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Loughborough University
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Aerodynamic performance of
an industrial centrifugal
compressor variable inlet
guide vane system
This item was submitted to Loughborough University's Institutional Repository
by the/an author.
Additional Information:
A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements

for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.
Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/7263
Publisher: c Miles Coppinger

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Aerodynamic Performance of an
Industrial Centrifugal Compressor
Variable Inlet Guide Vane System
by
Miles Coppinger
A Doctoral 'Ibesis
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the award of

Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University
September 1999.
,
0 by Miles Coppinger, 1999.

ABSTRACT
Industrial centrifugal air compressorscan require a combination of a large range of
mass flow, high efficiency, constant pressure ratio, and constant rotational speed,
specifically when used for sewageeffluent aerationtreatment. In order to achieve this
performance it is common to use variable inlet guide vanes(VIGV's).
The performance characteristicsof an existing VIGV design have been determined
using both an experimental test facility and state of art numerical techniques. The
results obtained from these techniques are far more comprehensive than earlier full-
scaleperformance testing. Validation of the performance of the existing design using

these techniques has led to the development of a new vane design and potential
improvementsto the inlet ducting geometry.
The aerodynamic interaction between the VIGV system and the centrifugal
compressorimpeller has also been investigated using a 3-D computational model of
the complete variable geometry compressorstage. The results of these investigations
have been validated by data available from full scale experimental testing. Strong
correlation was obtained between numerical and experimental techniques, and a

predicted improvement in polytropic efficiency up to 3% at low flow rates using the
re-designedvariable inlet guide vaneshas beenachieved.
The overall outcome of this research is a usable VIGV design technique for real
industrial compressorenvironments, and confirmation that an acceptabledesign can
be achievedthat representsa rewarding improvement in performance.
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to expressmy sinceregratitude to many of my colleaguesand friends for

their support throughout the duration of this researchproject. I am especially grateful
to the following people for the contributions they have made.
To my supervisor, Ed Swain, for his technical and moral support throughout this
research project. Also to Henk Versteeg and Colin Garner for their guidance and
direction of the project.
To Brian Mace, without whom I would probably still be building the experimental test
rig.
To Richard Smith, David Brown, and Gerald Furnessat Howden Donkin Blowers for
their technical assistanceand hardware.
To Olaf Niestroj, Chris Robinson, and everyone else at PCA Engineers for their
guidancein developing the numerical technique.
To all of my colleaguesat EDI for sharing my day-to-day problems.
To Amanda for her encouragement,hospitality, and profiteroles.
To Rob, Sue, Sarah,and Laura for providing welcome sanity and relief from this PhD.
Finally to my family for their understanding, encouragement,and inspiration to

complete this work.
ii
NOMENCLATURE
CP specific heat (J/kgK)

dQ heat addedin time interval (J)
dW work extractedin time interval (J)
h specific enthalpy (J/kg)
i incidence angle (0)
m massflow rate (kg/s)

P pressure (Pa)
T temperature (K)
* blade speed (m/s)
* absolutevelocity (m/s)
VA (m/s)
axial velocity
VR (m/s)
radial velocity
Vw whirl velocity (M/S)
W relative velocity (m/s)
W power (W)
Z height (m)
a, absolutegas angle (0)
(X,,
+i relative gas angle (0)
P blade angle (0)
0 vane setting angle (0)
Subscripts: 0 stagnation
1,2.. station 1,2
Carter's Rule: 5= MOV(S/C)
where: 8= deviation
(2alC)2 + 0.1 (02/50) (02
m=0.23 = blade outlet angle)
0= blade camberangle
s= spacingor pitch
c= chord
a= distancealong chord to point of maximum camber
iii
CONTENTS
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature
Contents iv
Chapter]: Introduction
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Centrifugal CompressorTheory 3
1.2.1 Velocity Triangles and Performance 4
1.2.2 Limitations 7
1.2.3 Operation 9
1.3 Application 12
Chapter 2: State of Art

2.1 Variable Inlet Guide Vanes 14
2.1.1 Background 14
2.1.2 Function and Performance 15
2.2 VIGV and Variable Vaned Diffuser Combination 21

2.3 Aerodynamic Design 25
2.3.1 Inlet Ducting Design 25
2.3.2 Blade Design 32
2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics 46
2.5 Conclusion 55
Chapter 3: Experimental Facility

3.1 Centrifugal CompressorStageand VIGV System 57
3.2 Test Rig Design 58
3.3 Test Rig Components 60
3.3.1 Plenum Chamber 60
3.3.2 Variable Inlet Guide Vane System 61
IV
3.3.3 Compressor 62
3.4 Instrumentation 62
3.4.1 Instrumentation Schedule 63
3.4.2 InstrumentationAccuracy 65
3.4.3 InstrumentationControl and Data Acquisition 66
3.5 Test Procedure 68
3.5.1 Data Reduction 68
Chapter 4.- Experimental Results

4.1 MeasurementTechnique Validation 70
4.2 VIGV SystemExperimental Performance 71
4.2.1 Vane Performance 71
4.2.2 Overall Performance 75
4.2.3 Mass Flow Rate Scaling 78
4.3 Closure 79
Chapter S. Numerical Techniques

5.1 Introduction 80
5.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics - An Overview 80
5.3 VIGV Simulations 81
5.3.1 GeometryDefinition 81
5.3.2 Mesh Generation 84
5.3.3 Solving 88
5.4 StageSimulations 90
5.4.1 GeometryDefinition 90
5.4.2 Mesh Generation 92
5.4.3 Grid Interfaces 95
5.4.4 Solving 97
5.5 I-D StagePerformancePredictions 98
V
Chapter 6. Computational Results
6.1 Validation of Experimental and Computational Techniques 99
6.1.1 Absolute Velocity 100
6.1.2 Swirl Angle 100
6.1.3 PressureLoss Coefficient 102
6.2 VIGV SystemComputational Performance 103
6.2.3 Aerodynamic Losses III
6.3 Closure 113
Chapter7: VIGV SystemDevelopment

7.1 Introduction 114
7.2 PassageDesign 116
7.2.1 Re-designedPassageGeometry 120
7.3 Vane Design 122
7.3.1 Pitch/Chord Study 123
7.3.1.1 Varying Chord 124
7.3.1.2 Varying Pitch 125
7.3.2 Vane ShapeStudy 128
7.3.3 Vane Type Study 132
Chapter 8: Tandem Vane Development

8.2 Tandem Vane Design 135
8.2.1 Numerical Technique 138
8.2.2 Trailing Vane Chord Selection 140
8.2.2.1 Varying Chord 142
8.2.2.2 Varying Pitch 143
8.3 Tandem (22' Chord) Vane Computational Performance 145
8.3.3 Aerodynamic Losses 148
8.4 Vane Manufacture and Installation 152
vi
8.5 Experimental Results 153
8.6 Validation of Experimental and Computational Results 155
8.6.1 Absolute Velocity 156
8.6.2 Swirl Angle 156
8.6.3 PressureLoss Coefficient 159
Chapter 9: Stage Performance

9.2 VIGV - Impeller Interaction 161
9.3 Flat Plate Inlet Guide Vane StagePerformanceInvestigations 165
9.3.1 3-D StageComputational Results- Flat Plate Vanes 166
9.3.2 StageExperimental Results- Flat Plate Vanes 176
9.3.3 I-D StageComputational Results- Flat Plate Vanes 177
9.4 Tandem Inlet Guide Vane StagePerformanceInvestigations 179
9.4.1 3-D StageComputational Results- Tandem Vanes 179
9.4.2 I-D StageComputational Results- Tandem Vanes 189
9.5 Comparisonof Flat Plate and Tandem VIGV SfagePerformance 190
9.6 Closure 191
Chapter 10. Conclusions

10.1 Contribution 194
10.2 Further Work 195
10.3 Publications 196
References 197
Appendix A 203
Appendix B 218
Appendix C 220
vii
Chapter One: Introduction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Radial compressorshave been employed for handling large volumes of air and gas
since the early 1900's. Initially, thesemachineswere classedas blowers due to their
relatively low pressure ratio characteristics. However, during the 1940's, these
turbomachineswere developedto embracemore applications at higher pressuresfor
both lesser and greater volumes. The requirements of gas and diesel engine
superchargers, oil refineries, and petrochemical plants greatly extended the
application of the centrifugal compressor. In addition to theseduties, a major impetus
for development was the use in gas turbines and originally they were preferred to
axial compressors. A single stageradial compressorcan deliver large massflow rates

of gasesat high pressureratios - as much as 10:1 in some gas turbine applications.
The pressure ratios that a single stage centrifugal compressor can achieve would
require several stagesof an axial compressor. Typically, centrifugal compressorscan

be found in smaller gas turbines, particularly in helicopters, and all areasof process
industry; gasboosting, processair duties, furnace applications,and gas exhausting.
Most modem industrial centrifugal compressorsare required to operate over a broad

range of flows and pressure ratios whilst maintaining optimum efficiency. The
required operating range for a compressoris governedby the system the compressor
is delivering fluid to or from, e.g. in the case of a turbocharger, the engine speed
determines the volume flow rate required from the compressor. Unfortunately, the
compressorcan only operatein a stable and efficient manner within a certain region
of its overall operatingcharacteristicas shown in Figure 1.1.
I
At the minimum flow (surge), flow reversal through the compressorcan occur. Not
only is this unacceptableto the system in which the compressor is operating, but
prolonged operation at this point can seriously damagethe compressoritself. At the
maximum flow (choke), the velocity of the fluid inside the compressor is at some
point sonic and no further increasein flow is possible.
Compressor Performance Map
2.60
73
2.40 ------ - ----- ------- ------- -------
2.20
0.75
2.00 173
------ ---- -
0.71
0.69
0 1.80
Z -------------- 14, . 0.69 eta
101.11e.
91 77 160000
. 1 ,00
CL 1.60 *f 14
------------------
111
1.40 ----------; ----------------i------j-------
1.20 ---- -----------J,

-----------
l' 20000 140006

1.00
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Mass Flow (kg/s)
Fig. 1.1 Compressor performance map
It can be seen from the performance map that regulation of the mass flow rate at
constant speed will result in a corresponding change in pressure ratio across the
compressor stage. Although a centrifugal compressor can operate at any point along a
constant speed line, its operating efficiency will vary as shown by the iso-efficiency
lines above. For this reason, the design duty of the compressor will be aimed to lie
within the region of maximum efficiency.
2
1.2 Centrifugal Compressor Theory
Figure 1.2 shows the components of a typical centrifugal compressor without inlet
guide vanes. The fluid enters axially through the eye of the compressor, where it
meetsthe leading edge of the inducer blades. The inducer is the upstreampart of the
impeller, and is required to ease the change in velocity of the fluid from the axial
direction to a radial direction. Compressorswithout inducers are normally very noisy
and inefficient due to large values of incidence and separation behind the blades
(these conceptswill be discussedlater in this section). The main impeller vanes can
be radial, backswept, or forward swept at the outer diameter (Figure 1.6), forged
aluminium. impellers may be rotating to give tip speeds as high as 550m/s. Each
geometry results in different performance characteristics, but all share the same
fundamental fluid mechanics,i. e. energy being imparted to the fluid by the rotating
blades,resulting in a radial flow outwards toward the volute and a pressurerise due to
the centrifugal and Coriolis forces within the impeller. The fluid, now at high
velocity, enters a vaned or

vanelessdiffuser where the static
pressure is recovered at the
expenseof velocity. From there it
is collected in the scroll and
passedto the diffusing part of the

volute where a further increase in
static pressureis effected.
Fig. 1.2 Typical centrifugal
compressor
3
Chapter One: haroduclion
1.2.1 Velocity Triangles and Performance
Fluid flow within turbornachines can be conveniently represented by 2-dimensional
velocity triangles. These triangles depict the individual vectors of flow patterns
immediately upstream and
downstream of aerodynamic
components such as blades
and vanes. Figure 1.3 shows a

typical centrifugal compressor
radial impeller and inducer

E
with inlet velocity triangle. In
this case the inlet is assumed
to be axial (no prewhirl).
Fig. 1.3 Radial

impeller and inlet
velocity triangle
If, however, prewhirl is induced, the inlet velocity triangle will appear similar to that
shown in Figure 1.4 below.

U blade speed
VN,
whirl
velocity
VA axial /V
velocity
W relative velocity absolute velocity
ot,
Fig 1.4 Inlet velocity triangle with 1
prewhirl
4
EFFECT OF VARYING MASS FLOW ON INLET In the flows represented by the

VELOCITY DIAGRAM (A)aAL INLET)
velocity triangles in Figures 1.3 and
r 1.4, it is assumed that the relative
DirecWnmo roution
flow is in line with the vane. In

U,
reality, the inlet relative velocity
zero Incidence
va vector is more likely to meet the
blade at an angle of incidence (i),
U,
positlv* IncIdence Va
10 and the magnitude of the incidence
towards surq*
will vary with mass flow rate as
U,
shown in Figure 1.5.
negative Incidence 4
towards choke va;
Fig. 1.5 Variation of incidence

with mass flow rate
pi
The fluid flow leaving the
W2
impeller can be represented by
outlet velocity triangles. Figure

1.6 shows the effect of impeller
U2
backward or forward sweep on
V2
the shapeof the resulting velocity
triangle.
Forward
v Uu
Fig. 1.6 Impeller outlet velocity
triangles
5
As the fluid enters the impeller of the compressora velocity is imparted to it along
with a radial changein position, theseresult in a changein momentum and a resultant

force on the impeller. Momentum changes in the tangential direction lead to an
impeller torque and thus work, or power. The power absorbed by the centrifugal
compressor stage is therefore governed by an equation derived from the velocity

triangles known as the Euler Equation. In its simplest form, it describes the work
done per unit mass flow in relation to the inlet and outlet velocity components as
follows:
W=M (U2VW2 UIVWO

-
In addition, the steadyflow energy equationcan be written as follows:

[(k_j)+(V2_V2)
dQ -dW =m21 /2+g(Z2 -ZI)l
in termsof work rateandmassflow rate,with adiabaticconditions

If this is expressed
(no heat exchange),ignoring the changein potential energy, and if stagnation
enthalpyis it
used, canbe re-writtenas:
W= rn (h02-hOl) or W= MCp(T02-TOO
When combinedwith the Euler equation,it can be seenthat the stagnationenthalpy
changein a turbomachine
is relatedto the velocitytriangles:
W=m Ah =m CpAT =m (U2VW2 UIVWI)

- (Eqn. 1.1)
6
1.2.2 Limitations
The operating range of a centrifugal compressoris limited, as describedin section 1.1,

by a number of aerodynamicphenomena;choke, surge, and rotating stall.
Choke arises when sonic conditions have been reached at some point within the
compressor. No further increase in mass flow is achievable at this point and shock
waves may well form, leading to increasedviscous losseswithin the compressor.
Surge occurs when the flow within the compressorcompletely breaks down, resulting
in rapid changesin the mass flow. This in turn induces violent pressureoscillations
and the propagation of pressurewaves, and in extreme casesa complete flow reversal.
It results in severevibration and damageto the compressorunit as well as reduced
efficiency. Considerable effort has been expended to understand this phenomenon
and control it. A conciselist of surge detection and suppressiontechniquesis offered
by Botros and Henderson"I. Suppressiontechniques are split into two categories;
operational methods such as variable geometry, and design methods such as

backsweptimpellers, vanelessdiffusers and casing treatment. Since surgeis normally
causedby stalling of the flow onto the diffuser vanes, the surge line of a vaneless
diffuser compressor will be further to the left than that of the equivalent vaned
machine.
Surge is also often attributed to rotating stall in the impeller, although rotating stall
can exist as a separatephenomenon in an apparently stable operating condition.
When the incidence angle onto a blade is excessivethe blade will stall (there will be a
breakdown in flow on the suction surfaceof the blade leading to high losses). If this
blade is rotating, the flow breakdownwill affect the neighbouring blades resulting in a
propagationof stall around the periphery. This createsthe effect of cyclic loading and
unloading of blades,which after prolonged operation can result in catastrophicfailure
of the compressor.
Jansenet al[21experimentedwith impeller wall treatmentand vaned diffuser treatment

in an effort to extend the centrifugal compressorsurge margin, i. e. to reduce the mass
flow at which surge occurs for a particular machine. Circular grooves in the wall
7
were machined along with slotted diffuser vanes in order to inhibit the onset of
rotating stall. The wall treatment methods offered limited successin extending the
surge margin, and in some casesresulted in a slight decreasein efficiency, Figure 1.7.
The vaned diffuser treatment resulted in a significant extension of the stable flow
range by increasing the choke flow. Unfortunately an appreciable drop in efficiency

was also observed,as shown in Figure 1.8.
so
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ad $6.001b /G"
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0---0 IMPELLER CASINGVATHSOUDNMRT 0 ."
IMPELLER CASINGWITH SKEWEDSLCr INSERT
I
0 1.0 4.0 5.0 4.6 T-0 2.0 &.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 7.0
IFZ. . .
EQUIVALENT FLOW RATE, lbm/we (mvT/S) EQUIVALENT FLOW *PATE. Ibmitet Cv714)
Fig. 1.7 Wall treatment Fig. 1.8 Vaned diffuser treatment
Work on casing treatment has continued in both centrifugal and axial compressorsin
an effort to increase the surge (or stall) margin. Kang [31
et al reported significant
improvements in the stall margin of axial compressors using a recessed casing
treatment that worked in a similar fashion to the casing grooves in centrifugal
machines.
8
1.2.3 Operation
The efficiency of a centrifugal compressor is optimised at its design duty for a
particular application. However, high efficiency is also required at lower flows as

performance at these flow rates can have a considerable affect on plant operating
costs. As the operating point moves to the left on the characteristic curve, i. e. lower
flow, it approachesthe surge line - an area of extremely unstable operation. If the
design point of the compressor is already close to the surge line, then very little
turndown in flow is possible. If, however, it was possible to move the surge line
further to the left during operation, then a larger turndown in flow would be possible.
The main methods of governing the mass flow rate delivered by the compressorfall
into three categories;suction throttling, variable speed,and variable geometry.
Suction throttling via a valve located upstream of the compressorinlet regulates the
flow by introducing a pressure loss upstream of the compressor. As the valve
pressure loss is increased, the overall efficiency of the compressor system will
decreaseconsiderably.The user is therefore restricted to a small potential turndown in
flow if significant lossesare to be avoided.
Variable speedcontrol allows the characteristiccurve to be 'moved up or down', i. e.
an increasein speedshifts the curve up, and a decreasein speedshifts the curve down.
This can be seenfrom the constantspeedcurves shown in Figure I. I. Thus, in order
to operate at peak efficiency, this type of control is most appropriate when the user
requires a changein head rather than a significant changein flow. If the compressor
is turbine driven, speedvariation is applicable and relatively inexpensive. However,
if it is electric motor-driven, then speedcontrol can be an expensivemethod.
The term 'variable geometry' is used here to describe both variable vaned diffusers
and variable inlet guide vanes(VIGV's). Vaned diffusers are used to reduce the high
kinetic energy leaving the impeller and rapidly recover the static pressureof the fluid.
In a fixed vaned diffuser the incidenceonto the diffuser vaneswill vary with the mass
flow rate of the fluid, and can result in a stall within the diffuser, which can lead to
compressorsurge. If however, the diffuser vane angle is variable, the incidence can
9
be controlled and the operating range of the compressorincreased. The objective of
variable inlet guide vanes is primarily to introduce a swirl component into the axial
inlet flow velocity, thus reducing the work done by the stage. As a result of the
blockage that they introduce into the flow path, they also create a pressureloss that
has a similar effect to upstreamthrottling.
Stebbins[41presented sample calculations on the installation and running costs of
various flow control devices, and calculated the approximate payback time for each
device. Through the consideration of installation and running costs of variable speed
drives and inlet guide vanes, a payback time was derived in comparison with suction
throttling. His findings are summarisedin Table 1.1 and demonstratethat, in this
case, variable speed drives offer a significantly shorter payback than inlet guide
vanes.
Suction Throttling Inlet Guide Vanes Variable Speed

Weighted hp 35 24.76 18.06
* 0.746 kW/hp 0.746 0.746 0.746
* 8000 hr/yr 8000 8000 8000
= kWh/yr 208,880 147,768 107,782
x $0.08/kWh $0.08 $0.08 $0.08
= $/yr $16,710 $11,821 $8,623

Annual saving over 0 $4,889 $8,087
suction throttling
Estimated cost to 0 $7,620 $8,145
implement
Simple payback in 1.56 1.01
-
years
Table 1.1 Payback times for flow control methods
Turton E51however, suggested that an inverter motor drive for speed control would
,
cost E4500 involving a paybacktime of 2.6 years in terms of the savedenergy at 1982
prices. The cost of an inlet guide vane systemcould be of the order of E1750 with a
10
payback time of 1.3 years. The application being considered was a variable air-
volume air conditioning system.
Other test cases and predictions for a variety of compressor configurations

incorporating variable geometry systems have been presented by Kano et al[63 ,
LedderM, LoM, Hallorad], and Eshelmad"]. They all highlight the need for the
designerto consider the nature and operating scheduleof the system in which the fan
or compressor is to be incorporated. These factors should be considered when

choosing the most appropriatemethod of flow control.
An experimentalcomparisonof variable speedcontrol and inlet guide vanes is offered

by Williams["]. He discoveredthat the efficiency lossesassociatedwith flow control
were not greatly different for the two methods. The lossesobservedwith inlet guide
vanes were attributed to the vanes themselvesrather than their effect on the actual
compressor stage. Turndown in flow up to 60 percentof the design duty was possible
with inlet guide vanes.
Williams suggestedthat inlet guide vanesare the favouredmethod for achieving large
turndowns in flow for the following reasons:
i) A wide rangeof flows can be accommodated simply, efficiently and cost

effectively,especiallyfor simplerprocesses
suchaswastewatertreatment.
ii) Inlet guide vanesallow for a potential for future growth of around 15-20
percentin flow whilst maintaininga substantialturndown for operationaluse.
This is of particularrelevancein petrochemicalprocesseswherethe composition
of the gascanvarywith time.
iii) Operationwith two compressors
drivenfrom the sameprime moverwherethe
flow throughoneof thecompressors
mightneedto beregulated.
He concludedthatwide flow rangesandhigh overallefficienciescanbe achievedby a

combination of good impeller design and inlet guide vanes.
It should be noted that, althoughprewhirl. is normally imparted through variable inlet

guide vanes, aerodynamically induced prewhirl has also been investigated in a
11
number of test cases. Various proposals have been made to use high pressurejets or
inlet volutes to produce prewhirl, Kyrtatos[121Kyrtatos and Watson[131,Whitfield and
,
Abdullah[141.
1.3 Application
A particularly demanding application for centrifugal compressorsis that of aeration

treatment of sewage. The compressorssupply the aeration tanks with a flow of air
which is bubbled up through the effluent. Since the effluent is maintained at a
constant depth, the compressorsmust supply air at a constantpressure. The flow rate
of the effluent may however vary, resulting in a change in the number of tanks used
and the consequentialvarying air flow rate demand. The overall requirement on the
compressorsis an extremely wide range of flow at a constant pressureratio, whilst
maintaining the highest possible compressorefficiency. The combination of these
operating requirements with the fact that the compressorsare normally driven by
fixed speedelectric motors representsa considerablechallenge to the designer. It has
been suggestedby Swain and Connor151that the most appropriate solution to this
problem is the combination of a variable vaned diffuser, variable inlet guide vanes
and a backsweptimpeller.
In this application, typically uncamberedflat plate VIGVs are used. At 0' setting
angle the loss must be at a minimum, in this position camberedvanes would result in
a significant disturbance to the axial flow and hence higher losses than would be
causedby flat plates. Unfortunately, the use of flat plate vanes at large setting angles
results in both high lossesand a significant deviation (i. e. low turning).
In order to establish the exact source of the losses,the flow characteristicsat higher
setting anglesmust be determined. Limited experimentaltesting has been carried out

on VIGV's, and interpretation of results is difficult due to the overall geometry of the
IGV section. As well as experimentalwork, attemptshave been made to model this
geometry with a computational fluid dynamics (CID) solver of the Navier-Stokes
12
equations. Software such as BTOB3D, created by Dawes [161 has been employed to
,
model the flow and has provided a useful visualisation of the effects of the VIGV's.
The programme of researchdetailed in this thesis combines theoretical studies with
experimental work to provide a sound basis for the design of improved VIGV's for
industrial centrifugal compressors,particularly those used in this application. The
study has used modem computational fluid dynamics techniques as well as

conventional experimentation methods to develop a generalisedtechnique for future
developmentof efficient VIGV systems.
13
Chapter Two: State of Art
CHAPTER 2
STATE OF ART
2.1 Variable Inlet Guide Vanes
2.1.1 Background
Competition among centrifugal compressormanufacturersis mainly dominated by the

drive to attain the highest compressorefficiency, and to sustain this efficiency over a
large stable flow range. Some advancesin compressorefficiency can be achieved by
improved component design, but the most appropriate solution to this requirement is
the use of variable geometrydevices.
Variable geometry devices include variable inlet guide vanes and variable-vaned
diffusers, the two devices used either together or independently. Variable geometry
impeller blades have been used successfully in hydraulic turbomachines, but this
is
concept considered impractical in compressor impellers due to their relatively high
rotational speedand small size.
Centrifugal compressorVIGV's normally consist of a non-rotating annular cascadeof
vanes positioned upstream of the impeller inlet, which can be rotated about a radial
axis using an external actuating mechanism. Radial guide vane cascadeswhere the
swirling flow is in
set up a radial inlet plane and is then turned through 90* into the
inlet duct have been designed tested. Shournan Anderson[171
tested
axial also and and
such a systemand found that its performancewas similar to that of an axial cascade.
Radial VIGV systemsare however more complex to assembleand generally favoured
only in gas turbine applications where a shorter axial machine length is desirable.
14
Chapter Two: State ofArt
Figure 2.1 shows a typical centrifugal compressor along with an axial VIGV system
and actuation assembly.

Although many of the studies
referenced in this report are conducted
on compressorswith both variable inlet
guide vanes and diffuser vanes, the
researchreported here will focus on the
k-A function and design of variable inlet
guide vanes alone.
Fig. 2.1 Typical VIGV system
2.1.2 Function & Performance
For a centrifugal compressor with an axial inlet flow, the inlet whirl component (Vwl)
is theoretically zero. If, however, inlet guide vanes are introduced upstream of the
inducer, the magnitude and direction of Vwj can be directly controlled. It can
therefore be seen from the Euler equation (Equation 1.1) that the application of inlet
swirl directly affects the value of the work done by the impeller on the fluid.
If the inlet guide vanes are positioned at

EFFECT OF VARYING INLET WHIRL ON
a setting angle which induces swirl in INLET VELOCITY DIAGRAM
the same direction as the rotation of the

DIrec
impeller this is known as 'positive n rotation
prewhirl', and results in a decrease in

Ul
energy rise through the compressor.
positive whirl -'i
Conversely, if the prewhirl opposes the
impeller rotation, 'negative prewhirl',
the energy rise is increased. The effect

negative wh F1VI
of inlet prewhirl is demonstrated in the
inlet velocity triangles shown in Figure
2.2.
Fig. 2.2 Inlet whirl representation
15
I
A backswept impeller sometimes accompanies variable inlet guide vanes as this
combination provides an increase in the work characteristic as shown in Figure 2.3.

This figure can be derived by consideration of the velocity triangles and Euler
equation. It can be seen from the outlet velocity triangle for a backswept impeller,
Figure 2.4, that VW2increases as the radial velocity V,, mass flow) reduces. Also,
2(or
increasing the positive inlet prewhirl as the mass flow reduces results in an increase in
the inlet swirl velocity component (Vwl), Figure 2.2. At constant rotational speed, it
can therefore be seen that the net result of these flow characteristics is constant work.
VW2
Increasing with decreasingV,,2
u
Backswept
Work Combined
(AIN /U2)
w
Inlet Whirl
P
(VR2M
Mass Flow Function
Fig. 2.3 Work characteristic Fig. 2.4, Backswept impeller

outlet velocity triangle
In addition to the effect on the Euler equation,VIGV's and a backsweptimpeller also
result in a reduction in the inlet relative Mach number, and a reduction in the
dischargeabsoluteMach number. The combined effect is a potential further increase
in efficiency.
16
1," rps
Early work on variable geometry
VT-1 - 65
-a -. -R
gas turbine radial compressorswas

conducted by Rodgers[IS]. He
assessedthe effects of inlet prewhirl 0.8 - MPELLER

CHC2XM
DEPL74DENT UPON THROAT
in terms of compressor efficiency 'GEOMETRY
ratio, maximum flow ratio, and a

- PEAK EFFICIENCY
non-dimensional work factor. The PEAK EFFICIENCY AT 01 -0
0. MAX F
results are shown in Figure 2.5 and MAX FLOW AT 010
flow gJCp AT/T I

clearly indicate the high mass q- 2
0. ! TJ2/ V(-T-
I
range at which high efficiencies
were obtainable. The trend shown
.1 .1 -1- 'L
40 -20 20 40
-6
by the work factor (q) can be .0
01 MWIERL ANGLE DEG
derived directly from the Euler

Fig. 2.5 Inlet prewhirl effects
equation mentionedpreviously.
Equally important to the aerodynamicistis the requirement to extend the stable flow
range offered by the centrifugal compressor. The peak efficiency normally occurs at a
mass flow close to the surge point of the compressor,this is becausethe maximum
efficiency of aerodynamic blading normally occurs with a slight degree of flow
separation(or incidence).
Consideration of all of the aerodynamiccomponentsof a centrifugal compressor is
necessarywhen analysing the of

onset surge. The parametersthat directly affect the
stability of the compressorhave been summarisedby Elder and Gillt'91:
i) Gradient of compressor pressure rise characteristic and the limited
aerodynamic performance range of each component -a narrower, steep

characteristic will be more stable, but result in higher losses during off-
design operation.
ii) Inducer incidence- if this exceedsa specific value, the inducer will stall.
iii) Impeller blade backsweepand inlet swirl - as discussedabove.
iv) Number of diffuser and impeller vanes.
17
v) Pressure recovery within the and

semi-vaneless-space incidence on the
diffuser vane leading edge.
vi) Diffuser channelpressurerecovery and collector type.

vii)Casing treatments- thesecan lead to an extendedstable operating range.
Most of the parameterslisted above can be affected by variable geometry, either
variable inlet guide vanesor variable diffuser vanes. The implication of VIGV's with
respect to surge margin can be explained by consideration of the first three
parameters.
In addition to increasing the efficiency of the compressor, the VIGVs can also
increasethe surgemargin, i. e. extend the stable operating range into lower mass flow
rates.
The regulation of relative inlet flow angle (a, ) using variable inlet swirl can be simply
demonstrated by consideration of the inlet velocity triangle, Figure 2.6. Three
different massflow ratesare indicated by the varying magnitudesof axial velocity, but
the application of inlet swirl means that the relative inlet flow angle (a, ) does not
change. It can be seen that a small degree of negative prewhirl is required at high
massflow rates,with much larger positive prewhirl being employed at low flow rates.
VA
V
WN VA
VA
Fig. 2.6 Control of relative

inlet flow angle using inlet
prewhirl
18
153
The configuration proposed by Swain and Connorl , including a variable vaned
diffuser, variable inlet guide vanes and a backswept impeller, has also been assessed
by Rodgers [203 He investigated the effects of varying lGV setting angle, impeller
.
speed and diffuser angle. An impeller with a 40" backsweep angle was used in the
experiments, which yielded the results shown in Figure 2.7. This shows that the
prewhirl moves the surge line to lower flow rates at high impeller speeds,but at lower
speeds (and hence pressure ratios), the compressor exhibits little change in its
operating characteristic. Results from his analysesindicated that, at high impeller
speeds, inducer stall was responsible for the onset of surge. He also showed that
regulation of the inlet flow using VIGV's allowed the compressorto operate with the
diffuser stalled. The trends deduced from testing and analyses suggested that
compressorsurge was probably triggered by the diffuser at zero prewhirl conditions.

