000 14 400
1
= 3600 kg m s
(b) The description of the road suggests that friction is insignicant. It
can be assumed that there are no external forces acting on the system.
pf = pi
1
= 3600 kg m s
(c) The tangled wreck can be considered as a single mass of 2700 kg.
1
m = 2700 kg, p f = 3600 kg m s
pf = mv
2700 v = 3600
1
v = 1.3 m s in the direction of the initial velocity
of the rst car
p1 p2
Figure 11.13 Two cars about to
collide on a smooth surface. The total
momentum after the collision will be
the same as the total momentum
before the collision.
p = p1 + p2
p1 + p2 = 0
p1 = p2
The change in momentum of the rst car is equal and opposite to the
change in momentum of the second car.
The change in momentum of the rst car is given by:
p1 = F1 t
where
F1 = average net force on the rst car over the time interval, t, during
which the collision takes place.
F1 and F2 are equal and opposite in direction. This result is, not surpris-
ingly, totally consistent with Newtons Third Law of Motion.
The interaction between the two cars can be summarised as follows:
the total momentum of the system of the two cars remains constant
the total change in momentum is zero
the change in momentum of the rst car is equal and opposite to the
change in momentum of the second car
the force that the rst car exerts on the second car is equal and
opposite to the force that the second car exerts on the rst car.
SOLUTION (a) Assign the direction in which the van is initially moving as positive.
1
Van: m = 2000 kg, u = 30 m s
Car: m = 1000 kg, u = 0
Theory
If the net force acting on a system is zero, the total
momentum of the system does not change. This
statement is an expression of the Law of Conser-
Load vation of Momentum. Therefore, if no external
forces act on two vehicles during a collision
Figure 11.18 between them, the total momentum of the system
Mass (g)
1
Velocity before collision (cm s )
1
Velocity after collision (cm s )
1
Momentum before collision (g cm s )
1
Momentum after collision (g cm s )
Chapter 13
Star light, star bright
Chapter 14
The SunEarth connection
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
outline the historical development of models of the
universe, and assess one of those models
outline the prediction of the expansion of the
universe by Friedmann and its subsequent discovery
by Hubble
describe the probable origins of the universe
describe the Big Bang Theory, including the
transformation of radiation into matter that followed
identify that the equivalence of energy and mass was
rst described by Einstein
outline how the accretion of galaxies and stars
occurred.
Uranus
Saturn
Jupiter
Mars
Sun
The universe
Earth
Mercury
Venus
PHYSICS FACT
Medium-distance
galaxy
Close galaxy
Close star
Note that a parsec is a distance of 3.26 light years, so that one mega-
parsec (Mpc) equals a distance of 3.26 million light years, or 31 billion
billion kilometres. The units parsec and megaparsec are often used to
express the enormous distances of space.
The value of Hubbles constant was rst determined by Hubble to be
Hubbles constant is a measure of 1 1
the rate of expansion of the 500 km s Mpc . However, the accepted value of H0 has reduced over
universe. It is related to the age of the years as improved technology has provided more accurate measure-
the universe. ments of the distance to stars and galaxies. In 1999, the Hubble Space
Telescope Key Project team led by Wendy Freedman, Jeremy Mould
and Robert Kennicutt measured the value of Hubbles constant to
be 70 kilometres per second per megaparsec, with an uncertainty of
10 per cent.
What Hubble had discovered is that the universe is expanding, just as
Friedmann had predicted ve years earlier. Moreover, Hubbles expan-
sion was very much like an exploding bomb, with the parts furthest out
travelling the fastest. This implied that at some stage in the past all of the
matter in our expanding universe, like an exploding bomb, was concen-
trated at a single place, called a singularity. From this singularity our uni-
verse exploded, an event that has become known as the big bang. Using
Hubbles constant, it is possible to calculate that the big bang occurred
approximately 12 to 14 billion years ago.
Figure 12.17 This computer-enhanced image shows the Figure 12.18 The computer-enhanced image of cosmic
cosmic microwave background radiation across the entire microwave background radiation produced by the WMAP mission.
sky, as surveyed by the COBE satellite. The lumpy appearance Note that, while similar to the COBE image, its detail is ner,
is evidence of galaxy formation when the universe was just indicating the higher resolution of the instruments on the probe.
300 000 years old.
Aristotle (384322 BC) established the geo- The term big bang refers to the explosion-like
centric (Earth-centred) model of the universe. birth of our universe.
Aristarchus (about 240 BC) suggested the rst Immediately after the big bang there was only
heliocentric (Sun-centred) model of the uni- energy, which soon transformed to matter such
as quarks and electrons. A great deal of trapped
verse.
radiation was also present. In the next few
Ptolemy modied Aristotles model to improve minutes, light nuclei were formed by thermo-
its agreement with the observed motion in the nuclear fusion.
heavens, in AD 140. After about 380 000 years, the temperature
Nicholas Copernicus (14731542) was the next cooled sufciently for electrons to bond to
to seriously propose a heliocentric model. nuclei to form neutral atoms. The trapped radi-
ation could then break free. This is called the
Tycho Brahe (15461601) instigated time of recombination.
methodical observation practices to make
meticulously detailed recordings of the motion After the time of recombination, galaxies and
of the planets. stars began to form through the process of
gravitational collapse and accretion.
Johannes Kepler (15711630) used Brahes
records to improve Copernicus model with a
mathematical description of the elliptical orbits QUESTIONS
of the planets. At last, the heliocentric model of
the universe was more accurate in predicting 1. Rule a line across your page. Make a mark at
the motion of the planets than Ptolemys the far left and label it Aristotle. Make
geocentric model. another mark at the far right and mark it
Newton. Use this to construct a time-line of
Galileo Galilei (15641642) used a telescope to developing models of the universe.
observe the heavens and noticed detail that 2. Choose one of the models indicated on the
contradicted the Aristotlean/Ptolemaic geo- time-line in question 1.
centric model. (a) Describe the model in more detail.
Isaac Newton (16421727) analysed the force (b) List the advantages of this model, from the
of gravity between two masses to provide a perspective of someone living at that time.
better mathematical description of the work- (c) How did the technology of the time inu-
ings of the heliocentric model of the universe. ence or limit the development of this
model?
Albert Einstein (18791955) proposed the 3. List the twentieth-century discoveries that have
General Theory of Relativity, which contained furthered our model of the universe.
much information on spacetime.
4. Write a one-paragraph description of the cur-
Aleksandr Friedmann (18881925) demon- rent model of the universe. The scale of your
strated mathematically that the Theory of description should range from planet to uni-
Relativity predicted that the universe was verse.
expanding. 5. The expansion of the universe was theorised
by Friedmann in 1922.
CHAPTER REVIEW
120 9 000
limit
93 7 500
158 8 900
3. If H0t0 = 1, calculate the age of the universe
64 5 300
(Hubble time in this case) using your value for
145 9 600 H0. Note that you will need to convert the dis-
61 3 300 tance units, kilometre and megaparsec, into
103 5 100 metres rst.
46 5 000 4. Repeat this calculation using your upper and
34 1 800 lower limits for H0, thereby determining an
upper and lower limit for t 0.
185 9500
5. Compare your calculated values for the age of
15 1 700
the universe with those published by the HST
20 1 200 and WMAP teams.
Key content
Procyon
7 L0 Betelgeuse At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
11.41 light years 10 000 L0 use the inverse square law to quantitatively relate
427 light years the brightness of a star to its luminosity and
distance from the observer
use Wiens Law to dene the relationship between
the temperature of a body and the dominant
wavelength of the radiation emitted from that body
relate the surface temperature of a star to its colour
Rigel describe a HertzsprungRussell (HR) diagram as
40 000 L0 the graph of a stars luminosity against its colour or
900 light years temperature
identify star groups on an HR diagram, including
main sequence, red giants and white dwarfs
Sirius
identify energy sources characteristic of each of the
22 L0
8.60 light years main star groups on an HR diagram.
all the radiation given off in one second is the stars luminosity. The radi-
r
ation spreads out uniformly and penetrates the whole surface of the
Brightness sphere. Therefore, the amount of radiant energy per square metre per
second received at the surface of the sphere (the brightness) is given by:
luminosity
brightness = ------------------------------------------------------------------- .
surface area of the sphere
Figure 13.3 The total radiant
energy from a star is spread over the
Since the surface area of a sphere = 4r 2
surface of an imaginary sphere
then, brightness = luminosity -.
--------------------------
surrounding it. 4r 2
It was mentioned earlier that the luminosity of the Sun has a value of
26
approximately 3.83 10 W. This value was determined using the bright-
ness/luminosity relationship. Detectors aboard satellites were used to
measure the amount of radiant energy per square metre per second
reaching us from the Sun; that is, the brightness of the Sun. In addition,
the distance of the Earth from the Sun is well known at any point around
its slightly elliptical orbit. Using these two pieces of information, the
luminosity of the Sun could be calculated.
increases, the peak moves into the visible spectrum. At higher tempera-
tures, the peak has moved out to the ultraviolet region. This relationship
is known as Wiens Law and can be written as:
maxT = W
3000 K
where
0 1000 2000 3000 max = wavelength of maximum output or dominant wavelength (m)
}
T = temperature (K)
UV Visible IR 3
W = a constant = 2.9 10 m K.
Wavelength (nm)
Figure 13.4 Black-body radiation Although a black body is a hypothetical concept, a stars radiation
curves. As a black body becomes hotter output closely matches the theoretical black-body radiation curves, at
the peak of the curve shifts to shorter least in and near the visible spectrum, which determines its colour. Refer
(bluer) wavelengths. again to gure 13.4 and consider how the colour we see coming from a
(b)
10
5 10
4
2
0 10
+5 1
+10 10
2
+5
O B A F G K M Spectral type
25 000 10 000 5000 3000 Temperature (K)
0.6 0.0 +0.6 +2.0 Colour index
Figure 13.7 (a) An HR diagram for the nearest and brightest stars and (b) the star groups revealed
star.
Working against the force of gravity is
the stars radiation pressure, an out- Force of
gravitation
wards force resulting from the nuclear due to
reactions within the star. Without this the mass
of the star
radiation pressure the star would simply
be crushed by its own gravity. The radi-
ation pressure varies between red giants,
white dwarfs and main sequence stars.
This results in the differences in star
sizes. The different radiation pressures Figure 13.8 The two forces that
are due to different nuclear reactions determine the size of a star
within the cores of the stars.
106
Supergiants
104
Possible shell He burning
Shell H burning
Core He
burning,
102 Main sequence possible Red giants
variable
L (LSun)
1
1 solar
mass
White
102
dwarfs
104
T (K)
Molecular cloud
Protostar
Red giant
(number of burning shells
depends on mass)
leaving behind a
leaving
behind a
Main sequence
Red giant
White dwarf
B etc.
PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
Key content
At the end of this chapter you should be
able to:
describe the nature of emissions from
the nuclei of atoms as radiation of
alpha , beta , and gamma rays
identify that energy may be released
from the nuclei of atoms
identify that the Earth receives
electromagnetic and particulate
emissions from the Sun
describe the solar winds
describe the nature of sunspots
outline the nature of the solar cycle and its
relationship with sunspot activity and the
solar wind
assess the effects on Earth of uctuations in
the solar wind.