Koagers conciuaea irum inis //2.
study: "It provided a high degree 14

27 r
of confidence that inducer
incidence control through the use CHOKE
mu Ime'. 00
of VIGV's can provide significant
performance improvements for 1
-JAGE A
o* 34% GV. 0
.
this type of centrifugal compressor
I
stage."
Fig. 2.7 Effect of FLOW FUNCTION 010 CRT
I-
I0.3
prewhirl on surge line 0.4 0.5 0.a 0.7 0. & u.
It can be seenfrom Figure 1.5 that the inducer incidence (i) varies as the magnitude of
the mass flow and hence the axial velocity vector varies. The incidence can be
positive at low flows and negative at higher flows, either way it leads to an increasein
the loading of the leading edge of the blade and a decreasein the efficiency. The
inducer is sensitive to incidence and rotating stall will develop if the incidence is too
high. Variable inlet guide vanes have the additional effect of regulating this
incidence.
19
Whitfield [213discussedthe implications of inlet prewhirl both as a reduction in the

inlet relative Mach number, and as a regulation of the incidence at the inducer tip.
Minimising the inlet relative Mach number results in an extended flow range to the
choked flow condition. In addition to this role, the guide vanesmust also regulate the
direction of the relative velocity vector in order to maintain the optimum incidence
(typically approximately 6*). A prewhirl angle is therefore necessaryto effect both of
these requirements, thus resulting in a high overall efficiency and broad operating
range. For this reason,Whitfield concluded that variable prewhirl may be desirable
despitethe additional cost and complexity.
Whitfield and Abdullah [221

investigatedthe effect of inlet prewhirl on the inlet relative
flow angle into the impeller. They commentedthat large swirl anglesmust be adopted
for the inlet guide vane system to be effective at reducing inducer incidence thus
suppressingsurge in a low pressureratio (2: 1) machine. Consequently,their overall

conclusion was that: "There is a need for a swirl generating device which will be
efficient at both zero and high swirl conditions."
Whitfield [211
proposed a non-dimensional design procedure including the effect of
inlet prewhirl. He examinedthe effect of prewhirl on the inlet relative Mach number
and absolute inlet Mach number. Minimising the inlet relative Mach number results
in the reduction of passagefriction loss and ensuresadequateflow rangeto the choked
flow condition. From the inlet velocity triangles (Figure 1.4), it can be seen that the
inlet relative Mach number can be minimised for any fixed prewhirl angle by
appropriateselection of the relative flow angle. This relationship can be applied as a

design consideration by selection of the most appropriate impeller size and radius
ratio and non-dimensionalmassflow rate. As an alternative approachto the reduction

of inlet relative Mach number, variable inlet prewhirl could be employed to regulate
the value of the relative flow angle. As a result, the magnitude of the absolute Mach
number will increase.
20
2.2 VIGV and Variable Vaned Diffuser Combination
Further increase in the performance and efficiency of centrifugal compressors is
possible with the introduction of vaned diffusers rather than vaneless diffusers. The
purposeof the diffuser is to collect the high kinetic energy flow from the outlet of the
impeller and convert it into a static pressurerise. Diffusion through the vane passages
of vaned diffusers is far more controlled and efficient than vaneless diffusers,
although vaned diffusers offer a narrower operating range, beyond which the diffuser
vanes can stall. Simon et al[233reported these differences using a centrifugal
compressorincorporating backsweptimpeller and a vaned and vanelessdiffuser.
Tests were initially carried out on a single stagecompressorwith an axial inlet and a
vanelessdiffuser, resulting in the characteristic shown in Figure 2.8. The vaneless

diffuser was then replaced with a fixed vane diffuser (vane angle = 64" to radial),
Figure 2.9. Comparison of Figure 2.8 and Figure 2.9 clearly shows the increase in
efficiency offered by the fixed vane diffuser, along with the correspondingdecreasein
I
operatingrange.
1.6 1.6
1.4 1.4
91.2 1.2
.
". 10
UJU.
la to 1.0
i9
0.
08 0.8
08
0.6 06
06 7
0.4 0.4
02
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 16 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 12 1.6
Fig. 2.8 Vaneless diffuser performance Fig. 2.9 Vaned diffuser performance
21
Similar experimentswith refrigerant R-134a as the working fluid rather than air were
by Harada[241 closed-loop test stand was used, incorporating a
conducted .A
centrifugal compressor with a backswept impeller and variable inlet and diffuser
vanes. Figure 2.10 shows the perfonnance obtained with a fixed vane diffuser and
variable inlet guide vanes.
1.2 It is clear that the surge point is

1.0 moved to lower flow rates by
0.0 0.90 regulation of the guide vanes,

although the overall operating range
0.6
remains very narrow. This was
0.4
probably due to the large values of
0.2
ai ES Zi 5 *0 incidence onto the diffuser vanes
nn that eventually triggered gross

-, Z. o 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.3 1.0 1.2 IA
Q/Qref separationand surge.
Fig. 2.10 Fixed vane diffuser & VIGV performance
1.2 The introduction of variable

diffuser vanes substantially
altered the performance
characteristic (Figure 2.11). It
0.6 was possible to operate the
compressorwell below the flow
0.4
rates at which surge occurred
0.2
when the fixed vane diffuser was
used. The optimum diffuser
In it
-1-0 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1
vane angle was calculated by
O/Qref
Fig. 2.11 Variable vaned diffuser& VIGV measuring the static pressure
performance difference between the suction
and pressuresurfacesof the vanes. The vane angle was adjustedso that this pressure
difference remainedbelow a defined threshold value.
22
The results obtained by Harada proved that the use of a variable vaned diffuser in
conjunction with variable inlet guide vanesallowed the to

compressor operate at flow
rates almost as low as shut-off flow without any apparentsurge.
Inlet guide vaneshave also often been successfullyused at the first stageof multistage
Venkatrayulu et al[253
reported an increase of 35 percent in the
axial compressors.
useful operating range of a single stageaxial flow fan when using inlet guide vanes.
In addition to the application of inlet guide vanes to high pressureratio centrifugal
compressors for process industry and turbocharger applications, relatively low
pressure ratio compressors,or blowers, can use the variable geometry technology.
Investigations into the effect of VIGVs on a radial single-stageblower were presented
by Kryllowicz et al [261 Their work focused on the potential of VIGVs to extend the
.
stable flow range by moving the surge limit towards lower mass flow rates. The
performancecharacteristicshown in Figure 2.12 clearly shows the turndown in stable
flow as a result of IGV regulation.
mild surge
at Skit ,cx- -20
(x- 45
ot- 5c
in,, t recitculation ,
C.-to cc= 60
1 CV 1
1.25 -------
_17
97
I
throftle lines
al- inlet' guidt' %aliesma-ggcfnilgic
200.0 300.0 4100.0 W0.0 600.0 700.0 800.0

100.0 -
Volume flow rate Cm3/minl
Fig. 2.12 Turndown in flow achievable through 1GV regulation
23
They also observeda region of flow reversal (inlet recirculation) when operating near
the deep surge region at IGV setting angles between 45' and 65'. This results in a
higher level of noise and a decreasein efficiency, although the blower can continue to
operatein a stable manner. Figure 2.13 shows the radial distribution of inlet velocity
for the particular IGV geometrytestedhere.
1- 10 1tIII
0 65
45
0.0
45
65
T." i
*30 -10 10 30 $0 10 go -40 10 30. So 70 go 110

- 130 ISO 170 190 210 130 2.%0
con Inthl .
to lJohl
Fig. 2.13 Radial distribution of meridional (c. ) velocity and tangential
velocity (c. )
The velocity profiles presentedhere are not only related to the vane shapeand angle,
but also the shapeof the hub and shroud within which the vanesare housed. For this
reason, the aerodynamic design of the geometry of the inlet guide vanes and their
housing must be carefully consideredas well as the aerodynamiccomponentsof the
compressorstageitselL
24
2.3 Aerodynamic Design
The objective of inlet guide vanes is to introduce swirl upstream of the compressor
impeller over a rangeof vane anglesand flow rateswithout incurring high losses. The
designer is not only faced with the challenge of developing an aerodynamically
acceptablegeometry,but also one which can be easily assembledand must withstand

the substantial loads which will be exerted on the vanes when positioned at high
setting angles. In addition to the design of the vanes,the shapeand configuration of
the ducting must be considered.
2.3.1 Inlet Ducting Design
Careful consideration in the

design of the inlet ducting can
be as aerodynamicallyimportant
as the design of the blades

themselves. More primitive
inlet guide vane models consist
simply of an annular cascadeof

vanes anchored through holes
around the circumferenceof the
compressor inlet pipe. An
example of this configuration is

shown in Figure 2.14.
Fig. 2.14 Simple VIGV
arrangement
25
Although this is a relatively simple and cheap configuration to manufacture, its
aerodynamicperformanceis substantiallyimpaired by a number of features:
i) At high staggeranglesa significant leakageareaexists at the centre of the inlet

ducting. This allows an axial jet to passinto the impeller as a core flow within an
outer swirling flow.

ii) At mid staggerangles (30" to 60') a clearancearea will open up at the outer
edge of the blades. This clearanceresults in an increasein lossesand a distorted

boundary layer growth in the outer flow region.
iii) At high staggerangles,a significant pressuredrop will occur acrossthe vanes.
Since the blades are cantilevered about their rotational axis at their outer edges,
this results in a considerablebending moment on the blade spindles.
A slight improvement on this

design is to place the vanes in an
almost spherical section of

ducting as in Figure 2.14. This
has the advantageof minimising
the blade tip clearance when the

blades are positioned at high
stagger angles. The losses
associatedwith the inner edgesof

the blades are still present
however.
Fig. 2.14 Spherical shroud

VIGV ducting
26
In order to reduce the losses
associated with the central core of
axial flow, a hub can be incorporated
.
into the design, as in Figure 2.15.
The hub is normally supported by
radial struts in front of the leading

edge of the guide vanes. In this
position, minimal disturbance to the

flow is incurred by the struts as no
prewhirl has yet been imparted by

the guide vanes. Figure 2.15 shows
the simplest form of hub -a straight
Fig. 2.15 Cylindrical hub VIGV ducting cylindrical section, which eliminates
the axial jet flow described earlier.
Blade clearance problems similar to those described previously will occur at the hub
as well as the shroud when the vanes are set at large staggerangles.
If the axial length of the hub does not extend
as far as the impeller an inlet vortex will form

1271
(Figure 2.16). Chen et al. investigated the
nature of such a vortex and described it as '...

Inlet vane
a central core of axially stagnant fluid. This
core may also precess and then becomes a

whirling helical rope'. The vortex can lead to
strong pressure pulsations at the impeller,
which in turn result in severe noise and
vibration
Fig. 2.16 Inlet vortex formation
27
Such a vortex may be avoided by the extension of the hub as far as the inducer of the
compressor. An example of this type is

of geometry the'inlet guide vane section
by
tested Kryllowicz et al.[261.
Figure 2.17 shows the hub with its radial support struts
immediately upstream and downstream of the blade row. The upstream end of the
hub is aerodynamicallyprofiled to reducelossesat inlet to the IGV's.
Fig. 2.17 Profiled hub VIGV system
Lakshminarayana and Sitaram.[281described a similar 3-dimensional secondary
vorticity at the tip region of IGV's, resulting in considerableflow deviation from the
inviscid flow.
Ideally, the IGV ducting will be designedwith a spherical section hub and shroud.
Minimal blade hub and tip clearanceswill result from this geometry at any blade
staggerangle, although the hub and shroud could be more expensive to manufacture
than simpler models.
28
If the hub and shroud are designedto be spherical sections, the passagethrough the
IGV section must convergefrom the radius at the vanesto the radius of the impeller.
Swain[291
proposedbasic rules that govern the design of the inlet ducting geometry:
* The inlet section should meet the hub and shroud at the impeller leading edge
tangentially in the meridional view.
The shroud profile between the VIGV and the impeller leading edge should be
formed using two sweepsof equal radii meeting tangentially. The centre of the
radius furthest from the leading edge should lie on the impeller axis of rotation
and it, therefore, representsthe sphere forming the outer profile of the vane
section. The value of this radius determinesthe distanceof the vane rotation axis
from the leading edge.
The hub profile between the vane section sphere and the impeller leading edge
should be formed from a single radius and meet thesesurfacestangentially in the

meridional plane.
The passageupstream of the vane should be straight (conical) sections formed
tangentially to the vane leading edgeposition at zero stagger.
Figure 2.18 shows the basic parametric geometry. A range of three ducting
geometriesthat evolved from these design rules were analysedby Swain. An older
existing design, 'b V, which was
not designedin accordancewith /Radius
the rules, was also modelled.

R
This swan-neck design ensures
that the walls of the passageare
smooth so that the flow field is
Vane
well developed with no leading
Ra
edge Hub
disturbances to the wall joining
boundary layer on entry into the radius
impeller.
Tadius Rh
Fig. 2.18 VIGV ducting
parametric geometry
Vane c6ntreline to Le. distance
29
The basic dimensions of the different geometries are summarised in Table 2.1, the
arearatio being defined as follows:

arearatio = annulusareaat the VIGV centre of rotation
annulusareaat impeller inlet
improved original
geometryvariant c6 c12 c17 bI
arearatio 2.3 2.3 3.3 1.36
shroud radius R (mm) 178.6 197.9 225.1 130

hub radius Rh (mm) 73.9 112.8 112.8 35
vane centreline to 206.6 245.2 297.4 127.6

impeller leading edge
Table 2.1 Geometry dimensions
Each of the geometrieswas analysedusing the Dawes"61CFD code, BTOB3D. With

the blades positioned at a staggerangle of 30", the averageswirl at impeller inlet was
measuredalong with the calculation of a non-dimensional pressure loss coefficient
defined as:
(P. - )
P.
1
(P.- PO
where Pol and P02 are the stagnation pressures at inlet and exit to the guide vane
section respectively, and P2 is the static pressure at exit.
The trend in the average swirl values given in Table 2.2 can be attributed to a
combination of area ratios and radius ratios, i. e. the ratio of the mean radius at the
VIGV's to that at the impeller inlet. Larger radius ratios lead to an increasein swirl
due to the effect of conservation of angular momentum as the flow approachesthe
impeller inlet. However, larger area ratios have the effect of accelerating the axial
component of the flow, thus 'straightening out' the flow at the impeller inlet and
reducing the magnitudeof the swirl angle.
30
improved original
Geometry variant c6 02 c17 bl.
0 averageswirl 29 41 30 30
arearatio 2.3 2.3 3.3 1.3
radius ratio 1.71 2.1 2.29 1.12
radius ratio / arearatio 0.74 0.91 0.69 0.82
estimatedswirl (0) 23 28 22 25
Table 2.2 Predicted ducting performance
Figure 2.19 shows that a significant improvement in the pressureloss characteristicsis
exhibited by the new designs. If the pressure loss is interpreted as an equivalent

compressoroverall efficiency loss, Figure 2.20, it can be seenthat at the design flow
rate, the lossesassociatedwith the new designsare negligible, whereasthe old design
resultedin a loss of at least 2 percent.
0.6 6
Co 4
0.4 tft
0.
j, 02
ii 0.2 *cl7
* c6
C: ybl
El
F-rA
o . - .01 Co
--013 --0
C: 0
0
-n 980 100 120 140 160 -2
. 80 100 120 140 160
Normalised mass flow % Nomialised mass flow*/o
Fig. 2.19 Pressure loss Fig. 2.20 Stage efficiency loss
characteristics of geometries characteristics of geometries
It should be borne in mind that the lossesdiscussedhere are not all causedby poor
ducting design -a significant percentageof the lossesis attributed to the aerodynamic
effects of the blades.
31
2.3.2 Blade Design
Industrial centrifugal compressorvariable inlet guide vanes are faced with a much
greater challenge than that of, say, gas-turbine IGV's. The gas-turbine IGV is
to
required operate with minimal loss and relatively low deflection for a small range
of incidence, whereas centrifugal compressor flat plate IGV's have to accommodatea
large range of incidence and produce large deflections. Since the compressorwill be
designedto operateat peak efficiency at its design duty, the IGVs must also allow a
purely axial flow to enter the impeller with minimal disturbance to the flow. The
requirementsof centrifugal compressorIGV bladescan be summarisedas follows:
They must be able to produce a large rangeof positive and negative deflection.
Minimal disturbanceor loss to the flow must be causedwhen they are set in their
axial (0' stagger)position.

Significant pressurelossesmust be avoided as a result of flow separationor blade
stalling when the bladesare set at high staggerangles.

At high staggerangles the blades must be able to withstand the forces exerted on
them by the pressuredifferential and flow rate acrossthem.
The simplest approachto partially satisfying these requirementsis to use untwisted,
uncamberedflat plate blades. Unfortunately, the performanceof such blading rapidly

deteriorates as the stagger angle is increasedfrom the axial position, as proven by
Swain[29) Typically, centrifugal compressor IGV's can be required to operate at
.
staggeranglesof between-20* and +80*, therefore if flat plate vanesare used they are
presentedwith an incidence range of 100*. Increasing the stagger angle results in
large pockets of separationon the suction surface of the IGV's as shown in the flow
visualisation in Figure 2.21. The result of this separationis an increase in the non-
dimensional pressureloss coefficient, which is depictedin Figure 2.22. As the stagger
angle is increased, the size of the separation pocket will increase along with the
magnitude of flow deviation at the trailing edge of the blade. The poor performance
of such blading can be highlighted, as in Figure 2.23, if the pressure losses are
interpretedas an equivalent overall stageefficiency loss.
32
-- Z-- --- 00
Fig. 2.21 Velocity
vectors showing
separation
Co
SC',
0 15
I,
CD U)
3- 0.8 0
0 0" C>%io
/
0.6
C)
C.,
0.4
C)
2 0.2 (D
01 U) (I
E 40 80 120 160
40.80 120 160
Normalised mass flow % Normalised mass flow %
0
deg deg deg deg 30 deg I
M-20 +0 A30 0-20 deg *0 A,
060 deg V80 deg 060 deg V80 deg
Fig. 2.22 & 2.23 Effect of guide vane setting angle on stage losses
In addition to its magnitude,the type of prewhirl to be induced must also be selected.

This can take the form of free or forced vortex, or constantswirl velocity with radius.
These prewhirl vortices can be described mathematically with the following
relationship:
(r where: A= constant
Vw =A
r= radius
r, = shroudradius
and: n= -1 for free vortex (swirl - I/radius)

n=0 for constantswirl velocity
n= +1 for forced vortex (swirl - radius)
33
The aim of applying a vortex pattern at the inlet guide vane section is to reduce the
magnitude of incidence acrossthe spanof a specific inducer. Whitfield [301

derived the
incidence distribution at an inducer for each vortex type, Figure 2.24. He
demonstrated that the introduction of free vortex prewhirl leads to a significant
increase in incidence angle at low inducer radius ratios. For zero incidence at the
shroud radius a free vortex yields approximately 20' of incidence at a radius ratio of
0.6. It can also be seen that the use of forced vortex yields a more satisfactory
incidence distribution. If the forced vortex model is extended to that of a quadratic
prewhirl distribution (n = +2), as demonstrated by Steinke and Crouse [311 the

,
incidence distribution is improved even further.
20
; 15
44
e lo
0O4 0.5 0.6 P.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Radius Ratio r/r,.
Fig. 2.24 Incidence at inducer for different vortex patterns
34
In order to create the incidence

distribution at the inducer, it is
so-
necessaryto design a twisted blade
45 -
in the cases of free and forced
vortex. The flow angle distribution 40 -
required at the IGV is shown in 35 -
Figure 2.25 for an assumed swirl

1 30 -
angle of 30' at the shroud. If it is
2
I n. 0
assumed that the flow angles '< 25 -
correspond directly to the blade

(i.
angles e. constant distribution of
J3-1
blade deviation for all radius is -

-2
ratios), then these curves can be 10
interpreted as the range of twist
required along the span of the

blade. Clearly, a high degree of '
twist between hub and shroud

ON
"I-
Oj 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
RadiusRatio t*,. -
would be required, for the free

vortex or quadratic distribution.
Fig. 2.25 Swirl angle distribution at IGV
In addition to the requirementof a satisfactoryincidencedistribution, the practicalities
and construction of the blades to provide it must be considered. Although the

quadratic prewhirl yields a desirable incidence distribution, the twisted blade profile
would be complex and expensiveto manufacture. Also, the necessityof undisturbed
flow with the vanes set at the 0' (axial) stagger position must be considered. For
thesereasons,most industrial VIGV systemsemploy untwisted vanes.
Despite the suggestions made by Whitfield to regulate the inducer incidence by
controlling the vortex pattern developed by the VIGV's, the incidence can also be
minimised by leaning the leading edgeof the inducer vane.
35
[321
Rodgers demonstratedthat VIGV's positioned in a radial inlet plane yield a flow
angle distribution similar to that of free-vortex conditions, Figure 2.26. The resulting
radial variation in axial velocity causes a relatively large reduction in the inducer
incidence near the hub.
C1.1
3
Rodgers also discovered
that the inlet total
pressure losses for all -c-
three VIGV settings were W
almost equal, thus 0
L--------------------
concluding that cambered
vanes would not greatly 11 RMSPREWHIRL
improve the overall stage

SHROUD
RADIUS
efficiency. HUB
RADIUS
Fig. 2.26 Flow angle

distribution for radial
0.8 1.0 1!2 1!4 1.6
VIGV's INCH
RADIUS
36
7%
Non-dimens ona speed
In their tests on a radial flow turbocharger
8( O.Tl
(331 10
compressor, Wallace et al used tw 0
7C
designs of untwisted vanes. One was a
6C
2
standard flat plate vane and the other a '-E %
5C
curved vane with a camber angle of 40*. AA
5f 6789
Iz34
When the curved vanes were positioned at Mass low
T9/S
-Al bar
u- inciaence a aenecuon ui .3j ui pubitivu C4
prewhirl was generated. A direct 2.1
comparison of the compressor performance 2C

0-0 -0 Experimental
characteristic with the two different vane 9
-. 19 straight vane
Experimental
types positioned to provide +20' of prewhirl curved vane
Theoretical
is given in Figure 2.27. An explanation was 01
ional sp9rd-
on-dimens
not offered. A likely explanation of the v2160,
0/
increased efficiency and pressure ratio
by the curved vanes is that the 14
exhibited
1-3
magnitude of incidence and separation was
4 13
lower, and resulted in a decreasein the inlet 5 6789

1234 Massflow
kg/s ffl; r
pressureloss.
Fig. 2.27 Flat and 35* curved vane
-1.0
-0.9 A similar study was conducted by

Whitfield et al[34,351. They used two
-0.7
-0.6 . different types of vanes: a flat plate vane

- 0.5 discharge
and a curved vane giving a
0.4
blade angle of 20" when set to give zero
0.3
2.6 9 Curved guide vanes incidence at inlet. The results of stage
0.2
o Straight guide vanes
2.4
testing with the two blade designs (set to
2.2 70krttn*n
2.0- give +20* of prewhirl) are compared in
60k r1min Figure 2.28, and these also demonstrated
1.6-
the improved performance of the curved
IA -
1.2 vanes over flat plate vanes. They

I. OL
suggested that the increase in pressure
0.0 0.1 0.2 -0.3 0.4
Corrected mass flow
- kg/s ratio using the curved vanesoccurred as a
Fig. 2.28 Flat and 20" curved vane
37
result of the increasein stageefficiency (due to less loss and turbulence at the impeller
inlet), combined with a decreasein swirl from the curved vanes.
Despite the increased efficiency of the cambered blades at higher setting angles
discussedhere, due to their shapethey have only permitted a limited range of turning
and have not permitted axial flow without significant losses. If the guide vane design
is to be industrially feasible, it must satisfy all of the requirementsdetailed earlier in
this chapter. A solution to a similar design specification was presentedby Sanz et
al.[361
when designing a guide vane cascadefor use in a wind tunnel cascadethat
would operateover an inlet flow angle range of 60'. The vanes had to be capable of
receiving flow from either of two legs of the wind tunnel with an angle of 45'
between them. The guide vane system had to achieve acceptable losses with no
moving parts. Two camberedblade designswere considered,Figure 2.29, and scale

models were built and testedin a smaller wind tunnel.
ap
+0 Z5P(-
(a)LewisnumberI design.
000
-6.7(0
lb)Lewisnumber3 design.
Fig. 2.29 Cambered blade designs
38
VANE
to13
iNLET 4 Pressuresurveys on both sides of the blades
AT 00 05
AIR ANGLE 6 were conducted with the vanes set at air inlet
TAILEDSYMBOLSDENOTE
SURFACE
LOWEg. angles of 0' and 45*. The averagedresults of
MEASURED the three centreblades of the testedcascadeare
INLET
AIR
TOTAL
LOSS
EXIT
AIR
presentedin Figure 2.30 (0') and Figure 2.31
ANGLE, COEFFICIENT ANGLE, (45') for the Lewis No. 3 design. The
deg deg
-5 0.5 measuredlossesin total pressure(expressedas
0 076 0
.
5
.
065 1.0 percent of inlet dynamic head) were 17 percent
CHORD
or less over a range of inlet air angles from -5'
-50 to +55' while the exit air angles remained

50
within 1.5" of axial.
PANELCODESOLUTION
11 FOR00 AIR
INLET ANGLE
Fig. 2.30 Performance at 0' inlet air angle
WAViarn
L
'I 0 20 40 60 80 100 TOTAL EXIT
INLET
VANE AIR LOSS AIR
CHORD,
PERCENI
ANGLE. ANGLE,
COEFFICIENT
13 4
deg deg,
5
45 0.12 L5
6
50 12 Lo
.
TAILEDSYMBOLSDENOTE 55 17 5,
. .
LOWERSUFFACE
JF CHORD
4'
0
.0
'-3
ANELCODESOLUTION
PAN
-2
Fig. 2.31 Performance at 2 am
45" inlet air angle 0
20 40 80 100
0 * PERCENT
. CHORD.
39
If the same vane shapewas used in an annular cascadeand pivoted about a point near
its leading edge, it could possibly be used as a VIGV capable of generating a prewhirl
within the range of -5' to +55*.
Serovy and Kavanagh[371

detailed some of the considerations that must be made by the
designer when designing variable geometry blading for axial flow compressors.
Although axial compressor IGV's are required to operate over smaller incidence
ranges than centrifugal compressor IGV's, the basic principle of their operation and
design constraints remain the same. They proposed two important points relating to
the design of such blading:
It may be that any variable geometry scheme that is really valuable in
maintaining efficient compressor performance will be quite complex and

that simple rotatable guide vanes will be inadequate.
e The aerodynamic design of variable geometry systems will have to be
based on a detailed knowledge of blade-section turning and loss
characteristics.
The first point madeby Serovyand Kavanaghseemsto havebeenan extremelyvalid
point as manyefforts havebeenmadeto designand test alternativeforms of blading,

suchastandemblades. Thesecanconsistof two consecutivebladerows in very close
proximity to one another;the leadingrow remainsfixed while the trailing row will
pivot aboutits leadingedge.
Okiishi et al1381
presented a comprehensive study of the performance of one of the
simplest forms of uncamberedtandem vanes, Figure 2.32. The leading 30 percent of
the vane was fixed whilst the trailing 70 percent moved as a trailing edge flap.
40
VANE FLAP SE'.TI%G

ANGLE '-Y)
SLADE FROFIL,f LINE

-%4AN
Fig. 2.32 Simple tandem blade profile
An annularcascadeof 13 vaneswastestedin a wind tunnelat Mach numbersbetween

0.13 and0.38. Downstreamtotal pressureandflow anglemeasurements weretakenat
10,30,50,70, and 90 percentof the passageheight (betweenhub and shroud). The
resultsof the air outlet anglesat blade angles

stagger between5* and 50" are given in
Figure 2.33. Also shownin this figure are predictedoutlet anglesfor a circular and
parabolicarc camberline bladeusing Carter'srule (seeNomenclature).
41
r CALCU. A-. I. ) Foi 311

=-CALCUATED
AaC CAMKA L IN" --0. -Kyl CALMATED FOR PARABOLIC
FOR C14CULAR I
29 ARC CAMUR LINE 'a/c - 0.4,
IC CAWS L"I
CALCM&TED FOR CIRCUL. 1
42
ARC CAPIER LIN! !-j/c - 0.50)
.1 IDISIGN FLOWRATE
40 -I
cr r of 0 72 DBIGN FLOWRATE1
0: 47 DESIGNFLOWRATE 7-306
38 .1
36
cr
34 0' v
21 0, .
32 -
z 30 79 DESIGNFLOWRTT-t
ATi-9 Y- 250
4 0: 51 DESIGNFLOWRATE
RAT
40 231
0 38 r, *. 53 DESIGNFLOWRATE
4f 21
Ll 040 T IGN FLOWRATE 7
[ 19
34 0' 0
17
14
32
32 -
0 * : " DESIGNFLOW
4 . 44 DESIGNFLOW. 11 7- 35P '2
30 0.90DESIGN
FLah RATE
1-0.51DESIGN
FLOWRATE 15*
10
F6
26 4------ --
0,940ESIGN FLOWRATE1
24 v D.SSDESIGNFLOWRATC . 5.
2[[:
0.69 0.76 0. " 0.92 1.00
MLS RADIUSRATIO. OY2 TIP 0.69 0.76 0.94 0.92 1.00
.
MIS RADIUSRATIO. Wll TIP
(a) Radial variation of outlet air angleadial variation of outlet air angle
y= 50,45, and 35 deg Y= 30,25,15, and 5 deg
Fig. 2.33 Outlet air angle distribution
It can be seen that the radial distribution of flow angles is fairly uniform for blade
angles up to 25*, the distribution also compares reasonably well with the prediction
for the circular arc camber line blade. As the blade angle increases, the flow angle
distribution distorts, particularly near the hub. This can be explained by consideration
of the blade hub and tip clearances:as the blade angle increases,the tip clearance will
decreaseand the hub clearancewill increase,allowing more axial leakage of flow past
the blade.
42
Figure 2.34 shows the SoF-
variation of outlet air angle 40!
with blade staggerangle at 30!
the mid- span (50 percent z 20;-
passage height) position.