Charge +2 1 Zero
Penetrating ability the ability Low can only penetrate Medium can penetrate High can penetrate
to penetrate through a material several centimetres of air about one metre of air several centimetres of lead
before being stopped and are stopped by a
sheet of paper
PHYSICS FACT
Beta decay
1 1 0
n 1p + e+
T he source of beta particles is a good example
of scientic models improving with better
technology. Beta particles are electrons like any
0 1
Binding energy
The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of its
individual parts. Consider a helium nucleus (an alpha particle). It has a
27
mass of 6.624 10 kg. It consists of two protons and two neutrons, and
the sum of their masses is as follows:
27
2 protons = 2 1.673 10 kg
27
2 neutrons = 2 1.675 10 kg
27
sum of masses = 6.696 10 kg.
27 27
Therefore, the mass difference = 6.696 10 6.624 10
29
= 7.2 10 kg.
10 56
26 Fe
9 12
6C
Average binding energy
8 4
per nucleon (MeV)
2He
7
6
5
4
3
2
1 1
1H
PHYSICS FACT
The Sun as a black body
T he radiation from the Sun in the visible and infra-red wave-
lengths closely matches the theoretical radiation curve of a black
body with a temperature of approximately 6000 K. This portion of
the solar spectrum is produced by the photosphere, which has that
temperature. At shorter and longer wavelengths the solar spectrum is
different, corresponding instead to the spectrum of a black body at a
temperature of approximately 1 000 000 K. This portion of the solar
spectrum is produced by the hot corona and by solar ares. At ultra-
violet and low-intensity X-ray wavelengths, the solar spectrum does
not match either of these two theoretical black-body radiation curves.
Sun
Mercury
Venus
Earth
150
Number of sunspots
100
300
200
100
0
1760 1780 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880
Date
SUNSPOT NUMBER
300
200
100
Figure 14.12 A graph of sunspot
numbers since observations began in
0
1749. The repetitive pattern of the 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
sunspot cycle is clearly visible. Date
SUNSPOT AREA IN EQUAL AREA LATITUDE STRIP (% OF STRIP AREA) > 0.0% > 0.1% > 1.0%
90N
30N
EQ
30S
90S
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Figure 14.13 A buttery diagram, showing the way that sunspots appear at high latitudes early in a cycle and progress towards the
equator. This pattern is helpful in tracking the progress of a cycle.
400
Interacts with
200 electrons in
the ionosphere
Altitude (km)
100
80
Interacts
60 with ozone
Interacts with
oxygen and
40 nitrogen
Interacts with
water vapour and
20 carbon dioxide
Wavelength
Bo
Solar
wind
Ionosphere
However, once inside, the ions are captured by the Earths magnetic
eld lines. They spiral from one pole to the other and are then
bounced back, this round trip taking just one-tenth of a second. The
Outer Van Allen belt captured ions accumulate into the outer of two doughnut shaped zones
Figure 14.16 The inner and outer that wrap around the Earth. (The inner zone, possessing higher energy
Van Allen belts particles, is much more stable and is the result of a slow accumulation
of charges derived from cosmic rays, which are high-energy particles
that bombard us from all directions, not from the Sun.) Shown in
The Van Allen belts are two gure 14.16, these zones are known as the Van Allen belts. They were
doughnut-shaped zones of discovered by James Van Allen in 1958 at the very beginning of the
radiation (ions) that wrap around USAs space-rocket efforts.
the Earth. The charged particles within the outer Van Allen belt have been found
to follow a third motion, in addition to their eld-line spiral and pole-to-
pole bounce. The charges also skip from one eld line to an adjacent one,
drifting sideways as they bounce from pole to pole. Positive ions have been
found to move in a westward direction, while electrons move eastward. This
amounts to an electrical current, called the ring current, running around
the Earth. Electric currents produce their own magnetic elds, and the
magnetic eld of the ring current interferes with the Earths magnetic
eld. During times of turbulent solar winds, the ring current uctuates, and
so too does its inuence on the Earths magnet eld. This contributes to
A geomagnetic storm is a period
the effects of a geomagnetic storm, during which the Earths magnetic eld
during which the Earths magnetic experiences unusual distortions and uctuations in strength.
eld experiences unusual
distortions and uctuations in Space weather and its effects
strength.
The magnetosphere offers some protection for our planet from direct
exposure to the solar wind; however, it is still vulnerable to major disrup-
tions in the speed, density and temperature of the solar wind. These are
the conditions referred to as space weather. Turbulent solar winds buffet
and irregularly distort the magnetosphere, and at the same time a
greater than usual number of charged particles nd their way into the
Figure 14.19
The US space station
of the 1970s, Skylab
306 GLOSSARY
electromagnetic wave: a wave that propagates as a inertia: the tendency of an object to resist a change in its
perpendicular electric and magnetic eld. motion 202
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium for instantaneous speed: the speed at a particular instant of
propagation. 7 time 177
electron drift: the slow movement of electrons through a instantaneous velocity: the velocity at a particular instant
conductor in the opposite direction to the electric eld. of time 177
This movement is superimposed on the much faster, insulated: when a body is not earthed 94
random motion of the electrons. 106 insulator: a material that does not contain charge
electrostatic charge: a charge due to an excess or carriers 94
deciency of electrons 93 interference: occurs when waves meet and interact as they
energy: the capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity. 226 pass through each other, reinforcing or cancelling at
excess of electrons: exists when a body has more different points 20
electrons than protons 93
K
F kilowatt-hour: (kW-h), a unit of energy equal to the
brillation: a condition in which the heart stops beating amount of energy used by a 1 kW device in 1 hour 152
regularly and oscillates rapidly 132 kinetic energy: the energy associated with the movement
focus: the point where all rays from a converging lens or of an object 227
mirror are concentrated. It is also the point where the
rays appear to originate after passing through a L
diverging lens or being reected by a diverging lines of electric eld: the lines drawn on a diagram to
mirror. 48 represent the direction and magnitude of an electric
force: a push or a pull. Force is a vector quantity. 197 eld 100
free electrons: electrons in a metal that are detached luminosity: of a star; the total energy radiated by a star
from their atoms and are free to move through the per second 274