CALCULATED
kRC,CAMBER
FOR PARABOLIC
LINE J. /C 0.40)
Again, a strong similarity 0 0
-
CALCULATED FOR CIRCULAR
AAC CAMBER LINE (a/c - 0.50)
with the Carter's rule

0 10 20 30 40 50
VANE FLAP SETTING ANGUE, V, DEG
prediction for the circular
arc camber line blade is Fig. 2.34 Vane deflection and shape
demonstratedby the results.
Despite the linearity observed for the variation of air angle with blade stagger angle,
the total pressure loss coefficient follows a significantly different trend, Figure 2.35.
A marked increase in loss is observed for flap angles greater than approximately 35".
When compared with the results offered by Sanz et al[361for cambered vanes, the
relative merits of each blade type can be seen. Whilst the total pressure loss
coefficients at low stagger angles for uncamberedtandem vanes are lower than those
of cambered vanes, the inverse applies for higher vane angles (above 35*).
0
U
VANE FLAPSMING ANGLE, 1 REG
Fig. 2.35 Loss induced by setting angle
43
Beelte and Oppermann[391presented the

findings of a similar study into the benefits
of tandem vanes over a single row of --

uncarnbered flat plate vanes using the
configuration shown in Figure 2.36. They
reported a noticeable decrease in loss
coefficient across the vanes along with an
increase in deflection when using the
tandem vanes.
Fig. 2.36 Tandem vane configuration
Cyrus[401
reported on the performance of an axial compressor with tandem inlet guide
vanes based on the C4 airofoil design. The guide vanes were required to operate over
a range of 80', however above 20' staggerangle the flow began to separateand at 50*
pressurepulsations appeareddue to the onset of stall.
Early work in this field was conductedby Linder and Jones1411 who tested three
,
different guide vane cascadesfor use in axial compressors,Figure 2.37. The first
design was a standardcamberedblade similar to that used in tests alreadydetailed.
The secondwas a variable camber tandem vane, and the third a more elaborate
called
concept 'the venetianblind concept'.
The performance of the blades
Flow -0. was evaluated at a turning
Guide Vane Cruise (W- Prewhirl) Geometry position of 30* and at the axial
(Samefor Both'Variable GeometryGuide Vane Concepts)
flow position using wind tunnel
Flow techniques. The tests revealed

VAFihMeCamberGuide Vane Concept that although the cambered
Design-(AxW Flow) Geomepy
blade delivered approximately
Flow
30' of tuming with low loss
Venetian Blind, Guide Vane Concept
Design (Axial Elow)Geometry when positioned at 30' stagger,
Fig. 2.37 Variable camber and 'venetian blind'
44
the losses and wake generation were substantially increased when it was operated in
the axial position. Similarly, the venetian blind vanes revealed a loss coefficient of
0.069 in the axial position compared with 0.021 for the variable camber vanes. In
addition, the variable camber vane also developed approximately 30' of turning when
positioned at 30' staggerwith relatively low loss.
More recently, a similar cambered tandem blade based on a concept known as a
controlled diffusion airfoil (CDA) was developed and tested by Saha and Roy E421.
The
original CDA cascadeconsisted of a single row of cambered vanes called 'CDA 43'.
The formation of a separation pocket was observed on the suction surface of this
blade. As described earlier, this phenomenon leads to high losses and inefficient
cascadeoperation. Testing of the new tandem cascadedesign, 'CDA 32-21' shown in

Figure 2.38, did not reveal such separation.
CDA 43
Fig. 2.38 CDA

CDA. 32-21.32-21
design
Although the tandem cascadedemonstrated the ability to maintain an attached flow
over a large portion of its blade surface and provide higher deflection, the resulting
total pressure loss coefficient was slightly higher than that of the single blade row at
higher staggerangles.
45
2.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics
All (internal and external) fluid flows are governed by a set of mathematical laws that
can be written in the form of a set of equations known as the Navier-Stokes equations.
These equations are derived from the physical laws of conservation of mass, energy,
and momentum. During the 1960's and 70's, computerised techniques were
developed to solve these equations for an entire flow field. Major progress has
subsequently been made in technique development and other fields associated with
the evolution of more accurate and efficient solvers.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is now a powerful and widely available design
tool which allows the aerodynamicist to examine complex flow fields with less
dependency on experimental facilities. Virtually any conceivable geometry can be
modelled, often using standard CAD (Computer Aided Design) packageslinked to the
CFD application. The geometry is subdivided into a large number of cells or control
volumes. In each of these cells, the Navier-Stokes partial differential equations can
be rewritten as algebraic equations that relate the velocity, temperature and pressure,
for example, in that cell to those in all of its immediate neighbours. The resulting set
of equations can then be solved iteratively until convergence is reached, yielding a

complete description of the flow throughout the domain. All CFD codes are split into
three main elements: (i) the pre-processor,(ii) the solver, and (iii) the post-processor.
46
The complete procedure for modelling a flow field is summarised by Versteeg and
Malalasekera[431as follows:
i) Pre-processor
" Definition of the geometry of the region of interest: the computational

domain.
" Grid generation - the sub-division of the domain into a number of smaller,
non-overlapping sub-domains: a grid (or mesh) of cells (or control

volumes or elements).
" Selection of the physical and chemical phenomena that need to be
modelled.
" Definition of fluid properties.
" Specification of appropriate boundary conditions at cells which coincide
with or touch the domain boundary.
ii) Solver
" Approximation of the unknown flow variables by means of simple
functions.
" Discretisationby substitution of the approximationsinto the governing

flow equationsandsubsequent
mathematicalmanipulations.
" Solutionof the algebraicequations.
iii) Post-processor
This offers visualisation of the results of the solver such as:-
Domain geometry and grid display.
Vector plots.
Line and shaded contour plots.
2D and 3D surface Plots.
Particle tracking.
View manipulation (translation, rotation, scaling etc. )
47
ChapterTwo: StateofArt
Theuseof CFD by turbomachinerymanufacturershasincreasedsignificantly over the

past 15 years,resulting in a shorter hardwaredevelopmentcycle. Combinedwith
measurements, CFD provides a complementary tool for simulation, design,
optimisation, and, most importantly, analysis of three-dimensional flows otherwise

inaccessible to the engineer. Detailed measurementusing standard instrumentation in
rotating passagessuch as those in centrifugal impellers is expensive, and sometimes

impossible. In these cases,CFD provides the only means of testing.
A comprehensive description and comparison of modem CFD techniques with
specific reference to turbomachinery flows is offered by Lakshminarayana[44] He

.
outlined the requirements for an accurateflow field solution as follows:
i) Governing equations, including turbulence transport equations; validity of
approximations made.
ii) Enforcement of proper boundary conditions.
iii) Adequate grid resolution.
iv) Turbulence modelling.
v) Computer architecture, including parallel processing.

vi) Assessment of computational techniques through calibration and
validation.
Numerous validations of three-dimensionalviscous Navier-Stokes codes in the

analysisof flows
turbomachinery havebeenconductedandpresentedin recentyears.
The CFD analysisof theradial inlet of a centrifugalcompressorpresentedby Flathers
45]
et al showsparticularlywell how the requirementsoutlined abovecontributeto an
accurateflow-field prediction.
48
The use of CFD in the design of inlet guide vane systems is based upon the well-
proven application of 2-D and 3-D cascadeperformance prediction. Comprehensive

descriptions of benchmark testing of both linear and annular non-rotating axial turbine
cascades have been by Raw [461 Niestroj Came [471 One of the
offered et al , and and .
by Niestroj [471
analyses conducted and Came was on the linear turbine cascadeshown
in the mesh cross-sectional view
in Figure 2.39, for which well

documented results of
experimental investigations have

been published, Gregory-
Smith [481 Examples

. of
validation of the CFD analysis
are shown in Figures 2.40 and
2.41 where strong agreement
between numerical and
Fig. 2.39 Cross-sectional mesh of turbine blade
(leading edge) experimental results can be seen.
-60 2
-65 0
)K -Xx. -x ....
' '
-70 )KExperiment COMPU
tabon
-2
-75 Computabon )KExperiment -3 -

X
-4
-80,1
0.50 100 150 200 0 10 20 30 40' 50 60 70 80 90 100
Spanwise Distance Imm] % Mal Chord
Fig. 240 Pitchwiseaveragedflow angles Fig. 2.41 Static pressure distribution

around blade
49
Porter[491used the Dawes[161code, BTOB3D, to design a centrifugal compressor inlet
guide vane system incorporating cambered vanes. Apart from a small degree of
separationat the vane leadingedge,the vanesoperatedwith very little separationat
setting anglesup to 500 (Figure2.42). At 0' (Figure 2.43) the flow accelerationand
deceleration caused by the vane leading edge blockage suggeststhat the losses would
be particularly high in comparison with flat plate vanes.
IGV Performancefrom Dawes

Gm4Odeg
If :
Span 13%
0.2DO 0.3DD 0.400

Max velocftyw529.7378
0
..
(
y 0
55;,
-, el
w
Z.
::: i IK
span - 5o% Span a 85%
0.200 0280 0.360 OA40 0.3DO 0.400 0.500

Max velocity - 473.4160 Maxyelooltyw456AOOG
OVOMU
Apt?- 1.0% TE95-1596
Fig. 2.42 Velocity vectors at setting angle = 40"
50
IGV Pedomanoefrom Dawes

SmOdeg
==W MM ir
Spu . W% rKeU
www
0-900 0.400
MU v910e m 403.0104
r. = :::: Z--
$pw
0-200 0.240 0-2B0 CM 0--10 0.400 0.440 0.480 0-300 OAOO 0-9m
Max vebode m 391.M13 MaXvek)* 387.7250
OveranANP . os%
TE95-is94
Fig. 2.43 Velocity vectors at setting angle = 00
SwainE501demonstrateda methodof relative comparisonof theoreticaldesigns. He

used the [161
Dawes code, BTOB3D, to comparethe performanceof the improved
'c 12' designandthe old 'b V shownin Figures2.44 and2.45 respectively.
Flow Direction
b
10,
Fig. 2.44 Id2l VIGV system Fig. 2.45 'bl'VIGV system
51
Figure 2.46 shows the velocity vectors near the shroud of the 'bl' system, where the
effect of the vane tip clearance clearly results in very little flow turning downstream
of the vanes. Considerable flow separation is also evident from the vane leading
edge.
Fig. 2.46 'bl' velocity

vectors near shroud
The reduced tip clearance of the 'cl2' system results in significantly higher
deflection, Figure 2.47. A small degree of flow separation can be seen at the vane
leading edge, but the flow re-attachesresulting in negligible deviation.
Fig. 2.47 'c12' velocity

vectorsnear shroud
52
Iocity
)
Gross separation occurs near the hub of the 'bl' design, Figure 2.48, which leads to
flow recirculation around the vane and virtually no turning. Although the velocity
vectors near the hub of the 'c 12' design, Figure 2.49, reveal a pocket of separation on
the suction surface of the blades, the downstream flow field is far less turbulent than
that displayed for the old design, and again results in an increase in turning.
Fig. 2.49 lcl2l
velocity vectors
near hub
As well as the stationaryframe of referencemodelsthat have beendiscussedso far,

CFD is particularly invaluableto the turbomachinerydesignerfor analysingthe flow
within rotating passages. Validation of such modelling has been presented in many
case studies including an automotive engine cooling fan system (Coggiola and
BrobergI511), and for a centrifugal compressor (Shah and BartoSE521). A more
appropriate study to the research being conducted in this project was that of a
53
centrifugal compressor to be in
used a water-treatment application. Pitkdnen(531
used
CFD to design a compressor stage incorporating a backswept impeller with a vaneless
diffuser and no VIGV's. The volute was not modelled. The compressor was then
manufactured and total-to-total pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency was

experimentally measured for correlation with the performance predictions. The
comparisons of pressure ratio and efficiency are shown in Figures 2.50 and 2.51
respectively. The performance was predicted reasonably well on the whole, and the
author attributed any discrepancies in the results to his assumption of constant
pressure recovery factor through the volute at varying operating conditions.
0.90 2.4
0.80
0.70 - 2.2
31,OOCRPM 3 "OOOR PM
0.60 -
2.0
0.50
0.90
1.8
0.80. -
25,700 RPIA 1
0.70: 7ir. 1.6
7 DORP A
0.61D.-
0.50 , 1.4
0.40 ,-, CFD CFD
1.2-
0.30 - Meas red Measurec
020
1.0 -
1.8 1.0 12 1.4 1.6 1.8 ZO
a 0.8 U) 1.2 IA 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
mass flow (kgts)
mass flow (ka/s)
Fig. 2.50 Total-to-total pressure ratio Fig. 2.51 Total-to-total isentropic
efficiency
With the advent of more powerful and less costly computer processors (and a
decreasein the cost of RAM), increasingly complex CFD analyses are now feasible.
Recent advances in the programming of CFD solvers and pre-processors mean that
entire compressor stages can now be accurately modelled. One recent advance has
been the development of a numerical procedure to accommodate the interface
between rotating and stationary components (such as stators and rotors). An
by Elmendorf [541
examination of such an interface was conducted et al as part of a
CFD analysisof a 15-stageaxial compressor.
54
In addition to the accuracy and versatility of the CFD solver, the ease of use and
applicability to the particular study in question should also be considered. Due to

their high rotational speed and complex geometries, turbornachinery flows are
generally far more complex to model than others encountered in fluid dynamic
practice. The flows are normally three-dimensional, and are often turbulent and
separated, and in an impeller the flow is always unsteady. As a result, accurate

turbornachinery flow field predictions require CFD packagesthat are created with this
application in mind.
Two commercially available CFD solvers were evaluated for use in this study,
however only one package offered the robustnessand versatility to solve such flows.
CFX-TASCflow and its associated pre-processing software, CFX-Turbogrid and
CFX-TASCbob3d was developed specifically for turbomachinery analysis, Raw et
alJ46J. Also, numerous proven case studies using the software to solve complex
turbomachinery flows were available in published literature. Consequently, CFX
TASCflow was selectedas the CFD solver to be used in this study.
2.5 Conclusion
The research discussed in this chapter has shown that a need exists to improve the
understanding and the technology of industrial centrifugal compressor variable inlet

guide vanes. The existing designs of VIGV's and current theory will provide a basis
for the development of an improved geometry using both experimental and theoretical
researchtechniques.
Initially, the researchaims to provide the theoreticaltools to predict the behaviourof

a VIGV systemsuitablefor an industrial compressorusing the existing uncambered
vaneform. Subsequently,the aim will be to developan improvedform of vanethat
will maintain low loss and high deflection over a wide range of mass flow rates,
thereby giving a significantly enhancedperformance. A summaryof the specific
hypothesesof the researchis asfollows:
55
" The performance modelling of VIGV's suitable for industrial centrifugal

compressors can be improved using a combination of experimental and numerical
techniques.
" The relative benefits in stage performance of improved VIGV profiles can be
determined by aerodynamic examination of the VIGV system alone.
" The overall stage performance of industrial centrifugal compressors requiring a

large range of mass flow can be improved using a VIGV system capable of high-
swirl with low-loss.
The outcome of this researchwill be a usable technique for real industrial compressor
environments, and confirmation that an acceptable design can be achieved that

representsa rewarding improvement in performance.
56
Chapter Three: Experimental Facility
CHAPTER3
EXPERIMENTAL FACILITY
3.1 Centrifugal Compressor Stage and VIGV System
The compressor stage configuration is basedupon the design proposed by Swain and
Connor"51 and is shown in Figure 3.1. Thirteen untwisted flat plate variable inlet
guide vanes were positioned in an axial plane immediately upstream of a converging

'swan-neck' inlet passage. The impeller was fully machined with approximately 400
of backsweep and has 9 main and 91- ----I
splitter vanes. A constant

rotational speed of 18050 rpm
corresponding to a maximum total-

to-total pressure ratio of
approximately 2: 1 was selected for
both experimental and numerical
performance analyses.
Sixteen variable diffuser vanes

with flat and circular arc surfaces
were automatically adjusted to
maintain optimum efficiency and
maximise the stable operating

range.
Fig. 3.1 Centrifugal compressor
stage arrangement
57
3.2 Test Rig Design
In order to validate and gain confidence in the numerical study, experimental analysis
of the performance of the VIGV system was essential. Ideally, the VIGV system
should be tested in its typical operational mode, i. e. at the inlet to the centrifugal
compressor stage. However, the close proximity of any intrusive instrumentation to
the impeller and the stage power requirements would make this option impractical
with the available resources. Instead, it was considered far more desirable to design
and build a dedicated experimental facilitY that would avoid such problems.
The requirements of the test rig were simply to draw a known mass flow rate of air
(up to a target of lkg/s) at known conditions through an instrumented VIGV system.
These requirements were to be met using minimal available power supplies and
within a minimal laboratory floor area. It was considered that the ideal rig design
would incorporate a fan/compressor to draw the air through the rig, followed by
suction ducting to connect to the VIGV system, with some form of calibrated inlet to
the VIGV system.
The first conceptual design for the test rig is shown in Figure 3.2, however it was soon
discovered that this was not the ideal rig design for a number of reasons.
CQLNt. d N=ZLOP
VlFf IGV Stln

Vl.. Iq WInd- lbtt-fLy Vd-
Axid ran
.
Fig. 3.2 Proposed experimental facility design
58
Chapter 77tree: Experimental Facility
1) A mass flow measurementdevice was required at the inlet to the test rig. This
would necessitatea straight length of ducting before the diffusing section was
reached, resulting in an excessive overall test rig length. An alternative to this
was to use an 'upstream and downstreamlarge' measurementdevice which would

mean that a plenum chamber could be used. The advantage of this is that the'
VIGV system could be directly mounted onto it just as it would normally be
mounted directly onto a filter chamber.

2) Although the viewing section would allow visualisation of the flow characteristics
downstreamof the VIGV system,very limited flow visualisationequipmentwas
available so it was felt that the additional manufacturing expense would be
unjustifiable.
3) The air mass flow rate through the rig could be better controlled using a variable
speedcompressorrather than a butterfly valve at inlet to the compressor.

4) Predicted pressurelosses across the mass flow measurementdevice and through
the VIGV system when set at high stagger angles suggested that an axial fan
would not be ideal to draw the required air flow rate through the rig.
As a result of these issues,the test rig shown in Figure 3.3 was designed and built to
meet the requirementshighlighted earlier.

MassFlowMeasurement
Variable SpeedRadial Blowers
Device
Inlet Guide Vane Test
Section
INLET DISCHARGE
FLAW
lll SuctionDucting
Chamber
Disc
Fig. 3.3 Plan view of experimental facility
59
3.3 Test Rig Components
3.3.1 Plenum Chamber
The inlet to the test rig is a 1.5m cubic plenum chamber that houses the inlet mass
flow measurement device. The minimum dimensions of the chamber were dictated
by BS 1042E553
as the mass flow measurementdevice was 'upstream and downstream
large'. Although the function of the chamber was to stagnate the high velocity
inflowing air, initial instrumentation testing showed that an unsteady flow regime was
present within the VIGV system passage. The 2-D CFD streamlines (treated as an
axisymmetrical model) shown in Figure 3.4a suggested that this unsteadiness was
possibly due to the inflowing air following a jet-like flow pattern through the plenum
chamber and impinging on the VIGV hub. This in turn results in turbulence and
significant velocity components orthogonal to the axis of the VIGV system. Further
modelling (Figure 3.4b) demonstrated that the flow regime could be improved by
positioning a disc with a central hole located just downstream of the mass flow
measurement device and co-axial with the VIGV section. This disc ensures that the
inflowing air stagnatesinside the chamber rather than flowing straight through it. The
benefits of the disc are demonstrated by the resulting decrease in turbulence and
hence pressurepulsations within the VIGV passage,Figure 3.5.
Fig. 3.4a Original

plenum chamber
design
---)P
INLET(MASSFLOW
I'\ OUTLET (VIGV
MEASURFIAENT AIR FLOW 10 SYSTEM INLET)
DEVICE)
\71
Fig. 3.4b Plenum

chamber with co-
-
axial disc
60
15
10
Fig. 3.5 Effect of
;"... -. .............. ..... ........... x.... .1
co-axial disc on
5 flow steadiness
123456789 10 11 12 13 14
Tftne
-Mid-Span Velocity Without dis ....... Mid-Span Velocity With disc
3.3.2 Variable Inlet Guide Vane System
The VIGV test section shown in Figure 3.6 was mounted directly onto the
downstream side of the plenum chamber. Thirteen untwisted flat plate vanes can be
manually adjusted to give setting angles ranging from -20' to +90'. A spherical
section hub and shroud ensures minimal hub and tip blade clearance at any setting
angle. Since the VIGV system was not tested directly in front of the centrifugal
compressor, the inlet passage of the compressor needed to be represented by an
addition to the guide vane passage. An adapter was manufactured and profiled
internally to match the compressor inlet geometry. This allows the flow field to be
examined at the axial plane in which the leading edge of the centrifugal impeller
would normally coincide. The vanes were positioned manually to an accuracy of 1'
using the external actuating mechanism shown in Figure 3.6.
Fig. 3.6 Variable inlet guide vane system (viewed from upstream direction)
61
3.3.3 Compressor
The VIGV systemwas connectedto the compressors(blowers) with a 2m straight

length of ducting mountedon its downstreamface. Two centrifugal blowers with a
maximum speedof 6200rpm wereoperatedin a parallelconfigurationto draw the air
through the test section and dischargeit to atmosphere. The air mass flow rate
through the rig could be directly governed by speed control of the variable speed
20kW d.c. motor which powered the blowers via a 4: 1 speedincreasepulley system.
3.4 Instrumentation
The function of the test rig was to experimentally determine flow field parameters
within the VIGV system so that overall performance characteristics could be

determined. A selection of both intrusive and non-intrusive methods of flow
measurement was available, each method having its own distinct advantages and
disadvantagesas shown in Table 3.1
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Pneumatic Simple, well-proven, guaranteed Slow response,inability to resolve
accuracy in accordancewith unsteady flow but accuracy is affected

standards,3-D measurement by any unsteadiness,intrusive
1551
Reference: BS 1042 technique
Dimmock 1561Kassens and
,
Rautenberg [571
Hot Wire Fast response Difficult to use accurately in

Reference: Witze [581 recirculating flows, inability to measure
pressures,intrusive technique
Optical Fast response,PIV - high resolution Expensive, inability to measure
(PIV) snapshotof velocity vectors in 2-D pressures,optical accessand

flow plane, non-intrusive measurementin 2-D plane in spherical
Reference: GrantJ591Gray[60] passageis extremely complex
, section
Table 3.1 Comparison of measurement techniques
62
Although the flow through the VIGV system was inherently unsteady to a small
extent, the overall performance characteristics could be far more readily determined
and compared under the assumption of a steady flow regime. Simplicity and speed of
measurement of overall flow parameters was considered to be more important than
high-resolution examination of the flow field (e.g. examination of flow within the
boundary layer, and the use of non-intrusive techniques). With these points in mind,
and the availability of existing instrumentation within the laboratory, pneumatic

measurementmethods were favoured.
3.4.1 Instrumentation Schedule
The test rig was instrumented in

accordance with BS 1042 E551 and followed
,
by Dimmock 1561 Ower
recommendations outlined , and and Pankhurst[61).
Atmospheric air was drawn from the laboratory through a standard BS 1042 4" nozzle
or 7" orifice plate for corrected air mass flow rates of 0.5 kgIs or I kg/s respectively.
The air mass flow rate through the rig could be accurately calculated using a static
pressure tapping mounted just downstream of the orifice plate or nozzle. Since the
mass flow measurement device worked on an 'upstream and downstream large'
principle, no upstream tapping was necessary as the laboratory ambient conditions
could be used. The test section of the rig was assumed to be adiabatic, hence total
temperatures were assumed to be constant throughout and temperature measurement
was not required when determining velocities.
A Kiel probe was introduced into the flow immediately upstream of the vanes at the
mid-span position (as seen near the bottom of the passagein Figure 3.6) to measure
VIGV inlet total pressureand account for lossesin the plenum chamber.
Complete 2-dimensional flow field surveys could be conducted at two different axial
planes within the VIGV passage, indicated in Figure 3.7. The first test plane was
located approximately one blade chord downstream of the vanes whilst the second
plane, as discussedearlier, was located in the plane in which the impeller leading edge
would normally be found (the outlet plane). Twelve equi-spaced holes around the
circumference of the shroud in each of these planes provide traverse positions which
effectively vernier across the blade pitch since there are thirteen vanes. Dynamic
63
head and velocity vectors could be deduced anywhere in the flow field in these two
planes from a calibrated three-hole wedge probe controlled radially by a stepper

motor driven traverse unit.
Static pressure
tappings
AIR
FLOW
erse
position
Fig. 3.7 Instrumented VIGV system
Six static pressure tappings were spaced at equal axial intervals along opposite sides
of the hub, and eight similarly spacedalong the shroud.
64
3.4.2 Instrumentation Accuracy
The use of pneumatic instrumentation in flow field surveys such as this will
inherently introduce a certain degree of instrument error into the results. However,
the magnitude of this error can be determined and minimised by prior calibration
against other instrumentation of a known accuracy.
Since the inlet nozzle and orifice plate were manufactured, installed and operated in
accordance with BS 1042 1551 flow rate error of 4% could be

,a maximum mass
guaranteed. Calibration of the wedge probe and Kiel probe was conducted in a steady
flow wind tunnel incorporating both a Venturi meter and pitot-static tube for velocity
measurement. Velocity measurementsusing the wedge probe were verified against

the pitot-static tube over a range of mass flow rates, and yaw angle measurement
could also be easily verified since the flow was purely axial. Total pressure
measurementusing both the wedge probe and Kiel probe were also calibrated against
the pitot-static tube. A fundamental requirement of the Kiel probe is not only to
measure total pressure accurately, but also to do so over a wide range of probe
incidence angles. This capability was assessedby measuring the response to yawing
the probe in the wind tunnel axial flow. A comparison of the responsesof the Kiel
probe and pitot-static tube to is

yaw angle shown in Figure 3.8. It can be seen that the
response of the Kiel probe is unaffected by flow incidence angles up to 25* in any
direction, whereas the pitot-static tube will only tolerate a maximum of 5' of
incidence (pressure coefficient = difference between actual and measured total
pressure divided by actual dynamic head). This feature is crucial to the accurate
measurement of total pressure loss through the VIGV system as the inlet flow to the
system is not purely axial (a small radial velocity component also occurs due to the
flow within the plenum chamber).
65
0.1
M
Yaw angle
7M-
0
5 'Ilt---.. 15 20 25
25 40
;j
-
d:
-0.2
0 . 0,
Cl.
L 0.3
F3
-0.4 .. Pitot tube pressure coefficient 0

Kiel probe pressure coefficient
-0.5
-0.6
Fig. 3.8 Effect of incidence angle on Kiel and pitot-static probes
3.4.3 Instrument Control and Data Acquisition
The development of a versatile automated technique to control the instrumentation
and record the data was necessaryso that the time taken to conduct the tests could be
demonstrated by Backhouse and Ivey [621 The risk of manual
radically reduced, as .
data measurement and input error would be also be reduced using such a technique.
The radial position of the wedge probe was controlled automatically from a PC via the
purpose-built stepper motor drive unit shown in Figure 3.9.
Fig. 3.9 Wedge probe
traverse gear
66
The unit could be attached to any of the yawmeter traverse holes in either of the two
axial planes and automatically configured for the particular plane. Yaw angles were
measured and recorded manually to an accuracy of 1', and all readings were
sampled on a5 second averaging basis. Continuous traversing or positioning of the
probe at any of eleven equally spaced radial positions within the passage could be
controlled directly from the PC. The radial positional tolerance of the probe was less
than 0.5mm, and it was calibrated before each traverse by using the hub wall as a
datum. A view of the test facility and instrumentation is shown in Figure 3.10.
Fig. 3.10 Test rig
and instrumentation
A single Furness Controls FC0510 calibrated digital manorneter was used for all
pressure measurements, the pressure input source being dictated by a Furness
Controls FC091 scanning box. The manometer, scanning box and traverse gear were
all interfaced to the PC for automatic control by the PC software as shown in the
schematic diagram in Figure 3.11. The software was written and compiled in
Microsoft QBASIC and controlled the probe positioning and data acquisition and
storage so that manual errors were minimised. The software source code is provided
in Appendix A.
67
PC Software
Wedge Probe Scanning Box Digital

Traverse System M
Manometer
om
Electronic connection p- Pneumatic connection

p- -------
Fig. 3.11 Schematic view of instrumentation control
3.5 Test Procedure
In order to ensure consistent relative test conditions and measurements,a standard test
procedure was followed for each configuration using the same instrumentation. With
the vanes positioned at the required setting angle, and the mass flow rate set, all of the
VIGV section static tappings were sampled, followed by the nozzle or orifice plate
pressure drop. A radial traverse in one of the circumferential probe hole positions
was then conducted. Dynamic head, pressureloss through the passage,and yaw angle
were logged at eleven radial positions from hub to shroud. The procedure was then
repeated in all of the circumferential probe hole positions for that particular operating
configuration. The test was conducted at IGV setting angles of 0", +30" and +600 for
mass flow rates of 0.5kg/s and Ikg/s. Due to the limited availability of the VIGV
system used in this study, tests were conducted in the outlet plane for both mass flow
rates, but were only conducted in the blade plane at 0.5kg/s.
3.5.1 Data Reduction
All of the test data was automatically stored by the control software in ASCH data
files in a fonnat that can be imported into a spreadsheetfor further manipulation. in
addition to the numerical data, a text headerwas automatically added to each data file
to describe the test configuration and ambient conditions. The numerical data
68
consisted of the VIGV system hub and shroud static Pressurereadings, the Kiel probe
reading, mass flow measurementdevice reading, followed by the traverse data (radial
position, dynamic head, total pressure loss, and yaw angle). An example of the data
file output is provided in Appendix B.
69
Chapter Four. Experimental Results
CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
4.1 Measurement technique validation
The instrumentation used in the test rig has been described in the previous chapter
together with the individual calibration techniques to ensure that their behaviour was
well understood. In addition it was considered necessary to ensure that the

instrumentation gave valid readings when used in the test rig. Verification of the
experimental technique was conducted using the results from each complete test
configuration, as described below. This provided a simple test to ensure that the
instrument and data acquisition control software and the data reduction technique
were producing reliable results.
The wedge probe provided the local static and stagnation pressurealong with the fluid
direction. From this data, the velocity vectors could be derived as well as the local
axial velocity at each span-wise position and pitch-wise location. Mass flow rate was
then accurately calculated at each position, and integrated across the span and pitch to
give a total mass flow rate through the VIGV system. Comparison of the mass flow
rate calculated from the traverse technique were then compared with that calculated
from the nozzle or orifice.
The average percentage error in mass flow rate calculation using the traverse
technique based upon the nozzle or, orifice mass flow rate is plotted in Figure 4.1
against vane setting angle (traversesconducted at outlet plane). The magnitude of the
mass flow rate error using the traverse technique increased with vane setting angle,
but also varied between tests conducted at the same configuration. The increase in
error with setting angle is probably due to the limited accuracy and resolution to
which the yaw angle could be measured from the wedge probe. It should also be
70
Chapter Four., Experimental Results
noted that the use of a three-hole wedge probe permits only 2-dimensional flow
velocity measurement (axial and tangential components). The use of a 5-hole probe
for full 3-dimensional flow measurementswould also permit the measurement of the
radial velocity component, however a suitable 5-hole probe was not available for this
study. Consequently, the presenceof a radial flow component in the outlet plane of
the VIGV system could be partially attributable for the validation error. It is likely
that the magnitude of any radial flow component in the VIGV system outlet flow
would increase with setting angle as a result of radial equilibrium. This likelihood is
therefore in some agreementwith the trends shown in Figure 4.1.
20
18
16
14
Co12
lo
8
Co
0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Setting Angle (0)
Fig. 4.1 VaIidation of traverse technique
4.2 VIGV System Experimental Performance
4.2.1 Vane Performance
The objectiveof traversingin the planeimmediatelydownstreamof the vaneswas to

provide an understandingof the vane flow behaviour in isolation, i. e. without the
aerodynamiceffect of the converging spherical passage. Although aerodynamic
influence from the passagewas inevitable due to the test plane's location, an
understandingof the aerodynamicinfluence of the passageshape would still be
71
ChopterFour. - Experimental Results
achievable.All of the resultsdescribedin this sectionaretakenfrom the traversedata

at this plane, andall resultsin the Chapterare takenfrom testsat a massflow rate of
0.5kg/s.
The variation of averagedeflection with vane setting angle is plotted in Figure 4.2. It
is clear from this figure that the converging passage shape significantly affects the
aerodynamic output from the vanes, as the deflection is higher than the actual vane
setting angle. This effect can be explained by consideration of conservation of
angular momentum and continuity through the passage,as described in Section 2.3.1.
In this section of the passage, the mean radius decreasesin the flow direction at a
greater rate than the orthogonal area,with a resulting increasein the mean flow angle.
80
, 70
c 60
0
50
15 40
0
(D 30
a
E
L2-20
(D
lo
0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Setting Angle (")
Fig. 4.2 Deflection vs. vane setting angle

The aerodynamic influence of the passageshape is further highlighted in the radial
distributions of pitch-wise-averaged deflection and velocity at this plane, Figure 4.3.
At vane setting angles of 0' and 30" the distributions are quite linear, but at 60' a
peak in both deflection and velocity can be seen at approximately 25% span. This
suggeststhat the flow is separating from either the hub wall or from the vane suction
surface near the hub. Either of these phenomena are possible due to the vane and
passagedesign although if the passageitself was purely responsible, some separation
(or reduction in velocity) near the hub at lower vane setting angles would be expected.
At higher setting angles, the distribution will be affected by radial equilibrium of the
flow through the passage, i. e. the balance between centrifugal forces and static
72
Chapter Four: Experimental Results
pressure across the span. This would account for the reduction in velocities near the
hub at higher setting angles. It should also be noted from Figure 4.3 that the
measurementof zero deflection at the IGV setting angle of 0' has demonstrated the
accuracy of the angular position of the vane and the traverse technique.
90 18
80 16
-4Q
70 1E
-0 60 12 2:1
c 50 .5
0 10 0
40
8
Ju
c2 6
20 0
10 4
0 2
-10 -1 110
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span (%)
Deflection (00) Deflection(30') s Deflection (600),
Velocity (00) Velocity (300) Velocity (600)
Fig. 4.3 Radial distributions of deflection and velocity
80 16
70 14 :
60 129
0 50 2:1
-
40 0
.2
Q 30
(D o-
20 0
4cr
10
0 2<
10
-10
20 40 60 80 100
Percent Pitch (%)
Deflection (00) Deflection (300) Deflection (600)