metal. A metal conducts an electric current by the
movement of the free electrons. 105 M
fuel-burning power station: a power station in which magnetic eld: a force eld surrounding a magnetic pole
fossil fuels are burnt to provide energy 82 that exerts forces on other magnetic poles placed in the
eld 155
G magnetosphere: the region surrounding a planet that
gamma: , high-frequency electromagnetic radiation; one contains its distorted magnetic eld 298
of the three types of radiation 288 main sequence: a diagonal band from the upper left
corner of an HR diagram to the lower right corner of
geocentric model: a model of the universe that has the
the diagram. Most stars are in this group. 278
Earth placed at its centre 253
mechanical wave: a wave that requires the movement of
geomagnetic storm: a period during which the Earths particles to propagate forward 7
magnetic eld experiences unusual distortions and
uctuations in strength 299 modulation: the process of changing the amplitude or
frequency of a wave to add a signal 39
gravitational eld strength: (g), the force of gravity on a
momentum: the product of the mass of an object and its
unit of mass 197
velocity. It is a vector quantity. 231
H N
heliocentric model: a model of the universe that has the negative charge: the type of charge on an electron 92
Sun placed at its centre 253
negatively charged: a body that has an excess of
HertzsprungRussell diagram: a graph of a stars electrons 93
luminosity (as the vertical axis) plotted against its net force: the vector sum of the forces acting on an
temperature or colour 277 object 199
Hubbles constant: a measure of the rate of expansion neutral: a body that has equal numbers of protons and
of the universe. It is related to the age of the electrons 93
universe. 262
neutral wire: one of the wires that delivers electricity to a
hydro-electric power station: a power station in which household from a power station. This wire is
water that has gained kinetic energy by owing maintained at earth potential. 130
downhill is used to provide energy 83 1
newton coulomb : (N C1), is the unit of electric eld
strength 99
I normal: the line that is perpendicular to the reecting
impulse: the product of the force and the time interval surface at the point where the ray hits it 47
over which it acts. Impulse is a vector quantity with SI normal reaction: a force that acts perpendicular to a
units of N s. 231 surface as a result of an object applying a force to the
induced charge: a charge produced in a body when surface 199
another charged body is near it 95 nuclear fusion: the joining of nuclei to form larger
induction: the production of induced charges 95 ones 290
GLOSSARY 307
nuclear power station: a power station in which nuclear short circuit: where an active wire comes in contact with
reactions provide energy 83 the neutral wire or is earthed 133
sine wave: the curve that results when a plot is made of
O y = sin x 3
ohm: (), the unit of resistance 110 solar cycle: an 11-year cyclical pattern of increasing and
oscillation: a vibration about a xed or equilibrium decreasing frequency of sunspots, ares, prominences
point 7 and coronal mass ejections 295
overloaded circuit: one that carries a current higher than solar wind: an outow of low-density plasma from the
the maximum safe value for which the circuit was corona of the Sun 292
designed 133 speed: a measure of the time rate at which an object
moves over a distance. It is a scalar quantity. 174
P sunspot: a dark spot on the surface of the Sun,
peak voltage: the maximum voltage between the active representing a region of intense magnetic activity and
wire and the neutral wire 131 lower temperature 294
photosphere: the visible surface of the Sun 291 sunspot cycle: a cyclical pattern of increasing and
pitch: directly related to the frequency of a sound. The decreasing numbers of sunspots 295
higher the frequency of the sound, the more vibrations superposition: the adding of two or more waves 21
per second and the higher the pitch. A low-frequency
sound is a low-pitched sound. 18
T
plasma: an extremely hot and highly ionised state of timbre: the quality of a sound that depends on the way in
matter 265 which a number of different pure sounds have
positive charge: the type of charge on a proton 92 combined 23
positively charged: a body that has a deciency of
electrons 93
U
potential difference: the change in potential energy per uniform electric eld: an electric eld with the same
unit charge moving between two points 103
magnitude and direction at all points 101
potential difference across a power supply: the number
of joules of electric potential energy given to each
coulomb of charge that passes through the power V
supply 108 Van Allen belt: either of two doughnut-shaped zones of
potential difference across a resistor: the number of radiation (ions) that wrap around the Earth 299
joules of electric potential energy dissipated for each vector: a quantity that species size (magnitude) and
coulomb of charge that passes through the direction 173
resistor 107 velocity: a measure of the time rate of displacement, or
potential energy: the energy stored in an object 230 the time rate of change in position. It is a vector
power: the rate at which energy is transformed from one quantity. 174
form into another 147 volt: (V), the SI unit of potential difference 103
power supply: a source of electric potential energy 107 voltage: another name for potential difference 103
propagate: to transmit through space or a medium 4 voltaic pile: an assembly of large numbers of alternate
zinc and brass discs separated by cardboard discs soaked
R in salt solution 79
rarefaction: a zone where the particles of the medium are voltmeter: an instrument used to measure the potential
spread further apart. It is a zone of lower pressure. 16 difference across a component in an electric circuit. A
red giants: the group of stars in the upper right corner voltmeter is connected into a circuit in parallel. 109
of the HR diagram. These are cool, giant stars. 278
resistance: of a resistor, is the potential difference across W
the resistor divided by the current passing through the watt: (W), the SI unit of power 147
resistor 110 weight: the force applied to an object due to gravitational
resistor: a conductor in which the electric potential attraction 197
energy of a current is converted into heat energy 106 white dwarfs: the group of stars close to the lower left
right-hand grip rule: a rule for nding the direction of corner of the HR diagram. These are exceptionally
the magnetic eld surrounding an electric small, hot stars. 278
current 157 work: done when an object moves in the direction of a
force applied to it. The amount of work done is the
S product of the magnitude of the force and the
scalar: a quantity that species size (magnitude) but not displacement of the object in the direction of the force.