Velocity (0') Velocity (300) Velocity (600)
Fig. 4.4 Circumferential distributions of deflection and velocity
73
The circumferential distributions of span-wise-averaged deflection and velocity in

Figure 4.4 do not exhibit the same uniformity as the radial profiles. As the
circumferential traverse crosses the blade wake, a noticeable change in both velocity
and deflection could be expected such as that exhibited at the 60' vane setting angle.
However, the trends in Figure 4.4 suggest that a distinct blade wake is not present at
this axial plane at lower setting angles, a far more turbulent flow field is depicted
instead. This level of flow unsteadiness was also apparent during the testing as a
highly fluctuating pressurereading from the wedge probe.
The magnitude of the losses caused by this turbulence and by incidence and viscous
losses was measured using a mass-averagedtotal pressure loss coefficient described
below.
Pressure loss (po, Po, = total pressure at inlet to guide vane passage
-p ,n)
= (POI
coefficient - PI) Po2= total pressure at exit of guide vane passage
P, = staticpressureat inlet to guidevanepassage
The significance of incidence losses when using flat plate vanes at high vane setting
angles can be seen from Figure 4.5. Although the vanes successfully deflect the air at
high settingangles,a high penaltyis incurredby the dramaticincreasein losses.
2.5
'J2
0
0
1.5
C)
I-
(I)
(I)
C)
1
CL 0.5
0
20 40 60 80
IGV Seffing Angle
Fig. 4.5 Pressure loss vs. vane setting angle
74
4.2.2 Overall Performance
Although measurementsconductedin the upstreamtraverseplane provided useful

information regardingthe performanceof the vanesthemselves,an assessment
of the
performanceof the VIGV systemas a whole is of equalimportance.Traversingin the
outlet plane provided a measurementof the combined effects of both vane and
passageaerodynamicperformance,and gave an indication of the flow regime that
would normally enterthe inducer.
Figure 4.6 shows that, despite its complex meridional shape, the converging section
passage has a minimal effect on the average deflection. The slight reduction is
expected and occurs as a result of the passagearea and radius ratio at the inducer inlet
as described earlier.
80
,, 70
.0
C 60
.2 50
40
0) 30
cm
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Setting Angle (0)
m Vane ... *.. Syst

Fig. 4.6 Deflection at VIGV systemoutlet vs. vane setting angle
Span-wise-averaged velocity
and pitch-wise-averaged and deflection distributions at
the outlet planeareshownin Figures4.7 and4.8 respectively.
75
80 40
70 35
-Co
60
30 g
50
c 25
40
.2 20
A? 30
(D 15
20
10 10
0 5
I10
-10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span
Velocity_(00) Velocity (300) Velocity (600)
Fig. 4.7 Radial distributions of deflection and velocity at VIGV system outlet
70 30
60
25
50
0 20 S'
c 40
0
15
0
30 (D
CD 20
10
10 .5
0
(0
0
10
-10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Pitch (%)

Velocity (0') Velocity (300) Velocity (600)
Fig. 4.8 Circumferential distributions of deflection and velocity at VIGV system
outlet
76
Figure 4.7 shows that the passage has little effect on the radial distributions of
deflection and velocity, with the exception of the velocity profile at the 60' vane
setting angle. The sharp reduction seen in absolute velocity towards the hub in Figure
4.3 is no longer evident, thus reinforcing the suggestion that it was originally caused
by vane or hub separation, which has re-attached by the time the outlet plane is
reached.
The circumferential distributions of deflection and velocity in Figure 4.8 also show
little change in comparison with those measured further upstream. As expected, the
distributions are more uniform as turbulence generated by the vanes has by now
mixed out. The dissipation of turbulence was also evident as a much steadier pressure
reading from the wedge probe. Absolute velocities in Figures 4.7 and 4.8 have all
almost doubled due to the decreasein cross-sectional flow area from the upstream
traverse plane to the outlet plane.
The aerodynamic benefits of the passageshapein terms of turbulence dissipation and
separation re-attachment have been presented so far, but total pressure loss through
the system is also inevitable and must be minimised. A comparison of the loss
coefficient at the upstream traverse plane and the outlet plane is presented in Figure
4.9.
4.5
4
3.5
3
(n
2.5
2
1.5
co
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Sefting Angle (0)
x Vane ... *--- Syst

Fig. 4.9 Pressurelossvs. vane setting angle
77
ChapterFour. - Experimental Results
Thetrendsclearly indicatethat thepassageshapeis of soundaerodynamicdesignas it

is responsiblefor a negligiblelosswhen the vanesare operatingat low settingangles.
At 60" however,the passageand vanessharean almost equalproportion of the total
systemloss. This is probablydueto the extentof the separationpocketobservednear
the hub in the upstreamplane,which will travel furtherdownstreamthusresultingin a
high passageloss. The vorticity generatedby the vanedeflectionalso meansthat the
effectivepassagelength,andhenceloss,will be muchgreaterat highersettingangles.
It should be bome in mind that however negligible the inlet losses might initially
appear, the effect on the overall stage performance should ultimately, be considered.
Any losses or flow non-uniformities at the inlet to the compressor will be amplified
by the stage pressure ratio and could potentially be responsible for much greater
overall stage losses.
4.2.3 Mass Flow Rate ScaHng
As describedin Chapter3, the majority of the testingwas conductedat a massflow

rate of 0.5 kg/s, althoughtesting at other flow rates was necessaryto validate the
assumptionof non-dimensionalityof the pressureloss coefficient. Average outlet
swirl angle and the system total pressure loss coefficient were the two main
aerodynamicperformanceparametersusedfor comparisonwithin the study, both of
which shouldbe unaffectedby varying massflow rate.
In order to validatethis assumption,testswere alsoconductedin the outlet planeat a

massflow of I kg/s using the sameinstrumentationand test technique. Radial and
circumferential distributions of deflection and velocity are not presented,as the
profiles are all identical to those describedearlier in this chapter (except for the
magnitudeof absolutevelocity). The overall outcomeof the testing is shown in
Figure 4.10 wherethe total pressureloss coefficient is plotted againstaverageoutlet
swirl angle (rather than vane setting angle). Only slight discrepanciesin the
magnitudeof swirl angleandpressurelosscoefficientare evident. More importantly,
the trendsexhibit a strong correlationsuggestingthat the parametersare sufficiently
unaffectedby massflow rate.
78
ChapterFour. Experimental Results
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
(D
2
U,
cn 1.5
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80
Outlet Swid Angle (*)
0.5 kg/s 1.0 kg/s

... *..
Fig. 4.10 Pressure loss vs. outlet swirl angle at 50% and 100% flow rate
Examinationof the Reynoldsnumberat the inlet guide vanesrevealedthat the tests

were being conductedaroundthe transitionalregion betweenlaminar and turbulent
flow. Testingat 0.5kg/scorresponded
to a Reynoldsnumberof approximately8xl0l,
while lkg/s was equivalent to 1.6xlO'. As shown in Figure 4.10, despite the
transitionalnatureof the flow at thesemassflow rates,the pressureloss coefficient
was unaffected by the mass flow rate.
At the outlet from the VIGV system, a similar trend in Reynolds number was
revealed, with a minimum of l. 5xlOI at 0.5kg/s. However, the critical Reynolds

number at this position basedon flow in pipes was approximately 8xlO'.
4.3 Closure
Despite the limited scopeof the test technique,the resultspresentedin this chapter
have demonstratedthe applicability of the technique and provided an adequate
descriptionof the flow field within the VIGV system. The resultsalso form a sound
basis against which the output of the numerical technique can be validated and
compared.
79
Chapter Five: Numerical Techniques
CIUPTER 5
NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES
5.1 Introduction
In addition to the experimental study, one of the key focuses of the research was the
development of an accurateand versatile numerical performance prediction technique.
It was also imperative that the technique was both fast and reliable, as a considerable
number of 3-D simulations would be conducted during the course of the research.
Both 3-D and I-D techniques were investigated, each having its own particular
benefits and disadvantages. The development of the 3-D technique, and a brief
summary of the I -D technique is discussedin this chapter.
5.2 Computational Fluid Dynamics - An Overview
The design of VIGV systems has generally relied upon ID and 2D theoretical
techniques, but with the increasing versatility of Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) solvers and pre-processors,a 3D approach can now more readily be followed.
If this approach is to be financially viable, a standardtechnique must be developed by
which CFD models may be created and solved to an acceptablelevel of accuracy in as

short a time spaceas possible.
Turbomachineryflows are normally three dimensional,and are often turbulent and

separated.For this reason,accurateflow field predictionsrequireCFD packagesthat
are developedwith this applicationin mind. In additionto this, the solution accuracy
is also dependenton the modellingtechniquefrom pre to post processing.If CFD is
to be used effectively in analysingand comparinga number of similar systems,a
80
standard proven pre-processing, solving and post-processing technique is required.

Not only will this accelerate the whole modelling process, but it will also ensure
consistent levels of accuracydue to grid topology and solution convergence.
Two such techniques were developed; initial work focused purely on the application
of CFD to the VIGV system, with subsequentwork being conducted on modelling the
entire stage.
5.3 VIGV Simulations
5.3.1 Geometry Deflnition
Three aspects of turbomachinery internal design require consideration for accurate
geometrical representation in CFD models; the vane shape, and the hub and shroud
shapes. Although software packages such as CFX BladeGen have recently been
developed to accomplish this task, no such packageswere available when the research
begun so a versatile geometry definition processwas required for expediency.
Due to the circumferential periodicity of most turbomachines, only one blade and
pitch need be modelled since periodic boundary conditions can be applied to the sides
of the domain. This means that a single blade must be fully defined in 3-dimensional
co-ordinates, whilst the hub and shroud (which are axisymmetric) need only be
defined as 2-dimensional co-ordinates. The geometry definition system was required
to be both versatile and fast so that virtually any conceivable passageand vane shape
could be modelled accurately.
The hub and shroud co-ordinates (in almost all cases) followed the design rules
proposed by SwainI501that are outlined in Section 2.3.1. These rules can be

interpreted as a series of trigonometrical relationships between axial and radial co-
ordinates at any point along the passage. The capability to modify the passageshape
within the constraints of these rules was required with minimal user input. From the
equations outlined below relating to the parametric VIGV system geometry in Figure
81
5.1, it was possible to automatically generateany passageshape based upon the rules
by entering only the arearatio and radius ratio.
R.,j L
Rs2
22
RI
51 -Rhl
Ill Rj +RhI
Area Ratio (A R) -- Radius Ratio (R R
R2-R2
s2 h2
Rs2 +Rh2
Where Rh2and R,2 are dictated by the inducer hub and tip radii (35mm and 112.8mm
respectively)
From simultaneous equations, it can then be seenthat:
(AR (R 22 (Rs2
s2-Rh2))+(RR(Rs2+Rh2)Y Rhl RR
Rsl=. (Rs2 and = +Rh2)-Rs,
2RR Rh2Y
+
)2 ]R2 2
Rs2
2 + Rh h2+0 -R hl
also, L=2 Rsl_ and =
2 2(Rhl-Rh2T
From the design rules, R, = R, j

Hence all geometrical parameterscan be deducedfrom the arearatio and radius ratio.
82
Implementationof the equationsinto a spreadsheetenabledfast automatedco-ordinate

generationwith the versatilityto changeandview the meridionalpassageshapebefore
beingexportedto the meshgenerator.
Blade co-ordinates were generated in a similar fashion using trigonometrical
relationships that permitted any vane shape to be generated at any setting angle. A
series of calculations are executed automatically in a spreadsheetin the following
sequence:
1. Since the blade is untwisted, the profile need only be
provided at the hub and shroud of the blade (the mesh

generator will linearly interpolate to generatethe rest of
the vane profile). Since the hub and shroud are both
spherical the blade hub and tip must follow a circular

arc, which means that the vane chord can be measured
in terms of the angle subtendedby this arc (Figure 5.2).
If a vane design is selectedthat does not have a constant hord
its
pitch/chord ratio across span, the can
spreadsheet be
adjusted by entering differing hub and tip chord range. Fig. 5.2 Vane chord
j
2. The vane is now approximated as a 2-dimensional flat plate with a chord and a
span aligned in the axial direction. The vane thickness and profile is added next
by simply adding 2-dimensional profile co-ordinates into the spreadsheet
assuming the vane is set at 0" (axially aligned). Twisted or untwisted, cambered,
profiled or flat plate vanes with chanifers; can be added to make the vane a 3-
dimensional entity.
3. Trigonometricalmanipulationof the hub and shroudco-ordinatesallows the vane

be its
to rotatedabout centre-lineshown in Figure 5.2,5.3 and 5-4. The only user
input requiredat this stageis the vanesettingangle(0). Again, a meridionalview
beforethe datais exportedto the meshgenerator.
is providedby the spreadsheet
83
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

-150 -100
Fig. 5.3 Vane rotated Fig. 5.4 Spreadsheet graphical output

through setting angle, 0
5.3.2 Mesh Generation
The pre-processor used in these investigations, CFX TurboGrid, imported the co-
ordinates from ASCH data files (exported from the spreadsheet)and automatically
generated the vertices which define the domain. A standard H-type grid template was
used in which the blade consisted of a section of 'blocked-off' cells. CFX TurboGrid
is a semi-automatic mesh generator in which the user can position a number of
&construction lines' that will dictate the complete grid layout. Care was required at
this stage to minimise resulting cell skewnessand aspect ratios, and to determine the
exact distribution and number of cells. The template would automatically refine the
grid at the hub and shroud, and around the vane as these were the areas of main
concern in the simulations.
Initially, three templates (IGV setting angles of 0', +30', +60*) were developed and
tested so that they could be stored and re-used to generate future grids. This
significantly reduced the time required to create high quality grids and meant that any
changesto the vane or passageshapecould be easily accommodated. Figures 5.5 a, b,
and c show mid-span radial slices of the grids created from the templates with the
vane set at 0', +30* and +60" respectively.
84
Fig. 5.5a Mid-span radial grid slice at IGV setting angle = 0*
Fig. 5.5b Mid-span radial grid slice at IGV setting angle = +30'
Fig. 5.5c Mid-span radial grid slice at IGV setting angle = +601
85
Accurate geometrical representationof such blade rows in CFD simulations is crucial

if repeatable and accurateresults are required. One important feature in the modelling
of blade rows that has been explored extensively in recent years is blade tip clearance.
Modelling blade tip clearanceis now considered essential in rotating blade rows, and
its significance in stationary blades at high staggerangles should not be overlooked.
As described in Section 3.3, a spherical section hub and shroud minimised the blade
hub and tip clearance in the inlet guide vane system used in this research. Although
the vane hub and tip clearance measuredfrom the test facility was less than Imm, or
1% blade height at any setting angle, initial investigations were conducted into its
effect on the outlet flow field. from the VIGV system. Two identical grids (grid A and
grid B) were created with a vane setting angle of +60'. The blade in grid A (Figure
5.6a) was assumed to be solid from the passagehub to shroud (no blade clearance).
The blade 'block-off' in Grid B (Figure 5.6b) was modified to mimic the clearance at
blade hub and shroud including the stem that attachedthe blade to its spindle.
iii
1-4
// /L7
fi4
Fig. 5.6a Solid blade (no hub and Fig. 5.6b Blade modelled with
tip clearance modelling) hub and tip clearance (blade stem
shown)
86
The effect of clearance modelling is demonstratedby the results of the two

simulations,which havebeenplotted aspitchwise-averaged
VIGV systemoutlet swirl
anglesin Figure 5.7. The effect is particularlysignificantnearthe shroudat the outlet
to the VIGV system,and it was considerednecessaryto include clearancemodelling
in all future VIGV meshes.
80
70
-0 60
50
.2
c3) Solid Blade
c: 40
Hub & Tip Clearance
30
CO20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percent Span
Fig. 5.7 Effect of blade clearance modelling at IGV setting angle =+ 600
In addition to accurate geometrical representation and grid quality, the grid resolution
is another important factor in practical CFD simulations. If too few mesh cells are
used in the simulation, the accuracy of the results may be compromised. Conversely,
if too many cells are used, the demands on computing resourcesand solving time can
be increased with little or no effect on the solution accuracy. It is therefore usual to
conduct a grid dependencystudy at the outset of the CFD analyses to ensure that an
optimum grid resolution is used throughout.
Two grid sizes and numerous cell distribution patterns were investigated in order to
assessgrid sensitivity. Initially, a mesh of approximately 100,000 cells was created

and tested, followed by a 150,000cell mesh with a similar cell distribution pattern. A
decreasein total pressure loss of approximately 10% was noted with the increase in
mesh density, but the distribution and magnitude of swirl angles and absolute
velocities at the outlet plane remained essentially unchanged. Although a higher
solution accuracy in terms of pressure loss would possibly have been achievable with
a larger number of cells, the increase in solving time of approximately 100% from
100,000 to 150,000 cells meant that the smaller grid offered a far more acceptable
87
solution turnaround time for a practical design procedure. A grid density of

approximately 100,000 cells was therefore considered to provide sufficient accuracy
and resolution to be adopted as the standard for all future working grids. Grids of this
density also proved to be of an acceptable quality in terms of cell skew angle and
aspectratio in order to allow accurateand stable solving.
5.3.3 Solving
The application of appropriate and accurate boundary conditions to any simulation is
critical to the solving speed and solution accuracy, Figure 5.8. In this case, the most
robust known boundary conditions were found to be inlet total pressure and either
outlet average static pressure (for low mass flow rate studies), or outlet mass flow rate
(for high mass flow rate studies). (A spanwise inlet velocity profile was also applied
in a test case, but was found to have a negligible effect on the final flow field and
increased the pre-processing and convergence time. ) CFX-TASCflow solves the
Reynolds stress averaged Navier Stokes equations, and is purpose written along with
the pre-processor, CFX TurboGrid, for the modelling of complex turbomachinery

geometries. A second order modified linear profile skew discretisation scheme is
employed as this offers a combination of high accuracy along with robustness.
Turbulence was modelled using the k-E Kato-Launder[631model.
Periodic
boundary
Outflow
AA boundary
Inflow
boundary
Hub and Vane
(wall boundaries)
Fig. 5.8 VIGV grid with shroud and one periodic face removed
88
Chapler Five: Numerical Techniques
With each simulation starting from an initial guessof a uniform flow field, convergence
(reduction of r. m.s. residuals to a maximum of 10-4) was typically achieved within
approximately 100 iterations or 12 hours of CPU time on a Sun UE2-2200.
A rotated view of the complete VIGV system (13 vanes and passages)with the shroud
removed is shown in Figure 5.9.
Fig. 5.9 Rotated mesh showing complete VIGV system
89
5.4 Stage Simulations
The technique developed for numerically modelling the VIGV system was
subsequentlyadaptedto incorporatethe whole stage;i.e. the impeller and diffuser
vanesin addition to the inlet guide vanesystem.Using the associatedpre-processing
software, CFX Turbogrid and CFX TASCbob, it was possible to construct the
numerical mesh for eachcomponentof the stageindividually and then numerically
'glue' them together.
5.4.1 Geometry Definition
Although the VIGV geometry used in the stage investigations was identical to that
described in sections 3.2 and 5.3, it was necessaryto move the axial location of the
outlet plane upstream. This was necessaryfor two reasons:
1) When modelling the VIGV system in isolation, the hub extension used in the
experimental facility was also modelled for performance comparison. When
operating in the complete stage, this extension is replaced by the rotating inducer
hub.
2) Ideally the VIGV outlet / impeller inlet planeshouldbe locatedat the mechanical
connection betweenthe two devices as this wherethe rotating impeller hub meets
the stationary VIGV system hub. However, using this plane as the numerical
interface between the components would lead to solution convergence problems
due to the proximity of the vane leading edges to the inlet boundary of the
impeller. Conversely, if the numerical interface was moved too far upstream of
the impeller leading edge, the solution accuracy would be compromised by the
modelling of the stationary VIGV system hub as a rotating surface.
The impeller geometry was already available, and had been generated using a suite of
I-D preliminary design and 2-D aerodynamic analysis software described in detail by
Came and Robinson[64]
90
Since the diffuser was a variable geometry system, a versatile geometry definition
technique similar to that used for the VIGV's was required. The technique followed
the same principle outlined in section 5.3 so that any vane profile could be applied and
manipulated to generate the co-ordinates at any vane setting angle. The spreadsheet
was further modified so that the vane co-ordinates could be generated given either a
setting angle (relative to the radial direction) or a diffuser throat area,Figure 5.10.
11
Tbroat Pivot
Length Point
ImpellerCentreline
Fig. 5.10 Variable diffuser vane geometry
The hub and shroud of the diffuser model used in the numerical studies were extended
radially beyond the point where they would normally meet the volute. This was
to
necessary compensate for the absenceof the volute, as the flow field at exit from
the diffuser would be otherwise be undeveloped and cause simulation convergence

problems. In addition to this extension, the shroud wall was modified so that the
diffuser passage converged slightly to prevent separation at the walls and aid
convergence. The complete stagemeridional passageis shown in Figure 5.11 with the
modificationsdetailedin this section.
91
ja Dhd
Diffuser
D *ffuser
f fuser extension
w th cconverging
with 0nverging
shroud w 11
sr 0u wall
Inlet guide
vane
Diffuser
VIGV system- vane
ilmpeller
le numerical
,mj
intMacre
Impeller
Fig. 5.11 Numerical meridional

passage
5.4.2 Mesh Generation
The VIGV mesh described earlier was slightly modified to account for the reduced
length of the system, but maintained the same topology. As well as modifying the
existing grids, two additional grids at IGV setting angles of +20' and -440' were
created for use in the stage simulations.
The impeller mesh was based on an available template designed to apply an H-type
grid to an impeller incorporating one set of splitter vanes. Tip clearancewas modelled
in the impeller, with a total grid size'of approximately 72,000 cells. Figure 5.12
shows two computational domains (one rotated) consisting of the impeller main vane,
splitter vane and hub (shroud removed for visualisation).
Modelling the vanelessspacebetweenthe impeller outlet and the diffuser inlet was
by
possible splitting the impeller grid into two grids.
separate The vanelessannulus
that can be seendownstreamof the impeller trailing edgewas automaticallyremoved
and re-savedas the vanelessspacegrid so that a different set of boundaryconditions
could be appliedto it.
92
Fig. 5.12 Impeller computational mesh
The diffuser vane mesh was created using a similar H-type grid template to that
applied to the VIGV's. No hub and tip clearance was modelled in the diffuser vane
grid due to the high skewness of the cells within the vane, which would lead to
simulation convergence and accuracy problems. Grids and templates were created for
three different diffuser vane setting angles, each with a mesh density of approximately
64,000 cells. In accordance with the VIGV and VVD operating algorithm, the
diffuser vane angles selectedfor modelling were 62.2', 68.3', and 71'. Thesesettings
corresponded with VIGV setting angles of 00, +200, +400, and +60' respectively (a
diffuser setting angle of 710 was used at VIGV settings of +40' and +600).
Figures 5.13 a, b, and c show the blade shape and hub of the diffuser meshes at setting
angles of 62.2', 68.3', and 71' respectively. At lower setting angles, it was necessary
to extend the diffuser mesh radially inwards due to the proximity of the vane leading
edge to the mesh inflow boundary. Consequently, the outer radius of the vaneless
space mesh was reduced to compensate for the change and ensure that the two meshes
did not overlap.
93
Chapter Five: Numerical Techni(ples
Fig. 5.13a Grid slice at hub for diffuser vane setting angle = 62.2"
ftJ14 I'
Fig. 5.13b Grid slice at hub for diffuser vane setting angle = 68.3'
Fig. 5.13c C,rid slice at hub for diffuser vane setting angle = 71 "
94
5.4.3 Grid Interfaces
Once the grids had been created,it was necessaryto numerically 'glue' them all
togetherto form one completemodel of the stageincorporatingthe VIGV's and the
variable vaned diffuser. Two types of numerical interface were employed in the
modelusing the 'GeneralGrid Interface'(GGI) featurewithin CFX-TASCflow.
At the interface between the impeller and vanelessspacegrids, a 'General Connection

Interface' could be used as the grids were stationary relative to one-another so no
sliding interface was necessary. Although this type of interface allows adjacent grids
without perfect node-to-node alignment to be linked, this was not actually necessary
in this case as the two grids had originally been created as one complete grid.
The interfaces between the VIGV and impeller, and the vaneless space and diffuser
posed the additional complexity of a change of relative motion. For this reason, a
'Stage Interface' was used in which a rotating and stationary grid can be linked
together numerically. Using this type of interface, two or more blade passages can be
solved simultaneously with circumferential averaging between rotating and stationary
regions. Steady state solutions can then be obtained in each reference frame. The
stage interface accounts for the mixing loss caused by the relative motion between
components. The interface mixing is assumed to be sufficiently large to compensate
for changes in pitch between components, such that any upstream velocity profile has
mixed out prior to entering the downstream component, TASCf1ow3D
documentation [651
.
Grid dependency studies of each of the grid components indicated that a total mesh
size of approximately 225,000 nodes gave the optimum performance without

unnecessarydemands on computing resources. One complete vane passagethrough
each of the components attached together was modelled, but the entire system is
shown in Figure 5.14 (inlet guide vanes set at 60* to axial, diffuser vanes set at 710 to
radial).
95
Fig. 5.14 Rotated mesh showing complete compressor stage
96
5.4.4 Solving
Two operating points on each constant VIGV angle characteristic were modelled
using ambient total pressure and temperature for the inlet boundary condition (inlet to
the VIGV system) and mass flow rate for the outlet boundary condition (outlet of the
diffuser). Turbulence was modelled using the standardk-e model.
The physical boundary conditions applied to the model are outlined in Table 5.1
below. All walls wereassumedto be smoothandadiabatic,the impeller and vaneless
space grids were defined to be rotating at the same speed, whilst the VIGV and
diffuser grids were defined as stationary.
Boundary Condition Attachment
Stationary wall - relative frame Default, all intemal objects (inlet guide
vane, impeller main and splitter vane,

diffuser vane)
Counter rotating wall - relative frame Impeller shroud, vanelessspacehub and
shroud
Rotational periodicity Radial sides of all grids
General connection interface Impeller grid - vanelessspacegrid
Stageinterface VIGV grid - impeller grid
Vaneless spacegrid -+ diffuser grid
Inflow VIGV inlet
Outflow Diffuser outlet
Table 5.1 Boundary conditions applied to full stage model
Simulation convergencefrom an initial guesswas achievedby starting at low speed

with a correspondingmass flow rate and progressivelyincreasingthe speedafter
10
approximately time stepsat eachspeed. Maintaining a constantgrid density and
topologythroughoutthe variousconfigurationsenabledany convergedflow field for a
97
given configuration to be used as an initial guess for the next configuration to be

modelled. This technique minimised solving time which was typically 10 to 14 CPU
hours using a twin 336 MHz processorSUN Ultra Enterprise 3500 server.
5.5 1-D Stage performance predictions
The 3-D numerical technique was capable of producing detailed descriptions of the
flow field within the compressor, so that the perfon-nance of the aerodynamic
components of the stagecould be analysed. Using this technique to predict the overall
stage operating characteristics was however extremely inappropriate and inefficient
due to the computing resourcesand the time required to solve the model.
Stage performance characteristics could be predicted with in a fraction of the time and
resources by using an existing I-D prediction technique. A modified version of the

technique created by Swain and Connoi4151was used as it was developed for exactly
this type of variable geometry centrifugal compressor stage. It was based on one-
dimensional methods and empirical correlations, and originally used a simple VIGV
performance loss model, which was subsequently replaced with the models derived
from the analysesdescribed in this study.
98
Chapter Six.- Computational Results
CHAPTER 6
COMPUTATIONAL RESULTS
6.1 Validation of Experimental and Computational Techniques
CFD is an extremely valuable tool to improve the understanding of a fluid behaviour
and can provide an insight into the most complex fluid problems. However, the use
of CFD in the design and development of turbomachinery should be complemented
wherever possible by comparable experimental data. Once validated, a standardised
numerical technique can then be used in the design process with a high degree of
confidence, and extrapolated to configurations that have not been experimentally
tested. The numerical technique used in this research was initially validated over a
number of test configurations and boundary conditions.
As described in Chapter 3, the test rig was capable of drawing an air mass flow rate of
up to Ikg/s through the VIGV system. In normal operation however, mass flow rates
of up to 6kgIs are possible through compressor stagesusing this size of VIGV system.
Although the majority of the experimental testing was conducted at a mass flow rate
of 0.5 kg/s, it was also considered necessaryto conduct some tests at a higher value in
order to assessthe implications of mass flow rate on other aerodynamic parameters.
The validity of the CFD predictions at varying mass flow rates could also be
examined so that confidence could be gained in final predictions at the actual design
mass flow rate for which only limited experimental data was available.
Experimentaltestswere conductedat massflow ratesof 0.5kg/s and lkg/s with the

inlet guide vanesset at anglesof 0, +30', and +60'. Numerical simulationswere
conductedusing equivalentboundaryconditions:prescribedmassflow rate at outlet
and total pressureandtemperatureat inlet. Although the majority of the experimental
testing was conducted at 0.5 kg/s, the standard CFD simulation operating
99
configuration of lkgIs was selected for two reasons. Firstly, the specification of
accurate boundary conditions was difficult as a static pressure outlet boundary
condition (rather than a mass flow rate) was sometimes necessaryto aid convergence
at 0.5 kg/s mass flow rate simulations. Also, convergence time was significantly
reduced using the I kg/s boundary condition.
The aerodynamic performance parameters selected for comparison were those that
were most relevant to the analysis and development technique itself. Since the
ultimate objective of VIGV system development is to improve the performance of the

whole compressor stage,attention was focussedon the VIGV system outlet flow field,
as this is where interaction with the inducer leading edge would normally occur. Any
distributions of aerodynamic parametersmeasuredat this plane could be considered to
be the inlet conditionsto the centrifugalimpeller. Two suchparameterswere selected
for the validationtechniqueat this plane:absolutevelocity magnitudeandswirl angle.
6.1.1 Absolute Velocity
Figure 6.1 showsthe pitch-wise-averaged

variation of absolutevelocity at the outlet
the for
plane across span vanesetting angles of 0", +30" and +60*. The numerically
predicted trends comparevery well with the experimentalresults acrossthe span.
Discrepanciesin the velocity near the hub and shroud walls can be attributed to
inaccurate modelling of wall losses and vane clearanceeffects. Experimental
measurements were not takenat closeproximity to the walls, as the end-wall effects
of the probewould result in misleadingvelocity readings. Although the experimental
resultsreveal a similar non-uniformityat the outlet plane at the lower setting angles,
the vanewakecannotbe seenasdistinctly asit canin the computationalprediction.
6.1.2 Swirl Angle
The pitch-wise averageddistribution of swirl angles at the outlet plane remained

uniform at all setting angles, again exhibiting a close correlation between
Figure
experimentalandnumericalresults, 6.2. in
Discrepancies the swirl anglesnear
100
Chapter Six: Computational Results
the hub are apparent, and probably due to boundary layer development occurring
within this region.
80
70
E 60
50
')%-..
40 x
30
0
in 20
.Z
<
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span
x Experimental(00) X Experimental(30') m Dperimental (600)

x... Theoretical (00) ... x... Theoretical (300) ... x.. Theoretical (600)
Fig. 6.1 Spanwise experimental and theoretical velocity profiles
80
70
60
50
40
30 ljjj
20
10
0
-10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span
Experimental(0') Experimental(300) ---*--Experimental (600)
Theoretical (0") Theoretical (300) ... *.. Theoretical (600)
.. ... ..
Fig. 6.2 Spanwise experimental and theoretical deflection profiles
101
ChapterSix: Computational Results
6.1.3 Pressure Loss Coefficient
In addition to the flow characteristicsat the outlet plane, the performanceof the
VIGV system must also be assessedin terms of its efficiency. This has been
calculatedand presentedas a non-dimensionalpressure loss coefficient described
earlier. Figure 6.3 showsthe pressureloss coefficient at both flow rates, for both
experimentalandnumericalresults.
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
(0
2.5
CD
2.0
(n
1.5
92- 1.0
0.5
" :
0.0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Setting Angle (*)
0.5kg/s Experimental kg/s Experimental
.01
X.. 0.5kg/s Theoretical 1kg/s Theoretical
.......
Fig. 6.3 Experimental and theoretical pressurelossvs setting angle
Identical trends are quite clearly seen, although the absolute values of the loss
coefficient differ slightly. This is probably due to the inaccuracyof the numerical
loss models within the flow field and the approximationof smooth wall losses
employed by the CFD solver. A simulation was also conducted at 3kg/s
(correspondingto a typical stagemassflow rate with the VIGV's set at +60") to test
the applicabilityof the losscoefficient. The resultsof this simulationprovedthat the
loss coefficient was equally valid at mass flow rates correspondingto Reynolds
numbersbeyondthe transitional
valuesseenin the experimentaltests.
102
Chapter SLr.- Computational Results
The object of this exercise has been to examine the capability of the CFD technique
described in Chapter 5 to predict a reliable and repeatable description of the flow
within the VIGV system. In addition to the quantitative comparison of numerical and
experimental data presentedhere, a qualitative comparison is equally important, i. e.
the spatial distribution of scalars,and the performance trends with changing boundary
conditions.
This initial validation processproved that the numerical predictions were sufficiently
accurate for the technique to be used with confidence in the design and development
process. Although some discrepancies are evident in the absolute values of the
compared data, the trends are sufficiently comparable to enable potential design
modifications to be accurately evaluatedand comparedrelative to one another.
6.2 VIGV System Computational Performance
As explained in Chapter 1, an ideal centrifugal compressor VIGV system will be
capable of inducing a high range of inlet swirl angles at low loss. Figure 6.4 shows
the loss trend depicted in Figure 6.3 plotted against swirl angle rather than guide vane
setting angle. It can readily be seen that swirl angles up to approximately 60* are
achievableusing this system if increasedlossesare tolerated.
103
5.0
4.5
4.0 .0
3.5
(0 3.0
2.5
0
2.0
1.5
1.0
It
0.5 ..............
. 8-1-84 ..
0.0
0.00 -Lz
20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00
Average OLdletSwid Angle
)( 0.5kg/s Experimental I kg/s Experimental

0.5kg/s Theoretical I kg/s Theoretical
Fig. 6.4 Experimental and theoretical pressure loss vs outlet swirl angle
In order to develop the VIGV systemdesignand reducethe lossesassociatedwith

high vane setting angles,an appreciationof the aerodynamicbehaviourof the vanes
and the passagewas necessary. The use of more complex instrumentationand
measurementsystemssuch as optical techniquescould have provided an extremely
detailedview of the actualperformance.However,efficient use was madeof limited
resources to validate the numerical technique using the most appropriate parameters.
Although not providing a comprehensive view, the experimental technique gave an
adequate understanding of the overall VIGV system aerodynamic behaviour. Having

been validated by the experimental data, the numerical technique was therefore
consideredto be the mostsuitableapproachto examinethe flow field in detail.
The overall aerodynamicperformanceof the VIGV systemwas assessed

in terms of
the magnitude and distribution of outlet swirl angles, and the resulting total pressure
loss, Figure 6.4. Using the CFD technique however, it was possible to examine the
flow in considerably more detail anywhere within the system.
104
Mid-span velocity vector plots at setting anglesof 0', +30', and +60* are shown in
Figures6.5 a, b, and c respectively. As demonstratedin the experimentalresults,the
deviation at mid-spanis very low. Although the vane would ideally have a rounded
leading edgeprofile, a straightchamferis machinedon the leading and trailing edge
in order to reduceproduction costs. Incidencelossesat the 0' setting angle are
minimised by the leading edgechanifer, and the absenceof the usual bulbous vane
leading edge profile that is typical of vanesthat are required to operateefficiently
over high incidenceranges.
As the setting angle is increased, incidence losses and the tendency of the flow to
separate from the leading edge of the suction surface also increase. The velocity
vector plots support the trend depicted in Figure 6.4 relating the total pressure loss to
swirl angle. It can be seen from both Figures 6.4 and 6.5 that at setting angles higher
than 60", the vanes would behave more as a throttling device rather than a swirl
inducing device as the additional pressureloss penalty would exceed the benefit of the
additional turning.
Figures 6.6 a, b, and c show the velocity vector plots around the vane at a setting
angle of +60' at 10% span, 50% span, and 90% span respectively. Separation from
the suction surface of the vanes is more apparent near the hub and results in more
noticeable flow deviation from the vane trailing edge. The increase in deviation
towards the passage walls is attributable to both boundary layer development and
vane hub and tip clearance. Although vane hub and tip clearance is minimised by the
spherical passagedesign of this VIGV system, some flow leakage over the vane hub
and tip is inevitable.
105
ChapterSix: ComputationalResults
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ChapterSix: ComputationalResults
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107
From the near-hubabsolutevelocity contourplots in Figures6.7 a, b, and c, it can be

seenthat the flow downstreamof the vanesis dominatedby the developmentof the
separationpocket on the suctionsurfaceof the vanesat high setting angles.At 30',
Figure 6.7 b, a small areaof separationon the suctionsurfaceof the vanecan be seen,
and the vane wake has not fully dissipatedby the time the outlet plane is reached.
However, at 60' (Figure 6.7 c), the separationpocket on the suction surfaceof the
vanesis significantly enlargedbut the vane wake is rapidly mixed out and does not
extendfar downstream.This is becausethe flow will follow a higher swirl angle at
higher vanesettingangles,andtravel further beforethe outlet planeis reached.It will
then have travelled sufficient distanceso that the wake is no longer distinct. Non-
uniformities at the inducer such as this will result in a decreaseof the overall stage
efficiency.
Absolutevelocity contoursat 50% spanand 90% spanat a vanesettingangleof +600

are shownin Figures6.8 a and b respectively. It can be seenfrom thesefigures that
the severity of the separationpocket downstreamof the vanesdiminishesacrossthe
spantowardsthe shroud.
Examination of the flow regime in a meridional plane revealed a small region of low
total pressure near the hub surface immediately downstream of the vanes (when set at
+60'), Figure 6.9. This is due to the toroidal shapeof the passages,which results in a
small degree of flow detachment and boundary layer growth on the hub surface. This
confirms the suggestion made in Section 4.2.1 that the flow separatesfrom the hub
wall due to radial equilibrium at high vane setting angles. The resulting boundary
layer extends throughout the passage,and will ultimately enter the impeller.
Figure 6.9 also shows that the flow follows the aerodynamic stream surfaces on the
whole, so radial velocity components at the outlet plane are negligible and
in this planeis not necessary.
measurement
108
0 0 SSS0005000SSS
a
oo00 SS
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109
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- C S S
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S N Q mOC O Ifl S tfl S

oN S S t S NJ
SS (0 N C- N(- ( C( S N S
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0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N - 0
0 0 0
0 5 0 5 5 C SC
0 S SS S 0 0 0 0
Li (N C Z C N N (N
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110
2.
- 9OEOq

19 9 93SE-Oq
is 9 930E O
17 9.925E, O
16 9.921E-O
15 9 91SE-Oq
1, 9 glIE-Oq
13 9 90SE -Oq
12 9 902E -Oq
I1 9 897E -01,
10 9.6921E. 01,
9 q 887E-Oq
8 1,883E, O
7 9 878EI011
6 9 873E-Oq
5 9, e68E Oq
I , 66. E-O
3 Fjp9E-oq
U-,
50E-Oll
.;
Fig. 6.9 Separation pocket at hub
6.2.3 Aerodynamic Losses
In order to thoroughly assessthe aerodynamic performance of the system, it was
necessary to determine the source of total pressure loss throughout the passage.
Further development or re-designing of the system would be greatly facilitated if
lossescould be attributed to particular areaswithin the passage.
III
Chapter Siv Computational Results
Examination of mass-averaged total pressure across quasi-orthogonal surfaces

throughout the passage,Figure 6.10, shows how the loss develops through the passage
at the +60" vane setting angle. The overall implication of the hub wall separation and
resulting boundary layer development at high setting angles can be seen here. At
lower setting angles, the passagelosses are negligible in comparison with the vane
incidence and separation losses. At higher setting angles however, as suggested in
Chapter 4, it can be seen that the passagedownstream of the vanes is responsible for
the same proportion of the system losses as the vanes themselves at high vane setting
angles.
4
3.5
3
0 IGVregion
2.5
0
-J 2
2
n,
C: 1.5
co
2
IL 1
0.5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
A)dal Distance (% passage length)
Fig. 6.10 Total pressure loss through passage
A reduction in total pressureloss coefficient (or increase in total pressure) is apparent
at approximately 25% passage length. This is because the total pressures were
calculated across quasi-orthogonal grid surfaces, and the axial distance taken from the
mean radius stream-surface. As shown in the mesh views in Chapter 5, the grid
distorts as the leadingedgeof the vane is approached,which meansthat the actual

grid surfaceis in fact far from orthogonal.
112
Clearly, the two main areasof concern regarding the aerodynamic performance of the
VIGV system are vane incidence loss leading to separation,and the separation
occurring at the hub wall downstream of the vanes.
6.3 Closure
The computational predictions have shown a strong agreement with the experimental
results and have enabled a more detail examination of the flow regime within the
VIGV system. Sufficient confidence has also been gained in the computational
technique for it to be used in the design process of potential new vanes and passage
shapes.
113
ChapterSeven: VIGV SystemDevelopment
CHAPTER 7
VIGV SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
7.1 Introduction
The experimental and computational analysesof the existing VIGV system suggested
that there was scope for potential improvement to its overall aerodynamic
A design by Casey(661
performance. set of aerodynamic rules outlined were followed
in an attempt to optimise the overall VIGV system design. The guidelines that are
applicable to this study are outlined below with a brief description of each criterion
andhow it canbe addressed.
Avoid poor incidence onto blading

In almost all turbomachines, the blade angle at its leading will be designed to
provide optimum incidenceandminimiselossesover the requiredoperatingrange

of the machine. Cambered,curved and twisted vanes are often employed to
satisfy this criterion, but are not so applicablein VIGV systemsfor a numberof
reasons:
i) Variable inlet guide vanes are required to operate over a very high range of
setting angles with low loss and deviation. In order to reduce incidence losses
at high setting angles, PVD (Prescribed Velocity Distribution) studies have
shown that a profiled vane would have an extremely bulbous leading edge.
Although this would result in an acceptable level of incidence at high setting
angles, the vanes' performance at low setting angles would be compromised as

losseswould be considerablyincreaseddueto the increasein blockage.
ii) The addition of a fixed camber to the blade design will result in lower
incidence losses at the deflection for which the blade has been designed. in
the caseof VIGV systems,however,the vanesare required to operatewith

minimal loss at 0' deflection as this correspondsto the design duty of the
114
compressor. If a highly cambered vane is positioned to produce 0' deflection,

the losses will inevitably be much higher than at its designed setting angle.
iii) Profiled vanes represent a considerable increase in VIGV system
manufacturing costs. Unless the vanes could operate with comparable or lower
losses at the compressor design duty, then the long-term benefits in stage
efficiency would be insufficient to justify the additional VIGV system cost.
* Reduce friction on wetted surfaces

Frictional losses caused by the vanes and the passagewalls are unavoidable, but
can be minimised by opting for the smallest number of vanes with the shortest
possible chord length to achieve the desired turning. A large passage-area (low
hub/tip ratio) will also reduce the severity of the passagewall losses and reduce
velocities.
9 Avoid kinetic energy loss

Spanwise flow anywhere within the VIGV passageshould be minimised in order
to avoid any unnecessary kinetic energy loss. This includes radial velocities
induced by boundary layer separation at the hub wall and by secondary flows
causedby blade loading. Vane hub and tip clearanceshould also be minimised in
order to avoid leakagejets.
9 Avoid flow separation

Mixing losses are incur-red when separated flow leaving the vanes eventually
mixes with the main flow. The vanes should therefore be aerodynamically
designed to avoid such separation pockets and vane wakes so that the associated
losses are minimised. Separation from the suction surface of the inlet guide vanes
is clearly evident at high setting angles, as is the dramatic increase in the system
total pressureloss.
* Provide a uniform distribution of flow onto downstream blade rows

In multiple blade row machines, the outlet flow regime of one blade row is the
inlet flow regime into the next one downstream. This means that an irregular flow
pattern at the outlet of a blade row will probably result in a performance penalty in
115
the downstream one. Blade rows should therefore not be designed in isolation,
and the implications of the outlet flow on downstream components should be
considered.
As discussed in the previous chapter, the presenceof any pitch-wise or span-wise
non-uniformity in the VIGV system outlet flow can have a detrimental effect on
the performance of the compressor. In addition to the design of the vanes, their
axial location is also critical in this respect, as their proximity to the inducer is an
influential factor in the unifonnity of the inducer inlet flow.
Having assessedthe performance of the existing VIGV system, the areas of potential
improvement have been highlighted by this set of design guidelines. Using the now-
proven computational technique to provide fast and accurate comparative

performance predictions, parametric studies were conducted on a number of potential
vane and passagere-designs.
Whilst it was accepted that the computational technique could not be guaranteed to
provide an accurate absolute performance prediction (such as the magnitude of total

pressure loss for a given design configuration), using a standardised technique
enabled accurate relative comparisons from one design to another.
7.2 PassageDesign
It has already been shown that the passage shares an equal proportion of the total
system losses with the vanes at high setting angles. It has also been determined that
the rate of convergence of the hub wall is responsible for a small degree of flow
separationwhich probablycontributessignificantly to the passagelosses. In addition

to the effect on the systemloss, the passageshapealso affects the magnitudeand
distribution of velocities and swirl angles at the inducer inlet.
Clearly, the toroidal shape of the VIGV system passage is itself the root of a
considerable proportion of the losses as it lengthens the meridional flow distance and
results in adverse radial pressure gradients throughout the passage. Despite this
116
effect, the current parametric shape of the passage offers a distinct performance
improvement over cylindrical designs, as detailed in Chapter 2. The use of a spherical
surface hub and shroud profile in conjunction with circular inner and outer vane
profiles resulted in constant blade clearance at hub and tip for any vane setting angle.
The comparison of passagedesigns shown in Figure 7.1 demonstrates how the blade
tip clearance at 0' setting angle can be minimised using a spherical shroud. Similarly,
the blade hub clearance will be minimised at higher setting angles by the spherical
passagehub. This spherical vane passagenaturally leads to a swan-neck converging
section passagedesign between the vanes and the impeller leading edge.
Cylindrical
Passage
]i
Vane Setting Angle = 90* VaneSettingAngle = 0'

1
Spherical
Passage
Fig. 7.1 Comparison of Cylindrical and Spherical Section Passages
Using the geometricarrangementsuggested by Swain (501the VIGV systempassage

,
shapecould be defined by two geometricalparameters;radius ratio and area ratio.
Theseare the ratios of mid-spanradiusandtotal flow areafrom the inlet of the VIGV
117
ChapterSeven: VIGV System Development
system to the inlet to the inducer. Through conservation of angular momentum and
continuity, the theoretical swirl angle at the inducer could be predicted basedupon the
vane setting angle (assuming zero deviation) and the radius and area ratios. A high
radius ratio would tend to increase the turning due to conservation of angular
momentum, whereas a high area ratio would tend to decrease the turning due to
continuity. Swain[501suggested that the average outlet swirl angle could be
approximated as a function of the passage geometrical parameters described in

Section 5.3 by the following relationship:
Average Outlet Swirl Angle= tan-' tanO* radius ratio

arearatio
This assumesthat there is zero deviation from the inlet guide vanes, and that the flow
regime is unaffected by viscous losses at the passage walls. The outcome of the
relationship over a range of conceptual passagegeometries is shown in Figure 7.2. As

expected, the trends indicate that an ideal passageshapewill have a low area ratio and
high radius ratio.
90
80
3
4)
70 2
cm
60 1,8
1.6
50
I
C/)
1.4
,-
CD 40 1.2
:3030 Radius Ratio 1
a) Area Ratio 0.8
CY)20
co
a) 10 0.6
>
0.4
0 0.2_
0 20 40 60 80 100
Vane Setbng Angle (")
Fig. 7.2 Effect of passageshape on outlet swirl angle
118
ChapterSeven: VIGV System Development
Although this simplistic approach has provided an approximation of the effect of the
passage geometry in terms of swirl angle, the associated losses have not been
considered. These losses can be predicted to an acceptable degree of accuracy using
3-D CFD predictions. Using the automatic grid generation technique described in
Section 5.3, a parametric study was conducted by varying the radius ratio and area
ratio of the passagein series of simulations. Four new passagedesigns were analysed,
with radius ratio/area ratio varying from 0.7 to 2.1. The meridional passageshapes
are shown in Figure 7.3, each having a common outlet plane (impeller inlet plane).
The implication of radius ratio on passagelength can be seen, and in the case of the
'd3' design this leads to an unacceptably large VIGV system which would not only
lead to high inlet losses,but also excessive manufacturing costs.
d3
Flow Direction
VIGV Inlet
I 12)dl
---* ""'no Inducer Inlet
d2
-
d4
Fig. 7.3 Meridional passageshapes
The results of the simulations are presented in Tables 7.1 and 7.2 for the range of
geometries shown in Figure 7.3. The data are presented both in terms of a fixed vane
setting angle (varying outlet flow angle) in Table 7.1, and a fixed outlet flow angle
(varying vane setting angle) in Table 7.2 which allows a more meaningful comparison
of the passageperformance. (Pressure loss coefficient was not used to compare the
designs in this investigation, as the varying inlet areas of the passageshapesresulted
in a varying inlet static pressure. This in turn would result in the calculation of
misleading loss coefficients.
119
Design Radius Ratio Ave. Outlet PressureLoss Design Radius Ratio PressureLoss
Area Ratio Swirl (% max) Area Ratio (% max)
c12 0.91 52 15 c12 0.91 34
dI 2.1 66 100 dl 2.1 100
d2 0.7 41 9 d2 0.7 37
d3 2 66 95 d3 2 96
d4 0.85 50 18 d4 0.85 47
Table 7.1 Vane Setting Angle = 60* Table 7.2 Average Outlet Swirl
Angle = 60*
It can be seen that although they generatethe most swirl, the dI and d3 designs which
have a high radius ratio/area ratio, also generate the highest pressure loss. This is
mainly due to viscous losses caused by the increased length of the inlet passage at
higher radius ratios, and is also due to the degree of separation that occurs on the hub
wall as the passageconverges. When presentedin terms of a fixed outlet swirl angle,
it can be seen that the c12 design, which has a much lower radius ratio/area ratio, is in
fact the best inlet passagedesign basedupon these design constraints.
7.2.1 Re-designed passage geometry
Although a spherical section hub and shroud is required in order to minimise blade
clearance at all setting angles, it necessitatesa converging section passage to the

impeller inlet plane. The separation pocket seen in the meridional view in Figure 6.9
was due to the toroidal shape of the passage, which resulted in a boundary layer
detachment. The CFD analysis has demonstratedthat the swan-neck design may not
necessarily be the most efficient method of reducing the flow area. In an attempt to
eliminate the separation pocket and reduce the passagelosses, a conical section hub
was investigated in place of the converging spherical section, shown
diagrammatically in Figure 7.4.
120
Chapter Seven: VIGV SystemDevelopment
Fig. 7.4 Conical and spherical sectionhub geometries
Although the magnitude of the separation pocket was reduced, the new hub did not
appear to affect the overall system loss at all. It is possible,, however, that the
implications of the improvement in flow regime in terms of total pressure loss were
not accurately predicted, as the technique validation had already shown that this was
the case in some of the previous simulations.
The overall outcome of the investigations into re-designing the passageshape is that
the existing geometry is in fact probably the optimum shape if vane hub and tip
clearance is to be minimised. If a different impeller inlet diameter is used, the
technique presented here will enable a new optimum inlet passage geometry to be
determined rapidly and accurately as long as its parametric design remains the same.
121
7.3 Vane Design
The existing VIGV system employs 13 untwisted flat plate vanes, each with a
pitch/chordratio of 1. Without modifying the existing passageshapeor vanespindle
housingsand actuatingmechanism,the scopefor researchinto new configurations
entailedexaminationof parameterssuch as the vane chord and pitch, and the shape
andtype of vane.
In addition to the mechanical constraints of the VIGV assembly, manufacturing
constraints were also considered so that it would be possible for a new prototype set
of vanes to be manufactured, installed, and experimentally tested. The net outcome of
these consiraints was that the vane must be made from flat plate mild steel, and no
profiling other than simple leading and trailing edge chanifers would be possible.
of various inlet guide vane designsare presentedin this and

Relative assessments
subsequentchaptersat a setting angle of +60*. The designs were assessedby
examinationof the averagedeflection producedat the impeller inlet plane and the
total pressureloss coefficient. As both of theseaerodynamicparametersvaried for
each design, a meansof direct comparisonof the relative merits of eachdesign was
required.
The equivalence curve shown in Figure 7.5 was derived from the relationships
between inlet prewhirl and loss on the overall stage performance, shown below.
Comparison of the implications of the various inlet guide vane designs on the stage
performance was therefore possible using this relationship between prewhirl and loss.
7
IIAT AT-: (U2VW2
Effect of prewhirl: P03
-: POI +I where: -UIVWI)ICP
To.
Effect of inlet loss coefficient: P03= Rc (POI Coef XPOI

-(Loss -PI))
Nominal stage performance parameterswere derived for use in these calculations as

follows: P0, = 101235Pa, Y7= 0.8, Tol = 298K, U2 = 329.9m/s, ul = 157.4m/s,
Vw2 = 306.3nVs, Rc = 2, Pi = 99318Pa
122
5
4.5
4
.0.
-
(D
o 3.5
0
Co 3
w
0 2.5
2
2 1.5
12-
1
0.5
0
10 12
Average Deflection Increase
Fig. 7.5 VIGV Deflection/Loss Equivalence Curve
7.3.1 Pitch/Chord Study
The use of well known 2-D blade performanceprediction rules such as Howell's
correlation are inapplicable at high incidence angles, therefore selection of an
optimum flat plate vane designdependedmainly on empirical data from successive
CFD simulations. Using the computationaltechnique,the effect of pitch/chordratio
of flat plate vanesbasedon the existing shapewas assessed.The implications of
varying both pitch (by varying the numberof vanes)and chord (by varying the total
arc angleof the vane)wereinvestigatedseparately.
123
7.3.1.1 Varying Chord
Vane chords of 17*, 22", 27*, and 32' (shown in Figure 7.6) were selected for
analysis. A vane chord greater than 32" was not considered as the torque induced on
such a vane by the pressuredifference acrossits faces would be unacceptably high.

27
Z'
22:
I--------
Fig. 7.6 Varying flat plate vane chord (17" to 32")

--
The overall results of this investigation are shown in Figure 7.7 (the system was
modelled with 13 vanes at a setting angle of +60* in each case). It can be seen that
the 27* chord vane which had been selectedby Swain[50]exhibits a good compromise
of minimal deviation and pressureloss at the 60* setting angle. When compared with
the equivalence curve in Figure 7.5, the gradient of the trend depicted in Figure 7.7
shows that the 27" is in fact the optimum vane chord. This means that as the vane
chord is increased further, there would be a net detrimental effect on the stage
performance as the gradient of the curve becomes steeperthan that in Figure 7.5.
124
6
320
5
Increasin 270
22*
U) chord
Co
170
Co
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average OLAletSwid Angle (1)
Fig. 7.7 Overall performance with varying chord
7.3.1.2 Varying Pitch
The pitch/chordratio can also be varied by changingthe pitch (or numberof vanes).
A reduction in the pitch/chord ratio by reducing the number of vanes (and hence
spindlesand housings)is more attractiveto the manufacturerthan reducingthe chord
of the vanesas the potential savingsin manufacturingcost are much greater. Odd
numbers(from 5 to 17) of 27* chord flat plate vaneswere analysedat a settingangle
of +60".
Figure 7.8 shows the effect of varying pitch on the overall VIGV system perfon-nance.
Based on the equivalence curve in Figure 7.5, the trend suggeststhat 13 to 17 vanes
would provide the optimum pitch.
125
5 17
-4-.
(D 13
Increasing number of vanes
11
Co (decreasingpitch)
0
Co 7
5
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average Outlet Swid Angle (0)
Fig. 7.8 Overall performance with varying pitch
The aim of the pitch/chord study was to determine whether or not the number and the
chord of the vanes could be adjusted to deliver an improved VIGV system

performance. By reducing the number of vanes or reducing the chord, the total
frictional losses across the vane surfaces is reduced at the expense of fluid deflection.
The study described here has examined the effect of varying either pitch or chord
separately, and has determined that the existing vane configuration in fact delivers the
optimal performance. However, rather than considering the two parameters
separately, the results from the study should be used to consider the effect of the
combined pitch/chord ratio. This means that the performance of the existing vane
configuration could also be achieved using another vane configuration with the same
pitch/chord ratio.
A pitch/chordratio of I was selectedfor the designof the existing vanes,this means

that when set at 90*, the vaneswill fully closeoff the flow passagewith no overlap
between adjacent vanes. With this in mind, it can be seen that the following
configurationsalso share a pitch/chord ratio of approximately 1: 17 x 21* chord
vanes, 15 x 24' chord vanes, IIx 32* chord vanes. As mentionedearlier, it is
126
desirable to reduce the number of vanes in such a machine in order to reduce
manufacturing costs, so the 32* chord vane configuration was selected for further
analysis.
As forecast by the pitch/chord ratio study detailed above, Figure 7.9 confirms that the
performance of a vane configuration consisting of II vanes of 32* chord is

comparable with the original 13 x 27" chord vanes.
..:
(D
0
0)
a- 1
0
0 20 40 60 80
Average OLAletSwid Angle (0)
F---x..
Fig. 7.9 Performance
11 x 320 chord --+- 13 x 270 chor]
comparison of pitch/chord=l vane configurations
The overall performance of the two configurations is comparable as increasing the

for
vane chord compensates reducing the number of vanes, both in terms of losses and
average deflection. If the increased torque to which the longer chord vanes will be
subjected is within an acceptable limit, the IIx 32* chord configuration is a very
suitable alternative, and representsan advantagein reduced manufacturing costs.
127
7.3.2 Vane Shape Study
The existing vane shapeis of constantpitch/chordratio acrossits span,which in an

annularcascademeansthat its leadingand trailing edgesdiverge from the hub to the
shroud. The edgesare in fact radial lines sharingthe samecentre-point,which lies at
the point wherethe axesof vanerotation coincideswith the axis of symmetryof the
passage,as shownin Figure5.2 earlier. Constantchord vanes(increasingpitch/chord
andcould alsobe usedin this
ratio from hub to tip) areoften usedin annularcascades,
case.
A comparison of the geometries of the constant chord, and constant pitch/chord ratio
vanes is shown in the meridional passageview in Figure 7.10. Two possible constant
chord vane configurations are proposed here, Vane A has a 27* chord at the hub,
whilst Vane B has a 27* chord at the shroud. The vanes were modelled merely as an
adaptation of the existing vanes a reduced shroud chord (Vane A), or an extended hub
chord (Vane B). A significant difference was anticipated between the aerodynamic
performance of constant chord and constant pitch/chord vanes due to their
geometrical configuration at high setting angles. An implication of using constant
chord vanes in an annular cascade is that the orthogonal clearance length between
adjacent vanes varies considerably across the span when positioned at high setting
angles. This varying clearance occurs due to the increasing pitch between the vanes
from hub to tip, as illustrated in Figure 7.11.
Since the vane could no longer be defined by a common chord angle at its tip and hub,
the geometries were generatedusing a modified version of the spreadsheetdescribed
in Section 5.3. The resulting vane configurations are shown in the computational
meshesin Figure7.12.
128
Constant chord
vane (A)
Original constant
27*
pitch/chord vane
Constant chord
vane
27*
Fig. 7.10 Meridional view of constant chord vane configurations
Hub Tip
'*"\
Constant
4'
I chord
Setting Angle = 0*
r1ow th vane (A)
Direction
Original
Setting Angle +60*
constant
pitch/chord
-- ---------- --
vane
Fig. 7.11 Illustration of orthogonal clearance between adjacent vanes
129
Chapter Seven.- VIGVSystem Development
(a) Original constant pitch/chord vanes
(b) Constant chord Vane (A)
(c) Constant chord Vane (B)
Fig. 7.12 Computational meshes
130
Cascadesoperating in the mode shown in Figure 7.11 for Vane A will inevitably give
rise to high levels of deviation due to the clearance between the vanes. Vane B,
however, was not expected to exhibit the same deficit in aerodynamic performance
due to its larger chord. The extended chord means that there will be a significant
overlap between adjacent vanes at the hub, and a geometrical layout identical to that
of the original vanes at the shroud.
The implications of the geometrical configuration shown in Figure 7.11 are

highlighted by the overall performance results in Figure 7.13. As expected, Vane A
performed poorly as a result of the high levels of deviation caused by its short chord.
Vane B, however performed similarly to the original vanes, producing marginally
more swirl with slightly higher losses. Comparison of these results with the
equivalence curve in Figure 7.5 indicates that Vane B would in fact result in a
improved stage performance with no extra manufacturing or assembly costs.
5 A
04
0
24
Co
Co
0 3
-J
$D
Z
10 2
0
0 20 40 60 80
Average Outlet Swid Angle (0)
I VaneA Vane I
--. h,--VaneB ---*--Odginal
Fig. 7.13 Performance comparison of constant chord and original vanes
131
The increase in swirl generated by Vane B is attributable to the elimination of the
separation pocket on the suction surface of the vanes across the lower half of the span,
Figure 7.14. The resulting deviation near the hub is therefore significantly reduced, as
shown in Figure 7.15, leading to an increase in the average outlet swirl angle.
(Figures 7.14 and 7.15 are shown at a vane setting angle of +60').
The results of this investigation have shown that Vane B could be a suitable
alternative to the original constant pitch/chord vanes if increased turning is favoured

at the expense of increasedloss.
7.3.3 Vane Type Study
As a result of the research into vane design presented so far, it has been re-iterated
that the most significant implication of using flat plate vanes at high setting angles is
the inherent incidence loss. It would appear therefore that the most appropriate
is Sanz [361
reported their
solution to this problem the use of profiled vanes. et al
findings on a non-accelerating guide vane cascade that could operate over an inlet
flow angle range of 601 using profiled vanes. Although the loss and deviation
exhibited by the vanes at high setting angles were acceptably low, at 0* setting (or
incidence) angle the loss was approximately double that determined from the analyses
of the existing flat plate VIGV's. This fact, combined with the manufacturing
constraints outlined earlier in Section 7.3, highlights the need to find an alternative
solution to this problem.
Another simple approach to reducing the incidence loss caused by flat plate vanes at
high setting angles is to use flat plate tandem vanes (with a variable trailing edge
flap), Figure 7.16. These vanes consist of a fixed axially-aligned leading section,
about which a trailing section pivots, thus minimising incidence loss at any setting
Okiishi [381
analysedthe performance of an annular cascadeof such vanes
angle. et al
operating as inlet guide vanes to an axial compressor. Although a sharp increase in
loss was observed at setting angles higher than 35', the losses at 00 were comparable
with those of the original flat plate VIGV's-
132
Q) rl /'
N'\ '
'77,
lu
4
0
0
I
1
Q
cC C
133
Vane setting angle
Fig. 7.16 Variable trailing edge flap tandem vane concept
The results of the tests are presentedin Chapter 2, and were sufficiently encouraging
to prompt further investigation into the performance of the VIGV system

incorporating tandem vanes.
134
Chapter Eight: Tandem Vane Development
CHAPTER8
TANDEM VANE DEVELOPMENT
8.1 Introduction
The objective of the vane re-design study was to optimise the VIGV system within the
imposed manufacturing constraints. The existing experimental and numerical test
techniques could be used to fully evaluate the potential VIGV system performance
improvement using tandem vanes. The numerical techinique was used as a
'postdiction' tool in the analysis of the flat plate inlet guide vanes, i. e. the
aerodynamic performance was predicted after it had been experimentally determined.
In the case of the tandem vanes, however, the now-proven numerical technique could
be used as a performance prediction tool to evaluate potential designs and select the
optimum one for experimental performance confirmation.
8.2 Tandem Vane Design
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the new vane design had to comply with the
manufacturing and installation constraints. Again, the vanes had to be made from flat
plate mild steel, and no profiling other than simple leading and trailing edge chamfers
would be possible. An equally significant design constraint was that the existing
VIGV system assembly must be used to accommodate the new vanes with no
permanent modification. This meant that the existing vane spindles must be used and
that the existing hub and shroud passageshapewould dictate the vane inner and outer
profile.
The tandem vane concept shown in the previous chapter, which actually consist of
two blade rows, was used as a basis for the development of the tandem inlet guide
135
ChapterEight: TandemVaneDevelopment
vanes. In operation,the leadingsectionof the vaneremainsin fixed alignmentwith

the axial inlet flow, which meansthat it must be rigidly attachedto the hub and
shroudwalls. The trailing sectionof the vanemust pivot usingthe existingassembly,
and its leading edge must lie on the axis of vane rotation. The axial clearance
between its leading edge and the trailing edge of the leading section must be
minimisedto preventflow leakagewhenthe vanesare setat high settingangles.
This meansthat as well as minimising the axial clearancebetweenthe vanes,the

leading and trailing edgesmust be so designedthat there is sufficient freedom of
movement to allow the trailing vane to be rotated through high setting angles.
Although these requirementswould ideally be satisfiedusing the circular profiled
leading and trailing edgesshown in Figure 7.15, this was not possible due to the
manufacturingconstraintslisted above. Instead,the geometricalarrangementshown
in Figure 8.1 using straight chamferswould have to be used. This design offered
sufficient rotational freedom for the trailing vane to be pivoted by 60", with a
minimal axial clearance between the leading and trailing vanes. Using this
configuration,the axial clearancebetweenthe two vanesis Imm with the trailing
vaneat 0* settingangle.
Direction of air flow

Maximum setting
angle = 60"
Fixed leading vane

------------ -- ---- --
Pivoting trailing vane
Fig. 8.1 Tandem vane configuration using straight chamfers
The chamferappliedto the trailing edgeof the original flat plate vaneswould also be
suitablefor the trailing edgeof the trailing tandemvane. However,sincethe leading
edgeof the leadingtandemvanewould no longerbe requiredto operateover a range
of incidenceangles,a sharperchamfercould be appliedin order to reduceincidence
136
ChapterEight: TandemVaneDevelopment
lossesfurther. A comparisonof the sectionalviews of the original flat platevanesand

the new tandemvaneconceptis shownin Figure8.2.
Direction of air flow N Vane

pivot point
Fig. 8.2 Comparison of original and tandem vane concept
Based on the assumption that the tandem vanes will perform similarly to the original
flat plate vanes, it was felt the chord of the trailing tandem vane should be similar to
the original. Since the leading vane has no effect on the induced deflection, it was
that be to
considered only a shortchordwould necessary achieve the desiredeffect of
reducing the incidenceloss. A chord angle of 10' was selectedas this provided a
sufficient chordlengthat the vanetip to projectforwardof the spindlemechanism,as
shownin Figure8.3. This wasnecessaryso that the leadingvanecould be attachedto
the stationarypassageshroudwall ratherthan the moving spindle mechanism. The
trailing vane would be the same as the existing flat plate vanes, but with the leading
P of chord removed so that the vane rotational centreline becomes the new leading
edge of the trailing vane.
Since the numerical predictions had to be conducted before any experimental testing
could take place, the next stage in the development of the tandem vanes was to
implement the new vane profile and configuration into the existing numerical
technique.
137
Vane rotation
(trailing tande
vane
leading edge)
nechanism
Original flat
plate vane
Fixed leading
tandem vane
Fig. 8.3 Leading tandem vane geometry
8.2.1 Numerical Technique
The geometry definition technique outlined in Section 5.3 was developed from the
outset so that it could be easily modified to accommodate new vane designs.