direction 173 Work is a scalar quantity. 226
308 GLOSSARY
APPENDIX 1: Formulae and data sheet
Formulae Data sheet: numerical values of constants
19
The world communicates Charge on the electron, qe 1.602 10 C
v= f
31
1 Mass of electron, me 9.109 10 kg
I -----
2
d
27
Mass of neutron, mn 1.675 10 kg
v1 sin i
----- = ----------
v2 sin r
27
Mass of proton, mp 1.673 10 kg
Electrical energy in the home
1
Speed of sound in air 340 m s
E= F
---
q
2
R= V
---
Earths gravitational acceleration, g 9.8 m s
I
8 1
P = VI Speed of light, c 3.00 10 m s
Energy = VIt
Magnetic force constant k -----0-
7 2
2.0 10 N A
Moving about 2
vav =
-----r- Universal gravitational constant, G 6.67 10
11
N m kg
2 2
t
aav =
-----v- therefore aav = v----------
u-
Mass of Earth 6.0 10 kg
24
t t
F = ma 34
Plancks constant, h 6.626 10 Js
2
mv
F = --------- 7 1
r Rydbergs constant, RH (hydrogen) 1.097 10 m
Ek = 1--- mv2 27
2 Atomic mass unit, u 1.661 10 kg
W = Fs
MeV
p = mv 931.5 -----------
2
-
c
Impulse = Ft
19
The cosmic engine 1 eV 1.602 10 J
luminosity 3 3
brightness = ------------------------
2
- Density of water, 1.00 10 kg m
4r
maxT = W Specic heat capacity of water 4.18 10 J kg K
3 1 1
v = H0 D
APPENDIX 1 309
Group
1 18
310
Period 1 2
1 H He
1.008 4.003
Hydrogen 2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium
3 4 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
APPENDIX 2
2 Li Be Symbol B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 Atomic weight 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lithium Beryllium Name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
Sodium Magnesium 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 [98] 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
55 56 5771 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 [209] [210] [222]
Caesium Barium Lanthanides Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
APPENDIX 2: Periodic table
87 88 89103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
7 Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Uub Uuq Uuh Uuo
[223] [226] [261] [262] [266] [264] [265] [268] [271] [280] [272] [285] [289] [294]
Francium Radium Actinides Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium Ununquadium Ununhexium Ununoctium
*Lanthanide series
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 [145] 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
**Actinide series
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
[227] 232.0 231.0 238.0 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [262]
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
For elements with no stable nuclides, the mass of the longest living isotope is given in square brackets.
The atomic weights of Np and Tc are given for the isotopes 237Np and 99Tc.
APPENDIX 3: Key words for examination questions
HSC syllabus documents and examination questions use the following key words that state what students
are expected to be able to do.
Account Account for: state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or
transactions
Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate
implications
Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation
Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of
Assess Make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size
Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, gures or information
Clarify Make clear or plain
Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories
Compare Show how things are similar or different
Construct Make; build; put together items or arguments
Contrast Show how things are different or opposite
Critically Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and understanding, logic,
(analyse/evaluate) questioning, reection and quality to (analysis/evaluation)
Deduce Draw conclusions
Dene State meaning and identify essential qualities
Demonstrate Show by example
Describe Provide characteristics and features
Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or against
Distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences
between
Evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of
Examine Inquire into
Explain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/
or how
Extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details
Extrapolate Infer from what is known Document
Identify Recognise and name
Interpret Draw meaning from
Investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions about
Justify Support an argument or conclusion
Outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of
Predict Suggest what may happen based on available information
Propose Put forward (for example, a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration
or action
Recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences
Recommend Provide reasons in favour
Recount Retell a series of events
Summarise Express, concisely, the relevant details
Synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole
Board of Studies NSW, 2003
APPENDIX 3 311
ANSWERS TO NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 1 3. (a) 2.00 A
14
7. f = 7.317 10 Hz (b) R2
8. 0.8 Hz 4. 8.00 A
11. = 1.29 m 5. (a) 3.00 V
CHAPTER 2 (b) R1
1. = 0.644 m 6. 4.0 V
8. 384 vibration cycles per second (or 384 Hz) 7. (a) 20.0 V
(b) 20.0 V
CHAPTER 4
8. (a) 3.00 A
2. 40
8 1 (b) 3.00 A
14. v1 = 2.041 10 m s
(c) 12.0 V
15. r = 19.5
(d) 48.0 V
16. sin ic = 41.8
9. (a) 20.0 V
CHAPTER 6 (b) 40.0 V
19
3. 1.60 10 C (c) 4.00 A
13
4. 1.25 10 (d) 10.0