Modification of the spreadsheetto produce the tandem vane profile was possible if the
tandem vanes were assumedto be solid, i. e. no gap between the leading and trailing
vanes. The necessarychangeswere then as follows:
1. Extending the vane leading edge forward (from -5' from the vane centreline to
-
10' for the leadingedgeof the leadingvane)
2. Extending or reducing the total vane chord accordingto the particular trailing
vane chord being investigated.
3. Fixing the leading 10* of vane chord to a setting angle of 0* so that it remained in
this axial position regardlessof the overall setting angle input by the user.
138
The graphical output from the modified spreadsheetis shown in Figure 8.4 (the
trailing vane chord is 22* in this case). In the position shown (setting angle = 0'), the
mid-span profile of the tandem vane appearsas a single solid vane shown in Figure
8.5 a. Profiles at +30* and +60* are shown in Figures 8.5 b and c respectively, where
it can be seen that no axial clearance between the two vanes is present in the
numerical model.
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Fig. 8.4 Tandem vane spreadsheet graphical output
(a) Setting angle= 0' (b) Setting angle= +30* (c) Setting angle= +60*
Fig. 8.5 Mid-span section through tandem vane
The geometrical accuracy of the numerical vane model was obviously slightly
compromised by the absence of the clearance between the vanes. Despite this,
accurately modelling the aerodynamic effect of the clearancewas not anticipated to be

sufficiently necessary to warrant a total change of the proven geometry, mesh
generation, and solving techniques.
139
Chapter Eight., Tandem Vane Development
Although the vane design had been modified, the overall geometrical configuration
and size of the computational domain remained unchanged. Only minor changes
were therefore required to the existing grid topology templates that had been created
for the original flat plate vanes. Changes in the vane hub and tip clearance were
accounted for by 'blocking-off' additional cells at both the hub and tip of the leading
vane, and in the area of the trailing vane stem at the spindle. A view of the tandem
vane computational mesh (with an additional rotated mesh) is shown in Figure 8.6 a,
b, and c at 0', +30* and +60* respectively.
In order to ensure consistency of prediction accuracy so that the tandem vanes could
be fairly compared with the original vanes, the boundary conditions and solving
technique were identical to those used in the original flat plate vane simulations.
8.2.2 Trailing Vane Chord Selection
Since the parametric shape of the tandem vane had been outlined, an optimal trailing
vane chord was the only remaining geometric variable to be determined. The most
appropriate technique to determine this chord was a computational pitch/chord study
similar to that conducted on the original flat plate vanes. Although the configuration
selected for experimental testing must have 13 vanes so that the existing VIGV
assembly could be used, a pitch study was conducted as well as a chord study for
completenessof the research.
140
Chaper Eight.- Tandem VaneDevelopment
(a) Setting angle= 0'
(b) Setting angle= +300
(c) Setting angle= +60'
Fig. 8.6 Tandem vane computational meshes
141
Chapter Eight. Tandem Vane Development
8.2.2.1 Varying Chord
Sincethe chord of the leadingtandemvanewas fixed at 10* andthe trailing vanewas

the only moving part, the systemadoptedfor measuringthe tandemvanechord was to
measurethe chord of the trailing vaneonly. Vanechordsof 17*, 22" and 27' (shown
in Figure 8.7) wereselectedfor analysisat a settingangleof +60'.
--------
Fig. 8.7 Varying tandem vane chord (17' to 27')
--
The results of the varying chord study are presented in Figure 8.8 along with those
from the original flat plate vane chord study. The potential performance improvement
offered by the tandem vanes is immediately apparent from the results of the chord
study. For any particular vane chord angle, the average outlet swirl produced by the
tandem vanes is comparable with the flat plate vanes, whilst the pressure loss is
reduced to less than 50%. Comparison of the tandem vane performance trend with
the equivalence curve in Figure 7.5 suggeststhat a vane chord of 27* would provide
the optimal performance.
142
6
32*
-e_
5
0
0
Increasing 27"
04 22'
U) chord
Co
0
-J 3
!D
17' 277
2 22*
17'
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average Outlet Swirl Angle
Flat plate vanes ... *.. Tandem vanes
Fig. 8.8 Overall performance with varying chord
8.2.2.2 Varying Pitch
Again, odd numbers of vanes from 5 to 17 were selectedfor analysis at a setting angle
of +60". Based on the outcome of the chord study, a tandem vane chord of 22' was
selected for comparison with the flat plate vanesof 27' chord. The results of the pitch
study are presented in Figure 8.9, where the trends depict a similar performance
comparison to Figure 8.8 above. Of particular note is the similarity in overall
performance between 13 and 17 tandem vanes. This suggeststhat any deviation at the
vanes has been sufficiently reduced with 13 tandem vanes that the addition of more
vanes has little effect on the overall performance. Also, the increase in viscous losses
associated with the increase in wetted surface area caused by the greater number of
vanes is balanced by the reduction in loss due to flow separation at the vanes.
143
5 17
Increasing number of vanes 13
0
0
(decreasing
77-pitch)
co
V)
0
--J 3
7
13
IL 57
5 17
1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average Ouflet Swid Angle (0)
Flat plate vanes ... *- -- Tandem vanes
Fig. 8.9 Overall perforMance with varying pitch
The pitch chord study strongly supported the decision to investigate in detail the
potential performance benefits of tandem vanes. The objective of the study was,
however, to determine a suitable tandem vane chord angle for further experimental
investigation. The trends in the previous two figures show that the 22' chord and 271
chord tandem vanes are both potential candidates. Although the 27* chord vane
appearsto perform better than the smaller chord, it was felt that the torque induced in
the vane stem could be too high for the vane to be used in possible future full-scale
testing. Both the 27* tandem vane and the original flat plate vanes share the same
chord, but in the case of the tandem vane, the whole moving chord is downstream of
the vane rotational centreline, and the vane stem is half the length of the original
vanes. This means that the torque in the vane stem resulting from the pressure
differential across the vane at high setting angles will be considerably higher than that
in the original flat plate vanes.
The 22' chord tandem vane was therefore selectedfor further numerical investigation,
and ultimately experimental evaluation.
144
8.3 Tandem (22' Chord) Vane Computational Performance
Before any new vanes were manufactured for experimental testing, a more detailed
computational analysis of the 22" chord tandem vanes was conducted. So far, a
comparative assessmentof the tandem vane performance had been conducted at a
setting angle of +60' as this was clearly the most demanding vane operating
configuration. However, the performance of the VIGV system at lower setting angles
should also be examined, as it must not be compromised at the expense of any
improvement at +60'.
The flow visualisationspresentedin this sectionhave been arrangedidentically to

those in Section 6.2 for direct comparison of the two vane designs.
Mid-span velocity vector plots at setting angles of 0', +30*, and +60' are shown in
Figures 8.10 a, b, and c respectively. Deviation at this radial plane is slightly higher
that the flat plate vanes due to the decreasein effective vane chord. Leading edge
separation has been significantly reduced at all setting angles by the axial alignment
of the leading vane section, and by the re-designed leading edge chamfer. The
subsequentseparation from the suction surface of the vane at the higher setting angles
has also diminished as a result of the vane re-design.
Figures 8.11 a, b, and c show the velocity vector plots around the vane at a setting
angle of +60' at 10% span, 50% span, and 90% span respectively. Although flow
deviation and separation within the passageis again very prominent near the hub, a
marked improvement in the flow regime is evident. Towards the vane tip, separation
is barely identifiable from the computational predictions.
Although the magnitude of the deviation has increased slightly, the velocity vector
plots have demonstrated a considerable improvement in the flow regime around the
inlet guide vanes.
145
Chapter Eight: Tandem VaneDevelopment
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Near-hub absolute velocity contour plots at setting angles of 0', +30", and +60* are
shown in Figures 8.12 a, b, and c respectively. As described in Figures 8.10 and 8.11,
the magnitude of the separation pocket on the suction surface of the vanes at high
setting angles has significantly diminished. Despite the decrease in separation,
dissipation of the vane wake through the passageis similar to that of the flat plate
vanes.
Absolute velocity contours at 50% span and 90% span at a vane setting angle of +60*
are shown in Figures 8.13 a and b respectively. Again, the merits of the tandem vane
design are apparent in the absenceof any noticeable separation across the vane span.
The increase in deviation can, however, be seen in the velocity contours by the angle
of the vane wake as it leaves the trailing edge of the vanes.
8.3.3 Aerodynamic Losses
The overall performance of the tandem vanes is compared with that of the original flat
plate vanes in Figure 8.14. The predicted performance improvement at any setting
angle is clearly demonstratedin the trends shown in this figure. With the vanes set at
their axial (0') position, any additional viscous loss caused by the increase in total
surface area of the tandem vanes is compensatedby the reduction in incidence loss
from the re-designed leading edge chanifer. This effect was further investigated by
re-modelling the tandem vanes at the 0" setting angle with the leading edge chanifer
used from the flat plate vanes, the results of which showed a noticeable increase in the
pressure loss coefficient. At higher setting angles, the reduction in the severity of the
separation pocket results in a dramatic decreasein the overall VIGV system losses.
The reduction in the effective vane chord is also noticeable as a slight reduction in the
average outlet swirl angle as the vanes approachthe +60' setting angle.
148
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Tw
<Z=7'\
150
0
0
Co
12- 1
20 40 60 80
0 Average OLdletSwid Angle
I Flat Plate Vanes Tandem Vanes,

s
Fig. 8.14 Performance comparison of flat plate and tandem vanes
The numerical technique had forecast a potentially rewarding improvement in the
overall performance of the VIGV system if tandem inlet guide vanes were used in
place of the original flat plate vanes. Since the tandem vane concept had been
developed in accordance with the design constraints outlined earlier, a new set of
vanes could be manufactured and experimentally tested so that the predictions could
be validated.
151
8.4 Vane Manufacture and Installation
The tandemvaneswere laser-cutfrom 6mm mild steelplate as per the profile design
in Figure 8.15. Leadingandtrailing edgechamfersandthe locating holesin the
vane
stemwere subsequentlyadded,and a smoothsurfacefinish was ensuredon all of the
vanefaces.
ccA-
s
34.4r?
vn
R6mm
85,
95*
[1.!.
7fflm
R114
Leading Vane Trailing Vane
Fig. 8.15 Tandem ane design
The trailing vanes were installed using the existing spindle mechanisms, whilst the
leading vanes were aligned at 0' setting angle and glued in place at the hub and
shroud. Shims were placed between the leading and trailing sections during assembly
to ensure an axial clearance of Imm. so that the trailing vane would be free to rotate
up to angles of 60'. The VIGV assembly was then re-installed complete with
instrumentation exactly as it was in the original tests.
152
8.5 Experimental Results
Again, experimental tests were conducted at massflow rates of 0.5kg/s and I kg/s with
the tandem inlet guide vanes set at angles of 0', +30', and +60'. Due to time
limitations, experimental testing of the tandem vanes was only conducted at the outlet
plane rather than the upstream plane. Based on the outcome of the original testing, it
was felt that sufficient flow field data could be obtained from this plane to conduct an
adequate technique validation and provide an overall performance assessmentof the
new vanes.
Figure 8.16 shows the average deflection across the range of setting angles for both
the flat plate and tandem vanes. The trends are comparable apart from the 'zero
error', where approximately Y of swirl is generatedfrom vanes which should be set

at 0'. The tandem vanes produce marginally less swirl at higher setting angles due to
their shorterchord.
70
,, 60
0
: 50
0
; 40
VNO--
30
cm
(z
D 20
(Z5
<
10
0
0 20 40 60 80
IGV Sefting Angle (0)
x Tandem Vanes ... *.. Flat Plate Van
Fig. 8.16 Experimental deflection at VIGV systemoutlet
153
Figures 8.17 and 8.18 show the radial and circumferential distributions of deflection
and velocity. Comparison with the results from the flat plate vanes in Figures 4.7 and
4.8 reveals that the vane re-design has little effect on the outlet flow field.
80 40
70 35 :]
60 30 E
c: 50 25 :L-
6
0
40 20
CD
0) 30 15 ,0
:3
13
20 lo Mcon
10 5
0 I--t0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span (%)
Deflection (0') Deflection (30') --*--Deflection (600)

Velocity (0") Velocity (30') Velocity (600)
Fig. 8.17 Radial distribution of deflection and velocity at VIGV system outlet
70 30
60 25 42
E
-0 50 20 :L.
c 40
o
0
0
t 15
13) 30
0 lo
20
10 5
0 -j 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Pitch (%)

Velocity (00) Velocity (30') Velocity (600)
--
Fig. 8.18 Radial distribution of deflection and velocity at VIGV system outlet
154
Chapter Eight., Tandem Vane Development
By far the most noticeable difference in performance between the two types of vanes
is the overall total pressure loss coefficient through the VIGV system. This is plotted
against average outlet swirl angle in Figure 8.19 to provide an overall performance
comparison of the two vane designs. As shown in Figure 8.16, the deflection
produced by the two types of vanes is comparable, the main difference being the clear
decreasein pressure loss coefficient at the +60* setting angle. The apparent increase
in loss at the lower setting angles was however, both unexpected and extremely
undesirable. Consequently, it raises doubts about the validity of the experimental

tests.
5
IC
4 .
cn 3
0
01
0 ...............................
0 20 40 60 80
Average OtAletSwid Angle (')
I Vanes Flat Plate Vanes

-*. -Tandem ... x--- 1
Fig. 8.19 Overall experimental performance of tandem and flat plate vanes
8.6 Validation of Experimental and Computational Results
Although minor modificationsto both the experimentalfacility and the numerical

techniquehad beennecessaryin order to accommodatethe new tandemvanes,they
had on the whole remainedunchangedso that a fair comparisoncould be made
between the two vane designs. Despite this standardisationof investigation
it
techniques, was still felt that the techniques
shouldbe re-validatedfor the tandem
vanecase.
155
Absolute velocity, swirl angle and pressure loss coefficient at the outlet plane were
again compared in the validation process.
8.6.1 Absolute Velocity
Figure 8.20 shows the pitch-wise averaged variation of absolute velocity at the outlet
plane across the span for vane setting angles of 0', +30', and +60". An acceptable
correlation is exhibited on the whole, although the velocities tend to be slightly under-
predicted towards the hub at each setting angle.
8.6.2 Swirl Angle
Figure 8.21 shows that the computational and experimental trends of pitch-wise
averaged swirl angle are in general agreement. The actual difference in results
between the two sets of results is however somewhat questionable, particularly at the
higher setting angles. The swirl appearson the whole to be under-predicted in each
case, with the difference peaking at more than 10* at the mid-span position for the
+60* settingangle.
Closer examination of the computational technique revealed no apparent flaws or
potential sources of error other than the assumption that the vanes were solid. If the
axial clearance between the vanes had been modelled accurately, the static pressure
difference across the two surfacesof the vane would draw air through the gap towards
the suction surface, resulting in a further decreasein the predicted swirl. Comparison
of the flat plate and tandem vane experimental swirl angle distribution suggests that
the two types of vane provide a very similar level of deflection. This suggestion is
somewhat contradicted by the results presentedin the previous section as the tandem
vane performance prediction clearly shows a higher level of deviation than the flat
plate vanes as a result of the shorter effective vane chord. Consideration of the 2-D
aerodynamic implications of the geometry of the two annular cascadesalso suggests
that the deviation should be higher for the tandem vanes. An unwrapped view of the
two geometries is shown in Figure 8.22, where the increase in orthogonal clearance
between the tandem vanes at a setting angle of +60* can be seen.
156
70
60
Du
2,
0 40
o
..
30 - 0(X-X-
-. X... .... ... .
20
< lo
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span
Experimental(0') Experimental(300) m Experimental (600)
X... Theoretical (00) --- X--- Theoretical (30') ... X.. Theoretical (600)
Fig. 8.20 Spanwiseexperimental and theoretical velocity profiles
80
70
60 - -. -. ... -.... ... """ """ "-
- -".....
.. - -... -..
0 50
C: 40
.2 - -. - - -.
A? 30 - ... _ .. -. .. -. .. -. -.
CD -. -...
"""
"""
20
10
0
-10
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent Span
0 Experimental (00) 4 Experimental (300) 0 Experimental (600)1
Theoretical (00) Theoretical (300) Theoretical (600)
.. ... --- ... ..
Fig. 8.21 Spanwise experimental and theoretical deflection profiles
157
Setting Angle = 0'

Tandem Vanes I Flat Plate Vanes
Flow
Direction
no I
Setting Angle = +60*
Flow I
I Flow
Direction
Direction
-- -----------------
Fig. 8.22 Increased orthogonal clearance between tandem vanes at +60*
The outcome of these considerations was that the most likely source of the
discrepancy was the experimental technique. The 0' setting angle experimental swirl
results shown in Figure 8.21 suggest that the tandem vanes were in fact misaligned
either during installation or during testing. Following the experimental testing, the
test rig was again stripped down so that the alignment of the vanes could be re-
assessed.The alignment error varied from vane to vane and was found to be between
0' and +3, thus contributing to the error in Figure 8.2 1.
158
8.6.3 PressureLoss Coefflcient
The computational results in Figure 8.23 show that the tandem vanes reduce the
pressure loss at higher setting angles at the expense of deflection. However, the
experimental results suggest that deflection is only very marginally compromised.
Although a reduction in pressure loss coefficient is evident in the experimental
results, it is not as distinct as the computational results.
co
a. 1
0
0 20 40 60 80
Average OtAletSwid Angle (')
Tandem Vanes (Experimental) ... *- -- Tandem Vanes (CompLdational)
Flat Plate Vanes (Expedmental) ... x--- Flat Plate Vanes (ComptAational)
Fig. 8.23 Experimental and theoretical overall performance comparison
Despite these discrepanciesin the results at the VIGV system outlet, both techniques
have demonstratedthat the tandem vanesoffer a potentially rewarding increase in the
overall stageefficiency.
159
ChapterNine: StagePerformance
CHAPTER 9
STAGE PERFORMANCE
9.1 Introduction
The researchpresentedso far has focusedon the developmentof the inlet guide vane
systemby examining its performancein isolation. This was a far more efficient
developmenttechniquethan repeatedlyexaminingthe full stage as it significantly
reduced the time and the experimentaland computationalresourcesrequired to
conduct the analyses. Although this techniqueallowed rapid developmentof the
design,the effect of the VIGV systemon the overall compressorstageperformance
was ultimately the main concern.
The relative merits of each potential VIGV system design have so far been
determinedthroughthe swirl/losscoefficientand througha qualitativeassessment
of
the aerodynamicperformancewithin the inlet passage.The investigationshavebeen
madeunder the assumptionthat the swirl/loss coefficientprovied an accurateview
of the relative performance of the VIGV systemsin terms of their effect on the overall
stage performance. In reality, the implications of the nature of the VIGV system
outlet flow field should also be considered, as its interaction with the inducer leading
edge could significantly affect the overall stageperformance.
It was thereforeconsiderednecessaryto examinethe implications of the 3-D flow

interaction at the inducer leading edge by conducting full stage analysesof the
existing and new VIGV system designs. Examinationof the flow interaction was
possibleusing a simple mathematicalapproachand more detailed3-D computational
predictions. The first techniquewas basedon the calculationof velocity triangles
from the VIGV systemoutlet flow field and the impeller geometricaland operational
160
Chapter Nine: Stage Performance
characteristics. The 3-D computational technique, described in Section 5.4, was

considerably more versatile and informative than using velocity triangles.
Validation of the computational technique was possible using overall stage

performance data from experimental tests conducted on the complete stage
(compressor,diffuser andflat plate VIGV system). The applicability of the swirl/loss
coefficient in assessingthe overall performanceimplications of the VIGV system
could also be examined by implementing it in the I-D performanceprediction
techniquedescribedin Section5.5.
9.2 VIGV - Impeller Interaction
As described in Section 2.1.2, variable inlet guide vane systems can extend the stable
operating range of a centrifugal compressor by regulating the incidence onto the

leading edge of the inducer. The magnitude and direction of the incidence angle is
dictated by the gas inlet relative velocity angle ((xj), and the impeller blade inlet angle.
Ideally, the VIGV system operating schedule will result in the velocity triangles
shown in Figure 9.1. Three compressor mass flow rates corresponding to VIGV
setting angles of 0', +30*, and +60* are shown here (assuming zero VIGV deviation),
with the impeller operating at a constant rotational speed. Increasing the prewhirl as
the mass flow rate reduces results in a constant relative inlet gas angle (oc,). This
means that an optimal level of incidence onto the inducer can be maintained even at
low flow rates, which reduces the susceptibility of the impeller to stall near its leading
edge.
4p--
VA VA
/V IVA
Fig. 9.1 Impeller inlet
velocity triangles at varying (ax

VIGV setting angles
161
Chapter Nine: Stage Perfonnance
Using a combination of data available from the VIGV system tests and stage
performance testing, the actual inlet velocity triangles can be determined at each
VIGV setting angle. The relationship between VIGV system setting angle and
compressormass flow rate is taken from the actual stage operating schedule.
Absolute velocity vectors deduced from the VIGV system testing can then be
combined with typical massflow rates and the impeller rotational speedfrom the
stagetesting to producethe inlet velocity triangles and hencethe inlet relative gas
angle. Figures 9.2 a, b, and c show the spanwisedistributionsof inlet relative gas
angle at VIGV setting angles of 0", +30*, and +60" respectively.
With the inlet guide vanes set at their axial (0" setting angle) position for the highest
mass flow rates, no swirl distribution exists at the inducer leading edge. The
aerodynan-dceffect of the VIGV system passageon the distribution of velocities does
however influence the inlet velocity triangles and hence the incidence matching.
Figure 9.2a shows that the incidence is very well matched at the maximum flow rate
across the span. As the flow rate is decreasedwithout adjusting the inlet guide vanes,
the increase in incidence can clearly be seen. As the guide vanes are imparting no
swirl in this configuration, the difference in vane design has no effect on the inlet
velocity triangles.
At a guide vane setting angle of +30', Figure 9.2b, the incidence is still fairly well
matched despite the further decreasein mass flow rate. The increase in swirl angle
near the hub using the tandem vanes is evident as a slight decreasein the relative flow
angle.
If inducer stall occurs at a specific value of incidence, increasing the prewhirl will
move this incidence to lower mass flow rates. Although the incidence across the span
at the +60" is
setting angle significantly increased, this is not unreasonable as this
operating configuration represents a turndown in mass flow rate of approximately
63%. The distribution shown in Figure 9.2c indicates that the inlet guide vanes are
imparting insufficient swirl across the majority of the span. Towards the hub, the
relative inlet flow angle is too low, not as a result of high inlet swirl, but high absolute
velocity (see Figures 6.1,6.2,8.20,8.21).
162
The distributions of relative gas inlet angle presentedhere are sufficiently informative
to demonstrate that the VIGV system operating schedule is suitable in terms of
impeller incidence regulation. They show that the tandem inlet guide vanes should
have a negligible effect on the interaction at the impeller leading edge. Also, it can be
seen that further modification of the vane shapeto improve the incidence matching at
low mass flow rates (high vane setting angles) would have a detrimental effect on the
performance at higher mass flow rates.
163
90
80
70 4 Flat plate vanes @4.2kg/s
60 Flat plate vanes 05.2kg/s
x
50
40 *. -- Tandem vanes @ 4.2kg/s
30 x .. Tandem vanes @ 5.2kg/s
20
10 ---- Vane Angle
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Spanwise Posn (%)
Fig. 9.2a Impeller inlet flow angles at IGV setting angle = 0'
90
80
70
60
--. #-Flat plate vanes @3kg/s
50
(D Tandem @ 3kg/s
40 x
... .. vanes
30 Vane Angle
----
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Spanwise Posn (%)
Fig. 9.2b Impeller inlet flow angles at IGV setting angle = +30'
90
80
70
60 Flat plate vanes @1.9kg/s
50
---+-
(D
40 x .. Tandem Nones @ 1.9kg/s
30 ---- Vane Angle
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
SpanvVisePosn (*/o)
Fig. 9.2c Impeller inlet flow angles at IGV setting angle = +60'
164
9.3 Flat Plate Inlet Guide Vane Stage Performance Investigations
The results presented in the previous section have demonstrated the suitability of the
VIGV system in terms of impeller incidence matching, but further implications on the
stage performance characteristics have not been examined. These implications can be
explored using experimental and numerical stage analysis techniques where
applicable. A brief description of the compressor stage used in each of the stage
investigations is offered in Chapter 3.
The duty considered in this study was a design pressure ratio of 2: 1 at a rotational
speed of 18050 rpm. Inlet guide vanes were set at 0", +200, +401, and +60' with the
diffuser vanes set at angles ranging from 62.2* to 71'. The resulting mass flow rate
ranged from 1.88 to 5.2 kg/s, with a peak polytropic efficiency of 85%. Inlet
conditions were standardised to 298K and 101.3 kPa. The operating conditions
detailed here were applied in both the experimental and numerical studies.
3-D computational predictions were conducted using the technique described in

Section 5.4, with boundary conditions basedon the operating configurations described
above. These boundary conditions were also implemented in the I-D performance
prediction technique described in Section 5.5.
In addition to the computational techniques, experimental performance data was also
available for the complete stage incorporating the flat plate VIGV system. These
stage tests were carried out using the compressor manufacturer's test facility. Mass
flow rate was measured in accordance with BS 10421551 at the outlet from the
compressordischarge ducting. Inlet and outlet pressuresand temperatures were

measured at four circumferential locations upstream and downstream of the
compressor.
165
9.3.1 3-D Stage Computational Results - Flat Plate Vanes
Although velocity triangles are adequatefor examining the flow interaction between
the VIGV system and the inducer leading edge, the aerodynamic implications of the
interaction reach further downstream into the impeller vane passage. Examining the
flow field in detail within a rotating impeller is extremely difficult using conventional
experimental instrumentation techniques. CFD, however, has the capability to
examine the aerodynamic performance anywhere within the passagein considerable

detail with relative ease.
All stream surface plots presentedin this section are shown in an 'unwrapped' form to
enable visualisation of the complex 3-D shapein a 2-D plane.
Detailed examination of the impeller leading edge incidence matching is possible
using velocity vector plots. Figures 9.3 a, b, c, and d show the relative velocity
vectors on a stream surface near the impeller tip (approximately 90% span) at flow
rates from 5.2 kg/s (IGV--O') to 1.9 kg/s (IGV=60"). As expected, the velocity
vectors coincide almost tangentially with the leading edge of the impeller vane until
very low mass flow rates are reached.
There is no significant separation at the inducer leading edge in any of the figures,
although the development of re-circulation pockets can be seen on the suction surface
of the vanes towards the impeller outlet at the low flow rate. This re-circulation
results in increasedimpeller loss and less desirable diffuser inlet conditions.
The aerodynamic behaviour described by the velocity vector plots is also illustrated
by the contours of relative Mach number through the impeller. Figures 9.4 a, b, c, and
d show the relative Mach number contours at the 90% span stream surface, again at
flow ratesfrom 5.2 kg/s (IGV--O*)to 1.9kg/s (IGV=60').
High velocity around the intervanes at the high mass flow rate indicates that the
impeller would be most likely to choke around this region.
166
Relative velocity vectors and contour of relative Mach number at mid-span and on a
stream surface near the impeller hub (approximately 10% span), are shown for the
same operating configurations in Appendix C. Contours of circurnferentially mass-
averaged relative Mach numbers are also shown in a meridional view for each of the
operating configurations. Again, these plots demonstratethe capability of the stage to
achieve an extremely large turndown in flow at constant rotational speed.
167
(11) m flz flz rz r7 f7 M, m (7 rq m m n m rz F) (17 --f

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + I
LLI LLJ Ld
LIJ Li LLJ
Lli Lij LLJ LLJ uj Li Lli Lij Li Li Li Li LL Ljj ui
N N 1-1 rl QD LD LD LD Q Lf) s 0 (Y-) IN II m
II II 11 .I -T
0 G) OD Ln N m 00 (.0 LO m N CD m N CD U) CD LO (Y)
-T (11 S T m
LLJ m CD cc LD T N s LF) m -1 m N Ln LD
0- T T M, (1) M, N ("I N N -A co D T
11)
0-)
"*S"
\\
N
Fig. 9.3a Relative velocity vectors at 90% span

Flat plate VIGV's * 0", Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
168
flz (lz N m R m N m F) m flQ n n -4

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +
Lli LLJ LLJ ui ui LJ LIJ LLJ LLJ LLJ Lli LLJ
Lij LLJ LLJ LLJ LLI Lli LLJ ui
CC) N LD Lr) m
0
II t" .I Ln ()) m N I Ln N N co m (7) (1)
--1 N rlj m rn 0-) T U) Lr) Ln LO CD t" 11, CT) (Y) N -. 4 Lr) 0)
LLJ M I,, Lr) - Cl11 (r) m N LI) ro
LLJ
IM, Ln --i N m m m G-I 71
G- N N N
M
\\
K-
""
" \\\\
\\\\
-""
"
"N -"
N.
N
\
Fig. 9.3b Relative velocity vectors at 90% span

Flat plate VIGV's @ +201, Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
169
. . . . . . . .
LLJ ui . . . .
Ljj Li LL L" LU LLJ U Li LLJ LLJ LLJ W Lli Lij Wl
0) T Lij Lij LLJ LLJ
m M T 9) T (3) T m m M
g) -T -T N co CC) m m a)
r"I T r, 01 N T N 0) N CT) N
LIJ T -T -T (T) T (T) T m
CD cr) -T
LO N r" IN N J)
Ld
a- m m 1) N N
\/ -\\S
\\
\\
SS-'. .
IfJIII4I
I111
1bY
Fig. 9.3c Relative velocity vectors at 90% span
Flat plate VIGV's * +400, Mass flow rate = 2.9 kg/s
170
++++++++++++++++++++
LLJ Uj LLJ Lj LIJ Li UJI ji LLJ Ji LIJ Lki LIJ Lj LLI LLJ LL-1 LLJ LLJ Lli Lli
in (n NN cn m (17 NI IN NmT in in IIm in cli m
-T
LM 0:) --1 T r" G) (1) N CD (D (T) (14 Ln OD --1 (.0 r". (, OD 9) (3)
LLJ M N, CD m M, CD OD Lr) m --i ZD CD (Y" UD CD
-T
LLJ
(n m LD U-)
V,
I \N
----
rn - -.
---
"""""
"" "- ""
Fig. 9.3d Relative velocity vectors at 90% span

171
CD CD CD S CE) Q CD CD IS s ED 0 s CID CD CD CD CD Q ID CD
-1 1 l +
III III III III II 11 ;! I l lit ll ; ll 11 [l III
I (T) U-) LO N J) S D N co CD
-T --4
T S m CC) m a) T Lf) 0 (, N (Y-) (T) a) 0 LD N IN N m CD
s E., D M m D T IT Z- 0 N cc (T) n
CE
U) Lf) U)
N rl 11) I'lj r , i') C14 m N 10 mmmM (0 C

ll`
Ln T -- - Z- mrM, M, NNNN m Ln
-i --i -i
11
H
Fig. 9.4a Relative Mach number contours at 90% span
Flat plate VIGV's * 0', Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
172
-1 --4 (Ij IN
S S s IS ED
II I CS) CS) CD CD
I I I I I
1 1 1 +
I M CC) --I U-) cc m W cr) N M S
--i m m Ln N
-T- M (JO (7) N 7 m S) z
-T
CD CY) N T co c) (n
-4
CC) CF)
(3) OD S
N LID N, - --A m CD Q
U 11 T OD OD Lr) -4 Lr) (, j CD IN (D (r)
-T Lf) N S
cl U) U J,
'j,
n r" in j m 11 , -) Nm rl. in (r) mm in mm

Lf') TTM(, - mm (14 NNN --1 -4 -1 OD Ln m
Fig. 9.4b Relative Mach number contours at 90% span

Flat plate VIGV's *, +200, Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
173
---1 --4 --1 -1 ---1 -4 --4

0 CD CD 0 CD CD 0 CD CD
1 1 1 1 1 f +
i I
LD m N N (S D CD
-T
T M m CD LD IN 11\1 m OD Lf) LO N T T G) CD N 0) zi- Q
-i
--i CD 01, m U- D CD m m s LO co m n lf -q CD (Y-) s
CE U-) "I
C r', I C, l 11, j -1 , f- 1, mm
Ln 7 ]- 11 7C, ('\, r" N OC LO m
-T 11" 1-1 I ---4
Fig. 9.4c Relative Mach number contours at 90% span

174
(11 IN CED
0 I
-1 CD S E ED, ED CD s CND U E) CD ED s CD (D S D CD 5) ID
7" m 7') ED Lr) - LID (N co N m m ED Lf LO

-T
CD N N m Lo ! -1: T 0 CD N D cl- N m m LO T LF) 0
--f
N OD (D f, 0- fL M, m N m CD co N Lr) IT L, CD
-T II , Il I
w U (T) (T) (1) -1 U-1
n 1, i rl, 11 1 i i-) N 7 r 1) 0-1, F (r) 10 MM

Lf) Z- mmmm ,1
-7 U-) co
Fig. 9.4d Relative Mach number contours at 90% span

175
9.3.2 Stage Experimental Results - Flat Plate Vanes
A comparisonof the CFD andexperimentallymeasuredtotal-to-totalpressureratio is

shown in Figure 9.5 for each of the stageoperatingconfigurations. Although the
experimentalresultsweremeasuredjust downstreamof the volute, the volute was not
numericallymodelled. It wasconsideredin this casewherea vaneddiffuser was used
that the volute would not significantly influencethe stageperformancecharacteristics.
Good agreementbetweennumericalandexperimentalresultscan be seentowardsthe
surgeend of eachoperatingcurve.
2.3
2.1
Z-
1.9
1 V
0* VVD=71*
+60*
1.7
IGV=O*VVD=62.2
1.5 IGV=+40'VVD=71* IGV=+20*VVD=68.5*
1.3
,21.1
0.9
0.7
0.5
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
Experimental * 3-D Numerical Pred-ict-ion----]
Fig. 9.5 Experimental and 3-D numerical stage performance predictions
Total-to-total polytropic efficiency is also plotted in Figure 9.X for each of the stage
operating configurations. Underprediction of both pressure ratio and efficiency near

the choke end of the curves is evident with good agreement in the surge region.
Calculation of the work input at each of these points has also shown good agreement
176
between experimental and numerical methods. This suggests that the slight
underpredictionof efficiency was responsiblefor the discrepancyin pressureratio
predictions.
9.3.3 1-D Stage Computational Results - Flat Plate Vanes
With the flat plate VIGV swirl/loss model implemented in its algorithm, the I-D
numerical prediction technique was also compared with the experimental stage
performance results. A comparison of the overall stage pressure ratio and polytropic
efficiency is presentedin Figure 9.6.
Since the empirical loss model derived from experimental testing of the VIGV system
was used in the numerical technique,excellent correlation can be seen for both
pressure ratio and efficiency. These results suggest that the I-D performance
prediction techniquecould be usedwith a high degreeof confidenceto give accurate
resultsfor further similar designs.
basedon this configuration.
177
2.1
2.1
1.9 '00xxx)Cxxxxxxxx
""Xm .............
..
61.7
IGV=+60* VVD=71*
1.5 IGV=O* VVD=62.2* I

*V=+40* VVD=71* GV=+20* VVD=68.5'
1.3
0 1.1
ir
cc
0.9
0.7
0.5
1.5 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
- Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)
- Experimental x1 -D Numerical Prediction
Fig. 9.6 Experimental and I-D numerical stage performance predictions
The I-D numerical technique was a far more efficient method of evaluating the
implications of potential VIGV system designs on the overall stage performance.
Rather than repeatedly modelling the entire stage using the 3-D numerical technique,
modelling of the VIGV system in isolation (not the complete stage) was required at
varying setting angles. Assuming the interaction between the VIGV system and the
impeller remained similar, the VIGV system swirl and loss characteristics could then
be fed into the I -D techniqueto conductthe stageperfonnanceprediction.
178
9.4 Tandem Inlet Guide Vane Stage Performance Investigations

,
Having proven the 3-D numerical stage performance prediction technique, it could be
adapted to accommodate the tandem vane design and used with confidence to predict
the full implications of the new inlet guide vanes. Identical boundary conditions were
applied so that the results could be directly compared with the flat plate inlet guide
vane performance predictions. Experimental stage performance data was not
available for the tandem inlet guide vanes and no future experimental testing was
anticipated, so validation could only be conducted against the results of the I-D
technique. No modifications to the I-D technique were necessary other than
substituting the tandem inlet guide vane loss model for the flat plate model.
9.4.1 3-D Stage Computational Results - Tandem Vanes
As shown in the I-D interaction study in Section 9.2, the tandem inlet guide vanes
have a negligible effect on the impeller aerodynamic performance compared with the
flat plate vanes. Relative velocity vector plots at the 90% span stream surface are
shown in Figures 9.7 a, b, c, and d for comparison with the equivalent flat plate
velocity vectors in Figures 9.3 b,
a, c, and d. As expected, no noticeable difference
exists between the two inlet guide vane designs in terms of the aerodynamic
interaction or flow field through the impeller passage.
A similar story is revealed by the contours of relative Mach number, Figures 9.8 a, b,
d,
c, and which remain essentially unchanged from those describing the flow with flat
plate inlet guidevanes.
Relative velocity vectors at the mid-span and 10% span stream surfaces are shown in
Appendix C. The relative Mach number contour plots corresponding to those
for the flat inlet guide vanes can also be found in Appendix C. No
presented plate
difference in aerodynamic performance between the two inlet guide vane designs can
be seen in these views.
179
Chapter Nine: StagePerformance
CD CD &S
++ 4++4++
++++++++++++ Ui LLJ LLJ
LLJ LLJ w LLJ LLJ LLJ LU Lli LLJ
Ld LLJ LLJ LJ LLj Li Ui LLJ LL
G) mT (T) m 9) m cr) CD
(J) T TmTmT CY) -7 -T
-M -7 CD CC) N (7) (T) T 0)
0m OD LD Lf" rn Ns (7) N (f) Tm
- -T
U') N Lr) N
Ld N CD 00 LD 7 s tl Lo m -4 U) -T
IN
L.Li
OL TT co (.D
Mm -T
Fig. 9.7a Relative vectors at 90% span

velocity
Mass flow = 5.2 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's * 00, rate
180
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+
Lu LLJ Lli LLI LLJ Ld Lij Lli Lli LLJ
Lli LLJ LLJ ui LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ Li LLJ Lij
(.0 Co G) G)
G) LO m
-T
m rn N N CD s Ln CD T co m --1 Ln (1)
CD m T Ln CD QD N C, N LD Lr)
-i --i N N (Y) -T Ln
(7)
Ln
N LO m N CC) OD m m CT,
(r)
Lli 0) 1 m m rl Ln --f
Li m T) r-, N N
a- (Y) fy) r :
(n
VO,
Fig. 9.7b Relative vectors at 90% span

velocity
* Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's +20',
181
N N N N
CD CD G) 0 t!D CD s CD S 0 0
+ --A
+ + + + + + + + + + + + I
LLJ Lli LIJ LLJ Ld Lij LLJ LLJ LLJ LIJ
N Lij LLJ LLJ LLJ LU LLJ Ljj LLJ LLJ Lij
(1) --4 LO 0) T OD m N i CD s T m m CD T OD (14 (D (3)
w CC) S m U) 00 s m Ln M s N Ln
ui
Ln m 0', Iz LD T r" rj rl
CC)
rl
N
0
0
(. --4 Ln m
LLJ
-T ("1 If" r M
a- m m
llll N 0: ) t,
-i --1 -4 LO M
cn
'F,.
": \'\\....
'
\\\\.
': .
SS
\: ''
N
N
Fig. 9.7c Relative velocity vectors at 90% span
Tandem VIGV's * +401, Mass flow rate = 2.9 kg/s
182
N N cli (Ij N --I --f --I

CD s & S CD Ed (D --4
+ + + + + + + + + + I
LLJ LLJ Li- Li Lli ui ui LLJ LLJ LLJ LU LLj Lij Ld
t1i LLJ Li-i LLJ LLJ LLJ Lij
N m T Ln Lf) T OD LO N (3)
Lr) LD NNMms CD N
G) N U) CC) C-0 rl r, 00 M a)
0M NS cr) N CD Cl) CD
-T CD LO Fj r CD M (f) rr)
LIJ (Y) ED 00 rl m ("i s CC) -7
LLJ
CD c Ln cy,
1 0') (r) m clj N
cn
1A
*---"_'; -
--
"""
Fig. 9.7d Relative velocity vectors at 90% span

Tandem VIGV's +601,
183
CD (D s S G) S &
s s CD E; ED s
LLJ + I I t I I I I +
+ + + I I I
LLJ LIJ Li LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ Lli LLJ
0 ui LLJ Ljj LLJ W, Lli LLJ LU LLJ LLJ
S m (D Lf) --i N m cc CD
M Ln 0 LD Ln N
-H N N (n -H
("i m OD (IF) LO (.D N N N m GD
S m co -i N m (T) Lf-) U-)
N M G) (D T 0) N N CC) m CD
-4 s ED LD 00 CD -T -T
u
OD r, rl CD Ln Lf, T T (n (11 'N --4 (T
7 OD 'I
CD 00 0 CD
Ln T Z' fn N --1 00 Ln M
IN
Relative Mach number contours at 90% span

Fig. 9.8a
* 01, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's
184
N N co
CD (S) G) CD (D (9 (D CD (D ED CD
LLJ I I I I I I I I I I +
iii LIJ uj LLJ LLJ LLJ L.Li ui LLJ Lli LLJ
cr ui LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ Lii LLJ LLJ
N r, N LD N --i S S
I OD m m T m M (r) CC) cc to --f
-T M UO m (D -A (Y) U) N W G
7 0 r, CT) --I N T LD m 9) --1 m OD F
(JD N 0 N r- N M 11,
T 00 T 71 Li-, CT) Ln CT) Lr) (D
L)
0) OD m (JD LO LO Ln LO T T
(S) rl. Lr) 11

j Lj m Lf) (n G OD
-1 --1 --1 [f)
Ln Z-
-7 -T
Mach contours at 90% span

Fig. 9.8b Relative number
Mass now rate = 4.3 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's * +201,
185
N N CD
LLJ +
Lli Lli ui LU LLJ uj ui LLJ
0 Lli LLJ ui LLJ LLJ LLJ Llj LLJ Li LLJ LLJ
Lij S
m m Ln T G) OD m m N --A
I LD T & m Ln T S OD -T S
-T N T (r) (D n Cc CC) T
m CC) LD OD N T T s N
T --i OD m CD T) T
(0 m CC) U LD OD m s w
CE 0 Lr) Ln Z- T T (11 N --I

5-
(14 (S Lf m G) cc U m C9
QN LO I Lj
m (1) (1., NNN- --I co U-) M 1-1
Ln z T rr" pl,
-T
Relative Mach contours at 90% span

Fig. 9.8c number
Tandem VIGV's +401,
186
& S CD & CD D CD S (D CD
C, CD CD S ED s S & (S) S
LIJ I I I I I I I I I +
I I I I I I I I I I
Ld Lij Lij LLJ LLJ Lli uj LLJ Ld
cir- Lli Lli LLJ Lij LLJ w LLJ LLJ LLj Li L LLJ
m G
s co S CD S LD & co -H Lf) --I LO -1 Ln
--A N 00 LO (D
(Y') Ln 7
LD T N Ln co LD LT N S CL --4 cr) CIA T
N
LI)
(D U
(T) (AD N s LO m s 0 m 9) LO
N m s ILD
u
G: (JI Lf i
Lo LD LD Lr) L- T -T -T
-T
M, Cl) m U-) (n CD
T
LF,
T i N --1 -1 -1
'N
Ln
Relative Mach contours at 90% span

Fig. 9.8d number
Tandem VIGV's * +601, rate
187
The absenceof any change in the impeller flow field using the tandem vanes was on
the whole expected and desirable, as the inlet guide vane system, impeller and
diffuser had originally been designed to complement one another aerodynamically.
The intended outcome of using the tandem vanes was to produce a similar impeller
inlet flow field with a decreasein the inlet loss to the impeller, and hence an increase
in the overall stage pressureratio and efficiency at low massflow rates.
188
9.4.2 1-D Stage Computational Results - Tandem Vanes
The results of the I-D prediction techniqueare plotted in Figure 9.9 along with the
overallperformancecharacteristicspredictedby the 3-D numericaltechnique. Again,
goodagreementbetweenthe resultsof the two techniquescan be seen,as the tandem
vaneempirical lossmodelwasusedin the I-D technique.
2.3
2.1
7 - -.1 io
IGV;4 v
1.9 IGV=+20* VVD=68.5*
IGV--+60* VVD=71* "'AX +
IGV=+40* VVD=71*
1.7
1.5
CL
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.7 ..
0.54-
1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
I
--x- -D Numerical Prediction * 3-D Numerical Prediction
Fig. 9.9 I-D and 3-D numerical stage performance predictions (tandem vanes)
The massflow rateboundaryconditionsselectedfor the chokepoints predictedusing

the 3-D technique were higher than the maximum mass flow rates in the I-D
as anomalies,if the I-D

predictions. Although this meansthat thesepoints appear
performance lines were extendedto higher massflow rates, good correlation would
againbe exhibited.
189
9.5 Comparison of flat plate and tandem VIGV stage performance
The lack of experimentalstageperformancedatausing the tandeminlet guide vanes

meant that numerical prediction data had to be to
used compare the two designs. The
investigations presented in this chapter have shown that the I -D numerical technique
was the most appropriate prediction technique for evaluating the implications of the
inlet guide vane design on the overall stage performance. A comparison of the stage
performance predictions using the two VIGV designs is shown in Figure 9.10.
2.3
2.1
W-V:40* GV=O* VVD-62.2*

1.9 VVD=71* 'GV+20* VVD-68.5*
IGV=+60*VVD=71*
1.7
1.5
LLJ1.3
C.,
0.9
0.7
0.5
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
------ Flat Plate Inlet Guide Vanes - Tandem Inlet Guide Vanes
Fig. 9.10 Comparison of flat pIate and tandem inIet guide vane stage
performance
190
As expected, the tandem inlet guide vanes produced no noticeable increase in

efficiency or pressureratio at low setting angles. However,as the massflow rate is
reducedand the guide vanesettingangleincreased,the improvedperformanceof the
tandemvanesbecomesparticularlyapparentasan increasein the stagepressureratio.
At a VIGV settingangleof +60* the increasein pressureratio is most noticeable,and
an associatedincreasein polytropic efficiency of asmuch as3% waspredicted.
The effect of the entire VIGV system on the stage performance was also investigated
numerically by simple removing the whole system from the inlet to the impeller, and
operating the impeller and VVD at the 0* VIGV configuration. Although the impeller
inlet velocity profile differed due to the absenceof the converging section passage,no
change occurred in pressureratio or efficiency. This suggeststhat any additional loss

caused by the VIGV system inlet ducting is compensated by the velocity profile
I
produced by this geometry.
9.6 Closure
The I-D and 3-D numericalperformancepredictionshavedemonstratedthe potential

improvementin stagepressureratio and efficiency offered by the tandeminlet guide
vanes. The increase in efficiency results from the decreasein inlet losses caused by
the guide vanes at high setting angles. Combined with a slight decreasein the inlet
prewhirl generated by the tandem vanes, this increase in efficiency contributes to the
increase in stage pressureratio.
191
Chapter Ten: Conclusions
CHAPTER10
CONCLUSIONS
The aerodynamic performance characteristics of an existing centrifugal compressor

VIGV design have been analysed. An experimental test facility has been purpose
built to accommodate and test the VIGV system using semi-automatically controlled
pneumatic instrumentation. The experimental data has been complemented by
numericaldata from a stateof art 3-D computationalpredictiontechnique. Together,

thesetechniqueshave enableda comprehensiveand efficient analysisof the VIGV
system, which has led to potential improvementsin its aerodynamicdesign. The
overall conclusions drawn from the researchare listed below.
Centrifugal compressorVIGV system testing can be conducted in isolation

(without the completestage),and at low massflow rates. This meansthat low
pressureratio blowers that do not require a high electrical power supply can be
used to draw air through the system.

Experimental examination of the distribution of aerodynamic parameters such as
swirl, absolute velocity, and total pressure at the axial plane in which the impeller
leading edge lies provides sufficient data to determine the relative merits of any
particular VIGV system design.

Using a semi-automatic mesh generation system, high quality CFD meshescan be
created efficiently and accurately, and used with confidence to model the
incorporating variable inlet
performance of an entire centrifugal compressor stage
guide vanes and variable vaned diffuser.
The physical flow field produced at the outlet of the VIGV system can be
predicted accurately using CFD, providing that all geometrical aspects of the
blade hub and tip clearance have been precisely

numerical model such as
Realistic inflow outflow boundary conditions must also be applied.
modelled. and
192
CFD has the capability to predict trends of loss for relative comparison between
different VIGV system designs, however an accurate prediction of the magnitude
of the loss is -more difficult due to approximations used in the numerical loss
models.
* Sufficient confidence has been gained in the 3-D numerical performance
prediction technique for it to be used as the first step in the design process of new
inlet guide vanes.
Experimental validation should be conducted wherever possible for each new
design evaluated to ensure that any assumptions made in the physical or fluid
boundary conditions of the model are appropriate.
* The use of a spherical section passageeliminates blade hub and tip clearance with
negligible additionalsystemloss. Increasingthe radiusratio resultsin an increase

in the averageswirl producedby the VIGV systemat the expenseof additional
total pressureloss.
The optimum pitch/chord ratio of vanes used in this type of passage is
approximately 1. If constantchord vanesare used,then this should be the vane
type (B).
If flat plate vanesare used,then they shouldbe either constantpitch/chordvanes
(in
or constantchord vanes accordancewith the recommendation made above) in
order to achieve the best overall VIGV system performance.
Tandem inlet guide vanes will produce similar swirl and loss to the flat plate
vanes at low setting angles. At high setting angles however, the tandem vanes
produced similar swirl with a significantly reduced loss coefficient compared with
the flat plate vanes.
Tandem vanes produce spanwise and pitchwise distributions of velocity and swirl
at the impeller leading edge that are essentially unchanged from those produced
by the flat plate vanes.
for
The most likely explanation the decrease in loss using tandem vanes is the
reduction in the severity of the separationpocket on the suction surface of the
vanes,particularlynearthe hub.
Tandem inlet guide vaneswith a movable sectionpitch/chordratio of I would
provide similar swirl to the flat plate vanes,with less than half the total pressure
loss at high settingangles.
193
The VIGV operating schedule ensures the highest achievable overall stage
efficiency by maintaining desirable levels of incidence across the span of the
impeller leading edge at all mass flow rates and setting angles.
Incidence matching prevents the flow from detaching from the suction surface of
the impeller vanes until very low mass flow rates are reached.
The combination of a variable geometry vaned diffuser and variable inlet guide
vanes with a backswept impeller enables flow turndown of as much as 63% from
the choke point at constant rotational speed.
The validity of CFD techniques to predict the performance of such a compressor
has been proven, with strong agreementbeing exhibited with experimental data.
Having implemented the inlet loss model derived from the VIGV system analyses
into the I-D numerical prediction technique, the technique can be used to Provide
an extremely rapid and accurate prediction of the implications of the VIGV

, systemperformanceon the whole stage.
9 Although the tandeminlet guide vanesdo not noticeablyaffect the aerodynamic
performance of the impeller compared with the flat plate vanes, they result in a
rise in the stage pressure ratio at low mass flow rates. This increase is
approximately equivalent to the decrease in inlet loss from the tandem vanes
multiplied by the original stage pressureratio.
The analyses have shown that an increase in polytropic efficiency of as much as
3% is possible at high setting angles using the re-designed tandem inlet guide
, vanes.
10.1 Contribution
The project has combined state of the art experimentaland theoretical analysis
techniques to comprehensivelyanalyse and develop a variable inlet guide vane
system. The applicationof CFD to turbomachinery development has until recently
been fairly impractical and treatedwith scepticism. The researchconductedin this
project has, however, demonstrated its if
applicability a structured development
procedure is followed. To date,no literaturehas been found detailing the application

of both experimentalandtheoreticalanalysis to
techniques the designof a centrifugal
194
compressorvariable inlet guide vane system. Tandem vanes have not nonnally been
used in centrifugal compressor variable inlet guide vane systems, but the research has
shown that they offer improved performance when compared with the original flat
plate vanes. The overall outcome of this researchis a usable VIGV design technique
for real industrial compressor environments, and confirmation that an acceptable
design can be achieved that represents a rewarding improvement in performance. In
addition, the following contributions have been made in the field of turbomachinery
research(references are made to the publication list in Section 10.3):
9 The development of a fast and versatile technique to develop a high quality VIGV
CFD mesh for any geometrical configuration (Ref. 1)
9 Use of CFD to analyse and develop a centrifugal compressor VIGV system design
(ReL 1).
9 Validation of CFD results for varying flow and operational configurations using a
purposebuilt experimentaltest facility (Ref. 1).

e Implementation of tandem vanes in a centrifugal compressor VIGV sYstem,
resulting an improvement in the system performance (ReL 2 and 4).
* Parametricanalysisof the effectsof varying inlet passagegeometryon the VIGV

system performance (Ref. 3).
Understanding of VIGV to inducer flow interaction to enable improved impeller
design.
* Proof of a 3-D numerical stage performance prediction technique for a variable
geometry centrifugal compressor stage (Ref. 4).
10.2 Further Work
During the courseof the research,a numberof areasin which further work could be
done to complementthe studypresentedherehave arisen. They were not conducted
in this researchprojectdueto limitations in resourcesandtime.
Further analyses of the tandem vane concept could be conducted, particularly with
to
respect the 27* chord tandem vane as this was predicted to offer improved overall
195
performance compared with the 22* chord. Detailed stress analyses could then be
conductedto determine the suitability of the vanes in normal operation. Experimental
testing of the VIGV system incorporating these vanes would represent little extra
effort as the test facility would readily accommodate such vanes and the existing
instrumentation could again be re-calibrated and re-used. The analyses should also be
extended to I-D and 3-D numerical stage performance predictions for completion.
Another candidate for these analyses is the constant chord flat plate vane (B), which
appearsto be worth further evaluation.
It was originally intended that experimental compressor stage testing would be
conducted using the tandem inlet guide vanes, however this was not possible within
the duration of the research. Experimental stage performance data for either the 22*
or 27* chord tandem vanes, or the constant chord flat plate vane (B), would be
invaluable in validating the I and 3-D numerical stage prediction techniques.
-D
10.3 Publications
1) Coppinger, M. L., Swain, E., Numerical Analyses and Development of an

Industrial Centrifugal Compressor Inlet Guide Vane System, CFD in Fluid
Machinery Design, lMechE, 1998.
2) Coppinger, M. L., Swain, E, Performance Prediction and Optimisation of an
Industrial Centrifugal Compressor Inlet Guide Vane System, Third European
Conference on Turbomachinery Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics, lMechE,
1999.
3) Coppinger, M. L., Swain, E., Performance Prediction of an Industrial Centrifugal
Compressor Inlet Guide Vane System, Journal of Power and Energy, 1MechE,
1999.
4) 'Coppinger, M. L., Swain, E., Variable Geometry Industrial Centrifugal
Compressor Stage Computation and Validation, Submitted to ASME Journal of

Turbomachinery, 1999.
196
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II
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Variable Rotor Blades and Variable Inlet Guide Vanes,Trans. ASME 98-GT-
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202
AppendLrA: ControlSoftware
REM
REM
REM VIGV Test Rig Data Acquisition and Control Software
REM
REM Created: June 1997 by: Miles Coppinger
REM
REM
REM
REM Declare all global variables
DECLARE SUB travio ()
DECLARE SUB probadjust
DECLARE SUB hubtoshr
DECLARE SUB shrtohub
DECLARE SUB setplane
DECLARE SUB probreset
DECLARE SUB changeplane
DECLARE SUB probout
DECLARE SUB probin
DECLARE SUB move ()
DECLARE SUB adjust
DECLARE SUB travop
DECLARE SUB probpos
DECLARE SUB trav
DECLARE SUB io ()
DECLARE SUB start
DIM SHARED dat AS STRING
DIM SHARED nam AS STRING
DIM SHARED namnew AS STRING
DIM SHARED head AS STRING
DIM SHARED s AS INTEGER
DIM SHARED pOl AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED tOl AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED m AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED igvang AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED p AS INTEGER
DIM. SHARED ps AS SINGLE
DIM'SHARED newpos AS INTEGER
DIM SHARED d AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED plane AS STRING
203
DIM SHARED pl AS STRING

DIM SHARED newplane AS STRING
DIM SHARED y AS INTEGER
DIM SHARED scale AS INTEGER

DIM SHARED steps AS INTEGER
DIM SHARED hub AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED inc AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED posn AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED newposn AS SINGLE

DIM SHARED delta AS SINGLE
DIM SHARED radius AS SINGLE

DIM SHARED rad AS SINGLE
COLOR 15,1
pOl = 760: tOl = 22: m= .5

10 CLS
y= 30
REM Opening title screen

PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT W
PRINT 0
PRINT 0 VIGV Test Rig Data Acquisition and Control Software
PRINT N
PRINT N Options available: -

PRINT
PRINT 1) Enter atmospheric conditions and test details
PRINT 2) Read/write data from transducer to file
PRINT 3) Traverse unit operations

PRINT 0) Exit program
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
INPUT Please make selection: s

IF s=1 THEN CALL start
IF S=2 THEN CALL io
IF S=3 THEN CALL travop,
IF s=0 THEN GOTO 100
IF B= 99 THEN GOTO 10
GOTO 10
204
100 COLOR 7,0
CLS
END
SUB changeplane
REM Change probe plane by adjusting hub point and scale

OPEN Oc: \utils\mech\posn. dat' FOR INPUT AS #3
INPUT #3, p, plane$
CLOSE #3
200 PRINT Probe is currently in 1; plane$; 4 plane. "
PRINT
INPUT Select traverse plane: (B)lade or (O)utlet 0; pl$
IF pl$ OB" OR pl$ = 6b' THEN
newplane$ = obladeft
IF newplane$ = plane$ THEN COTO 250
IF newplane$ <> plane$ AND newplane$ = *blade" THEN
plane$ = newplane$
CALL setplane
IF p=1 THEN
newposn = hub + delta

ELSE newposn = ((p - 1) inc) + (inc 2) + delta
END IF
steps = INT(ABS(newposn posn) * 200)

CALL probin
END IF
COTO 250
END IF
IF pl$ = 000 OR pl$ = "o" THEN
newplane$ = "outlet*
IF newplane$ = plane$ THEN COTO 250
IF newplane$ <> plane$ AND newplane$ "outlet' THEN
plane$ = newplane$
CALL setplane
IF p=1 THEN

ELSE newposn = ((p inc) + (inc / 2) + delta
END IF
steps = INT(ABS(newposn - posn) * 200)
CALL probout
205
AppendixA: ControlSoftware
END IF
GOTO 250
END IF
GOTO 200
250 PRINT
PRINT " Probe is set for "; plane$; " plane. "
PRINT
INPUT 4 Hit return to continue. ", r
OPEN "c: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR OUTPUT AS #3
PRINT #3, p, plane$
CLOSE #3
FIM SUB
SUB hubtoshr
REM hub to shroud traverse

PRINT 0 Moving probe to hub
newpos =1
IF newpos =p THEN GOTO 350
REM Move probe in
steps = INT(ABS(newposn - posn) * 200)
CALL probin
350 REM Start traverse
newpos = 11
newposn = ((newpos inc)
+ (inc 2) + delta
y 30
z0
360 steps = steps -z
PRINT
PRINT 0 Set traverse speed using + or - keys whilst traversing, "
PRINT 0 and press Esc key to interrupt traverse. *
PRINT
INPUT Press return to continueu, r
FOR z=1 TO steps
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,4:
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,5:
206
AppendLrA: ControlSofiware
KEY$ = INKEY$
IF KEY$ = CHR$(45) THEN y=y+ 10
IF KEY$ = CHR$(61) THEN y=y- 10
IF Y< 30 THEN y= 30
IF KEY$ = CHR$(27) THEN GOTO 360