14
5. (a) +5.44 10 C 10. 4.00 A
14
(b) 5.44 10 C 11. (a) 24.0 V
2 1
7. 2.17 10 N C east (b) 24.0 V
1 1
8. 3.00 10 N C north (c) 6.00 A
17
9. (a) 6.88 10 N west (d) 24.0 V
17
(b) 6.88 10 N east (e) 8.00 A
2
(c) 9.89 10 N east 12. (a) 3.00 A
1
(d) 2.79 10 N west (b) 5.00 A
2
13. (a) 2.00 10 V (c) 8.00 A
1
(b) 5.20 10 J 13. (a) 36.0
16. (a) 6.00 C (b) 2.00 A
19
(b) 3.75 10 (c) 24.0 V
17. 1.40 A 14. 3.00
1
18. (a) 8.96 10 C 15. (a) 28.0
1
(b) 3.58 10 A (b) 3.00
19. (a) (i) 5.00 C (c) 39.0
2
(ii) 3.00 10 C (d) 4.13
19 21
(b) 3.13 10 , 1.88 10 (e) 90.0
1
22. 2.00 10 V (f) 0.400
2
23. 3.84 10 J 16. (a) (i) 0.500 A, 0.500 A
25. 5.00 J (ii) 2.50 V, 3.50 V
27. 8.00 (b) (i) 2.00 A, 2.00 A, 2.00 A
28. 6.40 V (ii) 20.0 V, 40.0 V, 80.0 V
29. (a) 5.00 (c) (i) 2.5 A, 2.5 A
(b) 72.0 V (ii) 5.9 V, 9.1 V
(c) 0.500 A (d) (i) 2.03 A, 2.03 A, 2.03 A
(d) 0.167 (ii) 22.7 V, 41.4 V, 63.9 V
(e) 3.00 A (e) (i) 6.00 A, 4.00 A
(f) 10.0 V (ii) 12.0 V, 12.0 V
30. (a) 24.0 J (f) (i) 4.00 A, 2.00 A, 0.800 A
(b) 2.00 V (ii) 48.0 V, 48.0 V, 48.0 V
(c) 7.00 C (g) (i) 7.23 A, 4.88 A
(d) 4.00 V (ii) 125 V, 125 V
(e) 0.125 C (h) (i) 12.1 A, 4.28 A, 7.13 A
(f) 32.0 J (ii) 30.5 V, 30.5 V, 30.5 V
31. b, a, d, c
CHAPTER 8
1
CHAPTER 7 1. 3.00 10 W
4
2. (a) 5.00 A 2. 3.00 10 J
1
(b) 5.00 A 3. 2.00 10 s
(f) 159 J 1
(i) 6.0 m s south
3
(g) 1.80 10 s 1
(j) approx. 3 m s north
(h) 34.8 V 20. (a) B, D, F
8. (a) 4.2 A , 58 (b) +20 m
2
(b) 3.58 10 W, 35.0 (c) 0.25 m s
1
INDEX 315
Copernicus model of the universe 254 potential difference between two points on 103
core (Sun) 291 surrounding a negative point charge 1001
corona 291, 292 surrounding a positive point charge 100
coronal mass ejections 295 surrounding pairs of point charges 1012
cosmic background radiation 2624, 265 uniform 101
coulomb 93 electric forces, eld model 978
crests 3, 4, 18 electric generator 82
critical angle 60, 61 electric potential energy 102, 107
current see electric current negative charge in electric eld, of 102
curved mirrors positive charge in electric eld, of 102
nding images produced by 51 potential difference 103
reection 4852 electric shock 1313
cycle (voltage variation) 131 current strength, and 132
voltage inuence and severity 1323
dark energy 2656 electrical energy
Davy, Humphrey 79 distribution 84
deciency of electrons 93 generation 813
deformation, potential energy 230 introduction in NSW 845
digital communication systems 627 measuring domestic consumption 1523
digital signals 62, 65 social impact of use 86
operation of 63 spread of use 846
digital versatile discs (DVDs) 64, 65 use in Australia 90
direct voltages and currents 115 electrical wiring
direction of magnetic eld 155 household 136
displacement 3, 173 overloading 133
velocitytime graphs, from 1868 electricity
displacement (waves) 3 early discoveries 7780
displacementtime graphs 1824 remote places, in 86
wave motion 10 safe use in the home 1307
distance 173 use in home, summary 163
diverging mirrors 49 electricity grid 85
electromagnet, building 169
domestic appliances, energy ratings 154
electromagnetic radiation 30, 292
Doppler effect 41
intensity 38
double insulation 134
inverse square law, and 378
driving force 203
solar ares and 34
driving lights 54
electromagnetic spectrum 2932
absorption and transmission 2978
earth wire 1345 electromagnetic waves 7, 8, 29
earthed 94 atmospheric ltering 337
echoes 1920 communication use 302, 35
Einstein, Albert 25860 properties 30
electric charge 92 electromagnets 160
SI unit 93 electron drift 106, 108
structure of atoms, and 923 electrons 92, 93, 289
electric circuits see also parallel circuits; series circuits given charge, for 93
component symbols 104 electrostatic charge 93
current at different points in 109 ellipses 255, 2701
potential differences across components 10910 energy 226
power in 14754 energy, concept of 226
safety devices 1335 energy ratings, domestic appliances 154
simple 104, 119 energy sources, before electrical energy 801
electric current 1045 energy sources within star groups 27982
conduction through metal 1056 main-sequence stage 281
different points in circuit, in 109 nuclear fusion 27980
magnetic elds and 15762 protostar stage 281
parallel circuits, in 1234, 127 red-giant stage 281
power supply production of 1078 white-dwarf stage 281
resistor, across 111 energy transfer 2269
RMS values 137 waves 56
series circuits, in 123, 126 energy transformations
SI unit 105 collisions, in 230
electric eld strength 989 current passing through a metal 106
calculating 99 mobile phone call 9
magnitude 989 energy/mass equivalence 259
electric elds 97102 excess of electrons 93
calculating force on a charge in 99 expanding universe models 25864, 265
lines of 100 eye, refractive indices 60
316 INDEX
Faraday, Michael 82 Hubbles Law 262
ferromagnetism 161 hydro-electric power stations 83, 878
brillation 132
eld 98 impulse 231
at universe 260 graph, from 2323
FM radio 3940 momentum and 2313, 246
focus 48 induced charges 956
forces 197 induction 95
addition 199200 permanently charging by 96
in and out of balance 2001 inertia 202
net force 199 inertia-reel seatbelts 2367
Newtons First Law of Motion 201, 2025 Ination Theory 260
Newtons Second Law of Motion 20511, 224 infra-red radiation 31, 35
Newtons Third Law of Motion 21117 instantaneous speed 177
vectors, as 204, 2234 instantaneous velocity 177, 1834
formulae 309 insulated body 94
Franklin, Benjamin 115 insulator 94
free electrons 105 interface zone (Sun) 291
frequency (waves) 4 interference, sound waves 203
amplitude and 14 interplanetary magnetic eld 2923
frequency modulation 39 electromagnetic radiation 378
friction 203, 205 star brightness 2746
charging by 945 inverse square law 38
sideways 217 investigating 45
Friedmann, Aleksandr 260 ionosphere 34, 55
fuel-burning power stations 82
fuses 134, 144
joules 102, 152
galaxies 2512, 261, 262
Keplers laws 2556, 258
accretion 267
Keplers model of the universe 2556
Galileo Galilei 257
kilowatt-hour 152
Galvani, Luigi 778
kinetic energy 2279
galvanometer 77
need for fuel, and 229
gamma () radiation 288
gamma rays 32
Gamow, George 262, 263, 264 Lambda Cold Dark Matter model (CMD model) 264, 266
General Theory of Relativity 25960 laser guns 177
geocentric model of the universe 253, 254, 255 Law of Areas 256
geomagnetic storms 299, 301 Law of Conservation of Energy 230
global positioning system (GPS) 667 Law of Conservation of Momentum 2389
glossary 3068 Law of Ellipses 255
good conductor, resistance 11011 Law of Inertia 2025
granulation (Sun) 293 Law of Periods 256
graphing motion 1818 Law of Reection 478, 55
displacement versus time 1824 Law of Universal Gravitation 258, 259
velocity versus time 185 Lemaitre, Georges 260
wave motion 10 length of resistance wire, and resistance 11213
gravitational eld 98 light intensity versus distance, modelling 44
gravitational eld strength 1978, 210 light, speed of 30
gravitational lensing 260 lightning 97
gravity 197 lines of electric elds 100
longitudinal waves, modelling 8
Halley, Edmond 258 luminosity, stars 2746
hard iron 160
heating coil, model 166 magnetic dipole 155
heliocentric model of the universe 253, 254, 255, magnetic eld strength 155
256, 257 magnetic elds 1556
helmets and collisions 2356 devices using 1612
HertzsprungRussell diagram 2778, 280 direction of 155
household electrical supply 12245 electric currents, and 15762
household wiring system 1301, 136 magnet, surrounding 167
building 12 V model of 145 magnetic pole, near 156
designing 145 produced by a solenoid carrying a current 1589
Hoyle, Fred 264 solenoid carrying a current, of 1689
Hubble, Edwin 2612 surrounding a long straight wire carrying a
Hubble Space Telescope 260, 262 current 1578, 1678
Hubbles constant 262 surrounding two equal magnetic poles 1567
INDEX 317
magnetic poles 155, 156 action, in 212
magnetism 1546 circular motion 21417
magnetosphere 2989, 300, 301 going around a curve 21617
magnets 15960 momentum and 2401
natural 154 multiple bodies 21314
permanent 160 non-ohmic resistors 112
temporary 159 normal 47
main sequence stars 278, 279, 281 normal reaction force 199, 202
mass 198 north pole 154, 155
Maxwell, James Clerk 30 nuclear fusion 27980, 290
mechanical energy 2267 nuclear power stations 83
mechanical interactions 22547 nuclear radiation 28890
mechanical waves 7 binding energy 28990
longitudinal waves 8
transverse waves 78 Oersted, Hans Christian 157
medium 4, 1617 ohm 110
metals ohmic resistors 111, 112
conduction through 1056 Ohms Law 11112
energy transformations when current passes through 106 open universe 260
microwaves 31, 33, 2623 optical bres, and total internal reection 612
Milky Way galaxy 2512, 261 oscillations 7
mobile phone calls, energy transformations 9 overloading electrical wiring 133
mobile phones ozone 36
bandwidths 35
signals 31 parabolic mirrors 53, 54
modulation 3840 parallax 255
microwaves 40 parallel circuits
radio waves 3940 addition of resistances 129, 130
visible light 40 current in 1234, 127
momentum 2319 number of resistors in 128
airbags 2378 power in 14951
bicycle helmets 2356 voltage in 125, 127, 1423
collisions, and 2345 parallel resistors 1512
crumple zones in cars 235 current through 124
impulse, and 2313, 246 voltage across 125
Newtons Second Law of Motion 231, 2389 peak voltage 131
Newtons Third Law of Motion 2401 period (waves) 4
protecting the human body 2339 periodic table 310
seatbelts and safety 2367 permanent magnets 160
movement 17295 permanently charging by induction 96
musical instruments, sound waves 23, 27 photosphere 291
pitch 1819
natural magnets 154 plane mirrors
negative charge 92 locating image from 70
electric eld in, electric potential energy 102 reection 478
negative point charge, in electric eld 1001 planets, orbit of 259
negatively charged body 93 plasma 265
charging by contact 95 positive charge 92
net force 199, 202, 203, 2067 in an electric eld, electric potential energy 102
neutral body 93 positive point charge, in electric eld 100
neutral wire 130 positively charged body 93
neutrons 92, 289 charging by contact 95
newton 197, 206 potential difference 103, 111
newton coulomb 99 components of a circuit, across 10910
Newton, Sir Isaac 201, 2578 power supply, across 108
Newtonian telescope 53 resistor, across 107
Newtons First Law of Motion 201, 2025, 236 potential energy 230
car driving uphill 205 power 147
car moving along horizontal road 2023 current and voltage 148
car rolling downhill 204 generated in different resistances 14950
Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation 258, 259 parallel circuits, in 14951
Newtons Second Law of Motion 20511 resistance, and 149
falling down 21011 series circuits, in 14951
momentum and 231, 2389 power stations 823
space shuttle acceleration 207 power supply 1078
speed and distance calculations 20910 Principle of Reversibility of Rays 51
Newtons Third Law of Motion 21117 production of current 1078
318 INDEX
propagation (waves) 4, 78 right-hand grip rule 1578
protonproton chain 279 road friction 203, 205
protons 92, 93, 289 root-mean-square (RMS) voltage and current 137
protostar stage 281 running 230
Ptolemys model of the universe 254
safety devices in household circuits 1335
quarks 289 satellite dishes 54
scalar quantities 173, 174, 226, 227
radar 41 seatbelts and safety 2367
radar guns 41, 177 series circuits
radar maps 30, 41 addition of resistances 128, 129
radiation current in 123, 126, 141
black-body 2767, 292 number of resistors in 1278
cosmic background 2624, 265 power in 14950
electromagnetic 30, 378 voltage in 1245, 126, 142
infra-red 31, 35 series resistors 1512
ionising ability 288, 289 voltage across 125
penetration 288, 305 short circuit 133
types of and their properties 2889 sideways friction 217
ultraviolet 32, 36 sine waves 34, 10, 131
radiative zone (Sun) 291 sky waves 55
radio telescopes 54 slinky spring 7, 8
radio waves 30, 41 longitudinal waves 8
modulation 3940 transverse waves 7
reection 55 Snells Law 578, 60, 61
rarefactions 8, 16, 18 Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme 878
red giants 278, 279, 281 solar cells 86
red-shift effect 2612 solar cycle 2957
reection solar ares 292, 294
astronomical telescope 534 solar maximum, adverse effects of 301
concave mirrors, in 701 solar prominences 295
convex mirrors, in 701 solar wind 292, 293, 298300
curved mirrors 4852 solenoid 160
Law of Reection 478 determining poles of 1589
plane mirrors, from 478 magnetic eld produced by current in 1589
satellite dishes 54 sonic rangers 19
torches and driving lights 54 sound
use in communication 55 amplitude and pitch 1819
wave phase change, and 48 echoes 1920
refraction 567 reections of 1920
Snells Law 578 speed of 17, 19
speed of light in water, and 59 superposition, principle of 203
total internal reection, and 601 vibrations in medium 1617
use of ray diagrams 57 sound energy 230
water waves, in 567, 71 sound waves 1618
refractive index 58, 60 beats 223
glass, of 713 interference 203
relative velocity 1756 musical instruments, from 23
residual current devices 135 representing as transverse waves 1718
resistance 110 seeing 1718
addition in parallel 129, 130, 1434 superposition 202
addition in series 128, 129, 1434 tuning fork, from 17, 18, 23
area of cross-section, and 11314 viewing on CRO 17, 23
good conductor, of 11011 south pole 154, 155
length of resistance wire, and 11213, 1201 space shuttle 207
material, and 114 space waves 55
measuring 11920 space weather and its effects 299300
power, and 149 Special Theory of Relativity 25860
temperature, and 115 speed 1745, 177
resistance thermometers 115 average 175
resistors 1067 instantaneous 177
connected in parallel to a power supply 1512 kinetic energy and 229
connected in series to a power supply 1512 speed of light 30
number in parallel circuit 128 water, in 59
number in series circuit 1278 speed of sound 19
Ohms Law 11112 spherical mirrors 49, 53, 54
potential difference across 107 spicules (Sun) 294
INDEX 319
sport, protecting yourself in 234 vector quantities 173
star groups vector subtraction 1789
energy sources within 27982 velocity 1745
HR diagrams 278 average 175, 1823
identiable 278 change in 188
nuclear fusion in 27980 displacementtime graphs, from 1824, 1945
stars instantaneous 177, 1834
accretion 267 relative 1756
black-body radiation 2767 wave propagation 4
brightness 2746 velocitytime graphs 185
colour and temperature 2767, 2856 acceleration from 1878
evolution 282 displacement from 186
HertzsprungRussell diagram 2778, 280 vibrations 1617
luminosity 274, 276, 2778 visible light 32, 367
Sun 251, 278, 2907 modulation 40
black body, as 292 volt 103
emissions 2923 Volta, Alessandro 7880
features 2935 voltage 103
solar cycle 2957 parallel circuits, in 127
structure 291 parallel resistors, across 125
SunEarth connection 287305 resistors, across 111
electromagnetic connection 2978 series circuits, in 1245, 126
solar wind connection 298300 series resistors, across 125
sunspot cycle 2957 voltaic pile 79
sunspots 294 voltmeter 109, 110
supergiants 280
superposition 203 water waves 6, 14
beats 223 refraction 567, 71
watt 147
tape recorders 1612 wave frequency 4
telecommunication transmissions 65 wave interference 203, 267
telescopes 534, 257 wave model 34
temporary magnets 159 wave motion, graphing 10
thermal energy 230 wave propagation 4, 78
timbre 23 wave travel 56
torches 54 wavefront 3, 5
total internal reection 601 wavelength 3, 4, 8
optical bres, and 612 electromagnetic spectrum 29, 302
transfer, meaning of 226 waves see also sound waves; water waves
transform, meaning of 226 addition 212
transformers 84 electromagnetic 7, 8, 29
transition region (Sun) 291 energy transfer 56
transverse waves 18 graphing wave motion 10
modelling 78 longitudinal waves 8
representing sound waves 1718 mechanical 7
triple-alpha reaction 279 modelling 78
troughs 3, 4, 18 modulation 3840
tuning fork 17, 18, 23, 26 propagation of 78
sine wave 3
ultrasound 20 slinky spring, in 5, 7, 13
ultraviolet (UV) radiation 32, 36 transverse waves 78
uniform electric eld 101 types of 7
universe 2512 wave model 34
Big Bang Theory 2645 weight 197, 198, 202
expanding universe models 2584, 264, 265 white dwarfs 278, 279, 280, 281
historical models 2538 Wiens Law 276, 277
twentieth century models 2584 Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) 2634,
266
Van Allen belts 299 wind generators 85
vector addition 1734 work 2267
vector components 204
vector equations 180 X-rays 32, 334
320 INDEX