NEXT z
OPEN 'C: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR OUTPUT AS #3
PRINT #3, newpos, plane

CLOSE #3
posn = newposn
y= 30
END SUB
SUB io
REM Read data from pressure transducer and write to file

CLS
PRINT
PRINT
IF nam <> "I THEN
PRINT Enter filename for data storage (default nam;
INPUT namnew
IF namnew <> "I THEN
nam = namnew
END IF
ELSE
INPUT Enter filename for data storage: nam
END IF
OPEN 'c: \data\* + nam. FOR APPEND AS #2
PRINT
INPUT Enter text header for file: ", head
PRINT #2, head
PRINT #2, pOl, tOl, m
PRINT
410 PRINT Logging data (hold escape key and press store
button to stop). "
dat = "Logging ...
OPEN 'coml: 9600, n, 8,1, RB9" FOR INPUT AS #1
PRINT
207
DO
PRINT dat
PRINT #2, dat
INPUT #1, nul, dat, nul

LOOP WHILE INKEY$ <> CHR$(27)
CLOSE #1
INPUT 0 Enter text conunent for file: head
IF head THEN GOTO 420
PRINT #2, head
GOTO 410
420 CLOSE #2
s= 99
END SUB
SUB move
REM Developmental traverse unit control subroutine

y= 35
PRINT
PRINT " If traverse unit is not at mid-span position (50mm), use"
PRINT 0< or > keys to move traverse unit forward or backwards, "
PRINT 0+ or - keys to speed up or slow down, "
PRINT " and press Esc key (twice) to stop. "

510 KEY$ INKEY$
IF KEY$ CHR$(44) GOTO 520
GOTO 510
520 DO
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,0- REM sets port C
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,1:
KEY$ = INKEY$

IF y< 30 THEN y= 30
IF KEY$ = CHR$(46) GOTO 530
LOOP
208
REM backwards
OUT &H323, 128:
530 Do
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322, 4:
FOR x= 1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322, 5:
KEY$ = INKEY$
IF y< 30 THEN y= 30
LOOP
540 y= 30
END SUB
SUB probadjust
REM Manual probe radial position calibration

PRINT
PRINT "Turn off motor drive, and manually wind in probe until hub is"
INPUT reached. Then turn on motor drive and hit return. ", r
steps 200
CALL probout
END SUB
SUB probin
REM Move probe in
PRINT
PRINT Moving probe
FOR z=1 TO steps
FOR x=1 To y: NEXT
OUT &H322,0:
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,1:
NEXT z
posn = newposn
END SUB
209
SUB probout
REM Move probe out

PRINT
PRINT Moving probe
FOR z=1 TO st eps
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322, 4:
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322, 5:
NEXT z
posn = newposn
END SUB
SUB probpos
REM Probe automatic radial positioning and data-logging routine
REM control register = &H323

600 CLS
PRINT
PRINT
605 INPUT 'Would like to data-log whilst traversing ({Y)/N)?
you
a$
IF a$ = "Y" OR a$ = "y' OR a$ THEN GOTO 606
IF a$ = "NO OR a$ = On" THEN GOTO 608
GOTO 605
606 PRINT
IF nam <> "" THEN
PRINT " Enter filename for data storage (default nam;
INPUT 00, namnew

IF namnew <> "I THEN
nam. = namnew
210
Appendh A: Control Software
END IF
ELSE
INPUT Enter filename for data storage: *, nam

END IF
OPEN "c: \data\" + nam FOR APPEND AS #2
PRINT
INPUT " Enter text header for file (default = Traverse Data): head
IF head = "I THEN head = "Traverse Data"
PRINT #2, head
PRINT #2, pol, tol, m

PRINT #2,0 Traversing in *; plane$; " plane. '
PRINT #2,0 Radius Pol-Po2 Dyn-Head YaW_angle"
608 PRINT
PRINT Probe is set for 1; plane$; 0 plane. "
PRINT
PRINT Available probe positions: -
PRINT
PRINT 1) Hub", hub + radius, "mm"
PRINT " 2) ((1) * inc) + (inc / 2) + radius, "rrmn
PRINT " 3) ((2) * inc) + (inc / 2) + radius, "mmn
PRINT " 4) ((3) inc) + (inc 2) + radius, "nun"
PRINT 0 5) ((4) inc) + (inc 2) + radius, mmm"
PRINT * 6) Mid-span', ((5) * inc) + (inc 2) + radius, -rrm"
PRINT 0 7) ((6) * inc) + (inc / 2) + radius, mm-
PRINT 4 8) (M * inc) + Unc / 2) + radius, -mml-
PRINT 0 9) ((8) * inc) + Unc / 2) + radius, "mm-
PRINT " 10) (0) * inc) + Unc / 2) + radius, "mm-
PRINT 11) Shroud", ((10) * inc) + (inc / 2) + radius, -rmn
PRINT
OPEN "c: \utils\mech\posn. dat' FOR INPUT AS #3
INPUT #3, p, plane$

CLOSE #3
PRINT Current probe position: *, p
PRINT
610 INPUT Enter new probe position (press 0 to quit)
newpos
IF newpos =0 THEN
newpos =p
GOTO 690
END IF
211
IF newpos <1 OR newpos > 11 THEN GOTO 610

IF newpos =1 THEN

ELSE newposn = ((newpos - 1) * inc) + (inc / 2) + delta
END IF
steps = INT(ABS(newposn - posn) 200)
PRINT newposn, posn, steps

IF newpos >p THEN CALL probout
IF newpos <p THEN CALL probin
685 IF a$ = "Y" OR a$ = "Y* OR a$ THEN CALL travio
OPEN Ic: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR OUTPUT AS #3
PRINT #3, newpos, plane$

CLOSE #3
GOTO 608
690 IF a$ = "Y" OR a$ = "Y" OR a$ THEN CLOSE #2
END SUB
SUB probreset
PRINT * Resetting traverse unit. '
newpos =1
newposn = ((newpos - 1) inc) + (inc / 2) + delta

REM PRINT newposn, posn, steps
IF newpos >p THEN CALL probout
IF newpos <p THEN CALL probin
700 CALL probadjust
OPEN mc: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR OUTPUT AS #3
CLOSE #3
END SUB
SUB setplane
REM Initialise geometrical parameters when traverse plane is
changed
IF plane$ = "blade" THEN
inc = 7.682
212
AppendixA: Control Software
hub = 7.16
delta 0
radius 112.8
END IF
IF plane$ "outlet' THEN
inc = 7.1
hub = 3.55
delta 6.4
radius 35
END IF
END SUB
SUB shrtohub
REM shroud to hub traverse

PRINT I moving probe to shroud
newpos = 11
REM Move probe out
newposn = ((newpos - 1) inc) + (inc 2) + delta
steps = INT(ABS(newposn posn) 200)
CALL probout
850 REM Start traverse
newpos =1
steps = INT(ABS(newposn - posn) 200)
y 30
z0
860 steps = steps -z
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT Set speed using + or - keys whilst traversing, and"
PRINT press Esc key to interrupt traverse. "
PRINT
INPUT Press return to continue. *, r
FOR z=1 TO steps
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,0:
FOR x=1 TO y: NEXT
OUT &H322,1:
213
KEY$ = INKEY$
IF y< 30 THEN y= 30
IF KEY$ = CHR$(27) THEN GOTO 860
NEXT z
OPEN "C: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR OUTPUT AS #3

CLOSE #3
posn = newposn
y= 30
END SUB
SUB start
REM initial data input screen

910 CLS
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT Enter atmospheric pressure (default=*; pOl; "mm Hg): ";

INPUT pnew
PRINT Enter atmospheric temperature (default="; tOl; "oC): ";
INPUT tnew
PRINT Enter mass flow rate (default="; m; lkg/s): ";
INPUT mnew
IF pnew =0 THEN pnew = pOl
IF tnew =0 THEN tnew = tOl
IF mnew =0 THEN mnew =m
pOl = pnew: tOl = tnew: m mnew

PRINT
REM Iterate to find static conditions

tO = tOl + 273.15
pO = pOl 133.3
den = PO (tO * 287.1)
d= 1016
.
a=3.14159 (d ^ 2) /4
FOR 11 TO 6
v=m (den a)
t= tO (V 2 2010)
ps = PO MO t) ^ 3.5)
214
Appendix A: Control Software
den = ps / (t * 287.1)
PRINT ps, t, den, V
NEXT 1
deltap ((m / (. 99 *1*1* (3.14159 4) *d* d)) 2) (2
den)
mmwater deltap / 9.81

PRINT
PRINT Mass flow rate m, "kg/su
PRINT 0 Stagnation pressure pO, "Pa"
PRINT 0 Stagnation temperature tO, "K"
PRINT I Static pressure = 0, ps, NPa"
PRINT Static temperature I, t, "K"
PRINT Density = I, den, wkg/mA3"
PRINT Velocity V, om/s"
PRINT delta P= deltap, "Pa"
PRINT U-tube delta P mmwater, "mm"
PRINT
915 INPUT Would you like to do another calculation? (YI(NW, a$
IF a$ = "Y' OR a$ = 'y' THEN GOTO 910
IF a$ = IN* OR a$ = In" OR a$ = IN THEN GOTO 920
GOTO 915
920 s= 99
END SUB
SUB travio
REM Aerodynamic data input during traverse operation

rad = radius + posn - delta
PRINT
PRINT Radius Pol - Po2 Dyn. Head Yaw angle"
OPEN *com1: 9600, n, 8,1, RB9" FOR INPUT AS #1
PRINT
PRINT rad;
INPUT #1, nul, tot, nul
PRINT tot; 0";
INPUT #1, nul, dat, nul
PRINT dat; 0.;
INPUT 10, yaw
PRINT #2, rad, tot, dat, yaw
CLOSE #1
215
END SUB
SUB travop
REM Traverse options control screen

1000 CLS
OUT &H323,128: REM All Ports set as outputs

OPEN "c: \utils\mech\posn. dat" FOR INPUT AS #3
INPUT #3, p, plane$

CLOSE #3
CALL setplane
IF p1 THEN
posn hub + delta
ELSE posn = ((p - 1) inc) + (inc 2) + delta
END IF
REM PRINT p, posn

PRINT
PRINT
PRINT
PRINT "
PRINT "
PRINT " Options available: -

PRINT "
PRINT " 1) Set probe position.

PRINT 0 2) Reset traverse unit.
PRINT 0 3) Continuous traverse from shroud to hub.
PRINT 0 4) Continuous traverse from hub to shroud.

PRINT 0 5) Change probe traverse plane.
PRINT " 0) Return to main menu.
PRINT "
PRINT " IT
PRINT
PRINT N Probe is set for 0; plane$; 0 plane, at position
0; P;
PRINT
INPUT Please make selection: ", z
PRINT
IF z=1 THEN CALL probpos
IF z=2 THEN CALL probreset

IF z=3 THEN CALL shrtohub
216
IF z=4 THEN CALL hubtoshr
IF z=5 THEN CALL changeplane
IF z=0 THEN GOTO 1080
GOTO 1000
1080 s= 99
END SUB
217
Appendix B: Control Software Output Data File
igv=oo
Pol T01 Mass flow
762.15 22 1
Logging
.. .
-2120.2 Hub Static Tapping 1
-2090.2 Shroud Static Tapping 1
1931.8 Mass Flow Device Delta P
Traverse Data
Traversing in outlet plane.
Radius Pol-Po2 Dyn-Head Yaw_ angle
38.55 49.66 0346.1 0
45.65 50.47 0324.6 0
52.75 42.06 0353.7 3
59.85 35.93 0360.7 4
66.95 42.11 0354.8 3
74.05 39.18 0364.0 4
81.15 39.52 0356.9 4
88.25 39.67 0362.9 4
95.35 32.41 0355.9 2
102.45 33.11 0326.9 0
109.55 26.57 0342.7 0
igv=30o
Logging
Traverse Data
Radius Pol-Po2 Dy-n-Head Yaw__angle
38.55 143.14 0659.2 28
45.65 107.32 0571.2 32
52.75 73.62 0534.7 38
59.85 59.63 0500.0 39
66.95 51.69 0474.5 39
74.05 51.58 0451.2 38
81.15 51.19 0429.4 36
88.25 46.88 0415.6 34
95.35 43.88 0401.1 33
102.45 50.52 0359.4 31
109.55 52.23 0341.6 30
218
AppendLrB: Control Software Output Data File
igv=60o
762.15 22 1
Logging
...
Traverse Data
762.15 22 1
Radius Pol-Po2 Dyn_Head YaW__angle
38.55 1071.2 2251.6 46
45.65 907.3 2169.4 52
52.75 562.7 2146.9 66
59.85 187.46 2101.1 74
66.95 39.87 1865.3 76
74.05 38.44 1568.1 76
81.15 65.23 1318.7 74
88.25 78.06 1144.2 71
95.35 71.51 1022.0 68
102.45 61.49 0895.0 65
109.55 99.2 0743.5 61
219
Appendix C: Stage Performance
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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Relative velocity vectors at 50% span

Flat plate VIGV's @ 01, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
220
r1i "I CIQ rl N "I N N N IN N N --i -q --1 -1

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221
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222
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223
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Relative velocitY vectors at 10% span

Flat plate VIGV's * 00, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
224
(7 rz: rz:
r (7) rz: m r F n m
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
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Flat plate VIGV's g +20', Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
225
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++++++++++++++++++++
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226
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227
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Flat plate VIGV's g 01, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
228
Appendix C- Stage Performance
CD CD S ---4 --1 --1 N N Q

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+ + I I I I +
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229
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231
Appendix C Stage Performance
--4 -4
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232
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233
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234
+
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135
ED CD CD CD CD CD S CD CD CD
LF) m N CD 9) OD N Ln LO T
Ln T m N s cr) N N -T -i
m m 0) LO (7) Ln (T) CC) T a) T CD
CD T CD T s T CY) m -T
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-T
Relative Mach number contours through meridional plane

236
G) CD CD CD CD CD CD s S) CD CD CD (D 0 (S) CD CD CD CD
1; 1 I'l I'l W III I'l III III , 1 1, f I'l I: III It I III III
T III III III
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--1 -4 (7) (3) m m M
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CT
E
r;s f (-) "Z 1n n II, nmn (n in ro n

LO J Z" M (1l' Ill
Co (0 (14 NNN1
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Flat plate VIGV's g +201, Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
237
Appendix C. Stage Performance
m Ln T "I OD LID T N CID OD 11, a) CID CD

OZ) (7) 00
N 0 0) IN --q 7 (r, LID Lr) CC) S m IN Ln
LLJ -1 IN P, (D N
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m f'. I C'q N r7z N, In mmM

1117 I-) in mm
Ln T :11 T M (1), m (r) (Ij N (14
-T IN --i -q --I -j m Ln m

238
(1) N
is CD CID S CD ED CD CD CD CD CS) CD CD
CC) s s (N m (7) LC T (Y-)

-A IN -1 -1 S CY) m M r, LID
--j OD (3) J) CT) CD T (r) IS) T J-) Sj
LLJ -T 1-4 tD LO ()) Ln G) CID
CID IT Lr) m N IN LF) M ED Ln -T
IN (D m co T 9) cc f Lr)
u U) LO j
T
u
C
F 1" 1,1 ll' ,IN rl: rl, in (-) m (Y) to m F)

Ln z- z- M (-, mm rl IN NN
-T -i CC) LO

239
r N N CN I N N C11 -H
4 rlz rl) n m rz r 171 fl m r m r,
7 n m n.
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
LLJ Lli LLJ Li LLJ Lli LJ- LLJ L'i Lij ui LLJ LLJ Ld LLJ LLJ LLI LLJ Lli LLJ Lij
m m T m T m T m T CT) T m T (Tj m m m m m
-T -T
(7) T) CD T M S 0:) 11 (T) T m a)
m
LU CD
D
cc
Ln
L
(n
T
N (D
S)
m
N
N
LO (1) m N U) N Q Lf) N
-T
CT)
LLJ
14 IN -T -i
0- CC) co T Cl)
(i)
101
)MMV,

Tandem VIGV's @ 00, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
240
C, N N N N r\l N N -. 1 --4 -1 -. 4 --1 --1

111
r7 m n m N flz n rzz fl n m rq 7 (, --I
+ + + + 4 + + + + + 4 + + + + + + + + I
t
LLJ LLJ uj Ld LLJ LLJ LLJ Lli Lli LLJ LLJ LLJ Lli Lli LLJ LLJ LLJ Lti ui Li
ui
I () m T m cr)
n in m T M, (r, rl\ 1^11 (n IM (n .I (n m in m
T 0 LO Lf) co LD N 11, N CD Ln
--1 -4 N N (Y-) m
-7
--I (J)
Lli N tf) m G) N LO (n N U-) m --i N m co a) CT) CT)
LLJ
a- - - N N
1-1
u
71

Tandem VIGV's @ +20', Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
241
N N cli -,, N N N C
IN N
rlz n n, n n 'N -1 -q -A
r1i llzz fzz rlz m r7) n 7Q n rz rz) n
+ + n (11
+ + + + + + + + + + -4
LLJ ui + + + + + + + + I
Lij Lli LLJ LLJ
LLJI LLJ LLJ Luf LU
LLJ L.Li uj LLJ LLJ
LU ui Ld LLJ
ui
r,,j (n .I ImI-) m T (n m rl
I1 (0 m
-T m m rz:3 (n N m
--f (r) CD (D -,r) U-) OD ED cr) Ln m U N Ln co
-T
(14
(0
(.D --i U-) CT)
LLJ Ln m m LD T Ili --1 0) N Ln T N a 11 S N Lf" rl cr)
u Co L" M
\VA
v "x.
-. . N. N'. '
"".

Tandem VIGV's @ +400, Mass flow rate = 2.9 kg/s
242
C11 IN N -4
r F n- F rl) m (7 F --4
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + I
+ + + + +
LL-1 LL-1 LLJ LI-I w LLJ LLJ LLj Ji LLJ LLJJ LLJ LLJ Lli LLJ
"i Li LLJ Lli LLJ LLJ
N "A m 10 m In cli m
In (0 rl (r, m m
rlz: II -T in -T II
OD T "I ED (n N CD D IT N LO co ---I CD N 1 OD 9) m
Ll -. i In
LLJ (r) r co 11, m cli C9 OD CID Ln m -1 0 m LD CY)
Ln
Ll-j
C- 0') N (", N rl (N --q m LD U) m --A (7)
'In lll
u
"".
\\\
\\\\\\\\\. \\\\
"\\ \\\\\\\\\
\\\ \.
\\ \\\\
\
'\\
""
"\\\\\ \ \\\\\\
" \""
".
\\\\\\\\\\''\"\\
:\
\\
\\ \\ \\\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\
\\\\ \: \
\\\ \ \\\
\ \\\\
\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \'\'
"\ \\'
\\\\\\\ \"
\.. \\"
"
"\ \ \\\\\\\\\S.
\. \\\\\\\\\\\\. \
"
'"\ \'\\ \\
".. \\\\\'
" \\ \\\\'. ' \ \'\\\\'\, '
\\\\\\
. '\
\': \ '"
'"'"''
.
"\':: :::.. --\
"
Tandem VIGV's * +60', Mass flow rate = 1.9 kg/s
243
Appendix C Stage Performance
N N
+ + rq n
+ + + + + + + + + + +
LL-1 LLJ Li
+ + + + + + +
Li LLJ
Li Lu Li LLI lij
ui Lij LLJ LL-i LLJ LLJ LLI Ld LLJ
M m T M LLJ ui
-T T M T m T m T M T M M
L-: ) m OZ) -T m m m m
OD LI-) (n N S) m fl, (D T (Y) CD CID
LLJ --I 11, (P T m
cc LD T N S Ln
LLJ
IN (r) (T) N Ln N LI) z N,
a- T
CD
! Jill
-mml
JJil m\\%l M\l
lit M
wV,
I v"i N \\N\VW\

Tandem VIGV's * 01, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
244
N m FI) 17 fl
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++
UJI LLJ LLJ Ll W ui LLJ LJ LLJ LLJ Lij Li LLJ LLj LLJ LLJ Li I-Ij LLJ LLJ LLJ
7j N N in m (n M (0 (0 rll in m
rz in -T cn m in 17 -T
N N
11
N, w Ln
0 --4 -1 N IN (r) m T T LF) Ln JO D CD cn
Li 7) T, N Ln "In N Lr) m N m CC) (TI, Tm
Lli N N m m
a_ Ml IN --l
.1 Ilk
....I.....

245
Appendix C: Stage PerfOrInance
LJ LLJ LI-J W LLJ LLJ LLJ LIJ LLJ LIJ LLJ

LL Li LLJ LLJ LLJ LLi
LLJ LU (Y-; (7 m N M (T)
(n (7 T m
Cl (0 in (T J m m II -T
cr)
,1 m LO OD ED N Ln co N (.0 --1 Lf)
L3 LD w s (1i u-) OL, cl,
CT) N Lr), N ED 11, G)
LLJ u i 00 LD l -T
_T
r-,i co 1 ti-) Y) -i f-T)
--i
\\\\\..\''''
\\\'\\
\\
'
'\ \\
k%k\
vllll NII
I kill IkIll lIkIII Mlk%
1111111MM kII 11111Ml
11MMI, ...
1l1kljk1M% IkIkk k1k1k1W
IMOM I
\I%kkk111\

9 Mass flow rate = 2.9 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's +40',
246
J C
m
rz rl n (lz rz N m m n rq tlz F) n n f7 (Izz) 17) n
lllz
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Lij LIJ Ld Ljj LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ
LLJ Li LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ LLJ Lli Li LLJ
N (r, m m m N rr) T
in (n II IN fr)
m T II m In
N (T)
T N CD M N s
a-) tn (D CD N U') 00 CC) 11, (11 m m (T)
LLJ
LLJ In N S, co N Ln m N S CC) OD LO (Y-) --q CD
-T 11
.
S (r, CD CD
--4 Ln
I'M
,\11,
IM, A
I)II,
1011, IIII
IMIWI, IIIII HIMOR,
; R,Inlll IIIII lififfoll
IV
,II 1101of, IIIIIIIII Va011 11,
I ?In I'll IIIIIIII 1119

MI IIII
11911"I'll III
IIII IV UllIIIIIIIII. 0,1 1

Tandem VIGV's * +600, Mass flow rate = 1.9 kg/s
247
--4 --1
S) ED CD FED CD IS S; s G) CD D CD D CD CD
+
N CD N 10 M (Y) CD m z- LD CT) U-) 11, CD N N co

-1
LD m N (r) 7 M T oo Ln CT) (n T -T CD T -i Ln Ln
LO I CD N i CD
NI cc m CTI, T IS U 1 (-1) N M (n E) Ln
CL
U-) U-1 cu U) U) -j
mNC, N F, 1 117 N (` rl, I rl, (Y-) rz m 10 mM

Ln T m ("I r) m cl N IN N -. A -A 00 Lr) co
-7

Tandem VIGV's *, 00, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
248
ED ED D S S 0 CD S) S CD CS) IS CD IS CD CD CD CD CD CD
+
CTI, OD IN Ln T m N r\A CC) CD

T m m S ED
(L N
Lf-)
w ("1 0
IN
0 G) S
(r) CT) m (T) m IT M, cc, N I'm IN IN
CO N, (7), (1"1 ED 7 i Ln N (-C) IM IM IS Lf) I CID (\I N CID IS
-T
U-) LU N U) LIL) U) J)
(,:) rl, il Nm1, '0 rIj r, r) mm (f) In rr) cz

U-) LN N --1 -1 --4 co U-) m

Mass flow rate = 4.3 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's @ +201,
249
Appendix. C: Stage Performance
--i (Ij
CD
+
IS M CC) CD t" U-) m LID IS

I cc N N IS 00 LID -T --A
-T -T (n Ln 7f) T N m Ei
OD m rl m [. M LD m U) Do D (o U -1
m cc U) 0 11, N CT) T I T 711 CD
OD m IS Lf" IN co
-T
CE
7-
tlz M 1()
T 7 7\ -1 --1 m U) m
Ln -7

Tandem VIGV's * +400, rate
250
III! lit ; it III Ill III III I'l Ill lit III lit
IS OC T N M, N m co LD s m Lr) m m N --i CD
-T z S
CT) m S OD CTI N 9) r, LID T LD IT) Lf) m T N IN
OD n N CF) LD OD Lf) CD ("1 0
-T
CE L U) (T) I' 0 k
mInNm rl, i - Nn In fy-) m a-) 10 (n 17

,
Ln Z_ 7T 'IT,, r" mm cl, N (N 17,
-4 co Ln m
-T
251
ED CD ED CD CD !D S CD CD CS) CD G) CD CD G)
-J CD IS s CD CD CD
111 +
+ + +
LD m tD cc CD m CD IT) CD
m cc T 1-1 -T
-T C', OD J) (D LID I,\ T T (1i Cli --i S
ED m m m T LJO -i
m T m co T UO 0) C11 I 03 m S
IS D Ln OD II II -T
u uI Uj (1) N (\I --i J)
_J
clz N, in r 1 10 N r` rl, In (r) F m 10 M F

7TT M, C', mmNNN --I --i --i OD um
U') -T
Relative Mach numher contours at 10% span

Tandem VIGV's * 00, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
252
D
1! ID s !D ED IS CD c CD CD CS)
+ + + +
LID S m 91 M IS -4 N1 N m T U) LID N N IM
Ln
IN Lr) Lr) CD s N LID r, Lf) LID
-T
CD --i Lf) (JD S m IT S
- -4
N CC) I LD 0) 1.11) CD 11, CD 0 iLn 7D
S IS z- ill
(.L) Li L Ll (T N J)
co LO m

253
CD CD CD G) CD CD CD (S) D (S) 0 CD CD C-D 0 CD CD CD

L)
ff', (Y-) M z LO LO Lr) CD tc) ID CID 11, 11, M m OD CT) T

I -T (T) CD (D 0) CT) C
CT) 0) CT) (T) m ()) CT) 0) IT 10) 9) CT) J) IT IT
T m (Y-) CP m CD
N IN,
CE U) Ix w cl, I, w (1) U) LI) j
17 r, ,I rl I ]-) N
Lf) cl, co Lf),
IM

Tandem VIGV's @ +400, Mass flow rate = 2.89 kg/s
254
-j
I N m r, OD Z- m T (T)
10 Lr) 0) M CD T CD T Ln
--I OD N CY) 0-) ED T ---I CID 00 CD
T --I Ln N LID m (,\I CT) m
N m CD T Lf) CD
u ',f CD s LP (D IN m
-T G) T (D N I Ln CD
II
ci: U-) w U), UI
m m
r11_
r, IIn
N
M
N
m
N
m iIn rn
, --1 --4 --1 CO Ln m

Tandem VIGV's g +601, Mass flow rate = 1.9 kg/s
255
III s CD 71 CD IS 0 G) S CD ED CD CD D 17; G;) CD 0 (!D ED CD CD
CC) (.0 LrI m IN IS CT) N Lr) (0 IN 9) cc CID T (T) CID N

-J E, T CD T CD 0) m IM m CD Lf) co T OD m T r, (Y') Cj)
UJ -7 -7
z !D cc T IN M Lr) IN m CD M N Ln (p Ln m T N T
rr
LI) U) U) j
-L)
L)
IT
N fl, m r" InN rq fl, 10 CC) mm In mn

T zl- Tmmm (14 NN OD Ull m

Tandem VIGV's @ 01, Mass flow rate = 5.2 kg/s
256
Appendix C: StagePerformance
LL
--i -A
I IS S. ID CD CD T, CD IS) IS CD CND CD U CD is CD 0 CD CD
it !D CD
1; 1 lit 111 1! 1 Ill Ill Ill ll lit

N cr) OD CD CID N T CD N
m CD t LD (Y" z IN CD --I
-T CD 10 E) 00 co !D LID m CT) (.0 CO
7r) m LD (,-I CD U) IN cc, Lf) CID
11 1 11 T CID (D N IS T IN
CD Ni cr) (D m II Ill U-) N IT II -T
-T
Lf j u j (T)
-j -1
T
u
7L
7
in rn
Z- m (y) C, NNN --A OD 0m
T

257
LL -i -I ED (D CD & S CD CD
G) (D IS CD
hl 0) U7) CD (D --I t" CD

1 OD T CT) Ln CD QD M N
(r) CD T [r) OD
--I Lr) CID N N LD (D 1-i -T
C() co N N QD LD CD CD -7 (r) & N
-J N CD N (r) E) c T S r,
LLJ T N (r) CT) CD
u (T) tl) t, j L';

j
n In In (0 m
N CC) Lf) (r)
m N --I --i --I
through meridional plane

Relative Mach number contours
Mass flow rate = 2.9 kg/s
Tandem VIGV's * +401,
258
S CD CD CD CD S G s G) (D CS) ED CD CD CD CD CD IS) CD
:
I It I It I It I III It I I It I It I It I It 1 1,1 11
0) s co IS 00 m m N m (D OD (D OD (D N m m CD
T Ln I'l 00 ED N U) N OD CD
LJJ -T -1 f.r) z CD N OD rl CT)
,I CC) T (Y) N, m N N N co m -A
-T IT I co (D M S, (r)
I! II
P (Y
T
CIL
(` ill inNm r jnN (IQ rl, in (r) mm 10 170 m

Ln TT1, Y) (n m (r) (I., NNN
-T -T --i -i CD

Tandem VIGV's Ca,+601, Mass flow rate = 1.9 kg/s
259

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Loughborough University

A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements

Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/7263

Publisher: c Miles Coppinger

Please cite the published version.

For the full text of this licence, please go to:

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirementsfor the award of

0 by Miles Coppinger, 1999.

Industrial centrifugal air compressorscan require a combination of a large range of

The performance characteristicsof an existing VIGV design have been determined

scaleperformance testing. Validation of the performance of the existing design using

correlation was obtained between numerical and experimental techniques, and a

I would like to expressmy sinceregratitude to many of my colleaguesand friends for

guidancein developing the numerical technique.

To all of my colleaguesat EDI for sharing my day-to-day problems.

To Amanda for her encouragement,hospitality, and profiteroles.

Finally to my family for their understanding, encouragement,and inspiration to

CP specific heat (J/kgK)

m massflow rate (kg/s)

Carter's Rule: 5= MOV(S/C)

1.2 Centrifugal CompressorTheory 3

1.2.1 Velocity Triangles and Performance 4

Chapter 2: State of Art

2.2 VIGV and Variable Vaned Diffuser Combination 21

Chapter 3: Experimental Facility

Chapter 4.- Experimental Results

Chapter S. Numerical Techniques

Chapter7: VIGV SystemDevelopment

Chapter 8: Tandem Vane Development

Chapter 9: Stage Performance

Chapter 10. Conclusions

axial compressors. A single stageradial compressorcan deliver large massflow rates

require several stagesof an axial compressor. Typically, centrifugal compressorscan

Most modem industrial centrifugal compressorsare required to operate over a broad

Compressor Performance Map

1.40 ----------; ----------------i------j-------

1.20 ---- -----------J,

l' 20000 140006

Fig. 1.1 Compressor performance map

within the region of maximum efficiency.

1.2 Centrifugal Compressor Theory

velocity, enters a vaned or

passedto the diffusing part of the

Fig. 1.2 Typical centrifugal

1.2.1 Velocity Triangles and Performance

Fluid flow within turbornachines can be conveniently represented by 2-dimensional

components such as blades

and vanes. Figure 1.3 shows a

radial impeller and inducer

Fig. 1.3 Radial

shown in Figure 1.4 below.

EFFECT OF VARYING MASS FLOW ON INLET In the flows represented by the

flow is in line with the vane. In

Fig. 1.5 Variation of incidence

outlet velocity triangles. Figure

with a radial changein position, theseresult in a changein momentum and a resultant

compressor stage is therefore governed by an equation derived from the velocity

W=M (U2VW2 UIVWO

In addition, the steadyflow energy equationcan be written as follows:

in termsof work rateandmassflow rate,with adiabaticconditions

W=m Ah =m CpAT =m (U2VW2 UIVWI)

The operating range of a centrifugal compressoris limited, as describedin section 1.1,

operational methods such as variable geometry, and design methods such as

Jansenet al[21experimentedwith impeller wall treatmentand vaned diffuser treatment

A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements