Met Comp

Azuma, Masumi (2004) Metaphorical competence in an
EFL context: the mental lexicon and metaphorical

competence of Japanese EFL students. PhD thesis,
University of Nottingham.
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Metaphorical Competence in an EFLContext
- the mental lexicon and metaphorical competence
of Japanese EFLstudents -
Masumi Azuma
Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
November 2004
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ABSTRACT
This thesison metaphorand metaphorstudy coverstheoreticaland practicalissuesin
the pastand the presentboth in the occidentalandoriental worlds. Metaphorin rhetoric,
cognitive and applied linguistics is describedbriefly, mostly as a theoreticalissue. It
statesthat metaphorwas treatedas part of rhetoric in the past, however, recently it has
developed more broadly into a facet of human cognition. As a practical issue,
professionalstudiesassessingmetaphoricalcompetenceare highlighted,which inform the

of metaphoricalcompetenceof Japaneselearnersof English (JapaneseEFL
measurement
students,hereafter).
The author developedher original measurementinstruments(testsand evaluationsof
metaphorical competence) to assessthe receptive and productive metaphorical abilities of
JapaneseEFL students. The tests aims to measure JapaneseEFL students' metaphorical
competence and discover the answers to what factors affect their comprehension and use
of English metaphorical expressions and what kinds of metaphorical expressions are
salient or opaque for them. This study showed that the JapaneseEFL students' receptive
ability was better than their productive ability. It further indicated that the size of their
mental lexicons, the elasticity of their linguistic ability, the degree of semantic expansion,
and their cognitive flexibility (e.g. analogical reasoning, mapping and networking) were
important factors affecting their ability to handle metaphorical expressions. Another
important discovery was that LI transfer might play an ambivalent role.
As for the salienceand opacity of metaphoricalexpressions,the degreeof clarity of
expressionswas an important element. For example,the expressionswith imageseasy

to visualise were the easiestfor the JapaneseEFL students to understandand use
metaphorically. The highly conventionalidioms involving metaphoricalmeaningswere
problematicfor them to understandandespeciallyto use.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT "-
My researchinto metaphoricalcompetence was a voyageinto a vast ocean. At first it
seemedhard to find the appropriateroute for the voyage. However, my voyage into
metaphorresearchwas'guardedand 'protected
from the high winds and heavy stormsby
excellentpilots and thosewho supportedme. Eventuallymy voyageendedin a sheltered
harbour. In retrospect,thevoyagewasthrilling andinteresting.
I would like to sincerelythankProfessorRonaldCarterfor his guidancein settingupona
suitablecoursefor my researchin the School of English Studiesat the University of

Nottingham.
I would also like to heartilythank Dr. Norbert Schmittfor helpingbring the thesisto
completion. He advisedme expertlynot only on appliedlinguisticsbut alsothetreatmentof
statistics. I appreciatehis encouragement of my continuing research. Without Prof.
Carter'sand Dr. Schmitt's supervisionand support,I could not have completedthe long
journeyof this thesis.
I also thank Mario Saraceni and Svenja Adolphs for their assistancein collecting the
native-speaker data of Chapters3 and 4.

Finally, I would like to thank my affiliation which provided me with the time to study,
and I appreciatethe support of my colleaguesand family.
.i",,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4
PART I: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF METAPHOR 5
2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE

AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 5
2.1-1. Overview
2.1-2. Onomatopoeia
2.1-3. Figurative Language
2.1-4. Metaphor and `hiyu'
2.1-5. Japanese figurative language
2.1-6. Japanese `hiyu'
2.1-7. 'Choku-yu' and ìn-yu'
2.2. METAPHOR IN RHETORIC 13
2.2-1. Traditional view
2.2-2. Appearanceof the term `metaphor' in Japanese
2.2-3. Contemporarymetaphor study
2.3. METAPHOR IN THE OCCIDENTAL WORLD 16
2.3-1. Traditional view
2.3-2. The rise and fall of rhetoric
2.4. CONCLUSION 20
Part II: METAPHOR IN CONTEMPORARY THEORIESNIEWS 22
2.1. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS 22

2.1-1. From classical theories to new perspectives
2.1-2. Moving towardconceptualviews
2.2. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS ON METAPHOR 29
2.2-1. Metaphor researchin cognitive linguistics/cognitive
psychology
2.2-2. Metaphor researchin disciplines other than
cognitive linguistics/psychology
2.2-3. Metaphor researchin applied linguistics
1
2.2-4. Implications for metaphorresearch
2.3. RECENT METAPHOR RESEARCH IN JAPAN 44
2.3-1. Recentdevelopmentin Japanand some problems
2.4. CONCLUSION 48
Part III: METAPHOR IN EDUCATION 49
2.1. METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE 49

2.1-1. Pastresearch
2.1-2. Metaphorical competencein past research
2.2. METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE IN AN EFL CONTEXT 51
2.2-1. Metaphorical competencein EFL
2.2-2. Consideration in research on metaphorical competence in EFL
2.2-3. Factors possibly affecting metaphorical competence
2.3. METAPHOR IN EDUCATION 54
2.3-1. Metaphor in language education
2.4. BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE FOR PURSUIT OF METAPHOR STUDY 60
2.4-1. Generalbackground knowledge
2.4-2. Background knowledge for cognitive elements
2.5. CONCLUSION 79
CHAPTER 3 STUDY 1: PREPARING THE STUDY INSTRUMENTS FOR

METAPHORICAL TESTS 83
3.1. OVERVIEW OF THE 4 STUDIES 83

3.2. STUDIES IN THIS THESIS 84
3.2-1. Hypotheseson factors affecting English metaphorical understandingand use,
and investigation methods
3.2-2. Overall researchquestionsfor the 4 studies
3.2-3. Method
3.3. PREPARATIONFORTESTS 86
3.3-1. Researchquestionsin study 1
3.4. RATIONALE FORTESTSAS MEASUREMENTINSTRUMENTSIN STUDY 1 87
3.5. EXECUTION OF THE PREPARATORY TEST
91
3.6. TESTS OF UNDERSTANDING AND USE OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS
96
il
3.7. CONCLUSION 99
CHAPTER 4 STUDY 2: PILOT TESTING OF METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

100
4.1. THE PURPOSEOF STUDY 2 100
4.1-1. Pilot testing of THE MC tests
4.1-2. Method
4.2. PILOT TESTING OF THE MC TESTS 102
4.2-1. Test of word associations or WAT
4.2-2. Results and analyses of WAT
4.2-3. Polysemy test or PolyT
4.2-4. Test of metaphorical sensitivity and skills or MC-XYT
4.2-5. Tests of literal/metaphorical passageinterpretation or MC-RT
4.2-6. Resultsand analysisof MC-RT
4.2-7. Tests of literal/metaphorical passage writing or MC-PT
4.3. CONSIDERATION FOR USABILITY OF THE TESTS FOR AN EFL SITUATION 117
4.4. CONCLUSION 119
CHAPTER 5 STUDY 3: ASSESSING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:

FIRST EXECUTION OF THE MAIN TESTS (Testing of the MC tests) 121

5.1-1. Tests of metaphorical competenceand researchquestions
5.1-2. Method
5.1-3. Assessmentof vocabulary levels test and polysemy test
5.1-4. Assessmentand treatment of the answersin testsof metaphorical competence
5.2. RESULTS AND ANALYSES 130
5.3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QUESTION 1 133
5.3-1. Featuresof the answersin MC-RT- L and MC-RT-M
5.3-2. Featuresof the answersin MC-PT-L and MC-PT-M
5.3-3. Conclusion
5.3-4. Toward a new study
5.4-1. Metaphorical competencemeasuredin MC-XYT
111
5.4-2. Resultsand analysis
5.4-3. Discussion
5.4-4. Conclusion
5.5-1. Vocabulary size and metaphorical competence
5.5-2. Vocabulary knowledge and metaphorical competence
5.5-3. Conclusion
CHAPTER 6 STUDY 4: ASSESSING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:

SECOND EXECUTION OF THE MAIN TESTS (Re-testing of the MC tests) 189

6.1-1. Researchquestions
6.1-2. Method
6.1-3. Instruments and procedures
6.2. RESULTS OF STUDY 4 194
6.3. THE EFFECT OF STUDYING ABROAD AND THE GENDER DIFFERENCE 202
6.4-1. The features and schemas found in the answers
6.4-2. Summary of the differences between STUDY 3 and STUDY 4
6.4-3. Summary of MC-XYT

6.5-1. Featuresof metaphorical competencein MC-RT and MC-PT
6.5-2. Summary for MC-RT and MC-PT
6.5-3. Metaphorical competencein MC-XYT
6.5-4. Summary for MC-XYT
6.5-4. Conclusion
6.6. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QURESTION 3 249
6.6-1. The reliability analysis
6.6-2. The validity analysis
6.6-3. Conclusion
6.7-1. Correlations
6.7-2. Vocabulary knowledge and metaphorical competence
6.7-3. Conclusion and implications for EFL education
IV
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION 265
7.1. VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE 265

7.2. IMPLICATIONS/SUGGESTIONS FOR AN EFL SITUATION (specifically for
Japanese
EFL education) 273
7.3. RETROSPECTIVE VIEWS ON THE STUDIES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE
PRESENT RESEARCH 276
7.4. SUGGESTIONS FOR ENHANCING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE 278
References 281
Notes 290
Appendices 294
V
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This researchaims to study metaphorresearchin applied linguistics, especiallyin an

EFL context, and to fill the gaps in our researchknowledge by applying ideas from
cognitive and applied linguistics. In cognitive linguistics, Langacker(1991) has been
influential in Japan, especially in grammar relating metaphors (Yamanashi, 1995;
Sugimoto, 2000). For example, prepositionsare discussedas metaphoricalextension.
However, researchon metaphor study in education has not yet been as abundant as
researchon other areasin applied linguistics. The researchhas been increasingsince
Lakoff and Johnson (1981), Lakoff (1987) and Johnson (1987) proposed Idealized
Cognitive Models or ICMs, conceptualmetaphors,for example,metaphorsof ANGER
andJOURNEY.
It is understandable why cognitive linguistics draws such attention. It studies
language from the perspective of human cognition based upon cognitive science and
cognitive psychology, and it attempts to investigate mechanisms in the process of

comprehension and communication. It also attempts to investigate human faculties
which may assist in creating concrete images from objects or events, expanding them to
other objects or events, having multi-perspectives on objects or events, identifying
similarities between objects or events (this concerns metaphor), and relating objects or
events in contiguity (this concerns metonymy). It is also noteworthy that conceptual
metaphors involve schemas and/or image schemas, therefore, these mechanisms may
promote language acquisition in any language learning environment.
In an EFL situation,vocabularyknowledge(size and depth) has an important role to
play in understandingand using a target language. Expressionssometimesconveyjust
literal or overt meaningsbut imply deeperor covert meaningshidden under the surface
meanings. The hidden, figurative or metaphoricalmeaningsare sometimeshard for
foreign language learners to understandand use. This is a reason why I intend to
investigateaspectsof JapaneseEFL students'metaphoricalunderstandingand use in their
target language,i.e. English. A more direct reasonresultsfrom my past experiencein
teaching English, where I found EFL students' awarenessof metaphoricalexpressions
weak. A small experiment (29 subjects)on how many anger expressionsthey knew
revealedthat they only knew a straight forward expressionÌ'm angry' and some swear
words.
What will be exploredand investigatedin this thesisis follows. Chapter2 consists

as
1
of three parts. Part 1 will explore the history of metaphor. In the occidental world
metaphor was rooted in rhetoric, of which Aristotle clarified its theory and effects. He
weighed metaphors by analogy. There had been repeated rises and falls in use of rhetoric
until early 19th century. And the 20th century saw the flourishing study of metaphor in
the occidental world initiated by I. A. Richards (1936). Since then, metaphor has been
studied in linguistics, semantics, psychology, anthropology and other fields. In Japan, we
may be able to trace the roots of figurative expressions to Man-yo-shu in a literary form or
even earlier. The Meiji Era was an epoch-making period importing objects and ideas from
the occidental world. Literary figures in the Meiji Era (Dairoku Kikuchi, 1879; Sanae
Takata, 1889; Shoyo Tsubouchi, 1893; Hogetsu Shimamura, 1902, to name just a few) may
have contributed to defining notions and adopting suitable terms of rhetoric, among which
metaphor might have been included. Since Lakoff and Johnson's views and theories on
metaphor were issued, Japanesescholars have paid more attention to metaphor and cite
their publications.
In educational arenas, research on metaphor is not yet abundant. This pointed me in
the direction of researchon metaphor study in education. The specific aim of my research
was to investigate how well non-native speakers (Japanese) understand and use
metaphorical expressions in another language (English). This main focus will be
examined in the relationship between EFL students' linguistic ability and metaphorical
competence. To explore this topic, we need sufficient background knowledge.
Therefore, Parts 2 and 3 will be devoted to the exploration of the necessary background
knowledge for investigating and conducting the study of metaphor. The notions and
functions of schemas, image schemas, network and mapping in connection with
metaphorical understanding and use will be focussed upon.

To investigate learners' metaphorical competence,we need some measurement
the following hypothesesfor an
instruments. To searchfor or to establishmeasurements,
investigationare takeninto account.
1) vocabularyknowledgemay be a main factor in metaphoricalunderstandingand use,
2) idiomatic and cultural aspectsof the languagemay be other factors. Ll transfer to
their understanding and use of metaphorical expressions in English may have
ambivalenteffectsand
3) there may be somecharacteristicsor aspectsof EFL students'Schemas,image schemas,
semantic fields and/or mapping/network in metaphorical understanding and
manipulation.
Chapters3 and 4 will delineatethe developmentof preparatory

and pilot metaphorical
2
tests and search for index tests with which the results of metaphorical tests can be
contrasted. The studies will focus upon the receptive (i.e. comprehension)and the
productive(i.e. use)abilitiesof metaphoricalcompetence.
Chapters5 and 6 will addressthe main teststo investigatethe key featuresof Japanese
EFL students'metaphoricalcompetence,and analyseand discussthe resultsof the testsin
more quantitativeand qualitative detail. The chaptersalso suggestthe practicability and
feasibility of the testsof the metaphoricalcompetence.
Chapter7 concludesthe thesis,addressingthe importanceof metaphoricalcompetence
in an EFL situation. It discussesthe reasonsfor the enhancementof vocabulary,polysemy,
schemas, image Schemas,network and mapping,and the expansion of semantic fields. It
will report some for
experiencesand proposesuggestions lessonsto deal with metaphorical
expressions.
3
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter 2 consists of three parts, presenting reviews of studies of metaphor from a

historical perspective to a pedagogical viewpoint and discussespoints relevant to my
research.
Part I describesa brief historical developmentof metaphor dating from around the end
of the early rhetoric agesto the flourishing rhetoric ages,when metaphor had not yet been
treated independently, then to the time when metaphor came to be independently treated
per se; Part II addressesmetaphor from a contemporary viewpoint, where metaphor is
studied not just as a figure of speech as treated in rhetoric, but more broadly as a
mechanismof human cognition; Part III addressesmetaphorin the pedagogicalfield, where
severaldisciplines (especially applied linguistics) are focussedupon.
4
PART I: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF METAPHOR
Part 1 describesthe characteristicsof Japaneselanguageand `hiyu' as a brief overview

on metaphor in Japaneselanguage,and addressesthe historical development of metaphor
and metaphorstudy in Japanand in the occidental world.
Specificfocusesareon (1) what characteristics
Japanese
`hiyu' has,(2) whenthe term
`metaphor' was introduced in Japanand how it developed at the time of its introduction
and thereafter, and (3) the historical development of metaphor and metaphor study in the
occidental world.
It was not until around the middle of the 20th century that metaphor was viewed from
the holistic human cognition (Ortony, et. al, 1979/1994; 1985; Honeck and Hoffman, 1980;
Lakoff and Johnson, 1981, to name just a few). In the traditional view, metaphor had
beentreatedas one of the figures of speech. Part I describesthe historical developmentof
metaphor study ranging from the traditional view to a new development in the middle of
the 20th century. Further contemporarymetaphortheories/viewswill be discussedin Part
II.
2.1. OVERVIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE

AND THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
2.1-1. OVERVIEW
The English and Japaneselanguages are quite different in many linguistic aspects,
phonetically, morphologically and syntactically, and even so in use of metaphors.
English is one of the Indo-European languages,while Japaneseis classified as one of the
Altaic languages. There is some debate about its classification, but lexical and other
linguistic resemblanceshave been pointed out between Japaneseand other East Asian
languagesand languagefamilies, e.g. Austronesian.
JapaneseEFL learners face several fundamental linguistic differences when they first
encounter English. Some learners overcome these differences, while others
are
overwhelmed and defeated by them. When they first encounter English, they tend to be
either annoyedby or interestedin the phonetic differences. In English, each word consists
of one, two or more letters of the alphabet, which produces a certain syllabic sound
(phoneme) quite different from that of their native language. Some
phonemes are
similar to those of Japanesewhich can be transcribed into `katakana', but it is not
exactly
the sameas English. The annoyancein the earlier stagesof learning lies in the difficulty
of English pronunciations. Later some studentshave difficulty with spellings,
vocabulary
and the meaningsof particular words.
5
Another characteristic is the syntactic, which is more complicated than the phonetic
characteristic. Generally speaking,the word order of an English sentenceis subject-verb,
while, in Japanese,a predicate comes at the end of a sentence. This difference causesa
great many problems for Japaneselearnersof English when composing sentences. Parts
of speechare quite different, too, though both languagesshare some similarity in nouns,
pronouns,verbsandadjectives.
In the written language,Japaneseconsists of 48 syllabic and phonogramic `kana' (48
`hirakana' and `katakana' respectively) and ideographical `kanji' (Chinesecharacters).The
kanji have their own meaningstogether with phonemes. In spokenlanguage,both `kana'
and `kanji' are pronouncedas sounds(phonemes).
In the several centuries after the Japaneseadopted `kanji' from Chinese, they used
classical written Chineseas their formal written language. Through the processof using
the characters,the òn' and `kun' of every `kanji' gradually became established. The
`kun' of a `kanji' is an indigenous Japaneseword, but retains meanings similar to the
original Chinese,however, the pronunciations mostly differ. In brief, every `kanji' usually
has two (or more) readings: one is the `kun', which is indigenous Japanese;the other the
òn', which is an old Chineseloan morpheme. Thesetwo readingsare closely associated
with eachother and alternate freely in word formation, for example,
Keio Daigaku "Keio University" is abbreviated to Kei-dai, using the original

òn' reading; whereas Waseda Daigaku "Waseda University" becomes So-dai,
formed from the òn' reading for the indigenous Japaneseword "vase" in
Waseda. "Wase," which means "early-ripening variety of rice," is shown by a
combination of two Chinesecharactersmeaning "early" and "rice, " respectively.
The òn' reading of the character meaning "early" is "so," hence So-dai.
(Britannica, 1990,Volume 26: 753)
Syntactically, Japaneseis an agglutinative language, in which `joshi' (a post positional

word) functions as an auxiliary to a main word (such as `wa', `ga', ò', `ni', etc.),
amalgamatesa word to a word, for example,
Watashi-wa/ kino / igirisu-ni / kimashita. (f44jft Eif ) X-3L t)

I/ yesterday/England-to (or in) /came or arrived.
('wa'/'ga' is a subjector topic markerof a sentence)
Another characteristicof the Japaneselanguageis

onomatopoeia. Some of its featuresare
6
describedin the following section.
2.1-2. ONOMATOPOEIA
Onomatopoeiarepresentsanotherunique characteristicof the Japaneselanguage. It is
usually written in `katakana', which entertains hearers/readers by phonogram.
Onomatopoeiain English is the mimicry of sound(s) or voice(s) which describesthings,
by
manners,movements,etc. using soundsor voices, such as bow-wow, chit-chat, cuckoo,
ding-dong in English. The Japaneseequivalents to the above are `wan-wan', `pecha-
kucha', `kokekokko', 'jan-jan' or `gooon-gooon' (depending on the size of the bell and
what material the bell is made of); and `bun-bun', as used in describing the soundsof bees.
These examplesare known as `gion-go' in Japanese,and the example of `gisei-go' is `zei-
zei' as in breathing on accountof `wheezing'.
There is another similar expressioncalled `gitai-go' in Japanese. `Gion', or `gisei'
describesmimicry of sound or voice ('gi' is similarity or resemblanceand `go' is word).
As `gitai' means mimesis in English, it sensorially describesthe mimicry of appearance,
posture and condition or state, for example, `niya-niya warau' (grin as in "what are you
"
grinning at? The word `warau' meansto grin or smile). The Japaneseoften use these
two kinds of word in daily conversation, stories and/or in cartoons seriously and/or
entertainingly.
At the time of the JapaneseBubble Economy, such cryptology (undergroundwords) as
`dobun' and `zabun' prevailed among workers for Nippon Ginko (Bank of Japan).
These onomatopoeia were used ironically even in cartoons. `Dobun' and `zabun'
onomatopoeically describe the soundsmade when a person or an object jumps into water,
but here they are comically and ironically used to describe the amount of bribery. When
he/shejumps into shallow water, it sounds `zabun', while it soundsheavier `dobun' when
jumping into deeperwater. According to the news article (The Asahi, March 14,1998),
`dobun' is worthy of about Y50,000 bribery or entertainment, and 'zabun' Y10,000. The
explosive /d/ is stronger than the fricative /z/ sound, which probably explains the
differencesin the sumsof money.
Onomatopoeiain Japaneseis usually used in combination with other words, especially
with verb(s), except for their ellipsis. It stimulates our imagination when used in
combination with words which trigger the transfer of meaning. In this sense,
onomatopoeiacan be usedmetaphorically.
Onomatopoeia('gion-go' and `gitai-go' in the case of Japanese)
stimulates our senses
through the soundsor voices which describe how things are (what they look/sound like)
or
how people are doing things, and entertains
our ears,at the sametime. Onomatopoeiamay
7
be an interesting research topic (see Kakei and Mito, 1981; Kakei and Tamori, 1993).
However, my present studies focus on figurative expressions (or more specifically
metaphoricalexpressions)which illustrate transfersof meaningsin English and in Japanese.
2.1-3. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

There are a variety of figures of speechin English, such as simile, metaphor,metonymy,
synecdoche,onomatopoeia,and so on, as there are in Japanese, though they do not exactly
coincide with their English counterparts. My discussion will concentrate on metaphors
(in English terms) which convey a transfer of meaning inside the languageand expression,
though some other figurative languagewill be touched upon. The following are popular
examples of simile and metaphor in English from Aristotle's The Arts of Rhetoric
(translatedby H. C. Lawson-Tancred,1991: 224) :
a. like a lion leap

b. a lion leapt
The example a. like a lion leap is a simile (ibid. ) and the example b. a lion leapt is a
metaphor (ibid. ). He spoke of Achilles by the metaphor of the lion. The commentary
written by Cope (1877) explicates
`the simile too is a metaphor,the difference betweenthem being slight: for when
he (Homer) saysof (his, or the great)Achilles "and as a lion he rushedon", it is a
simile, but when, "he rushed on, a (very) lion", a metaphor: for (in the latter)
becausethey are both brave, he transferredto Achilles the appellation of lion. '
(Cope, 1877: 48)
As is statedin TheArts of Rhetoric, metaphorsare more powerful than similes becausethey

are more condensed. The following quotation from The Arts of Rhetoric may explain
metonymy:
c. if the goblet is the shield of Dionysus, then it would also be apt to call the shield
the goblet of Ares. (The Arts of Rhetoric, translatedby H.C. Lawson-Tancred,
1991: 225)
2.1-4. METAPHOR AND 'HIYU'

In English, until recentlymetaphorhad beentreatedas one the figures
of of speech
8
originating in rhetoric.
There seemsto have been no single terminology in Japanesereferring to metaphor as
designatedby the English term until recently. I consulted a Japanesedictionary (the 5th
version of Kojien, 1987, the reliable Japaneselexicon) to see if it contained the word
`metaphor' in it. There was no such lexis included in its entry. However, there is one in
CD-ROM (1998), which indicates that it means ìn-yu, ' meaning "hidden connotation."
Even if the word `metaphor' itself had not been included in a dictionary for a long time, a
similar concept has existed. From time immemorial, the Japanesehave used figurative
language,though the term "metaphor" or indeedany other term was not applied.
The oldest script that aboundedwith figurative expressionsis probably Man-yo-shu Qj
MJK, the collection of poems composed in the years of 313-795). There are many
figurative expressionsin it, however, only a few examplesare quoted below:
in
a. an expression a poem from Man-yo-shu as an example of metonymy and
metaphor:
thought is burning in one's heart (omohi-zo yakuru, < 7a)(Man-yo-shu
Poem No. 5, )5 j 5)'
b. a poem in Man-yo-shu as an example of a metaphoricalexpression:

Seeingthe dawn coming up in the easternfield, looking back at it, the moon
sinking. (Himugashi-no no-ni gagirohi-no tatsu-mietekaherimi-surebatsuki-
katabukinu, (Man yo-
shu PoemNo. 48, ) % 48)
The poem a. sang a traveller's nostalgic thoughts of his wife left behind at home. He
watched women divers burn salt on the beach, the sight of which excited his nostalgia even
more. Then his imagination mapped his emotion, singing his fiery thought of his beloved
one. There is also a play on words or sliding of words in this poem between burn salt and
burn thought. The former is treated chemically by a high temperature; the latter
emotionally.
Thepoemb. delineatesan atmosphericsceneon its surface,but the poem
asa whole sang
the departingsceneof the loversafter spendinga night together.
The Tale of Genji written by Lady Murasaki in the 11th ?1001-
century
1008?) also abounds with figurative expressions such
as metonymy/synecdoche and
metaphor. The following examples are simile and `gitai-go' (onomatopoeia) from the
chapterof `Wakamurasaki'.2
9
c-1.Her hair "".spreadout like an unfoldedfan (kami ha afugi wo hirogetaru yauni,
simile
c-2. (her hair ) wavy (yura yura toshite, *5* TakL -C)4: gitai-go
Another examples are synecdoche(d-1; d-2) and metonymy (d-3) from the chapter of
`Kiritsubo' (see 2.3-1. for the distinction betweenmetonymy and synecdoche).Example d-1
describesthe status of the court ladies using the title of their service to the Emperor, i. e.
assistingthe Emperor to his
change clothes; d-2 describes a political hierarchy in terms of the
position it occupied, right or left (e.g. the Minister of the Left, which was superior to the
Right those days); d-3 refers to a ceremony for a three-year-old boy by describing the clothes
he wore. He changedfrom baby clothes to an infant hakama or trousers when he became
three years old. All theseexamplesare generatedfrom contiguity.
d-1. the gentlewomenof the Wardrobe (ko-i, hp, )

d-2. The Minister of the Right (udaijin, jk f)
d-3. ThePutting on of the Trouserswas performed (onhakamagino koto, '(n
....
imijiu sesasetamafuLion L -)' -t .)
...
In describing Kiritsubo, the mother of Genji, in the very first chapter in The Tale of Genji,
there are the following expressions, 5
e. though she was not of very high rank (ito yamugotonaki kiwa niha aranuga, tr-iL.
f. who (though shewas not of very high rank) wasfavoured far beyond all the rest
(suguretetokimeki tamafu, '
The word `kiwa' in `yamugotonaki kiwa' meansborder, edge and/or end, hence, it meant
the social status or class to which one belonged. Therefore, the whole phrase
metaphorically means (of) a very high rank using a metonymy of `kiwa. ' `Tokimeku'
was translated into `favoured far beyond,' but the original Japanese means to be
`prosperousin the current of the time. ' It is a metaphoricalexpression.
2.1-5. JAPANESE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Though the word `metaphor' is not included in the 5th
version of Kojien Àya' and
,
`Hiyu' are. The former is usedas in `kotoba no aya' (nuance/implication
of word/language).
10
It means the skillful and beautiful elaboration of expressions. The original meaning of
àya' in Japaneseis patternsof lines and/or shapeswoven diagonally acrossthe surface of
i.
paperor cloth, e. texture. By the same token, àya' connotesmeaningswoven in words,
sentencesor whole texts. Therefore when àya' is usedin a rhetorical sense,it turns out to
be figurative.
In a rhetorical point of view, there is àya' in word/sentencelevels and at thought levels,
as well. In English, too, metaphorsare used in words, sentences,and at thought levels.

It is generally known that metaphorsexist in the whole of a text as in Aesop's fables, and in
phrasessuch as sour grapes,as well.
In a broader sense and in everyday use in Japaneseis the common term `hiyu' to
expressone's idea figuratively. It broadly covers such figurative languageas the simile,
metaphor and metonymy and so on, as the same in English figurative language. `Hi' in
`hi-yu' implies `comparison' or `likeness'; `yu' an example or word(s), or it also implies
admonishment, therefore `hi-yu' transfers meanings, usually through comparison,
associationand/or resemblance,and is used to describeone thing in terms of another, as is
shown below in the order of simile, metonymy and metaphor.
a. simile:
as white as snow; white like snow (yuki noyoni shiroi,
b-1. metonymy & metaphor (conventional idiom/stereotypeddead metaphor):
iridescent/-ce(tamamushi(buprestid) iro, ,,rP
b-2. metonymy: (a straw raincoat and a straw hat in the following poem):
In spring rain,
Walking talking side by side
A straw raincoat and a straw hat. (Buson, 1716-1783)
(Harnsameya monogatariyuku mino-to-kasa,
c. metaphor:the following poem describesthe bitternessof the world

metaphorically:
(My) tenderskin
Bathed in a spring
Coming out of it
Whattouchesmyskin is
thegarmentof this earthlyworld. (UntidyHair, YosanoAkiko, 1878-1942)
(Yuami-shiteizumi-wo-ideshiyawahadanifururuha-tsurakihitono
A; LefL 7ajt-D6 JÒf. -o) &)(Midaregami,
AMR)
11
Among the above examples,the example a. às white as snow' or `white like snow' is the
sameas in English. The example b-1. 'iridescent/-cc' is used in such a sentenceas "The
Prime Minister statedhis idea iridescently," meaning he statedhis opinion unclearly so that
he could avoid further criticism from his opponents, and in the example b-2. a straw
raincoat and a straw hat are metonymy signifying two people (walking, talking side by
side). The whole poem symbolically delineatesthe scene in which they were walking,
talking in the quiet spring rain. In the example c., the metonymy is exploited as in the
caseof b-2., but at the sametime, a metaphorical interpretation of the whole poem is truer
to her implication. Those who know that Akiko Yosano ran after a married poet (Hiroshi
Yosano) can make senseof the metaphoricaldelineation of her bitter experience. She was
actually accusedby society of usurping someoneelse's husbandwhom she worshipped as
her masterof poetry.
2.1-6. JAPANESE 'HIYU'

In a broader sense,metaphor can be translatedinto `hiyu' in Japanese. Here is a brief
history of `hiyu. ' `Hiyu' was introduced by Shoyo Tsubouchi and others in the Meiji Era
from the ChineseRules of Sentence,or Rhetoric Book (Wen Zhe, ll(J, 1729) which was
written by Chen Kui in the 12th century. Tsubouchi took Simile, Metaphor, Synecdoche
and Allusion from this book and put them into Japanese,`choku-yu', ìn-yu', `kan-yu'/'tei-
yu' and ìn-yu' respectively (Homma, et. al., 1977). The second and fourth terms (both
are ìn-yu') soundthe samein romaji, but when written, they have different kanji, therefore,
there is no confusion in Japanese:the former ìn' means `hidden', while the latter ìn'
means `draw', `quote' or `quotation.' His translation of the first two words ('choku-yu'
and ìn-yu') seems to be ideal, becausethey coincide with the occidental rhetoric terms and
notions. The last one (i. e. ìn-yu') meansa quotation. My interpretation is that Tsubouchi
used the sameword in the original book. The ìn-yu' in the latter senseis outside of my
focus. My focus is on the ìn-yu, ' metaphor, in the former sense,however, the figures
of
speechsuch as `choku-yu' (simile) and `kan-yu'/`tei-yu' (metonymy/synecdoche)will be
touchedupon to someextent.
2.1-7. `CHOKU-YU'AND ÌN-YU'

There are usually debates about which figures of speech
should be classified into
certain categories,though in classicalrhetoric, `choku-yu' (sometimescalled `mei-yu') and
`kan-yu'/'tei-yu' were classified within the
range of `ten-gi' (transfer or trope).
According to Sato (1992; 1997), there is no transfer in the
meaning of the words/phrasesin
12
simile ('choku-yu') (X is like Y), therefore simile is not included in `ten-gi' (trope).
`Choku' (direct) and `mei' (clear or overt) mean unhidden, while the ìn' of ìn-yu'
connoteshidden, covert and/or implicit. The expression conveyed by ìn-yu' transfers
the hidden (covert) meaning to the overt one through phraseologywhich stimulateshuman
cognition. It representsan object or an idea in terms of similarity (ibid. ). The important
point is that it involves a transfer of meaning. The `kan' in `kan-yu' meansto replace or
replacing. It replaces a word or an expression in terms of relationships such as
closeness/neighbouringand/or solidarity. Sato (1997) distinguishes synecdoche from
metonymy: metonymy is based upon contiguity while synecdocheis based upon semantic
categoricalinclusion.
In brief, in both the occidental and oriental worlds, rhetoric has been ubiquitous since
Aristotle's age in the former and the age of Man-yo-shu or earlier in the latter. In this sense,
human eloquencesharedits nature in the both worlds, although languagerealisationsdiffered.
2.2. METAPHOR IN RHETORIC

It was statedin the section2.1-6 that the term `hiyu' was introduced in the Meiji Era by
Shoyo Tsubouchi and other literary figures. The following two sectionswill look at how the
occidental rhetoric theory took root in Japan.
2.2-1. TRADITIONAL VIEW

The occidental theory of rhetoric was brought to Japanin the Meiji Era (the latter half
of 19th century), it was initially studied as rhetoric. Studying classical rhetoric provided
the stylistic techniques of effective, beautiful, decorative and impressive dictions and
methods of persuasion. These categorizations eventually stimulated new conceptions.
They stimulated and produced new models of spoken and written creativity. Therefore
those who studied classical rhetoric in its cradle age in Japan unconsciously and
unintentionally studied the conceptualimages underlying human consciousness.
At the time when the occidental world progressedinto the Age of Scienceand turned to
rationalism, the interest in Rhetoric and Humanism had already declined. Then in the
Meiji Era in Japan, the nominations and the contents of the technique of the
occidental
conceptsof classical rhetoric were introduced. There were some pursuers, among whom
was Yukio Ozaki, who startedhis careeras a journalist, and who introduced the occidental
theory of rhetoric to Japanas public oratory in (the Year of) Meiji 10 (1877). Later he
becamea politician nicknamed `the god of constitution'
and then a novelist (Koyo Ozaki).
He put emphasison stylistic technique, giving the
name `Polite Literature' ('ka bungaku',
13
3`C*)"
In Meiji 13 (1880), Dairoku Kikuchi translated Du Marsais L'Encyclopedie into
Japaneseas Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (see 2.3-2.). This translation greatly contributed
to the public use of rhetoric. Kikuchi's translation emphasizedart and literature more
than the persuasivetechniqueemphasisedby his predecessorOzaki.
In Meiji 15 (1882), Shuroku Kuroiwa translatedpart of the theory of figures of speech
in Advanced Course of Composition and Rhetoric (1855,1875) by GP.Quackenbosinto
Japaneseas Oratorical and Elaborate Stylistic Writing Kuroiwa also
startedhis careeras a journalist, and later he becamea well known translator of Alexandre
Dumas' Le Comtede Monte-Cristo and Victor Hugo's Les Miserables.
Then, in Meiji 22 (1889), SanaeTakata, Yuzo (later Shoyo) Tsubouchi and Koson
Aeba systemizedrhetoric theory, claiming that there had existed a theory of rhetoric and
the term figures of speechin the Orient. They usedthe term `biji gaku' (beautification of
writing or flowery languages) to describe the pre-existing theory. They alternated the
term rhetoric to `biji gaku' (). Tsubouchi (1859-1935) (professor at Waseda
University, who specialized in Shakespeare)claimed that `hi-yu' abounded and was best
exploited in Shakespeare. He classified various kinds of rhetoric methods into three
categories: Resemblance, Association and Contrast. He placed Simile, Metaphor,
Personification and Allegory in the category of Resemblance;Synecdoche,Metonymy,
Hyperbole and Allusion in Association; Antithesis, Climax, Epigram, Interrogation and
Exclamation and Irony in Contrast in Figures of Sentences(Bun-no Sugata, io)-4 c
P,:,1977). Its first impressionwas in Meiji 26, i. e. in 1893. He suggestsOnomatopoeiabe
included in the category of Association.
Hogetsu Shimamura, the successorto the above scholars, stated in his book entitled
`New Waysof Beautifying Writing' (*) (Meiji 35, i. e. 1902) that `biji gaku' (g4
JJ*) is his interpretation of figures of speechor rhetoric. Tsubouchi and Simamura
alluded in their writings to Chen Kui's Rules of Sentenceor Rhetoric Book (Wen Zhe,
01J). Therefore as far as the origin is concerned,as statedearlier, we can trace it back to
Chen Kui's WenZhe in the 12th century.
The late 19th century was when the Japanesewere ever more attracted by occidental
civilization and culture(s). They accumulatedoccidental concepts not only in rhetoric but
in all human activities and gave them names or nominations by using `katakana'.
`Katakana' sometimes representedthe concepts, or names using similar sounds to the
original occidental sounds,at other times, new wordings or terms suitable or similar to the
originals were invented (though there are some wordings or terms quite unique and far
from the original). Ever since then, the number
of occidental loan words or terms
14
describedby `katakana' (or sometimesby original alphabets)has been increasing. The
most recent ones include the `hai-teku' (high technology), `conpu-ta' (computer) and `si-
dhi-romu' (CD-ROM).
2.2-2. APPEARANCE OF THE TERM `METAPHOR' IN JAPANESE

The earliestappearanceof `metaphor' (and `metonymy') in Japanesewas the one taken
from Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, part of Du Marsais' L'Encyclopedie (f4-A)(Sato,
1992; 1997). Later it was discovered that this might have originated in The Champles'
Information for the People. It was translated by Dairoku Kikuchi and published by the
Ministry of Education or Mombusho in Meiji 13 (1880). The term for metaphor in the
Japaneseversion at this time was `metaforu' ('sho-yu', OA) written in `kanji' with
`katakana' ruby type (furigana) on it. It must have been the spelling pronunciation of
`metaphor.' The one for metonymy was `metonimi' ('kan-go', A) also with ruby type
(furigana) on it. The word `sho' () refers to form and/or statue. The word `kan' refers
to replacing. They allocated the term `sho-yu', but it disappeared shortly afterwards,
probably becauseit was not familiarised by users. `Choku-yu' took the place of `sho-yu'
and `kan-yu' the place of `kan-go'. What we should take notice of here is that in
Kikuchi's translatedversion, `metaforu' was placed with the term `hi-yu' (comparison, ft
p) in the same line, and that `metonimi' comes with `jo-kyo' (circumstances, M5) and
`chaku-shoku' (colouring or picturesque, 718). For an example of metaphor in this
translation, the breathing of animals is `the blow of wind, ' and for an example of
metonymy `Cromwell summoned members of the Parliament with one touch of his pen and
dissolved it with one breadth of his.' As stated earlier, Hogetsu (Takitaro) Shimamura
(Meiji 35, i. e. 1902: 312) determined the translation of `metaphor' to be ìn-yu. ' To be
more faithful to his script, he statesthat ìn-yu' is called `metaphor' in English (ibid. ). He
clarifies the quality of metaphor:explicitness,wording effect and the avoidanceof overuse.
Tracing back this development of metaphor in Japan is a noteworthy discovery in my
presentstudy.
2.2-3. CONTEMPORARY METAPHOR STUDY

Nowadays in Japan, a considerable number of researchers and scholars
research
rhetoric, semantics,cognitive linguistics and studies of related areas, and there are also a
considerablenumber of studiesof `hiyu' or metaphors.Studiesof metaphorsare increasing,
but such systemizationas Lakoff and Johnson(1981; 1987) did
and such studiesas effects
of etymological or cultural learning of figurative idioms (Boers, 2001, Boers; Demecheleer,
2001; Boers, Demecheleerand Eyckmans, 2004) have
yet to come out more in the field of
15
applied linguistics, especially in relation of the study of metaphors/idioms in its
pedagogicalapplications to TEFL. A pedagogical application of contemporary metaphor
study to a non-native speakers' situation (i. e. an EFL situation) is one of the aims of my
study. Further contemporarymetaphor study is discussedin PART II.
In sum, it was in the Meiji Era when the occidental theory of rhetoric introduced to
Japan. However, part of the original idea of rhetoric could trace back to ChineseRhetoric
Book in the 12th Century. In the Meiji Era, the scholars or literary figures such as
Kikuchi and Tsubouchi were attractedby the occidental idea of rhetoric. Kikuchi (Meiji
13, i. e. 1880) adoptedthe term `metaforu' from `Rhetoric and Belles Lettres.' At first it
was translatedas `sho-yu' ( fl) by Kikuchi, but later Shimamura (Meiji 35, i. e. 1902)
changed it to ìn-yu' (P $). Since the Meiji Era, the term ìn-yu' has beenused,however,
recently the term `metafa' in Japaneseor `metaphor' in English tends to be used especially
when metaphorsor metaphoricalexpressionsare discussedin academicarenas.
2.3. METAPHOR IN THE OCCIDENTAL WORLD

The following is a brief summary of the history of metaphor in the occidental world.
This will be a prelude to the earlier sectionsof Part II.
2.3-1. TRADITIONAL VIEW

In archaic Greek society, rhetorical excellence was praised. The age of the arts of
rhetoric stretchedfrom about 400 to 320 B. C., close to Homer's age. Excellence in rhetoric,
such as the ability to persuade,debateand show one's talent in public eloquence guaranteed
social prestige in the Greek world. Not only metaphor but also other rhetorical techniques
were employed in speeches. We can find a theory of rhetoric and metaphor in Aristotle's
Poetics and The Art of Rhetoric, the texts of which defined the academic syllabus for the
ordinary educatedGreek and Roman (H. C. Lawson-Tancred, 1991).
Aristotle justified the importance of poetry and rhetoric, the former of which has been
related to art and the latter to oratory since his time. His views on rhetoric and metaphor
have been very influential in traditional theories of metaphor and its interpretation
and
production. He treated metaphor as one of the rhetorical techniques('techne'). We
can
see his views on rhetoric and metaphor in The Art of Rhetoric and Poetics. He defines
metaphor in Poetics as follows:
Metaphor is the application of a noun which

properly applies to something else.
The transfer may be from genusto species,from
speciesto genus,from speciesto
16
or
species, by analogy (Poetics, translatedby Heath, 1996: 34).
Nowadays we know that metaphor exploitation is not limited only to nouns. Aristotle
gives the following explanationsof speciesand genus,
(i) By a transfer from genusto speciesI mean (e.g.) 'Here standsmy ship'; lying at
anchoris one kind of standing.

(ii) From speciesto genus: 'Odysseushas in truth performed ten thousandnoble
deeds'; ten thousandis a large number, and is usedin place of many.
(iii) Speciesto species:e.g. 'drawing off` eans cutting, and 'cutting' means
drawing off-- eachis a kind of removal.
(iv) By analogy I mean caseswhere B standsin a similar relation to A as D doesto C;
one can then mention D insteadof B, and vice versa. Sometimesthe thing which
the noun replacedstandsin relation is expressed;I mean (e.g.) a cup standsin a
similar relation to Dionysus as a shield doesto Ares; so one may call a cup the
`shield of Dionysus,' or a shield the `cup of Ares' (ibid.: 34-35).
For some other examples of the phrases used by analogy, he explains as follows: old age to
life is evening to the day, evening is the old age of the day; old age is the evening of life or
life's twilight. He states that if there is no existing noun for one term of the analogy, it
can be expressed. For example, scattering seed is `sowing', but there is no noun for the
scattering of fire from the sun. If we take a similar view towards the sun as we do to the
scattering of seed, he suggests the expression of `sowing the god-created fire. ' He
provides a further way of using the analogical metaphor:
One may refer to somethingusing the transferrednoun, and negatesome of its proper
attributes; e.g. one might call a shield not 'the cup of Ares' but 'the wineless cup' (ibid. ).
Aristotle valued analogy, saying that metaphorsby analogy are the most celebrated(The Arts
of Rhetoric, translated by Lawson-Tancred, 1991: 236). In part of his comment on the
qualities of poetic style, he implies,
the most important thing is to be good at using metaphor.This is the one thing that
cannot be learnt from someoneelse, and it is a sign of natural talent; for the successful
use of metaphor is a mater of perceiving similarities (Poetics, translatedby Heath,
1996: 37).
17
For the elements of style, Aristotle treated metaphor as a major figure of speech and
weighed analogy. Gibbs' (1994: 211) summary of Aristotle's preachment in this line is
noteworthy. He summarisesthat metaphorsare implied analogiesor elliptical similes.
As time went by, rhetorical study began to be controlled by the clergy. The church
authorities began training in logic and theology. The examples were the curriculum
designed by Thomas Aquinas (a theological curriculum) and Peter of Spain (later Pope
John XXI (the generalor "arts" curriculum).
2.3-2. THE RISE AND FALL OF RHETORIC

Ever since,rhetoric had taken its pride of place in the sophisticatedsystem,at the same
time, the systembecametoo refined and fell into self-contradiction, becauseit becameless
flexible, though flexibility was its merit at its beginning. After the golden ages of
Rhetoric in Greek and Latin, at the time of the Renaissance(as elocution and pronunciation
were highly regarded in the Renaissance),
rhetoric played an important role as a subject in
generaleducation.
Another revival after the Renaissancecame in the 18th century. The late 18th and early
19th centuriessaw the revival of rhetoric and reachedthe peak of its theory. The French
scholar who made a great contribution to rhetoric theory was Cesar ChesneauDu Marsais.
He defined metalepsisto be a kind of metonymy in Des Tropes (1729-30). It was during
those days that his theory was the standardresourceof figures of speech.
Then, in the late 18th century, Hugh Blair wrote a similar theory on metalepsis in
Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (1783; 1839). His theory had an influence on the
metaphor study after its publication, therefore, we will look at his remarks in his book a
little further.
The following is Blair's remark on metalepsis: when the trope is founded on the
relation between an antecedentand a consequent,or what goes before and immediately
follows, it is then called a metalepsis; as in the Roman phrase of "fuit, " or "vixit, " to
expressthat one was dead. "Fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum," signifies, that the
glory of Troy is now no more (Blair, 1839: 184). This explanation indicates metalepsisis
a kind of trope.
Blair (1839: 171-198) explicated figurative languageand metaphor
respectively in his
14th and 15th lectures. In the 14th lecture, he, alluding to the
origin and nature of figures,
explicates the characteristics of words or languages which expand or abridge their
meanings and relate them to other terms, i. e. tropes. He gives an
example of the
18
in
expansionof a preposition as in the woodto in health,etc (ibid.: 175).
Concerningmetonymy and synecdoche,his explanationsare as follows.

Metonymy:
To tropes, founded on theseseveralrelations, of causeand effect, container and
contained,sign and thing is
signified, given the name of metonymy. (ibid.: 183)
Synecdoche:
When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole; a genusfor a species,or
for
species a genus; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular number;
in generalwhen anything less,or anything more, is put for the preciseobject meant;
the figure is then called a synecdoche.(ibid.: 184)
In the 15th lecture, Blair explicatesmetaphor,which requires more particular attention:
This is a figure founded entirely on the resemblancewhich one object bearsto

another. Hence, it is much allied to simile, or comparison;and is indeed no other
than a comparison,expressedin an abridged form. When I say of some great
minister, "that he upholds the state,like a pillar which supportsthe weight of a
whole edifice," I fairly make a comparison; but when I say of suchminister, "that he
is the pillar of the state," it is now become [sic.] a metaphor.(ibid.: 185)
Though all metaphor imports comparison,and therefore is, in that respect,a
figure of thought; yet, as the words in a metaphor are not taken literally, but changed
from their proper to a figurative sense,the metaphor is commonly ranked among
tropes or figures of words. But, provided the nature of it be well understood,it
signifies very little whether we call it a figure or a trope. (ibid.: 185)
Blair remarks in addition that
the word metaphor is sometimesused in a looser and more extendedsense;for the

application of a term in any figurative signification, whether the figure he founded
on resemblance,or on someother relation which two objects bear to each other.
(ibid.: 186)
He alsosuggeststhatAristotle usesmetaphorin this extendedsensein his

poetics,for any
figurative meaningimposedupon a word; as a whole put for the
part, or a part for the
whole;a speciesfor the genus,or a genusfor the species.(ibid.)
19
In sum, in the long history of the rise and fall of rhetoric, again in the early 19th century,
rhetoric theory reached its peak. Pierre Fontanier published Les figures du discours
(1821-27). He statedthat the parts of speechwhich could be used metaphorically were
nouns,adjectives,participles, verbs but rarely adverbs (Lesfigures du discours, Vol.!, Part
There had been a variety of theories which said that figurative language
1, Chap.3).
be
should classified as `trope.' Simile, metonymy and metaphor were grouped in `trope'
in classicalrhetoric.
In the 20th century when "elocution" flourished in speech, "rhetoric" was referred to as
the principles of "belles lettres, " but then, "belletristic" was thought to be pejorative in
academic circles. However, when language became a subject of scholarly concern in the
20th century, scholars turned to classical theories of rhetoric again, though modern rhetoric
was far more than just "a collection of terms borrowed from classical rhetoricians"
(Britannica, 1990, Vol. 26: 803). By this time, rhetoricians had become aware of rhetoric
being affected by the audience. Modern rhetoric became involved both with the process
of interpretation (or analysis) and with that of creation (or genesis). Rhetoric, "having
shifted its focus from the communicator to the communicant and having been profoundly
influenced by the temper of modern intellectual movements, " (ibid.: 803) has come to the
point in which rhetoric was not merely a body of theory or artificial technique but "integral
component of all human discourse" (Britannica, 1990, Vol. 26: 804). It can be said that
the fall of rhetoric (the use of figures of speech) had resulted from the tendency to treat and
view rhetoric as merely a technique. Figurative speech should have been treated and
viewed from the perspective of cognition of language and thought.
2.4. CONCLUSION
Part I has described that language has its own characteristics, however, as far as
figurative languageor metaphor is concerned,their origins are rooted in time immemorial.
The roots of the theories of figurative languagesin the occidental world can trace back to
Plato or Aristotle in the 4th century B. C. On the other hand, in Japan, by the time the
literary works, for example,Man-yo-shu were made public, there must have been figurative
languages, too. It is quite possible that such ways of expressions might have been
generatedwith the developmentsof languages. Part I has also described that there had
beenthe rises and falls of rhetoric, but ironically the prosperity or decline
also gave rise to
the study of figures of speech,including metaphor. Eloquence has been thought to be
an
advantagefor those who make a sophisticatedspeechin public in the occidental society and
so is it in Japannowadays. One of the ways to be good speakersis to use some figurative
20
languagesor metaphorsto make their speechmore attractive. We quite often encounter
them in our daily discourse. Metaphor, one of the figures of speech, is highlighted
nowadaysfrom the perspectiveof holistic human cognition. This concludesPart I and we
will look at metaphor,focussingon its contemporarytheories and/or views in Part II.
21
Part II: METAPHOR IN CONTEMPORARY THEORIES/VIEWS
2.1. CONTEMPORARYVIEWS
Traditionallymetaphorwas viewed as a matterof languageor a set of figurative linguistic
expressionsas statedin Part I. However,in the past severaldecades,there has beena radical
changein the studyand treatmentof metaphor. Metaphorreceivedattentionfrom specialistsin
linguistics,philosophy,psychology,sciences(especially,cognitivescience)and anthropology,to
namejust a few relateddisciplines. Among variousstudiesin the middle of the 20th centurywas
that of I. A. Richards'(1936)momentousrevitalisingstudyof rhetoric. The 1970'swereanother
epoch-makingperiod (Ortony et al., Searle,
1979/1994; 1979/1994, ).
etc. Sincethen metaphor
has come to be viewed from the perspectiveof holistic human cognition. Especially,in the
1980'sandthereafter,studiesof metaphorhavebeenhighlighted(Ortonyet al., 1985;Honeckand
Hoffman et al., 1980;Lakoff and Johnson,1981;Tourangeauand Sternberg,1981;Sperberand
Wilson, 1995;Kittay, 1987;Lakoff, 1987;Genteerand Clements,1988;Gentner,1989;Gibbs,
1994;CameronandLow, 1999aandsoon).
In Part II, a brief chronological summary of some of the influential trends in metaphor studies
is given, after which recent studies of metaphor will be discussedthematically with a view to
applying metaphor theories to pedagogicaluse, specifically focusing on EFL learners' metaphor

understandingand use.
In brief, one of the researchquestionsin PartII is to investigatehow metaphoris viewed in
contemporarymetaphorresearch. This is discussedchronologicallyand thematically. The
other question is how is
metaphor viewed in applied linguistics. This investigateskey
researchers' for
implications metaphorstudies.
This thesis follows the conventionsused in metaphorresearchfor the indications of

conceptualmetaphorand linguistic metaphor. A conceptualmetaphoris presentedin large
capitals,for example,LIFEISAJOURNEY,anda linguisticmetaphoror a linguisticrealisationof
metaphorin smallitalics,for example,theroad he's travelledhastakenmanytwistsand turns.
2.1-1. FROM CLASSICAL THEORIESTO NEW PERSPECTIVES

A handyresourceto help find a lexicalmeaningof the word `metaphor'is an
encyclopaedia.
The word `metaphor'in Britannicais placedunderthe entriesof metaphor(a
shortentry),speech
andrhetoric(1990,Vol.8: 61-62;Vol-26: 803-810). In the item `metaphor',it is briefly defined
asfollows:
metaphor,figureof speechthatimpliescomparisonbetweentwo unlike entities,
22
as distinguishedfrom simile,asexplicitcomparisonsignaledby thewords
"like" or "as." Thedistinctionis not sirroe. Themetaphormakesa
qualitativeleapfrom a reasonable, perhapsprosaiccomparison,to an
identificationor fusionof two objects,to makeonenew entitypartakingof the
of both. Many criticsregardthemakingof metaphorsasa

characteristics
systemof thoughtantedatingor bypassinglogic (ibid. Vol. 8: 61).
As is read in the above quotation, the Britannica's explanation of metaphor follows the traditional
views to some degreebut they also include contemporary views as shown in the last part of the
quotation: many critics regard the making of metaphors as a system of thought antedating or
bypassing logic (ibid. ). It is a fair definition. All of the entries concerning metaphor in the
Britannica classify it as a figure of speech,and the item of rhetoric explains that metaphor had
been treated as one of the rhetorical elements. The Britannica further explains that ancient
rhetoricians made a functional distinction between trope (like metaphor, a textual effect) and
scheme(like allegory, a structural principle). To the former category belonged such figures as
metaphor, simile, personification, irony, hyperbole or understatementand metonymy, while to the

latter categorybelongedother figures (ibid.: 804).
Thebeneficiallegacyof theancientrhetoricians
is theclarificationof a "functionaldistinction
betweentrope(like metaphor,a textualeffect)andscheme(like allegory,a structuralprinciple)"as
in the entryof rhetoricin Britannica,althoughtheborderbetweentropeandschemebecomesfuzzy
because a fusionof structureandtexturetakesplace.
Therehavebeenseveralviews of metaphorwhich are still rootedin classicaltheoriessome
time in the 20thcentury. Oneof them is the "comparisonor substitutionview," which is based
upon analogy or similarity (as in Aristotle) and replacementrespectively. In this view,
metaphorwas treatedas linguisticphenomena. However,nowadaysmetaphoris consideredto
be deeplyrootedin our conceptualthoughtaccordingto thecognitiveparadigm,aswe will readin
the following sections. The recentorigin of this thoughtcan be tracedback to I.A.Richards
(1936). Black (1962/1994)follows on from Richards'view andproposesthe interaction
view.
SucceedingBlack, in the 1980's and after, a detailedversion of the conceptual
view was
developedby suchauthorsasLakoff andJohnson(1981),Johnson(1987)andLakoff (1987),
and
cognitivelinguistsalsotooka similarview.
In the following sections,we will look at the views proposedby Richards
and Black first,
followedby recenttheoriesandviews.
L A. Richards' view
Richards(1936) postulatesthat metaphoris
not limited to verbal phenomenabut relatedto
23
thoughtasshownbeloww.
Thetraditionaltheorynoticedonly a few of themodesof metaphor,andlimited

its applicationof thetermmetaphorto a few of themonly. And therebyit
mademetaphorseemto be a verbalmatter,a shiftinganddisplacement of
wools,,whereasfundamentallyit is a boirov ingbetweenandintercourseof
thoughts,a transactionbetweencontexts. Thoughtis metaphorical,and
proceedsby comparison,andthe metaphorof languagederivestherefrom
(ibid.: 94).
His point is that metaphor is not only a verbal phenomenabut also a phenomena of thought.
He also alludesto how verbal metaphor is understood:the processof metaphor in language,the
transactionsof the meanings of words which we understand in explicit verbal metaphors, are
superimposed upon a perceivedworld which is itself a product of earlier or unwitting metaphor

(ibid.: 109). He did not use the term "nap" here, but the word "super-impose" seemsto have
the similar connotationas the term "map" that recentresearchersoften use. Black praisesthe L
A. Richards' achievementto be a valuable insight into metaphor treatment, which leads him to
the "intention view" (Black, 1962,1994). It claims that metaphorical meaning is a result of
an interaction between the metaphorical expression, i.e. "focus" and the surrounding literal
"frame. " The one idea is delivered in his later publication, stating that "a metaphorical
statementhas two distinct subjectsto be identified as the primary and the secondarysubjects"
(Black, 1994). In a sense,he amendedI. A. Richards' idea of the secondarysubject(from "things"
or "ideas" to "systems'
Black's interaction view

Black statesthe meritsof the interactionview which is indebtedto Richards'insights,and
criticisesthe traditional"substitutionview" and "comparisonview." He is critical of the both
views.
thesubstitution
view "theentiresentence
regards thatis thelocusof themetaphor
...
asreplacingsomesetof literalsentences';while the comparison view takesthe
imputedliteralparaphrase
to be statementof somesimilarityor analogy,andso
takeseverymetaphorto bea condensedor ellipticsimile(Black,1994:27).
Black's(1994)claimsof hisinteraction
viewcanbesummarised
asfollows:
(1) A metaphoricalstatement
hastwo distinctsubjects,to be identified the "primary"
as
24
subjectandthe "secondary"one. In Metaphor[1962],he spokeinsteadof the `principal" and
"subsidiary" subjects. The duality of referenceis marked by the contrastbetween the
metaphoricalstatement'sfocus (theword or wordsusednon-literally)andthe surroundingliteral
frame.
(2) The secondarysubjectis to be regardedasa systemratherthanan individualthing.HereBlack
(1994: 27) emphasises the "systems" rather than 'things' or "ideasr (as is emphasisedby
Richards)referringto his earlierterm asthe "primary subject" He explainshow a metaphorical
utteranceworks: it works by "projecting upon" the primary subject a set of 'associated
implications,
" comprisedin the implicativecomplex,that arepredictableof the secondarysubject
{ibid.: 28). "The c" of hisinteractionview is,
in the contextof a particularmetaphoricalstatement,

the two subjects"interact"in
...
the following ways:(a)the presenceof Theprimary subjectincitesthe hearerto select
someof the secondarysubject'sproperties;and (b) inviteshim to constructa parallel
implication-complexthat can fit the primary subjeckand (c) reciprocallyinduces
parallelchangesin the secondarysubject.(ibid.: 28).
The point of his interactionview of metaphoris thatthe meaningof a metaphoris generatedfrom

the interactionof primary and secondarysubjects. It is a broaderidea than the Lakoff and
Johnson'searliermappingtheory,in which the meaningis mappedfrom the sourceto the target
domains(theyamendedtheir-idealaterin 1987).
ThusBlack rejectsthetheoryof a one-waytransferfrom oneentityto anotherandproposesa
mental processwhere somethingassociated
with both of the two entities(the Topic and the
Vehicle)interactandmapeachother.
Black classifiestherelationsbetweenthemeaningsof the corresponding
key wordsof the two
implicationcomplexesas(a) identity,(b) extension,typically ad hoc, (c) similarity,(d) analogy,or
(e) what might be called"metaphoricalcoupling" (where,asoften happcns,the originalmetaphor
metaphors)(ibid.: 29). If his interactionview is appliedin an interpretation
implicatessubordinate
of the metaphorJuliet is the =4 the implication associatedwith the sun is projectedto the
implicationassociated
with Julietandthese implications interacteachother.
2.1-2.MOVINGTOWARDCONCEPTUAL
VIEWS
Reddy's(1979) proposalof the CONDUITMETAPHOR has shedlight on a new way of
lookingat metaphors. It gaveriseto Lakoff andJohnson's
conceptualmetaphortheory.
25
The conduit metaphor and the systematicityof metaphor
Reddy(1979)pointsout the following featuresof languagefor structuringmetaphors:
IDEAS(or MEANINGS)ARE OBJECTS.
UNGUISI1C EXPRESSIONS
ARECONIAINERS.
COMMUNICATIONIS SENDING.
Ideas(objects)areput into words(containers)and sent(througha conduit)to a receiverandthe
receivertakesthe idea(objects)out of the words (containers). We must considerthe contextin
which Themetaphoris used,as indicatedin Lakoff and Johnson'scommentson the CONDUIT
METAPHORit [the conduitmetaphor]doesnot fit caseswherecontextis requiredto determine
whetherthesentencehasany-meaning
at all, andifso, it
what-meaning has(Lakoffand Johnson,
1981:12).
-Lakoffand Johnson {1981) proposedtheir theory of metaphorbasedupon their cognitive

andReddy'searlierwork. They redefinedtheconceptof metaphorin their
linguisticperspective
MetaphorsWeLive By(1981):
Metaphoris for most peoplea deviceof the poeticimaginationand the rhetorical

flourish -a matterof extraordinaryratherthanordinarylanguage.
Moreover, metaphor is typically viewed as characteristicof languagealone, a
matter of words rather-thanthought oraction. Forthis reason,most people
think they can get along perfectly well without metaphor. We have found, on
the contrary,that metaphoris pervasivein everydaylife, not just in languagebutin
thoughtandaction. Our ordinaryconceptualsystem,in termsof which we both
think and act,is fundamentallymetaphoricalin nature(ibid.: 3).
Their contributionto the view on metaphoris their emphasisnot only on expressions

but alsoon a
way of conceptualizationandthey statethatthemetaphoricalconceptis systematic,so thelanguage
we useto talk aboutthataspectof theconceptis alsosystematic. They explainthe systematicityof
metaphoricalconcepts,offeringa greatnumberof examples. One of theexamplesis ARGUMENT
IS WARE(ibid.: 7). An expressionhe is defeatedby his opponentin their argumentcomesfrom
our conceptualnetworkof battlethatcharacterises
the conceptof an argument.
IdealizedCognitiveModelsor ICMs and domains

Lakoff (1987:417) postulatesa view that our knowledgeis organisedby
meansof structure
calledìdealizedcognitivemodels' (ICMs) and that metaphorcan be viewed as an experientially
basedmappingfrom an ICM to one domainto an ICM in
anotherdomain. -ConcerningICMs,
Lakoff (1987:68) givesthis nameto the structureby
which our knowledgeis organisedandfurther
26
andprototypeeffectsareby-productsof thatorganisation. The ideas
statesthatcategorystructures
aboutcognitivemodelshavebeendevelopedwithin cognitivelinguisticsand owe to Fillmores
framesemantics(Fillmore,1982),Lakoff andJohnson'stheoryof metaphorandmetonymy(1981),
Langacicer's
coginitivegrammar(1986), and Fauconnier'stheory of mentalspaces(Fauconnier,
1985). Fillmore's frame semanticsis similar to schematheory (Rumelhart,1980) and scripts
(SchankandAbelson,1977). Schematheorywill be lookedat laterin this chapter.
In both Lakoff andJohnson(1981)andLakoff (1987),the term `domain'doesnot seemto be
It
sufficientlyclear. wasclarifiedby Langacker
(1991). Domains canbe construed
as anykind
of conceptualisation
as Langacker explainsas follows. Langacker(1991: 2) put it in linguistic
semantics,because which includesnovel conceptions

meaningis equatedwith conceptualization.
aswell as fixed kinesthetic,
concepts;sensory, andemotiveexperience;recognitionof immediate
context-(social,physical,and linguistic), and so on. He also statesthat semanticstructures

("predications")arecharacterizedrelativeto "cognitivedomains,
" wherea domaincan be any sort
for
of conceptualization, example,a perceptualexperience,a concept,a conceptualcomplex,an
knowledge
elaborate system,
etc. He further that
explicates domainsconsistof "basicdomains"
domains"which areat -ahigherlevelthanthe former.
seducible to otherdomainsand"abstr-act
In other words, so-called `cognitive domains' can be classified into further two domains:
"basic domains," of which characteristicsare basedupon our physicalor bodily -experiencesand
"experiential domains," of which characteristics are based upon our social and cultural
experiences.
, Ina they
sense, are -similarto cognition through Schemas
as Lakoff (1987) states.
Categorisationof metaphors
Lakoff and Johnson(1981)categoriseconceptualmetaphorsusing suchterms as structural,
orientational,ontologicaland containermetaphors. Structuralmetaphorsare caseswhere one
is
concept metaphorically in
structured termsof another,as in ANGERIS WAR Orientational
metaphorsare onesthat do not structureone conceptin termsof anotherbut insteadorganisea
whole systemof -concepts with respectto one another. The majority haveto do with spatial
orientation:for example,up-down, in-out, front-back,on-off, deep-shallow,central-peripheral.
Orientationalmetaphors-givea concepta spatialorientation,too: for example,HAPPYISUP. I'm
feeling up now (1981: 14). Ontological metaphorsoriginate in our experienceof physical
objects(especiallymir own bodies)and relateto ways of viewing events,activities,emotions,
ideas,and so on, asentitiesand substances,
for example,INFLATIONISAN FNTTTY:Inflation is
loweringour standardof living (1981:26). Part-of
-ontological-metaphors
provide categoriesof
Containermetaphorsand Personification. Eachof us has/sees body
a as a container(physical
and mental). We know we havea tendencyto view objects(e.g. vessels)as containers. For
example,we move from room (container)to room (anothercontainer)and we move out of one
27
room and into another. Lakoff and Johnsongive an exampleof `land areas'(There'sa lot of
land in Kansas)(ibid.: 30), whereKansasis an area,i.e. containerandthe word in indicatesa
boundary. The visualfield is alsoconceptualised
asa containerasin the expression`The shipis
cominginto view."
Lakoff and Johnson(1981: 33) postulatethat the most obviousontologicalmetaphorsare
thosewherea physicalobjectis specifiedasbeinga person. We comprehendexperiences with
nonhumanentitiesin terms of humanmotivations,characteristics,
and activities,for example,
"In Tation is eating into our profits!
' or "Our biggest enemy right now is inflation."
Personificationis a generalcategorythatcoversa very wide rangeof metaphors,eachpicking out
differentaspectsof a personor waysof lookingat a person(ibid.).
Lakoff andJohnson(1981)regardmetaphorasaway of thinkingor a matterof mind notjust a

matterof words. This new view of metaphorasconceptreceivedgreatattentionandit hasgiven
a greatinfluenceon the studyof metaphoreversince.
Gibbs (1994) also stands on similar ground. He demonstratesthat human cognition is
deeply poetic in The Poetics of Mind (1994). He states further that figurative language is
ubiquitous in our daily speechand that figurative schemesof thought come from our ordinary and
conceptualunderstandingof experience. Later in Section 4, I will come back to his theory and
take up his (six) "guidelines for research"(Gibbs, I999a).
Beforeconcludingthis section,I will examineanotherargumentproposedby Grady(1997).
He andhis colleagues
proposea notionofprimaryand complex-metaphors.
Primary and complexmetaphors

The argumentsproposedby Grady,et at. (1996)and Grady (1997)resultfrom the problems
residingin the theory of metaphorssuchas THEORIES
AREBUILDINGS,LOVEIS A JOURNEY,
IDEASAREFOODoutlined in Metaphor We Live By (Lakoff and Josnson,1981):"poverty of
mappings","lack of experientialbasis"and "independence
of submappings"or "inefficiency of
" They supporttheir position by providing severalexamplesof theseproblems. In
analysis.
terms of poverty of mappings,"the important aspectsof buildings which fail to map" in
'IHIEORIES AREBUILDINGS"ire parts like floors,walls,ceiling;any importanthumanoccurs
of the building; and the functions of buildings " (ibid.:178). Concerningthe lack of
..
experientialbasis,"it is easyto list correlationsin Experiencebetweenhaving mweof objects
or
substances, andseeingthe level of thoseobjectsor substances rise" in the metaphorMOREIS UP;
homi'er', Many metaphors(e.g. THEORIES AREBUILDINGSor LOVEIS A JOURNEY)cannotbe
discussedin termsof such"straightforwardcorrelations"(ibid.). The
pairingof domainsin these
metaphorsdoesnot seemto havesuchsalientexperientialcorrelationsas in MOREIS UP. The
28
third problem involves a "misleadingconceptionof the relationshipsbetweencertain setsof
metaphoricaldata and betweencertain metaphoricalmappings" (ibid.). Based upon these
theyproposethe ideasof the `primary (or primitive) metaphor'andthe "complex(or
arguments,
compound)metaphor". Themetaphorsaredefinedasfolows
A is for
a) primitive a metaphoricalmapping which thereis an independent
anddirect
experientialbasisandindependent
linguisticevidence.
b) A compound is a self-consistentmetaphorical complex composedof more than one
primitive. (ibid.: 181)
In brief, their contributionto metaphortheory is that they placedmore weight on experiential

motivationin the term of a primary (or primitive) metaphorwhich relatesto the sensorimotor
effectson metaphoricalmappings. The notion of a primary metaphorpremisesour experience.
In MOREIS UP,althoughthereis no initial resemblancebetweenthe sourceandtargetdomains,
theincreaseof quantity(MORE)is experientiallyunderstoodasthe increaseof amount(UP). The
sensorimotoreffects on metaphoricalmappings can be seen in understandingsynesthetic
metaphorswhere sensorimotor
experiences for
co-occur, example, in "soft voice" the kinesthetic
and auditorysenses
are combined. This suggestion
stimulates
my idea of metaphorical testsin
this thesis.
In sum,modemlinguistslook to linguisticregulationsto find systemsin conceptualstructure

(Lakoffand Johnson,1981;Jackendoff,1983;Lakoff, 1987;Johnson,1987),and contemporary
metaphor theoriesowe very much to cognitive linguistics(Langackees
cognitive grammar&
Gibb'spsychologicaleffectsof languageandthought)andcognitivesemantics(theviews/theories
by
presented Johnson (1987), Lakoff (1987),Turner(1998),Sweetser
(1990),to namebut a few)
andotherrelateddisciplines,suchascognitivescience.
So far I havebriefly tracedthe shiftsof studiesof metaphorfrom traditionalviewsto cognitive
approaches. In the following rest of the further
sections, detailsin contemporarymetaphor
studieswill be discussed,focussingmoreon the fieldsof cognitiveandappliedlinguistics.
2.2. CONTEMPORARY
VIEWSON METAPHOR
Contemporaryviews of metaphor, theoretical issues and Contemporary
research =
summarisedand discussedhere. Representative contemporarytheoriescan be groupedinto
three fields: (1) cognitive linguistics/psychology;(2) disciplinesother than the
group (1); (3)
appliedlinguistics. The main focusin this thesisis on metaphorstudiesin appliedlinguistics(i.
e.
thethird group),however,somekey theorieslsuesfrom thegroups
which arestronglyrelevantto
29
on
research metaphorical in
competence thisthesisareconsidered
Group (1): cognitivelinguistics/psychology

it comprisesthe following theories:i) conceptualmetaphortheory (Lakoff, 1987;Lakoff &
Johnson,1981;Gibbs,1994);ii) salience-imbalance
theory(Ortony, 1994;Ortonyet al., 1985);
iii) domain-interaction
theory (Tourangeau& Sternberg,1982);iv) structure-mapping theory
(Gentner,1989;Gentner,D. and C. Clements.1988). The main focus is on (i), in orderto
investigate at conceptualmetaphor is meant to be.
Group (2): disciplines other than the group (1)
It includesthe following theories i) semantic-fieldtheory (Kittay, 1987),ii) speechact theory
(socio-culturaland semantics)(Searle,1994); in) relevancetheory (Sperber& Wilson, 1995).
The primaryfocusis on (i), in orderto investigatethecontentof semanticfield theoryandwhether
or not it is relatedto the functionof networkand/ormapping. The secondaryfoci areon (ii) and
(iii) in orderto investigatea pragmaticsview on metaphor.
Group (3): appliedlinguistics
This includes views on and pedagogical suggestionsfor metaphor proposed by Carter (1998),
McCarthy (2001), Deignan (1997), Cameron & Low (1999a; 1999b), Boers (2000), Littlemore
(2001a, 201b) and Chateris-Black(2002). Al hough there maybe some other theoretical issues
and researchin metaphor studies in applied linguistics, only major theoretical issuesand research
are included here.
2.2-1. METAPHOR RESEARCH IN COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS/COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Conceptual metaphor theory
The key publicationsof the conceptualmetaphortheory were issuedby Lakoff & Johnson
(1981), Lakoff (1987) and Gibbs (1994). Their contribution to metaphor study is the
(more
of metaphors
categorisations thana dozen illustrated
categorisations in MetaphorWeLive By,
1981),andthe clarificationof the systeniaticityof metaphors,someof which havebeendescribed
earlier.
Anothercontzibutionof Lal off & Johnson(1981)and Lakoff (1987)to metaphorstudyis the
propositionof the categoryof conceptualmetaphor. Here is one of the examples(ANGERIS
WAR)to explainhow our conceptof argumentis structuredby the two elements,angerand
war.
Theessence
of metaphoris twderstandingand e iencingoneAnd of thing in
termsof another. Argumentsandwarsaredifferentkindsof things andthe
...
actionsperformedaredifferentkindsof actions. But ARGUMENTis partially
structured,understood,
performed,andtalkedaboutin termsof WAR(ibid.: 5).
30
In the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR, we associatethe words `war' (and àrgument') through
imagination with other words and concepts. This way conceptual networks expand. The
conceptualnetwork of war or battle (partially at least) characterisesthe concept of an argument

and connectsit to the expression.
Lakoff and Johnsonstatethat metaphoricalexpressions in everydaylanguageprovide us
with insightinto the metaphoricalnatureof the conceptsthat structureour everydayactivities.

They give an exampleof the metaphoricalconceptTIME IS MONEY:You're wastingmy time.
As we wastemoney,sowe wastetime. In Thismetaphor,tine is consideredto be a valuable
commodity and money is also valuable and its resources-are-limited. This way the
of
conceptualisation time is connected to that of moneyand its
we understand meaning. They
alsostatehereandelsewhere thatour conceptis deeplyrootedin our experience.
Gibbs (1994: 7) gives an example of conceptual metaphor which originates in people's
experiencesin cultures, in his case, in Western cultures. He explains how Western people's
conceptualmapping of anger onto understandingtakes place in ANGER IS HEATEDFLUID IN
A CONTAINER. Their understanding of anger (the source domain) as heated fluid in a
container (the target domain) stimulatesseveralentailments.
when the intensity of angerincreases, the fluid rises(Hispent-upanger

...
wellediq inside him). We alsoknow thatintenseheatproducessteamand
exertspressure on the container(Bill is getting hot underthecollar andJim's
just blowingofjsteam). Likewise,interneangerproducespressurein the
(He
container was burstingwith anger). Whenthe in
pressure the container
becomestoo high, thecontainerexplodes(Sheblew up at me). Eachof these
metaphoricalentailmentsis a directresultof the conceptualmappingof anger
onto our understanding
of fluid
heated in a (Gibbs,
container 1994:7).
As is explainedin the above metaphoricalexpressions,the expressionsof ànger' can be

by a containermetaphorand understoodas such,but it is also understood
conceptualised as
phenomenaof our metabolism. Conceptualisationmay be sharedwith differentlanguagesbut
sometimesmay not. The following is one of the exampleswhich shows a difference.In
Japanese,we use body part words such as head or abdomen,though not limbs, in anger
expressions. A head or abdomen function as container (both for physical and mental
phenomena)and at the sametime they function as the organsof metabolism. Here we may
noticethat there is a slight differencebetweenEnglish and Japanese,
for example,in 'hara ga
31
tatsu'in Japanese which meansto `getangry.' In this expression,
the word `hara,' a metonymy
in this case,refersto an abdomen(anareaof stomachandintestines,i.e. a container)andthe `ga'
is a nominativemarker. The word 'ML, ' a predicate,hasa specialmeaningother than the
meaningof the ordinary to `stand' (an intransitiveverb) in this expression. It meansto
ìntensifyeffects'(an transitiveverb) (Shinmura,et al., 1987)as in `tatsu'usedin `ki ga tatsu'
nervousor irritated.
`become
meaning herecomesfromthemeaningof
' Theslightdifference
includesa transitionfrom a staticstateto an emotional(i.e.
`tatsu.' The `tatsu' in Japanese
angry)one. The linguisticrepresentation is thus slightly different,but the metabolismexcited
by this emotionis a similar one. A crossculturalcomparisontestedby Deignan,et al. (1997:
353) also suggeststhat some conceptualmetaphorsare common acrossculturesbut not all
linguisticor conceptualmetaphorsmay be sharedby anytwo languages.
Lakoff and Johnson (1981) repeatedly statethat many of our experiencesand activities are
metaphorical in nature and that much of our conceptual system is structured by metaphor.
There are similarities in terms of the categoriesof our conceptual system, from which result
conventional metaphors. Some of them are Orientational metaphors, for example, MORE IS
UP; ontological metaphors, for example, TIME IS A SUBSTANCE;structural metaphors, for
example, THE IDEAS ARE FOOD. These metaphors induce similarities. However, they
differentiate their theory from the comparison theory, although they accept its basic insight
claiming that the only similarities relevant to metaphor are similarities as experiencedby people.
They also,claim that conceptual metaphors are grounded in correlation within our experience.
These experiential correlations may be of two types: experiential co-,occurrence (e.g. MORE IS
UP, where there is no experiential similarity) and experiential similarity (e.g. LIFE IS A
GAMBLING GAME, where one can experienceactions in life as gambles)(ibid.: 155).
of metaphorspostulatedby Lakoff and Johnson

The systematicityand conceptualisation
(1981) are persuasive. And we owe a greatdeal to their study,especiallyto the theory of
conceptualmetaphors. However, not all metaphorscan be categorisedaccordingto their
nor canthey be reducedto a conceptualpatternX is Y. As Cameronand Steen
classifications,
(1999: 13) point out, thereare limitationsto a Topic-Vehicleapproachin describingmetaphor.
Therefore,I must look for someadditionalclassificationsfor the test itemsand analysesof the
testresultsto employin this study. I usedLakoff andJohnson'sclassificationsbut at the
same
time, otherclassifications,
suchasanalogicalreasoning,for analysingthe testresults.
2.2-2. METAPHORRESEARCHIN DISCIPLINESOTHER THAN COGNITIVE

LINGUISTICS/PSYCHOLOGY
This sectionexploressemanticfield theoryand pragmatics'
viewpointswith a view to
32
investigatingmetaphoricaltransfer,networkand/ormapping.
Semanticfield theory
Kittay's (1987)contributionto metaphorstudyis noteworthyfrom a pragmaticpoint of view.
She constructeda relationaltheory of meaningfrom a pragmaticview, called SemanticField
Theory. Sheappliedit to a theoryof metaphoridentificationandinterpretation Sheclaimsthat
the interpretationof a metaphorinvolvesthe transferof relationsbetweenthe semanticfield of the
Vehicleandthat of the Topic. K'iay(1987:36) characterises
metaphoricaltransferas semantic
field theory:
metaphorical transfersof meaningare transfers from the field of the vehicleto the
field of the topic of the relationsof affinity and oppositionthat the vehicleterm(s)
bearsto othertermsin its field. More precisely,in metaphorwhat is transferredare
the relationswhich pertainwithin one semanticfield to a second,distinct content
domain.
Kittay usespoems(Wordsworth's`VenetianRepublic'andJohnDome's `TheBait') to showthat

of meaningis a processand explicateshow semanticfields expandand connect
the transference
more clearlyin the poemsas extendedmetaphors. In this processthe structureof one semantic
field inducesa structumon anothercontentdomain. The extendedmetaphors,in contrastto an
isolatedmetaphor(a singlephraseor clausewithout a surroundingcontext),supplymost of the
termsof the relevantfieldsandprovidea structuresufficientlyrich to allow us to explorethe shifts
of meaningandthoughtthatcharacterize metaphor(ibid.: 258).
As for the terminologyof vehicleandtopic, the semanticfield of the vehicleis referredto as
the `vehiclefield' andthe contentdomainof thetopic asthe `topicdomain' (ibid.). Her point is
that metaphorinvolvesa transferof relationsacrosssemanticfields. Shemaintainsthe position
that metaphorinvolvesat leastone semanticfield and anotherdistinctcontentdomain,andoften
two distinctsemanticfields. Semanticfieldsoverlap,intersect,andare embeddedin oneanother
-they arerarelycompletelydisjointed(ibid.: 291).

Sheprovesthattherearesyntagmatic andparadigmatic relationsof the semanticfield of
fishing,usingthestructure
in Donne'spoem`TheBait' asanexampleof theextended
metaphor
(ibid.:263)(seeNote7 for herfurtherexplication
of TheBaitin termsof metaphor).
Here is a brief summaryof semanticfield, network

and mapping. What Kittay called a
`semanticfield' is called a `network,' that is, the `system
of association'by Black, and it is
equivalentto `mapping'asnamedby Lakofi andJohnson. In the metaphor`Love is journey,'
a
33
"love" is the targetand"journey" is the source. Thesetwo domains(targetand source)arepart
of a whole networkof relatedmeanings. Black's term `network' is the systemof "associated
implications,
" comprisedin the implicativecomplex (Black, 1994). Kittay (1987) called it a
semanticfield. Lakoff andJohnson(1981)call it `mapping'. "Love" is partof a networkthat
includesconceptssuchas"lovers," "passion,
" andsoforth. A 'love' networkcanbe extendedto
otherwordsof attributivemeaningsof `love.'The source,`journey," is alsopart of a networkof

concepts. The network of the expressionelicits "start," "obstacle,
" and soon. All of these
include denotativeand connotativemeanings. The networks are not limited to words or
concepts. Love may in fact have ambivalentaspects:good or happy and bad or unhappy
emotion Similar reasoningcan apply to a journey. Kittay statesthat the network is thus a
categoryasshownin Lakoff.
Summary of the terms usedreferring to componentsof a metaphor

Beforeintroducinga new topic,the two elements,i.e.the components
of a metaphor(X is Y)
aresummarised in Table 2-1. A metaphor a
userwould often use patternof X is Y to sayone
thing and mean another. The two elementsare called in different terms accordingto the
thinkers'viewson metaphor. (As we know, not all metaphorshavethesetwo elements.) The
termsusedandthe indicationsintendedby theauthorsandthe wordsfor X andY interactionare
summarised in the table. The table also includesthe terms by
used Lakoff and Johnsonand
Kittay andthe wordsfor theX andY interaction.
Table2-1 The authorsandtheteensusedreferringto X andY

ElemernsfTenns
Authors X oneof theelementsor a first Y theotheror a secondelementto be Word for interaction
elementin a metaphor conveyed
II or referredto thefirst betweenX andY
element in a met*w
LA. Richrads the referentof the underlying the relatum="vehicle" fifer
(1936/1965) com "tenor"
n ---topic/
Max Black theprimarysubject thesubsidiary/secondary
subject network
(196211979) theargumentor thefunction theargumentof thereferent="frame"
'
LakoffandJohnson ICM: thetargetdomain IM- thesourcedomain mapping
1981/I999
K' 198 topicdomain vehiclefield transfer
Searle'sprinciples of metaphorical interpretation

Searle's (1994: 83-4) main concern is the relationshipbetween
an utteranceand its
metaphoricalmeaningand how metaphorworks. He arguesthat the problem of explaining
how metaphorswork is a specialcaseof the
generalproblem of explaininghow a speaker's
meaningand a sentenceor word meaningcome apart It is a specialcase the
of problemof
34
how it is possibleto sayonething andmeansomethingelse. To help answerthe questionasto
how we understand metaphors,he asksa question,
How is it possiblefor the speakerto saymetaphorically"S is P" andmean"S is

R," whenP plainly doesnot meanR; furthermore,How is it possiblefor the
hearerwho hearsthe utterance"S is P' to know thatthe speakermeans"S is
R"? (ibid.: 102).
His answeris thatif the hearernoticesthereis a problemin literalinterpretationof an utterance"S

is P," that hearerlooksfor anotherdifferentmeaning"S is R" To the questionhow metaphors
work, he positsthat this questionis the sameashow onething remindsus of another. Thereis
no singleanswerto eitherquestion,however,
restrictedin the sensethatnot every

metaphorsarerestrictedandsystematic;
way thatonething canremindus of somethingelsewill providea basisfor
metaphor,andsystematicin the sensethatmetaphorsmustbe communicable
from speakerto hearerin virtueof a sharedsystemof principles(ibid.).
He proposeseight principlesfor the understanding

of metaphorsfrom the hearer'spoint of view,
highlightingthe sharedsystemsbetweenthe speakerand the hearer. The eight principles(ibid.:
104-8;seeNote 8 for details)are briefly as follows: interpretationsby definition, property or
attribute,belief, association,condition, similarity in meaning, inference and metonymy and
synecdoche. The first principle,"Pare by definitionR," e.g. Samis a giant, is understoodwell,
becausegiantsareby definitionbig; thesecondprinciple,"P is contingentlyR," e.g. Samis a pig, is
alsounderstoodwell, becausethe propertyof R is propertyof P things. Thesemetaphorscan go
throughthe "like" test. The third principle,"P are saidor believedto be R," e.g. Richard is a
gorilla, is understoodin a beliefsharedbetweenthe speakerandthe hearer. The fourth principle,
"P arenot R," e.g. Sally is a block of ice,is understoodby the associationwith P andR
properties.
The fifth principle(e.g. Youhavebecomean aristocrat)is understoodby the condition beingP
of
(an aristocrat). The sixth principleis understoodby the similarityin meaning,
e.g. Thissouffleis
addled. The seventhprinciple,the applicationof principlesfrom Ito 6 (e.g. Theshipploughsthe
sea), is understoodby the inferenceof a relation such that "P-relationsare by definition R
" The eighthprincipleis metonymyand synecdoche
relations. as a specialcaseof metaphor,for
example,theBritish monarchis expressed as"the Crown."
In brief, Searle'scontributionto the study

of metaphoris thathe focusedon the meaningof
35
from pointof view andpaid
utterances a pragmatic to
attention the for
potential thehearer's
own inference.
Sperberand Wilson's RelevancePrinciple

Sperberand Wilson (1986/1995)also take a pragmaticpoint of view and presenta new
approachto the studyof humancommunication. This new approachis appliedin metaphor
interpretation. As read in the following quotation,the RelevancePrincipleis an economical
way of communication.
Humancognitiveprocesses aregearedto achievingthe greatestpossible

cognitiveeffectfor the effort
smallestpossibleprocessing To achievethis,
individualsmustfocustheir attentionon what seemsto themto be themost
relevant(SperberandWilson, 1995: vii).
Sperber and Wilson postulate, in any utterance,an involvement of at least two relationships: a
relationship between its propositional form and a thought of the speaker's. In the case of
metaphor, it involves an interpretive relation between the propositional form of an utteranceand

the thought it represents(ibid.: 231). They further explicate metaphor referring to the following
examples:(a) This is
room a pigsty and (b) Robert is a bulldozer.
metaphorand is processed
(a) is a standardised by an encyclopedicschema,whereif pigsties
are processed its
stereotypically, ordinary interpretationis that the room is filthy or untidy.
However,the speaker"must have intendedto conveysomethingmore than this if the relative
indirectnessof the utteranceis to be justified" (ibid.: 236). In such a case,the filthiness or
may
untidiness be beyonda normalcondition. This is a to
suggestion indicatethat eventhis kind
of standardised be
metaphorcannot paraphrased without loss.
(b) is a conventionalmetaphor. The relevanceof (b) will be establishedby finding a range
be
of contextualeffectswhich can retained as weak or strong implicatures. In this case,a single
strongimplicaturemay not automaticallycometo a hearer'smind, becausethe hearerneedsto
interpretby him-/herself. Sperberand Wilson postulatethat the wider the rangeof potential
implicaturesandthe greaterthe hearer'sresponsibilityfor constructingthem,the more poeticthe
effect,the more creativethe metaphor. Sperberand Wilson take suchan approachor view of
metaphorthatmetaphoranda varietyof tropesarecreativeexploitationsof a generaldimensionof
languageuse. Metaphorrequiresno special
interpretiveabilitiesor procedures:it is a naturaloutcomeof some

very general
abilitiesandprocedures usedin verbalcommunication. The searchfor optimal
36
relevanceleadsthespeakerto adopta moreor lessfaithful interpretationof his/her
thoughts(ibid.: 237).
In summary,thesepragmaticiansview metaphorin analysesof utterances. Searleposits

how it is possibleto sayonething to meansomethingelseandviews it from the principleof the
P andR relationship. He proposes8 principles,thoughthe relationshipbetweenP andR does
not seemto be sufficientlyclear.
Sperberand Wilson's view on metaphoris that metaphorsare not exceptional representations
of utterancesbut general dimensions of language use. For example, if a literal utterance is

thought to exceed our processinglabour, that is, if the utterance is not relevant to its labour, a
speakermay chooseto say it metaphorically. Metaphorical utterancecan be attained through
optimal relevanceundertakenby a speakerand a hearer. Their relevancefor my study is that I
should pay attentionto the intentions of metaphor users(examineesin my study) and the optimal
strategiesthat they employ in interpretationand manipulation of metaphoricalexpressions.
2.2-3. METAPHOR RESEARCH IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Key scholars' implications for metaphor researchare discussedin the following sections.
Gibbs (1999a: 47) posits; from a cognitive, scientist's view, that metaphor is one of the most
complicated topics in the intertwined domain of language and thought This suggestsan
interdisciplinary study may be worthwhile. How metaphor influences learning, thinking and
linguistic behaviour may be an interestingtopic.
Cameron(1999a)discusseshow an applied linguistic perspective(views and research
methods) on metaphor is different from other types of disciplines. Cameron (ibid.)
emphasises thatappliedlinguisticsfocuseson linguisticforms,discoursecontentandwhat goes
on in themind. By contrast,cognitivesciencefocuseson what goeson in themind. Most of
my presentstudyresortsto the formerpoint of view. Research into metaphor,for example,in
SLA hasbeenstill limited asCameronandLow (1999b)point out. CameronandLow (ibid.:
91) emphasise severalreasonsfor takingmetaphorresearchinto appliedlinguistics:metaphoris
ubiquitousand takes various forms; it has a large number of functions, cognitive, social,
affective, rhetorical and interaction-management;and it is crucial to knowledge of, and
performancein, a language,therefore,crucialto acquiringa language.
Now, we will look at implicationsfor metaphorresearchon theoretical
pointsof view
suggested by Gibbs(1999a)and practicalsuggestions madeby CameronandLow (1999a,
1999b),Carter(1998)andMcCarthy(2001).
37
Gibbs' implicationsfor researchon metaphor
Gibbs' (1999a:30-47)suggestion
for researchon metaphoris noteworthy:therearea variety
of viewson metaphorandits diversitymay imposesomeproblemsuponmetaphorresearchers.
He proposessix guidelines(or distinctions):1) to distinguishdifferent kinds of metaphorin
language;2) to distinguishmetaphorfrom metonymy;3) to distinguishbetweenthe processes
andproductsof metaphor,4) to distinguishmetaphorprocessingfrom metaphoricprocessing;5)
to distinguishhow metaphorin languageand thought interact;6) to recognisethe embodied
motivationfor metaphorin thoughtandlanguage. I will briefly look at theseguidelines.
Item 1 statesthat metaphor is not as simple as statementssuch asA is like B or A is B. There
is a diversity of metaphoric forms and it should be recognised that "a particular theoretical
account for one aspectof metaphor may not apply to other forms of metaphorical language"
(ibid.: 31). Gibbs makes comments on proverbial expressions (sometimes called `xyz'
metaphors)citing from Turner (1991: 200) that readersmust understandthe conjunction between
`x' and `z', which is interpreted in terms of a conceptual domain containing `y'. More
specifically, readersmust find some `w' in their conceptualknowledge that standsin a relation to
`y', which can be referred to conventionally by the phrase `y' of `w', and must then map the
relation of `y' and `w' onto the conjunction of `x' and `z' (ibid. ).
He furthermentionsthat metaphorin literary texts "involves not the mappingof concepts
from one domainonto another,but the mappingof images,called imagemetaphors. Image
metaphorsreflectthe mapping of mentalimagesfrom one sourceof knowledgeonto the mental
imagesfrom another"(ibid.: 32).
Item 2, the suggestionof distinguishingmetaphorfrom metonymy,is a generalpieceof
advice to help distinguishone figure of speechfrom others. Metaphorand metonymy are
differenttropes. The key difference,accordingto Gibbs, is that in metaphor,there are two
conceptualdomains,andoneis understoodin termsof another,usuallyvery differentknowledge
domain Metonymyinvolvesonly one conceptualdomain,in that the mappingor connection
betweentwo thingsis within the samedomain(ibid.: 36). Metonymyis baseduponcontiguity,
while metaphoris baseduponsimilarityasstatedby manykey researchers
(Lakoff, 1994;Gibbs,
1994; Kusumi, 1994;Todd and Clarke, 1999; Deignan, 1999a;Cameronand Low, 1999b;
Carter,2004,to namea few). A convenientway of distinguishingthe two kinds of figurative
trope is to apply the ìs like' test In an exampleof Àchilles is like a lion,' the lion is
a
metonymyandtheportionlike a lion is simile.
Item 3, his suggestionfor distinguishingprocesses
from the productsof metaphor,results
from the differencein interest betweenpeople from different disciplines.
For example,
philosophersor linguists are interestedin understandingof metaphorwhere metaphoris a
productandthey try to discoversomethingaboutthe processes On
of metaphorcomprehension.
38
the contrary,psychologists are interestedin comprehension
or psycholinguists for
processes the
purposeof explicatingsomethingaboutthe productsof metaphorinterpretationandrecognition
(i.e. what metaphorsmean). Metaphorscholarswish to explainboth processes and products,
but this requiresdifferent kinds of methodologicalanalysesand theoreticaldescriptions. In
orderto investigatehow peoplecomprehendmetaphors,we needa methodologyby which we
caninvestigatementaleventsoccurringin our mind. In contrast,determiningaestheticvalues,
i.e. the poeticappreciationof metaphor,requiresa differentmethodology.Gibbs suggestsfour
momentsof metaphorunderstanding: linguisticcomprehension, recognition,interpretationand

appreciation(ibid.: 39-41). Comprehension refersto "the immediate,moment-by-moment
processof creatingmeaningsfor utterances"(ibid.: 39). Theseprocesses are"unconsciousand
involve the analysisof differentlinguisticinformation(e.g. phonology,lexicalaccess,syntax)"
(ibid.). They arecombinedwith contextand real-worldknowledgeenablingunderstanding
of
metaphoricalexpressions. The recognition refers to the consciousidentification of the products
of comprehensionas types. In this case,the meaning is recognised"as being metaphorical."
"The interpretation refers to analysis of the early products of comprehension as tokens.
Interpretative processesoperate at a later point in time than comprehensionprocesses(perhaps
understandinga particular set of entailments). They usually require consciousreflection about

what a text or speakermeans"(ibid.: 39). The appreciationrefers to some aestheticjudgement
placedon a product either as a type or token.

Gibbsquotesfrom Gerrig& Healey(1983)thatpsychologicalevidenceshowsthat
comprehension
metaphor and appreciation
refer to distincttypesof mentalprocess. His point
is thatthe (usuallyrapid)processof understanding takea
metaphoror metaphoricalexpressions
processof awareness-identification-interpretation- appreciation.
Item 4 is the distinguishing of metaphoric processingfrom processingmetaphor.
Metaphoricprocessingis a generalmode of understanding that can be appliedto any kind of
situationor language. It is differentfrom theprocessingof metaphoriclanguage. An example
given by Gibbs is children'smetaphoricalunderstanding of a story. If children,for example,
hearor readMoby Dick and understandan allegoricalcharacterin it metaphorically,they can
bestappreciate
it. "Metaphoricprocessing,
asopposedto processing
metaphoriclanguage,
may be distinguished
asan intentionallyselectedstrategyof reading. When
readersadoptsuchstrategies, theprocessthatoccuris metaphoric,eventhough
thereis no speciallinguisticor textualmaterialthat is eithermetaphoricor
by
motivated metaphoricmodesof thought In this way, metaphormight
legitimatelybe viewedasonetype of cognitivestrategythat
colourspeople's
imaginativeunderstanding of textsandreal-worldsituations"(Gibbs,1999a:41).
39
Cameronand Low (1999b) throw a doubt onto the assumptionproposedin cognitive
metaphor theory in which conceptualmetaphors are standandly
used in the productionand
interpretationof linguisticmetaphor(Steen,1994;Gibbs,1994,1999;Cameron1999a). They
quote from Steen's(1994) referenceto the idea of distinguishing from
metaphorprocessing
metaphoricprocessing:
Steendistinguishes (or
metaphorprocessing lessconfusedly,processing
metaphor),which refers to the language
of potentiallymetaphorical
processing
- generally rapidlyandautomatically,such thatthe may
processor well envisage
it asliteralor conventional- from metaphaicprocessing(activelylooking for
metaphorical meanings) (Cameron andLow, 1999b: 81).
Thereis an allusionto both termsin CameronandLow (ibid.). Cameron(1999b:8) givesthe

label process metaphorsto "linguistic expressionswhich are processedmetaphorically(i.e.
through transfer of meaningacrossdistinct domains). " There she provides an exampleof
children'sinterpretation
of the (e.
words g. a hot spell)which have intention
no metaphorical but
which are interpreted

metaphorically by them The childreninterpretedit as"magic" not as a
descriptionof theweather(ibid.: 82).
Item 5 in Gibbs' six guidelinesdistinguishes the interactionsof metaphorin languagefrom
thoseof thought,anddiscusses the differencesin viewsbetweencognitivelinguistsandcognitive
psychologists. In treating a love metaphor,such as We're at a crossroads,the cognitive
linguists "metaphoricallyconceptualisetheir love experiencesin terms of their concrete
knowledgeof physicaljourneys and consequentlyspeakmetaphoricallyabout aspectsof the
domain
source-to-target mapping" (Cameron, 1999a: 42). On the contrary, cognitive
doubt
psychologists "whether metaphor is part of human cognition and not just one, mostly
ornamental,aspectof a language"
(ibid.: 42). Gibbs four
proposes possiblehypotheses on the
interactionof metaphoricthought and language. Hypothesis 1: metaphoricthought may
changethe meaningsof wordsandexpressions overtime. Accordingto him, this is supported
by linguistic studieson the role of metaphorin semanticchange,for example,by Sweetser
(1990). Hypothesis2: metaphoricthought might motivate the linguistic meaningsshared
among linguistic communities. The supportersGibbs draws upon for this are Lakoff &
Johnson(1981) and Lakoff (1987). Hypothesis3: metaphoric thought might
motivate
individualspeakers'useandunderstanding
of variouswords andexpressions
given meaningby
them. Hypothesis4: metaphoricthought might function automaticallyand interactivelyin
people's on-line use and understandingof linguistic meaning. According to Gibbs, many
40
psycholinguistic supportthis hypothesis.
experiments
Item 6, the issue of recognising the embodied motivation for metaphor in thought and
language, is closely related to our experiences. To the question of why certain conceptual
metaphorsare used in discussing abstract concepts,he answersthat a "great deal of linguistic

evidence sugggeststhat much metaphorical thinking arises from our embodied experiences
(Johnson, 1987; Lakoff, 1987,1994), for example, ANGER IS HEATED FLUID IN A
CONTAINERis the embodied experienceof containment (ibid.: 44). In the stateof anger,there
are physical phenomena,such as the increaseof body temperature,body filled with liquids, (e.g.
stomachfluids, the rise of speedof blood circulation and sweating). These bodily experiences
"give rise to the development of an experiential gestalt, called an image schema, for
CONTAINMENT(Johnson,1987: 45)"
Cameron and Low's implications for researchon metaphor

Cameron and Low (1999b: 79) warn that we should know the distinction between
conceptual metaphor and linguistic metaphor. Conceptual metaphor refers to abstractnotions

such as LOVE IS A JOURNEY, while linguistic metaphors are actual linguistic realisations such
as our relationship is at a cross-road. Conceptual metaphors must have target and source
domains, however, linguistic metaphors do not always necessitateboth (i. e. topic and vehicle).
In some cases,the vehicle is hidden or indirect, but a hint or clue can be found in the expression.
The forms linguistic metaphors take are nouns, verbs, prepositions and particles. There are
forms of metaphor that Japanesemetaphors share with English to some extent, but there are
exceptionssuch as prepositionsand other parts of speech.

Another noteworthyimplication for conceptualand linguistic metaphorscan be found in
cognitivelinguistics(Steenand Gibbs, 1999:1-2), which claims that metaphoris "a two-way
affair: it cango from linguisticmetaphorto conceptualmetaphor,or from conceptualmetaphor
to linguistic metaphor. " Steenand Gibbs (ibid.) further relatethat "cognitive linguistshave
usedthe abundantand systematicpresenceof metaphorsin languageas a basisfor postulating
theexistenceof conceptualmetaphors,which illustratesthemovefrom languageto thought."
Although in this thesis, I investigatehow EFL studentscomprehendand use words
or
expressions metaphorically- that is, I use linguisticmetaphoras primary data,and analysetheir
metaphoricalunderstanding and manipulation- this doesnot meanthat metaphoris exemplified
only in language. Thereis nonlinguisticmetaphor,suchaspictorialmetaphor,aswell.
Carter's implications for literariness,figurativeness

and associatebonding
Two noteworthypoints among othersfrom Carter (1998)
are the theoreticaland practical
implicationsfor metaphorresearch:literariness
and figurativenessfor the former and associate
41
bondingfor the latter. The formerconcernsthe quality of metaphorand understanding
andthe
useof metaphor,andthelatterrelatesto vocabularyteachingandlearning.
He alludesto Lakoff and Johnson's(1981) contributionsof a whole rangeof examples
which illustratehow our conceptualsystem(i.e. a standardWesterncultural system)is as a
whole structuredby metaphorswhich are capableof generatingrelatedmetaphorsand images
acrosswhole areasof discourse(Carter,1998: 138). MetaphoricalanalogyARGUMENT' IS
WARis represented as a standardusagein Your claimsare indefensible. Other examplesare
`time is treatedasa valuablecommodity,' `love asa journey,' or `theoriesarebuildings.' He
furtherstates
the systematicandpervasivenatureof suchmetaphorical`models'showsthe

to
extent which, ain `literary' is
way, oneareaof experience regularlystructured
andanalogizedin termsof another. Suchmetaphorsareoftensodeeply
impregnatedin languageandculturethattheyarenot noticedassuchindicates
theautomatized role theyoccupy. This raisestwo
andconventionalized
furtherquestions. Oneconcernstheappropriatemodesof analysisof
deautomatized that is, thosethatareimmediatelyperceivedas
metaphors,
strikingandoriginal. The otherconcernsthelinguisticnatureof theprocess
underlyingsuch perception. Thesequestionsarenecessarily connectedwith
the issuesof lexisandliterariness.
(ibid.: 138)
Carter (1998: 139) cautionsus to take note of the lexico-semanticconstituentsand relations

involvedin metaphor,thebasisof which is a distinctionbetween`tenor'and`vehicle'in metaphor
(alsoreferredto asthemetaphorical`frame'and `focus').
The basicassumptionhereis thatmetaphorinvolvesa deviantuseof language

(thevehicle)which is in someway semanticallyforegrounded
againstliteral
normsof language(thetenor). In suchinstances`literal' usuallyhasthe sense
claim on truth asgenerallyperceivedandunderstoodsothat
of reasonable
metaphoricusesinvolvenon-literalor non-tnt statements,
which it is thetaskof
a readeror hearerto interpretin sucha way asto rescuetheir falsity.
He arguesaboutfalsityquotingfrom Leech(1969)andusingLeech'sterm thatthe

readerlooks
for a `groundof likeness'between`tenor'and `vehicle'to infer its true
meaning.This involves
selectingcertaincommonfeaturesin thesedomains. The examplegiven is Encyclopaedias
are gold mines. In this statement,our normal rules of lexical selection rendering
42
encyclopaedias and gold minesare semanticallyincompatible. So the statementis rescued
from falsity andthe meaningunderstoodmetaphorically. Another exampleof his is culture
bound. The metaphor,such as AmericansIrre petrol alcoholics,can be interpretedin a
conventionalliterary context basedupon our knowledgeof the world. In contextsnot
conventionallysignalledto be `literary,' our interpretationof metaphormay stopafterlooking
for somegroundsto helpunderstand themeanings. From this,he concludesthat literarinessin
metaphormay be as much a matter of the beliefs of the readerabout the world or the
conventionsof what readersshould or can do in readingthan it is a matter of linguistic
organization(ibid.: 141).
Following the study by Nattinger (1988), Carter (ibid.: 219) suggestswe should teach
vocabularyin terms of associativebonding. He proposessemanticassociativeways of
teachingwords using,for example,grids. Associationsgeneratedby and acrosswords in a
semanticnetwork may increaseand strengthenlearners'vocabulary. This is applicablein
teachingmetaphors,thatis, teachinglexicalitemsandideasor conceptsof a sourceanda target
metaphorset
asan associative
McCarthy's implications for metaphorical extensions of words

McCarthy (2001: 27) emphasises the importanceof metaphoricalextensionsof words:
as
metaphor, a devicefor creatingand expandingmeaning,is very importantin the studyof
vocabulary. He statesthat we the
construct meaningof a metaphorby analogy,from our
linguisticknowledgeof thewordsinvolved(their semanticfeaturesandassociations)
andfrom
pragmatic clues. He uses his original (i.e. unconventional)metaphorAlcoholism is a
juggernautwith a learnerdriverto alludeto nativespeakers'lexicalcompetence. They have,
as part of their lexical competence,
the ability to recognizeconventionaland unconventional
metaphorsand to understandor constructpossibleinterpretationsof both (ibid.: 29). He
introducesseveraltasksin his bookto practicemetaphoricalinterpretations,
which areusablein
an EFL situation. He proposes4 challengesfor L2 learnersto practice: 1) recognizing
metaphors;2) delimitingtheir boundariesin text 3) distinguishingconventionaland creative
metaphorsand4) identifyingrelevantor prominentfeaturesof the entitiescomparedin orderto
getat an interpretation.
In brief, Gibbs' suggestionsare on which figurative languagewe make

research,and
Gibbs, Cameronand Low, and othersindicatethe importanceof the distinction between
processes and productsof metaphor. Cartercautionsus aboutlexico-semanticconstituents
and relationsinvolved in metaphoron the theoreticalside and associatebonding on the
practicalside. The latterrelatesto McCarthy'smetaphoricalextensionsof words. These
43
scholars' be
pointsshould keptin mindwhenweconductmetaphor
research.
2.3. RECENT METAPHOR RESEARCH IN JAPAN

BeforeconcludingPartII, let me addsomeissuesof metaphorstudyafterthe post-MeijiEra
in Japan.
2.3-1.RECENTDEVELOPMENT
IN JAPANAND SOMEPROBLEMS
In PartI, I tracedthehistoryof rhetoricstudyin Japan,whereI statedthatthefirst appearance
of
the term `metaphor'wasin the Meiji Era. Hereis a brief historyof metaphorafter theMeiji Fra.
WasedaUniversity has a long history of rhetoric study, which includesmetaphorstudy, and
providesmuchof theinformationin this study.
As stated earlier, the Meiji Era was a flourishing time of rhetoric. Since then the study of
rhetoric has declined to some extent. However, Waseda University, the mecca of rhetoric,
preservedthe tradition of studying it, offering coursesand lecturesunder the name of `biji gaku' or
Beautifying Writing until 1965. Since 1965 it continues to offer a course on stylistics
(http://vemo.info.waseda.ae.jp).
As in other pedagogical arenas, we can find the syllabi of the
University of Tokyo (http://opac.di. itc.u-tokyo. ac.jp), the University of Kyoto (http://kual.
archives.kyoto-u.acjp) and the University of Osaka (http://www. lang.osaka-u.ac.jp), in which

figures of speech,including metaphor,are dealt with in cognitive linguistics. Recently studieson
figures of language,among which are metonymy, synecdocheand metaphors and so forth, have
received more attention in Japan,especially in cognitive linguistics (Kawakami, 1996; Seto, 2000;
Yamanashi, 2000; Tsuji, 2002, to name a few), though not as much as in the occidental world,
owing to the developmentof information technology which allows us to accessresourceswherever

we are. Most of them were/aredealtwith in cognitivelinguistics,cognitivegrammarand/oras
part of semanticsor rhetoric,while a very few involved in the study of metaphoritself (Sato,
1992/1996,1997; HagaandKoyasu,1990;Higuchi, 1995). Systematicstudieson comprehension
and the use of metaphorstmetaphoricalexpressionsin an EFL situationhave been an under-
areain Japan. Therefore,this thesisintendsto bea first stepto developresearchon this
researched
issue in an EFL pedagogicalfield and focuses especially on measuringthe
metaphorical
competence of Japanese
EFL students.
Sincethe Meiji Era,andespeciallyafterthe SecondWorld War, information
spreadsthroughout
the world very rapidly. Publicationsare availablemore quickly than ever before,for
example,
throughInternet. The occidentalstudiesin any fields spreadtheir influenceto
researchers
on the
othersideof the globe. Metaphorstudyis not an exception. Thereseemto be
more researchers
andpublicationson figurativelanguageandmetaphor.
However,metaphorresearchis no easystudy Gibbs
as and Cameronsuggest A primary
44
problem is a distinction between simile and metaphor. Most often used in daily discourse are
similes (`choku-yu'). The `choku' in `choku-yu' means direct, overt or unhidden and the `yu'
meansword or implication. Similes in Japaneseare overtly expressedusing such markers as'...
yo-na' or `... mitaina' equivalent to `like' or às if in English, for example, `yamano yo-na shigoto'
means`work piled like a mountain.' On the other hand, metaphor may not be overtly expressedin
an utterancebut covertly expressedin an uttered implication. This may be one of the reasonsfor
metaphor having been translatedinto ìn-yu' (hidden word or connotation). Japaneseresearchers

suggestalong with Gibbs, Low and Cameron, etc. that it is necessaryto be careful in making the
distinction betweensimile and metaphor.
Furtherproblemsarethe distinctionbetweenmetaphorandmetonymyandbetweenmetonymy
and synecdoche. Sincethis thesisfocuseson metaphor,a detaileddiscussionof metonymyand
synecdocheis to be coveredelsewhere;however,it may be necessaryto briefly look at the recent
viewson metaphor,metonymyandsynecdoche.
Regardingthedistinctionbetweenmetaphorandmetonymy,occidentalandorientalresearchers
sharesimilarviewsto someextent,aswe haveseenso far traditionally,metaphoris thoughtto be
basedon similarity, for example, Lovers are travellers, and metonymy to be basedon contiguity, for
example, The kettle is boiling or He bought Shakespeare.

In brief, metaphoris an extensionprocess,which involves a mapping or blending across
domainsand metonymyis a mappingof oneelementonto anotherin a singledomain. We must
note however,
here, that thereis a fuzzy element
or an interaction
betweenmetaphorandmetonymy
(Goossens,1990; Raddenand Kovecses,1999; Barcelona,2000). Goossens(ibid.) gives this
phenomenon the term '
`metaphtonymy, Radden and Kovecses(ibid.) propose a conceptual
frameworkof metonymyasa cognitiveprocess,and Barcelona(ibid.) highlightsthe phenomenon
of interactionin termsof `metaphor-metonymy
interaction.
' As the title of thebookMetaphorand
Metonymyat the Crossroads,editedby Barcelona(ibid.), indicates,he focuseduponthe cognitive
theory of metaphorand metonymy, C'TMM. According to him, metaphoris "the cognitive
mechanismwhereby one experientialdomain is particularly `mapped, ' i.e. projected,onto a
different domain,so that the seconddomain is particularlyunderstoodin terms of the first one.
The domainthat is mappedis calledthe sourceor donordomain,andthe domainonto which the
sourceis mappedis calledthe target or recipientdomain" (ibid.:3); "metonymy is a conceptual
projectionwherebyone experientialdomain(thetarget)is partially understoodin termsof another
experientialdomain (the source)includedin the samecommon experientialdomain" (ibid. 4).
He postulatesthat this is a similar view to that held by Lakoff and Johnson(1981)
and other
cognitivelinguistsuntil the blendingtheoryappeared.
With regardto interaction,Goossens(ibid.) examined from British databaseand
expressions
found there were two predominanttypes of interaction between
metaphor and metonymy:
45
metaphor from metonymy and metonymy within metaphor. In her example: "Oh dear," she
giggled, "I'd quite forgotten," shesuggeststhat this expressioncan be taken in two ways: one is in a
synecdochic relationship, where it is interpreted as `she said this while giggling; the other as a
crossingof domain boundariesas in metaphor,where it is interpretedas `she said this as if giggling.
The term Goossensgives to this is `metaphor from metonymy' (ibid. 328). An example of
metonymy within metaphor is shoot one's mouth off, meaning `to talk foolishly about what one
does not know about or should not talk about' (ibid. 334). In this casemouth is a metonymy for
the faculty of speech,and the expression is understood by the integration of mouth into a scene
relating to the use of weapon. Thus, she attempted to show there is an interaction between
metaphorand metonymy; however, shealso suggeststhat the boundary betweenthem is fuzzy.
Still another problem is the distinction between metonymy and synecdoche. Taniguchi
(2003:124) argues that Lakoff and Johnson (1981) include a part-whole relation in metonymy.
Lakoff and Johnson(ibid.: 35), providing such examplesas `The ham sandwich is waiting for his
check,' broadly define metonymy as using one entity to refer to anotherthat is relatedto it. Lakoff
and Johnson (ibid.: 37-39) also claim that metonymic concepts are systematic, and they list the
following representativegroups for metonymy: THE PART FOR THE WHOLE, PRODUCERFOR
PRODUCT,OBJECTSUSED FOR USER,CONTROIIER FOR CONTROILIFD,INS fl'UIlON FOR
PEOPLERESPONSIBLE,THE PLACE FOR THE INSTITUTION and PLACE FOR THE EVENT.
Let me take up one example from THE PART FORTHE WHOLE `There are a lot of good heads in
the university,' in which the good headsmeansintelligent people.
Japanese
researchers, for example,Seto(1997; 1999),Yamanashi(1995/1997)andTaniguchi
(2003)havea slightly differentview of the distinctionbetweenmetonymyand synecdoche
from
Lakoff andJohnson(1981).Somemetonymiesin Lakoff andJohnsonareclassifiedassynecdoche
researchers.Judgingfrom Taniguchi'sexampleof synecdoche:Weneedshands,
by theJapanese
the aboveexampleof a metonymyfrom Lakoff andJohnson:`Therearea lot of goodheadsin the
university'canbe classifiedassynecdoche. SheandotherJapanese researchers claim that in this
example,what we needis not just handsbut humanhelp, and that this constitutesa part-whole
relation. Thus,theyarguethatLakoff andJohnson(1981)do not distinguishonefrom theotheras
clearly as the Japaneseresearchers.They proposeto separatesynecdochefrom metonymy.
Seto's(1999:91-92)distinctionseemsto be clearerthanothers,therefore,my discussion
resortsto
his distinction: metonymy is a referentialtransfer phenomenonbasedon the
spatio-temporal
contiguityasconceivedby thespeakerbetweenan entityandanotherin the (real)world.
He further posits that metonymy is an E(ntity)-relatedtransfer
and that synecdocheis a
C(ategory)-relatedtransfer. Synecdocheis a conceptualtransfer
phenomenonbased on the
semanticinclusion betweena more comprehensiveand a less comprehensivecategory. At the
sametime, he points out that there is an ambiguity of `whole' and `part.' He suggeststhat this
46
Lakoff
causes and Johnson's ambiguity,
and that
argues the ambiguityof the whole-part
relationhas
beenrecognisedin termsof taxonomyandpartonomy(meronomy)referringto severalresearchers
(i.e.TverskyandHemenway,1984;Cruise,1979,1986;Tversky,1990). Furthermore,Seto(ibid.:
93) describesthe situationasfollows: taxonomyis a `kind-of relationand partonomyis a `part-of
relation. In other words,taxonomyis the relationbetweena more comprehensive categoryand a
less comprehensiveone, while partonomyis the relation betweenan entity and its part. His
examplefor taxonomy(C-relation)is a tree-firrelationandonefor partonomy(E-relation)is a body-
arm relation. Then, he suggeststhat the uncertaintyin defining metonymy(e.g. the part-whole
relation)may be resolvedif a clear distinctionbetweenthe referentialrelationand the categorical
relationis made(ibid.: 95). However,the whole problemhas not yet beensolved. A probable
causeof the problemof metonymy-synecdoche differentiationis that there is an ambiguity in the
terms`whole' and`park' The part-wholeproblemsconcernkind-of andpart-ofrelationships.
Seto (1999:116) stressesthat "a category and an entity are cognitively two different things" and
warns that "taxonomies ('kind of relations) tend to be equated with partonomies ('part of
"
relations). For example, the relationship betweena `lind-af and a'part-of in the phrase `Haha-mi
ni iku' involves a subtle problem as Seto (1997) himself suggests. The word `hang' is a flower or
blossom in general,the 'hana-mi' meansto go flower/blossom viewing and the ìku' meansto go.
In this phrase,the word `hana' in `hana-mi' specifically refers to cherry blossoms; therefore, the
whole phrasemeans `to go cherry blossom viewing. ' Cherry blossomsare a 'kind of blossom (i. e.
synecdoche), and at the same time, the cherry blossoms in the word `hana' of `hana-mi' can be
taken as a `part of blossoms in the sense that the meaning of the cherry blossoms includes
characteristicsof this specific blossom (i. e. metonymy): a celebration of the vernal advent with
songs and feasts under the cherry trees in bloom This is one of the complex features found
between kind-of and part-of relations. All in all, it seems to be hard to draw a line between
metonymy and synecdoche in some cases,and sometimes it may also be hard to draw a line
betweenmetaphorandmetonymy.
The lastbut not the leastimportantissueis the categorisation

or classificationof metaphors. It
is a difficult task to performin the sensethat metaphorstake variousforms or types. There has
beenno overall studyon categorisations or classificationof Japanese metaphors. Someresearch
concernscertain conceptualmetaphors,for example,ANGERand others concernorientational
and/orontologicalmetaphorsusingprepositions. We can resortto Seto's(2001)classification.
He proposestwo largecategoriesfor metaphorclassification:metaphorbased
upon our physical
perceptionand metaphorbasedupon universalcommonality. However, this does not seemto
coverall metaphors. Therearea largenumberof linguisticrealisationsgoingon, therefore,it may
be too difficult to classify all metaphors. In this sense,the
contributionmade by Lakoff and
47
Johnson in categorisations/classificationsof metaphors is beneficial for metaphor research. At
of metaphor. These circumstanceslead me

leastwe can utilise their categorisations/classifications
to speculateon what test items should be included in the tests of metaphorical competence. The
best choice may be to measurecompetenceusing the sentencepatternsof the conceptualmetaphor
and the metaphoricalexpressionsembeddedin context This will be further explicated in Chapters

3 and 4.
2.4. CONCLUSION
Part II tracedthe transition of views on metaphor in contemporary metaphorresearchand those
in applied linguistics. In a traditional view, metaphorwas treatedas rhetoric. The first transition
was brought in by I. A. Richards (1936), who claimed metaphor is related to thought Black
(196211994)took over his theory and proposedhis interaction view. In the interaction view, he
claimed that the meaning of a metaphor is generated from the interaction of primary and
secondary subjectsin an expression. Black's idea, going through Reddy (1979), gave rise to the
conceptualmetaphor theory proposed by Lakoff and Johnson (1981). They established idealised
cognitive models, ICMs. They regard metaphor as away of thinking or a matter of mind. This
idea made possible the conceptualisationof metaphors. Gibbs (1994; 1999a), a psychologist,
standson the sameground. Cognitive linguists also sharethis idea.

Among severalcontemporaryviews on metaphor,conceptualmetaphortheory (e.g. Lakoff
andJohnson, 1981;Gibbs, 1994), theory
semantic-field (Kittay, 1987),relevance theory(Sperber
and Wilson, 1995) and metaphor in
research applied linguistics(e.
g. Carter, 1998; McCarthy,
2001; CameronandLow, 1999a;1999b)providesubstantialimplicationsfor metaphorresearch
in this study. Conceptualmetaphortheorysuppliestheideaof how
for metaphoricalcompetence
metaphorfunctions, semantic-fieldtheory providesme with the knowledgeof mapping and
theory
network,relevance with a view from and
pragmatics, finally views of metaphorin relation
to applied linguistics suggestsways of studying metaphorin languageeducation. These
implicationsstimulatemy ideasfor further study. Part III will furtherfocus on this and several
otherissuesin metaphorin educationin connectionwith appliedlinguistics.
48
Part III: METAPHORIN EDUCATION
Metaphorresearchcomparingnativewith non-nativelanguages(e.g. English)for educational

purposeshasaboundedmore in the occidentalthanin the orientalworld. This is becauseof the
degreeto which learnersare exposedto metaphorsin the targetlanguagesand their levelsof
languageproficiency. In an ESL situation,wherelearnerslive in the environmentof using a
targetlanguage(i.e. English in this study),exposureis high and intensive,and consequently
linguistic levels are high. In an EFL situation,learners'accessibilityto English is limited,
therefore,their levelsof Englishproficiencyvary from low to high However,in both situations,
are desirablelanguage
anduse(if possible)of metaphoricalexpressions
adequateunderstanding
competencesfor learnersto enable undersAanding of the delicate and subtle nuancesof
in English
expressions
This thesis aims to investigate EFL students' metaphoricalcompetence. Part III

investigatesthe following issues:(1) past study on metaphorical competenceand the definition
of metaphorical competence, (2) past study on metaphor in education and (3) a necessary
background knowledge for investigation of metaphorical understandingand use, such as schema,
image schema, mapping, network and analogical reasoning. These elements may affect
metaphoricalcompetence.
2.1. METAPHORICALCOMPETENCE
2.1-1. PAST RESEARCH
There are two kinds of past researchon metaphoricalcompetence:one is on awareness
(Deignan,Gabrysand Soiska,1997;Boers,2000) and the other is on competenceitself (Low,
1988;JaniceJohnsonand Rosano,1993;Littlemore,2001b;Chateris-Black,2002). Surveys
on awareness
and competence
arenot completelyseparable, becausesurveyson awareness also
examinecompetence. Majority of the researchon metaphoricalcompetencein the occidental
world hasbeencarriedout with children(Gardner,1974;Winner,RosenstielandGardner,1976;
Cameron,2003)andwith ESL learners(Deignan,Gabrysand Solska,1997;Boers,2000;2001;
Littlemore,2001b;Charteris-Black,2002). Statisticaldataon competencewas only
prepared
by Littlemore(2001b).
The following is a brief summary of past researchon metaphorical
competenceand
teaching.
2.1-2.METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE IN PASTRESEARCH

Low (1988)advocates
thatall learners
of Englishasa secondlanguage
needto developat
49
leastsomemetaphor-related skills. He advisesus to know that learning one-off, xamplesis
not alwayshelpful (ibid.: 129). He discussesapproaches and areasin which learnersshould
developsome skills relatedto metaphor(e.g. the ability to interpretand constructplausible
meaningsby usingmetaphor,knowledgeof the boundaryof metaphorand awareness of some
featuresof metaphor)and proposesactivities for languagelessons. Deignan, Gabrys and
Solska(1997)furtheremphasises
the importanceof dealingwith metaphorsin languagelessons.
They experimentedon cross-linguisticawareness-raising
activities to aid understandingof
Englishmetaphoricalexpressions
using Polishas L1 and English as L2 and claimedthat the
same conceptualmetaphorsin different languagesare realisedthrough different linguistic
concludingthatL2 learnersusuallyfind it difficult to usemetaphorsappropriately.
expressions,
Littlemore (2001b) discussesa number of psychological processesinvolving metaphor
interpretation and examinesmetaphorical [N. B. her original term is `metaphoric'] competence
and its relationship to L2 learning and teaching. Metaphorical competence, according to

Littlemore (ibid.: 461), consists of (a) originality of metaphor production, (b) fluency of
metaphor interpretation, (c) ability to find meaning in metaphor and (d) speed in finding
meaning in metaphor. She examined whether or not metaphorical competence is a unitary

concept, identified cognitive traits that may help it develop, and investigated its relationship
with communicative language ability (ibid.: 460). She measuredthe above four aspectsof
metaphorical competence. In her research,she cites Pollio and Smith (1980), who identified
the first three components(i. e. originality, fluency, and ability to find meaning in metaphor) as
distinct aspectsof the overall construct (Speedwas not investigatedin their study).
Littlemore'sinvestigation(ibid.) was classifiedinto the four aspectsor componentsquoted
aboveandtheir to
relationships otheraspects
of individualdifferences,
e.g. cognitivestyle,using
BelgianESL (Englishasa SecondLanguage)studentsassubjects. The resultshownin oneof
thetables(Table5: `PearsonCorrelationsBetweenAspectsof MetaphoricCompetence
in theLI
andL2') (Littlemore,2001b:480) is especiallymeaningful. It indicatesthat the relationships
betweenthesefour aspectsare positiveto a degree. For example,in LI, (a) is relatedto (d)
(.338); (c) to (d) (.426), and in L2, (a) to (d) (.257). The implicationsof all of her resultsare
important. With regard to the cognitive styles of the students,she used Riding's (1991)
CognitiveStylesAnalysis,CSA, andfoundthatthe studentswho havea holistic
computer-based
cognitivestylemay processmetaphorsmorequickly thanthosewith an analyticcognitivestyle.
Shementionsthis with reservation,dueto a smallnumberof testitems.
Litdemore's(2001a; 2001b) contributionto the investigationinto metaphorical
competence
is noteworthy,however,the following considerationis for applyingthe researchto a
necessary
Japanese EFL situation. The languagesLittlemorecompared
were French(L 1) and English
(L2). The distancebetweenthesetwo languagesis
not as far as that betweenEnglish and
50
Japanese.If the distancebetweenthe languagesis wide, as betweenJapanese(L I) and
English(L2), and if learnerslearna languageas a foreignlanguage,it might be betterto start
from suchprimitive elementsasthe lexicaland semanticknowledgewhich EFL learnershave
acquiredat their earlier languagelearningstage. One of theseis the learners'vocabulary
knowledgeandthe otheris their semanticability. The learners'vocabularysizeis known to
be relatedto overalllanguagecompetence,therefore,it might be meaningfulto comparetheir
vocabulary knowledge with metaphoricalcompetence. Furthermore,it might be also
meaningfulto look at how deeply learnerscan delve into meaningsand how well they
recognisewords of multiple meanings. This is the reasonfor focussingon the lexical and
semanticaspectsin this study,althoughtheculturalaspectis alsoimportant.
Anotherpriority given by Littlemore(2001b) is what aspectsof metaphoricalcompetence
should be examined, (a) originality of metaphor production, (b) fluency of metaphor
interpretation,(c) the ability to find meaningin metaphor,or (d) speedin finding meaningin
metaphor? Or, shouldthe testcoverall aspectsof metaphoricalcompetence? The first item
(a) proposedby Littlemore belongsto productionand the other three to recognition. The
items(b), (c) and(d) relateto finding the meaningsof metaphoricalexpressions,
while the item
(a) relatesto producingmetaphorson one'sown. The lattermay be oneof the mostdifficult
tasksfor EFL studentsto accomplish In my experiencein an EFL situation,the item (a)
revealedchildishmetaphorproduction,however,the items(b) and(c) resultedin unexpectedly
good results. In additionto theseresearchareas,treatmentof the resultsis also a big issue.
Probablyboth qualitativeandquantitativetreatmentsarenecessary.
2.2. METAPHORICALCOMPETENCEIN AN EFL CONTEXT

Researchinto the understanding
and use of metaphorsor metaphoricalexpressionsin a
areain Japan. A primaryreasonmay be that exposure
targetlanguageis an under-researched
is quite limited when learninga foreign language.
to metaphorsor metaphoricalexpressions
In addition,althoughEFL learnersencounterEnglishmetaphoricalexpressions in readingand
listening, they usually learn them as one-off experiences. Even idioms embeddedwith
metaphoricalmeaningsin them are usuallytreatedasjust idioms,althoughthey may provide
opportunitiesfor learningmetaphorsor metaphoricalexpressions. Teachersand learnersdo
not go beyonda superficiallevel and consequentlythey miss the chanceto learn expressions
and conceptslying behindthem,probablydue to time limitation for teaching/learning,
lack of
awareness involved in metaphorand its concept,or for someother reason. This
resultsin a
scarcityof studieson awareness
or competence.
Metaphorin languageeducationcan providean opportunityto learn how
our conceptual
systemis organisedand how it functionsin language. This enableslearnersto learn
not only
51
languagesbut also developunderstanding
of views on relationshipbetweenmind, body and
language.
In order to developa holisticlinguisticability, it is necessary
to nurturelearners'lexical,
semanticandculturalknowledgeof the variousaspectsof a targetlanguage. This thesisdoes
not delve deeply into cultural aspectsof metaphoricalcompetence,becauseresearchinto
metaphoricalcompetencein an EFL situation requires a great deal of quantitativeand
qualitativetheoreticalandexperimentalsurveys. Therefore,I decidedto concentrate
primarily
on lexicalandsemanticaspectsof metaphoricalcompetence.
2.2-1. METAPHORICALCOMPETENCEIN EFL

Metaphorical competencein English in an EFL context can be defined as how well learners
comprehendand use English metaphorical expressions. Metaphorical competencein an EFL

situation may concern (1) learners' recognition in listening and reading English metaphorical
expressionsin discourse,news, academic or other materials, (2) use of English metaphorical
expressionsin appropriate ways in writing and speakingand (3) understandingof the concepts
of English metaphorsand the conceptsbehind English (and Japanese)metaphorical expressions.
Among these items, the last two may prove to be more difficult for EFL studentsto acquire,
partly becausethey are less experiencedor practiced. Based upon this assumption and my
past experience,the tests of metaphorical competence were developed. The tests aimed to
measure learners' lexical, semantic and contextual levels of metaphorical competence in
English. This will be further describedin Chapter 3.
We consciouslyor unconsciouslyunderstandand use metaphoricalexpressionsin our
nativelanguage. What is takenfor grantedin our nativelanguageis not alwaysapplicablein a
foreign language. In a situation that provides insufficient accessto a target language,
opportunitiesfor receptionand productionare limited. However,underthesecircumstances,
thefollowing resultwasobtainedin my experimentaltest a familiar expression,
suchasTimeis
money,waswell interpretedby EFL students,but a lessfamiliar one,suchasto spill the beans,
by someEFL studentsor not interpretedby others,andanotherlessfamiliar
wasmisinterpreted
one,suchas to kick the bucket,was not fully interpreted. Someof the causes(discoveredin
thetestsin this study)resultedfrom the characteristics
of the idiomaticexpressions. Thereare
a greatmanyidiomsin English,andEFL studentsmay not havethe opportunitiesto learnall of
them. The phenomenaseeminglyaffected by their linguistic ability may result in low
metaphoriccompetence. This is a primary cause,and a secondarycausemay resultfrom a
lack of knowledgeof the mechanismof metaphor.
52
2.2-2. CONSIDERATIONIN RESEARCHON METAPHORICALCOMPETENCEIN EFL
To investigatethe lexical and semantic aspectsof metaphorical competenceperformed by
EFL students,the following two questionsemerged:
(1) What elementsof the languagephenomenaof lexical and semanticknowledgeof learners
should be investigated? What factors are most related to EFL students' metaphorical
competence?Thesequestionscanbe investigated
by way of examininga relationshipbetween
EFL students'vocabularyknowledgeandmetaphoricalcompetence.
The vocabularyknowledge
refers to breadthand depth. For breadth,vocabularysize may be one of the possible
investigativepointsandfor depth,word associations
and/orpolysemycanbe utilised. This will
befurtherdiscussed in Chapter3.
(2) What cognitive linguistic elementsshould be investigatedto examine metaphorical
competence(i.e. understanding and cognitivefunctions)?
and use of metaphoricalexpressions
This question,including mechanismsto be employedby learners,can be investigatedby
consideringschematheory,severalideasof imageschema,mapping,network and analogical
reasoning.
The presentstudy owes a great deal to vocabulary researchfrom applied linguistics, schema
theory from cognitive scienceand image schemafrom metaphor research. Pastresearchserves
as backgroundknowledge necessaryfor the investigation of metaphoricalcompetencein an EFL
situation.
The explanationsof lexical elements(vocabulary,word associationsand polysemy)are
briefly toucheduponin the following section,but will be discussedin detailin the sectionsfor
rationalesrelating to the tests of metaphoricalcompetencein Chapter 3. More spaceis
allocatedin thisandthefollowing sectionsfor suchcognitiveelementsasschema,imageschema,
mapping and network. It is becausethe studiesof the applicationsof these elementsto
research
metaphorical are quitelimited, althoughtheseelementsseemto play importantrolesin
understandingand the use of metaphoricalexpressions. Needlessto say the former is a
fundamentalelementof linguisticcompetence. Vocabularyplaysa key role for learnersas a
stimulusfor activatingtheir schemas
andimageschemas
andto connectmutualnetworks.
2.2-3. FACTORSPOSSIBLYAFFECTING METAPHORICALCOMPETENCE

Factorswhich may affect learners' metaphoricalcompetenceare hypothesised (1)
as
vocabularyknowledge(i.e. breadthand depth),(2) semanticelements(e.g. associations with
words),(3) cognitiveelements(e.g. schemas andimageschemas) and(4) culturalaspects.
Learners'vocabularyknowledgeis a key factornot
only in metaphoricalcompetence but in
all aspectsof competenceperformedby foreign languagelearners.Vocabularyknowledge,
especiallythe sizeor breadthof learners'vocabulary,playsan importantpart
asan axisto their
53
overalllinguisticcompetence,and the breadthand depthexpandnetworksfrom word to word.
Semanticfields stretchthe networksamongwordsand ideas,and the imageschemasorganise
theprocessesor structuresof expressions.The functionsof networkingor stretchingpossibly
stimulateand assistmappingbetweenthe targetand sourcedomainsand activateanalogical
reasoningnecessaryto encodemetaphoricalmeanings. All of theseelementsmay contribute
to betterunderstanding
andpromotebettermanipulationsof metaphoricalexpressions.
Sincethe issuesof vocabulary,word associations
and polysemywill be delineated
in the
designated
sections to an individual in
rationale Chapter3, the following sections
mainly focus
on theelements(2) and(3), with somediscussionof (4).
The issuesof schemas,imageschemas, mapping,networkandanalogicalreasoningseem
to relateto understanding expressions.
and useof metaphorical The for
reasons considering
thesefive issuesarebaseduponthefollowing four assumptions:
(a)if metaphoris conceptuallystructured,schemas
arerelatedto the understanding
and
useof metaphoricalexpressions,
(b)if metaphoris a mappingbetweentwo (or more)domains,imageschemas
may
link thesedomains,
(c) if metaphoris conceptuallystructuredon a linguisticbasis,the networkof wordsto
words may play a part in mappingand
(d) analogicalreasoningmay helpunderstand
metaphoricalmeanings.
In orderto answertheseassumptionsandto investigatethe semanticandcognitiveelements
at the same time, the theories
or views of paststudiesare briefly examined and discussed
in the
2.4
section entitled `Background knowledge for pursuitof metaphor '
study.
2.3. METAPHORIN EDUCATION

Metaphoris madeuseof in educationin two ways:oneis to enhanceunderstanding of the
contentof learning,for example,in studyingelectricityin physicsmetaphoris usedto explain
the contents;and the other useis to promotethe awareness
and comprehension of metaphor
and/ormetaphoricalrealisationin languageeducation. The pastresearchutilised in science
educationto help studentsto understand
the theoriesor phenomenaof physicswere illustrated
by Kuhn, Mayer,PetrieandOshlagin Ortony (1994). The main concernin this thesisis with
metaphorstudyin languageeducation.
The paststudiesof metaphor(andfigurativelanguage)in educationrelevantto this thesis
can
be groupedinto thefollowing threecategories:
(1) the importanceof metaphorin educationin general:Low (1988),Maclennan(1994),Lazar
(1996),Cameronand Low (1999a;1999b);the performanceof nativespeakers:Gibbs (1980),
Tourangeauand Sternberg(1981); the competenceor performance
of non-nativespeakers:
54
Johnsonand Rosario(1993),McCarthy(2001),Deignan,Gabrysand Solska(1997),Chartelis-
Black (2002),BoersandDemecheler(1998),Boers(2001),Littlemore(2001a;2001b),
(2) the developmentalstudiesof metaphoror metaphoricalunderstandingas performed by
children (Gardner, 1974;Winner, Rosenstieland Gardner, 1976),and

(3) the studiesof pictorialmetaphors, by Forceville(2002).
suchasthoserepresented
The first categoryis the main concernsof this thesis,however,the last two also seemto be
interesting,because(2) may tell us how children develop metaphoricalunderstandingand
manipulatemetaphoricalexpressionsand (3) may provide us with opportunitiesto look at
metaphorin relationshipwith images. Beforediscussingthe main category,let me briefly touch
uponthelasttwo categories
first
Gardner (1974: 84) examines the metaphoric capacity of children from 3.5 to 19 years old,
using a test in which they "were asked to indicate knowledge of the literal meanings of
antonymousword pairs and then to project theseterms onto domains where they applied only in a
metaphoric way." The study found that there was improvement with age. Preschool children
demonstratedconsiderableability in this test and "the order of difficulty of words and domains
were regular across ages" (ibid. ). The difficulty found in the preschool children was in
projecting metaphorsof colours. The reasonsfor matching colours differed acrossages. It is

surprising to learn from this article that "the basic components of metaphoric thought have
developedby the fourth year of life" (ibid.: 90). Another experiment on children's metaphorical
capacities was conducted by Winner, Rosenstiel and Gardner (1976). An experiment of the
interpretation of metaphoric statementswas carried out on children aged from 6 to 14. The
materials consisted of 8 psychological-physical and 8 cross-sensorymetaphors. Half of the
subjects were allocated with a metaphor explication task in orally presentedsentencesand the
other half were allocatedwith 4 multiple-choiceinterpretationsto orally presentedsentences
followed by orally presented4 multiple-choiceanswers. The 4 interpretationoptions were
intendedto be magical,metonymic,primitive metaphoricand genuinemetaphoric. The results
indicatethereweremore metonymicand primitive-metaphoric interpretationsprior to the ageof
10;theyoungerchildrentendedto interpretmetaphorsasdescriptionsof magicalsituations;cross-
sensorymetaphorsprovedto be easierto comprehendthan psychological-physical metaphors.
Winner, Rosenstieland Gardner(ibid.) affirm that thereare developmentaltrends,however,
as
they state,there is more clarificationstill necessaryto discoverwhetheror not the factors
of
interpretationinability weredueto a linguisticimmaturity,a cognitivedeficit, lack
a of metaphoric
identificationor part or all of thesefactors. Their experimentsandthe
resultsstimulatemy idea
for the testsfor metaphoricalcompetence. The detail the tests
of will be further statedin
Chapters3 and4.
Anotherinterestingthemeto investigatewould be
relationshipsbetweenpicturesandintended
55
imagesembeddedin them To make such investigation,picture scrollsmay provide us with
opportunitiesto seemetaphorsin relationto images,asis found in a Japanese
picturescrollnamed
`Chojugiga' ( ), a national treasure,which metaphorically,ironically and comically
of the peoplecaricaturedin animalsor their actions. However,researchinto
depictspersonalities
this would be an entire one courseof researchby itself, so it is not part of this study. The
following sectionswill focuson the importanceof metaphorin languageeducation.
2.3-1. METAPHORIN LANGUAGE EDUCATION

The importanceof metaphor in languageeducation
Low (1988) believesthat metaphorshould be given a more important place in language
teaching,becausemetaphoris centralto the use of language,it pervadeslarge parts of the
languagesystem,and thereforecontributesto many important language-related activities or
dimensions of languageuse. He proposesactivities, such as the invention of a new metaphor,
teaching the systematicity of metaphor, the teaching of conventional metaphors, for example,
memorising individual expressions,and taking a polysemy method by using a word, for example,
`foot. ' By doing this he posits that learnerswill learn the structuring of the metaphor,awareness
of boundaries (appropriatenessof the metaphor) and reasons why certain metaphors are not
appropriate. Learnerswill also practicediscourseusing metaphors.
CameronandLow (1999a)makeeffortsto combinemetaphorstudywith appliedlinguistics
synthesingthe existingviews of metaphorand its educationalapplication. CameronandLow
(1999b) introduceways of metaphorresearch,metaphordevelopmentin Ll and L2 and
metaphor in discourse. What shouldbe noted in Cameronand Low (1999b:90) is that "the
universalityand systematicity
of metaphorsbased on embodiedexperienceshouldmakemany
metaphoricalusesof languagetransparent althoughasDeignanet al. (1997)
cross-linguistically,
discoveredfor Polish and English, conceptualmetaphorsmay be realisedthrough different
andthusposeproblemsin use,but not in understanding. This problem
linguisticexpressions,
should be investigated
with data.
quantitative
Cameronand Low (1999b:91) also point out that therehasbeen"very little researchin L2
acquisitionandvery little researchinto teachingcontrolover metaphor.
"
Metaphorandvocabulary
McCarthy(2001:21-30)emphasises
theimportanceof the metaphoricalextensionof words,
statingthat"metaphor,asa devicefor creatingandextendingmeaning,is very importantfor the
" Among his examplesof words,polysemyand
studyof vocabulary. metaphors,is includeda
conceptualmetaphorANGER IS WAR, from which English provides a certain range
of
conventionalmetaphorsto verbalisefeaturesof arguments,suchasHe madea vicious
attackon
56
my position, and My defences
were down, etc. These are institutionalised
or conventional
metaphoricalexpressions, awareof the metaphoricaluse
andnativespeakersareunconsciously
of the lexical field, hencethe rangeis not unlimited. However,this does not seemto be
applicableto EFL situations,becausenon-nativespeakers may not havefully acquiredlinguistic
and semanticabilities.His suggestionis to pay attentionto the notionof the centralor focal, or
peripheralmeaningof a word and the notion of metaphoricalextension. The first or central
meaninghas an impact, but the word has peripheralmeaningsas well. He suggeststhe
following taskto illustratethecentralandperipheralmeaningof `head':
1 Did you hurt your head?

2 She'sheadof thecommittee.
3 The headof this hammeris loose.
His intention with this exerciseis for learnersto processthe meaningsof the peripheral sensesin
terms of metaphors based upon the central or focal meanings. In this kind of exercises,
polysemy ability assistsexpanding creativity.
Metaphorical competence,cognitivestyle,retention
Researchon metaphoricalcompetencerelatedto my presentstudy (Deignan,Gabrysand
Solska, 1997, Littlemore, 2001a; 2001b) was introducedin the earlier sectionsof Part III,
therefore,additionalrelatedresearchfrom the past (Chartelis-Black,2002; Johnson,J. and
Rosano,1993;Tourangeauand Sternberg,1981;Boers,2000/2001;Gibbs, 1980)is discussed
here. Their studieslexperiments rangefrom issuesof proficiency and aptnessin figurative
language/metaphorto retentionby metaphor. Someof thesestudiesconcernEnglishasLl and
othersL2. In mostcasesof L2, the language is
environment thatof ESL
The secondlanguagefigurative proficiency examinedin English and Malay by Chartelis-
Black (2002)discoveredthat the easiestfigurativeexpressions
performedby the Malay-speaking
learnersof English (averageage: 23) were the figurative expressionswith an equivalent
conceptualbasisand linguistic form betweenthe two languages;the most difficult were the
figurativeexpressions thathavean equivalentlinguisticform but havea differentconceptualbasis,
and the other difficult oneswere those that have a different conceptualbasisand a different
linguisticform. Theseareculture-specificexpressions. He assuresus that thereis evidence
of
intralinguialconfusionbetweenhigherandlower frequency1.2figurativeexpressions
andalludes
to a typologicaldistancebetweentheirLl andEnglish.
J. Johnsonand Rosario(1993) examinedrelationshipsamong the language
proficiency,
cognitivestyle and metaphorcomprehension of NSs Canadianand ESL students(averageage :
57
21). The ESL studentsvaried in their native countriesbut all of the subjectsspoke English asL2.
They discoveredthat NS studentsscoredbetter than ESL studentsin academicEnglish proficiency
but, on the level of cognitive sophisticationin English, metaphor interpretation or on a measureof
metaphorfluency in metaphorinterpretation, there was no significant difference betweenthe two.

They cited this examination from J. Johnson's preceding studieson children, which claimed that
languageproficiency is not a major factor in determiningthe complexity level of metaphor
interpretations
but cognitivefactorssuchasrelevantknowledgeandprocessing capacityaremajor
factors. This indicatesthat cognitive factors play a more important role than language
proficiencydoes.
TourangeauandSternberg(1981)examinedaptnessand similarityin metaphoron different
subjects:37 for aptnesstest and 20 for comprehensionexperiments,using a booklet of 64
metaphors. Their testexaminedthe relationshipor similaritybetweenthe targetandthe source
in terms of the within-domain and the between-domain. In the tests, all of the subjectswere
askedto rate metaphorson a 9-point scalefor appropriatenessof metaphors. The aptnessgroup

rated the metaphors on 4 scales,good-bad, apt-not apt, interesting-dull and like-dislike. The
comprehensiongroup rated the metaphors on 2 scales,hard-easyand slow-fast. The results
showed that aptnessof metaphorsrelated positively to between-domain distance, negatively to

within-domain distance. They claim that "metaphors are perceived as more apt to the extent
that their terms occupy similar positions within domains that are not very similar to each other"
(Tourangeauand Sternberg, 1981: 27). As in Aristotle's advice in Poetics and Rhetoric, the
similarity of tenor and vehicle reducesthe obscurity of the metaphor but it decreasesthe quality
of metaphor. Their result also claims that "comprehensibility also relatedto aptness"(ibid. ).
Boers(2000/2001)examinedmetaphoricawareness
and retentionof vocabulary,idiomsand
unfamiliarfigurativeexpressions
andproposesclassroomactivitiesto enhancelearners'metaphor
awareness and vocabularyacquisition. His first experimentwas on 118Flemishstudents(the
ages:16-7),whoseEnglishlevel wasreferredto be intermediate. The subjectsweredividedinto
two groups:experimentalandcontrol. The experimentalgroupwasgiveninput aboutmetaphor,
i.e. vocabularynotesorganisedalong variousmetaphoricthemes. The expressionsusedas a
samplewere a conceptualmetaphorANGER The test was a clozetype with 10 gaps. The
resultshowedthat the experimentalgroup was better(4.41 of the 10 gapsin the experimental
group,comparedwith 3.67in thecontrol). The secondexperimentwason 73 universitystudents
(the ages:19-20),whoseLl was Frenchand their level of English intermediate. The test
was
essaywriting embedding10 targetwords after allowing the time to go over the targetword list
followed by voluntaryQ and As. The experimental
group (40 out of 73) was given a short
lessonaboutthe imagesof the words. The resultshowedthat the
experimentalgroupused7.1
targetwords, comparedwith thoseof 4.9 in the control group. His third
experimenthad 74
58
university students(the age: 19-20), whose Ll was French and their English level was
intermediate. The testfor the two groupsincorporatedorientationalprepositionaland phrasal
verbs. Both groupsreceivedexplanatorynoteson the multi-word verbs. The experimental
group(39 out of 74) receivedthe sameword list but thelist wascategorised
underthe headingsof
their underlying orientational metaphors,based upon Boers' lexico-semanticanalysesof
prepositionsand phrasalverbs. This was also a cloze type test The result was that the
experimentalgroupdid not performany betterthanthe controlgroup. Accordingto Boers,the
of wordsif the vocabulary
experimentalgroupdid not benefitfrom the helpof the categorisation
was absentfrom their mind at the time of the test, and more fundamentallyphrasaland
(Boers,2000:562).
prepositionalverbsvary in their degreesof semantictransparency
Whatwe canlearnfrom the resultsof theseexperimentsis asfollows: 1) therearetransparent
and opaquefigurative expressions, therefore,"metaphorawareness will most probablybe less
fruitful whenthe learneris facedwith opaqueidioms" (ibid.). 2) The LI of the participantsin
these experimentswas closely relatedto the target language,therefore,their Ll facilitated
comprehension.3) The levelsof Englishproficiencywasintermediate,therefore,whenwe plan
a similartest,we shouldtakeinto accountthe situationin which the targetlanguageis dealtwith,
whetherit is 1-2or FL, andthelevelsof the participants.
Another small scale Boers' (2001) experimentfound that imagery processing,i.e. the
associationof an idiom with a concreteimage or vivid scene,contributesto remembering
figurativeidioms. He invitedlearnersto useimagerywhenthey comeacrossa new figurative
aboutits etymologicalorigin in his experiment,for example,
idiom which leadsto hypothesising
havinga chinkin one'sarmour. This suggestion seemseffectivefor advancedEnglishlearners,
however,it may not beapplicablefor lower level learnerswhosevocabularyis very small.
Finally, Gibbs' (1980) implication in his earlier experimentson relationshipsbetween
understanding and memoryfor idioms shouldbe discussed. The title of his paperdoesnot
seemrelevantto metaphorstudy,but the contentis full of implicationsin two respects. Firstly
asstimuli in thetest. The sameidiomaticexpressions
he usesidiomaticexpressions wereused
in two ways: literal and metaphorical. Secondlyhe arguesfor the effect of context in
idiomaticexpressions. The exampleshe providedarequotedin the headlineof the format of
thepreparatoryMC testsin Chapter3, Section3.6. He infersfrom theexperimentsthat it took
less time for subjectsto understandconventionalidiomatic expressionsand that there
were
fewer misinterpretationsif there was a precedingcontext provided. Recall
rates of the
expressions with contextwere betterthan thosewithout Theseresultspossiblyindicatethat
stimuli with contextualsupportaffectscomprehension. Theseresultsindicatewhat are the
appropriatecontentsfor thetestsof metaphoricalcomprehension.
59
Corpusandmetaphor
Deignan(1999:177)discusses approachto the identificationof metaphorical
a corpus-based
expressions. She statesthat the approachhas its roots in lexicographyand that the idea is
influencedby cognitivelinguistics. The benefitof using corporais to ensureutilisationof a
largeamountof datain the frequencyanduseof linguisticmetaphors. In this sense,a corpus-
basedapproachprovides us with data of metaphoricalexpressionsin terms of syntactic,
collocationalandsemanticfeatures.
Deignan also alludesto the limitations of this approach. First, innovative metaphorcannot
be found in corpora because"corpus studieshelp to provide ways of determining what is usual
not what is inventive" (ibid.: 196). Second, corpus is bottom-up rather than top-down.
There is no way of including a speakermeaning or a conceptual metaphor in a computer and
"being provided with a list of lexical items realising that particular meaning or metaphor" (ibid.:
197). There may be risks such that metaphorical use may remain hidden if collocational
profiles alone are used to separateuses(ibid. ). Third, another problem is representativeness

in
corpus. In spite of these limitations in the data in corpus, especially the limitations in spoken
languages,she suggestsit provides us with authentic evidence(ibid.: 198).
Briefly, what we mustnotehereis thatcorpushassuchlimitations,but at the sametime it
providesuswith voluminousdatanot availableelsewhere.
2.4. BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE FOR PURSUITOF METAPHORSTUDY

In thefollowing sectionsthe following issuesarereviewedanddiscussed:schema,schema
theory,imageschema,analogy,analogicalreasoning,mappingand network. The first two
itemsaim to enrichgeneralbackgroundknowledgefor understanding
meaningsin textsandthe
rest aim to investigateand enrich background knowledge for cognitive elements in
metaphoricalrecognitionanduse.
2.41. GENERAL BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE

Schema and schematheory are reviewed and discussedas necessarybackground
knowledgefor understanding
andinterpretations
of texts.
Schemaandschematheory
Arbib andHesse(1990:43) tracedthe useof the word "schema"backto Head
and Holmes
(1911). Rumelhart(1980)suggeststhat it could be tracedbackto Kant's (1787/1963)
useof
this term It was passeddown to Beth and Piaget(1966) through the
gestaltpsychologist
Barlett(1932). HeadandHolmesintroducedthe notionof the "body
schema"into neurology.
This resultedfrom thefinding in the partiallobe lesion
patients'ignoranceof half of their body,
60
for example, the phenomenaof patients' not feeling pain in the injured part of their body or on
the contrary, amputees' feeling pain in their missing limbs. This representationtakes place in
the brain, and this body schemaconstructsthese people's reality. A student of Head, Barlett,
transferredthe idea of schemafrom neurology to experimental psychology (Arbib and Hesse,
1990: 43). Arbib, a cognitive scientist,and Hesse,a scientist,point out that Piaget defines the
`schemaof an action' as the structureof the generalisablecharacteristicsof action, for example,
the repetition of the sameaction or its application to a new content, i. e. a constructivist theory of
knowledge. Children build up a basic repertoire of schemas(e.g. for grasping) through their
sensorimotorinteraction with the world until they have schemasfor abstractthought that are no
longer rooted in the sensorimotor particularities (ibid.: 44). Piaget first used the English term
"schema" and then the French "scheme."

Piaget traceschildren's cognitive development and
claims that a complex schema network arises through assimilation and accommodation.
Assimilation refers to "the processwhereby the data of the world are assimilated to currently
available schema"and accommodationrefers to "the processwhereby the individual's repertoire

of schemas changes over time to reflect better other aspects of the world beyond those
assimilableto current schemas"(ibid.: 46).
Arbib and Hesse (1990) argue that a "schema" is a "unit of representation" of a person's
world. Schema theory is an attempt at an information-processing theory of mind. It is a

materialist theory in that it seeksto show that all human mental phenomenareducesto (complex)
patternsof schemaactivation and that schemasare instantiatedas a dynamic processin the brain.
The theory of schemashas two different aspects:synchronic and diachronic. The synchronic
aspectconcernswhat happensat a particular time - each individual mind contains a collection of

schemasthat constitute the person's knowledge, or long-term memory. In a sense,this theory
is a legacy of stimulus-responsetheory. The diachronic aspect(traced back to Piaget) covers
the mechanisms whereby the individual's "stock" of schemas changes over time. Piaget
suggestssome idea of how schemascould arise and changeover time, by a processof reflective
abstraction(Arbib and Hesse,1990: 14).
Schankand Abelson(1977)statethat the ideaof the schemain the interpretationof events
hasa long traditionin socialpsychologywith its rootsin Gestaltpsychology.
In the 1970's,in line with the developmentof artificial intelligence,it wasappliedto
work
on perceptionand text processing. At first the studyof the understanding of text concerned
individualsentences,
andattentionis now paidmoreto wholetexts(Schank,1975;Rumelhart,
1975). Terms appliedto the schemaare "scripts" by Schank(1977);"frame" by Minsky
(1975); "schemata"by Rumelhart(1980). Although the terms differ
and involve some
differentnotions,it refersto largerepertoriesof knowledge
structuresutilisedin understanding
tasks,whetherthey areactionsin eventsor understanding of texts. After thesepublications,
61
schematheoryhasattractedattentionin a numberof researchareas,suchasdiscourseanalysis,
readingtheory (Carrell, 1984;Rumelhart,1980,etc.) and appliedlinguistics(Widdowson,
1990/1991).
Schank and Abelson's (1977: 37) classificationof two classesof knowledge in
understanding are generalknowledgeand specificknowledge.Generalknowledge
processes
and interpretanotherperson'sactionsor meaningbasedupon
enablesa personto understand
certain standardmethodspeople usually use. Specific knowledge or specific detailed
knowledgeis usedto interpretandparticipatein specific(but experienced)
events,for example,
ticketexaminationat a theatreor identificationof seatsat thetheatre.
The centralfunction is in the constructionof an interpretationas an event,object, or
situation,in otherwords,theprocessof comprehension.The internalstructureof a schemais
similarto the scriptof a play, however,what is differentfrom a play is that abstractionis also
involved.
Schemaand its application to metaphoricalinterpretation

Arbib and Hesse's (1990: 54-5) exploration into dimensions of the notion of a schema
assemblageusing Arbib's duck-rabbit illustration (a synthesisedpicture combining part of a duck

with part of a rabbit) is noteworthy in predicting what processesinterpretersmay undergo while
they interpret and use metaphorical expressions. Arbib and Hesse(ibid. ) emphasisea schema
is both a processand representationand also show how schemasinteract. They illustrate as
follows: when we seethe illustration of a duck we activate a "duck schema," with the help of the
activation of a characteristicpattern of neural activity in our brain. The same thing happens
when we seethe illustration of a rabbit. When we seethe illustration of a duck-rabbit, we may

see it either as a duck or a rabbit, but not both simultaneously. This pair of possible percepts
suggests,according to them, that the schemasfor duck and rabbit are neural assemblieswith
mutual inhibitoryinterconnections. However,we canseea duck andrabbitsideby sidewithin
the scene. It dependsnotjust on theactivationof the duckschemaandthe rabbitschema(low-
level schema)but on the features(higherlevel schema)contributedto the activation. What is
importanthereis thatwe mustseenot only a schemafor a certainobjectbut alsoits feature(s)
or
schema assemblages. Schema theory concludes that our minds comprise a richly
interconnected
networkof schemas. (ibid.: 61).
Schematheory and its application to pedagogy

Notable applicationsof schematheory were in researchinto
reading comprehension
(Rumelhart,1980;Carrell and Eisterhold,1983;Carrell, 1984;Anderson
and Pearson,1984),
discourse(RC Anderson,Spiro and M.C. Anderson, 1978)
and vocabularyteachingand
62
learning(Lindstromberg,1985). Readingcomprehension is not a passiveactivity for reading
the meaningfrom a text. Ratherit is an activeprocessin which readersreconstructa meaning
throughinteractionbetweenreaders'prior knowledgecalledschema(s)
andthetext.
Rumelhart's (1980: 34) definition of schematheory is that it is a theory about knowledge, that
is, a theory about how knowledge is representedand about how that representationfacilitates the
use of the knowledge in particular ways. Schematheories posit that all knowledge is packaged
into units. These units are schemas[the term used by Rumelhart is `schemata'not `schemas'].
In other words, `schemata' are "the building blocks of cognition." They are fundamental
elementsupon which all information processingdepends. Schemasare employed in the process
of interpreting sensory data (both linguistic and nonlinguistic), in retrieving information from
memory, in organizing actions, in determining goals and subgoals, in allocating resources,and

generally, in guiding the flow of processingin the system
A schemais a data structurefor representingthe generic conceptsstored in memory. When
a schemastored in memory correspondsto the meaning of a concept in question, that meaning is
encoded. In this sense,a schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. The
characteristicsof schemasare that they resembleproceduresor computer programmescapableof

evaluating the quality of their own fit to the available data and that procedures consist of a
network of subprocedures. A particular procedureperforms its task by stimulating a pattern of
subprocedures. A schema is also a network of subschemas,each of which carries out its
assignedtask of evaluating its goodnessof fit whenever activated. These Subschemasrepresent
the conceptualconstituentsof the conceptbeing represented. For example, a schemafor FACE,
consistsof a certain configuration of subschemas,each representinga different constituent of a
face, i.e. a subschemaof MOU H, NOSE,etc. (Rumelhart, 1980.39).
Therearetwo sourcesof activationfor schemas:oneis a mechanismof conceptual-driven
processing,so-calledtop-down activation(for example,an
processingor expectation-driven
activationof recalling/imagininga scene"receivinga diploma" from the word "graduation")
and the other is data-driven,so-calledbottom-upactivation(for example,an activationof
recallinglimagininga scene`Thanksgiving Day" from the word "turkey"). Conceptually
drivenactivationgoesfrom wholeto part,while data-drivenactivationgoesfrom partto whole.
In schema-directed activationgoesin bothdirections(ibid.: 42). This indicatesthat
processing
bothschemaactivationsareeffectivefor betterunderstanding
of a text
Rumelhart(1980) assumesschema-directed
processingproceedsas follows: when some
eventoccursat the sensorysystem,this eventautomaticallyactivatescertainlow-levelschemas,
which in turn (bottom-up)activatescertain`higherlevel' schemasof their constituents. These
`higher level' schemasprobably stimulateconceptuallydriven processingby
activatingthe
subschemas not yet activatedbut waiting for evaluatingits fitness. The higherlevel or more
63
abstractschemawould activatethe other of its constituentschemasfrom top-down and go
backto lower level schemas. Lower level schemaswould then make
throughits subschemas
contactwith other schemas(ibid.: 42). Among his reportsof casesof studies,two casesare
noteworthy:oneis the high-levelBUSINESSschemawherea bottom-upactivationgenerates a
top-down activation and the other is a case of the interactive process of language
comprehension.The first caseensuresthat the schemaactivationoccursboth ways and the
secondtells usof therelationbetweena wholeanda part. He explainsthatinformationcomes
in from our senseorgan,which suggestsbut doesnot determineappropriateschemasfor the
of thesedata. It is oftenonly in the contextof thewholethatthe individualparts
interpretation
of an objectcan be identified. Similarly,the whole itself cannotbe identifiedapartfrom its
parts. The interpretationof partsandwholesmustproceedjointly (ibid.: 46).
Categories of schema consist of content schema which operates for social and cultural
themes and formal schemawhich deals with the structure of a text and language (Carrell and
Eisterhold, 1983; Carrell, 1987). Carrell and Eisterhold's (1983: 560) distinction between
formal schemasand content schemasis that the formal schemasrefer to background knowledge
of the formal, rhetorical organizational structuresof different types of texts and that the content
schemasrefer to background knowledge of the content area of a text. Both categories of
background knowledge are necessaryfor full understandingof a text.
Carrell (1987:476) concludesthat both contentand rhetoricalform are factorsin ESL
readingcomprehension though contentis more important
than form; readingis easyif content
and form are familiar ones;readingis not easyif both contentform are unfamiliar ones;
unfamiliarcontentis more difficult to comprehendthan unfamiliarform if either contentor
form is unfamiliar. Carrell (1987: 477) emphasisesthe importanceof the background
knowledgeof any text content,especiallythe cultural content,in ESL reading,quoting the
importanceof the schemasembodyingbackgroundknowledge about the content of a
discoursefrom Steffensen
et al. (1979:19).
Carrell and Eisterhold (1983) advise there are three reasonsfor readers' failure in
understandinga passage. The three reasonsare lack of appropriateschemas;appropriate
schemason the readers'side but the author does not supply sufficient clues in a passage;
consistentinterpretationbut misunderstanding
of the author'sintention. They also statethat
the tendencyin readingcomprehension among lessproficient studentsis word-boundhence
meaningtendsto breakdown at theword level. More proficientstudentsarenot susceptible to
vocabularybut structuredifficulties in reading. These are the findings from the study of
reading. The samephenomena are found in my EFL lessonsfor metaphorical
comprehension.
Widdowson(1990: 163) puts this similar notion into different
words: he arguesthat the
expressingand interpretationof meaningsinvolvestwo kinds of knowledge:one is systemic
64
knowledgeand the other schematicknowledge. Systemicknowledgerefers to the formal
propertiesof language,its semantics
and syntax,the meaningof wordsandtheir combinationin
sentences,and so on. Schematicknowledgerefersto knowledgewe have of the particular
world we live in, our beliefs,ideas,experiences,
andculturalvalues,andsoon. He alsoalludes
to an acquisitiondifference(ibid.: 110) in the mother tongueand a secondlanguagein the
negotiationof meaning. In naturalfirst languageacquisition,childrendevelopsystemicand
schematicknowledgeconcurrently,eachsupportiveof the other. This experiencecannotbe
in
replicated second language acquisition. Learners are socialised into the schematic
knowledgeassociatedwith their mother tongue. When they confront usesof the foreign
languagethey are learning,for example,when they interpret meanings,they are naturally
inclinedto rely on their established
association.
In brief, a schema,as is synthesisedby Arbib and Hesse(1990: 61), is "a unit of interaction
with, or representationof, the world. " It provides us with abilities for recognition and guide to
action basedupon one's expectationsabout what will happen. By whatever term it may be
called ("scripts" by Schank, "frame" by Minsky, "schemata" by Rumelhart) it refers to large
repertoiresof knowledge structureswhich serve to help us understandtexts, tasks or actions.
Schank and Abelson (1977) classify knowledge understood by schemas into two classes:
general knowledge and specific knowledge. Rumelhart, on the other hand, places it in a
broadersenseanddefinesit as"the buildingblocksof cognition"andexplainshow we activate
certainschemas. He appliesit in researchon the readingcomprehension
process,in which the
main activationsof schemasare top-down and bottom-up. Carrell and Eisterhold(1983)
classifyschemasin readingasformal andcontentschemasandstatethat both arenecessary for
full understanding
of a text. Their schematheory postulatesthat comprehendinga text is an
interactiveprocessbetweenthe reader'sbackgroundknowledgeand the text. Widdowson
(1990) statesa similar notion. To expressand interpretmeaningswe need two kinds of
knowledge:systemicand schematicknowledge. All of these implicationsfrom schema
theoriesmake clear that in understandingmeaningswe needto have both backgroundand
specificknowledge. It is alsoapplicableto understanding
metaphoricalmeanings.
2.4-2.BACKGROUNDKNOWLEDGEFORCOGNITIVEELEMENTS
Image Schema(s),analogy,analogicalreasoning,mapping and network
are discussedas
cognitiveelementsfor metaphoricalunderstanding
andusehereafter.
Beforegoingintothetopicof imageschema(s),
I will brieflydiscuss
thedifferences
between
`schema'and ìmageschema'andthenexamineìmageschema'in detail.
A schemais a mentalframeworkbasedon one's
pastexperiencedevelopedas a meansof
65
accommodating newfactsandmakingsenseof them. A so-calledìmageschema'is oneof the
humancognitiveabilitiesusedto conceptualise
variousmentalimages. It playsa role in linking
experienceand language. Someof the imageschemashavebeeninvestigatedas discussedin
thefollowing section. Oneof themis an embodiedimage,suchasspatialcognition,e.g. front-
etc. It can be said that image
back, up-down,right-left, whole-partand/orcentre-peripheral,
arehighly abstracted
schemas mentalimages,which may expandfrom simple
andstructuralised
embodiedimages(e.g. a humanfront back)to more abstract
and complicatedimages(e.g. the
front-backof a buildingor procession).
Image schema
A so-calledìmageschema'seemsto necessitate more investigation, for example,what kinds
of experiences (e.g. bodily, socialor culturalexperiences) are linked to specificimageschemas,
what interactiverelationships arethere between specificschemasand whetheror not is thereany
universalimageschemaoverridingculturalandlinguisticdifferences?
Studiesand discussionso far by scholars(Johnson,1987; Lakoff, 1987; Yamanashi,
2001/2003)have concentratedon some image schemasbasedupon the conceptualisation of
bodily experiences,such as up-down or front-back, as in Turner (1991). However, the
importanceof image schemalies in the fact that we draw variousimagesin our mind, from
which we form cognitive abstractstructures,or image schemasresultingfrom our bodily
experience. As Johnson(1987:29) putsit, it is a" recurrentpattern,shape,andregularityin, or
of, theseongoingorderingactivities." The imageschemas clarifiedsofar areCONTAINMENT,
FORCE,BALANCE,PATHS,CYCLES,SCALES,LINKSandCFNIR&PERIHERY
(Lakoff, 1987;
Johnson,1987). The importanceof image schemais its effectivenessin the expansionof
meaning. Examplesof this meaningexpansionareofferedby severalscholars. For example,
the expansionof a prepositionin (Yamanashi,2003; Momiyama and Fukada,2003) can be
He is in a living room refersto a physicalspace,but
explainedasfollows: the in in the sentence
that in the sentenceHe is in a good moodrefersto a mentalspace. The latteris an abstracted
casefrom the original in. Yamanashicalls it a topologicaltransferof the image schemaof
CONTAINER. In the caseof over (Lakoff, 1987:422,423) as in Samwalkedover the hill and
Sam lives over the hill, there is an image-schema
transformationin the sensethat the former
focus is on the path-focusand the latter is on the end-pointfocus. Another expansion
of
meaningpositedby Yamanashi(2003) is the backgroundingof image schema. He explains
this by using`deru' or `comeout' in the sentences like A snakecomesout of a hole, Good hue
comesout in dying andFog comesout.It is clearwherea `snake'comesout in thefirst example,
but unclearin the last two. To understandthesethree
we usea containerschema,but it is
difficult to specifythe placefrom wherethe `hue'
and `fog' comeout In thesecases,theycome
66
out of an unspecified place and converge in the background. He posits this kind of expansion
to be backgrounding or bleaching (Yamanashi, 2003: 143). Such linguistic phenomena also
suggest,according to him, that the boundary of the container becomes less obvious. What
these statementssuggestis that we should consider image schema and its expansion and that
there are caseswhere a boundary is fuzzy.
In the place of the term "image" schemas,Johnson(1987: 28-9) sometimesuses the
"embodiedschemata, " and posesseveralquestions. Firstly, where in our cognitiondo image
schemasoperate? The answeris that they operateat a level of mentalorganizationthat falls
betweenabstractpropositionalstructureson the one hand,and particularconcreteimageson the
other. Secondly,he askshow they operate. Sincewe havemeaningful,connectedexperiences
that we cancomprehendand reason,theremust be patternand orderto our actions,perceptions,
andconceptions. A furtherquestionconcernsthe patternandregularityof a schema. A schema
is a recurrentpattern,shape,and regularityin, or of, theseongoingorderingactivities. These
patternsemergeas meaningfulstructuresfor us chiefly at the level of our bodily movements
throughspace,our manipulationof objects,andour perceptualinteractions.
Johnson's further view on image schemas is as follows. Understanding consists of the
experienceswe have had. It is how we seethe world. And "this is a result of this massive
complex of our culture, language,history, and bodily mechanismsthat blend to make our world
what it is" (ibid.: 104). Image schemasand their metaphorical projections are primary patterns
of this "blending." Our subsequent propositional reflections on our experience are made
possibleby this more basicmode of understanding(ibid. ).
Image schemasand metaphoricalextensions

Johnson(1987: 104-9)proposessix kinds of evidencefor the existenceof imageschemas
andtheir metaphoricalextensions.
1) Image-schematic
transformations:We canmakeimageschematicoperationsmore abstract
thanjust theformationof rich imagesor mentalpictures.
2) Systematicityof literal experiences:
The evidenceof Lakoff andJohnson(1981)showsthe
existenceof metaphoricalstructuresof understanding. They unify a largenumberof literal
usedto discussa certainconcept,for example,the conceptof understanding
expressions and
theoryconstuction.An expressionsuchasIs that thefoundationfor your theory?(ibid.: 105)
is basedupononebasicmetaphoricalsystemof understanding.
THEORIES
AREBUILDINGS.
3) Extensions of conventional metaphor. There is a used and In any
an unused portion.
metaphorical projection, one part of the structure of the source-targetdomain (buildings in
THEORIESARE BUILDINGS) is projected (i. e. used) onto the target domain (theories). This
usedpart forms the basisand the framework. The typical projected structuresare drawn from
67
this framework. The usedportiontriggersthe utteranceof suchexpressions
as"construct"or
"foundations." They are part of our ordinary literal language about theories. The unused
portion of the metaphor may trigger some words for the sourcedomain, for example, "rooms"
or "facades." These featureslead us to use such an expressionsas He prefers massiveGothic
theoriescoveredwith gargoyles (ibid.: 106).

4) Polysemy:Polysymyrefersnot only to multiple meaningsfor a single term but multiple
relatedmeaningshere. It is evidencedin the phenomenonof polysymy. `There existsan
underlyingimageschema that is typically
metaphoricallyextended, from the physicaldomainto
nonphysicalor moreabstractdomain"(ibid.: 107).
5) Historicalchange:The underlyingmetaphoricalsystemswhich relateto thevarioussenses
of
polysemoustermswereinvestigated. Throughsemanticchanges,thereis a generaltendency
to borrowconceptsandvocabularyfrom the moreaccessible
physicalandsocialworld.
6) Metaphoricalconstraintson reasoning:analogicalthoughtprocesses
structureour
conceptualsystem. Johnson'sevidencehereis basedupon Gentnerand Gentner(1983). We
mapfeatures
of the domain
source onto thetargetdomainby way of metaphoricalprojection.
Johnson (1987: 113) supplies several instancesof metaphors based on image schemasfor
CONTAINMENT, FORCE, BALANCE, PATHS, CYCLES, SCALES, LINKS and CFNIRE-
PERIHERY. Here is his explanation of the image schemaof PATHSto representall cases. He
statesthat in all cases,there is a single, recurring image-schematicpattern with a definite internal

structure. Every caseof paths hasthe sameconstituents:(i) a source,or starting point; (ii) a goal,
or endpoint; and (iii) a sequenceof contiguous locations connecting the source with the goal.
Pathsare routesfor moving from one point to another. The definite internal structurefor PATH
schema provides the basis for a great many metaphorical mappings from concrete, spatial
domains onto more abstractdomains. In the metaphor PURPOSES
ARE PHYSICAL GOALS,for
example, the goals are the endpoints to which one carries out a physical labour. The abstract
purposes(for example,job to be done) are understood in terms of a type of physical labour to

attain a spatial goal.
Johnson' view on metaphoris that metaphoris a pervasive,irreducible, imaginative
structureof human understanding
that influencesthe natureof meaningand constrainsour
rationalinferences(ibid.: xii). He emphasisesthe importantèmbodied'imaginativestructures
of humanunderstanding that make up our network of meaningsand give rise to patternsof
inferenceand reflection of abstractionbasedupon our èmbodied'
experience. An image
schemais a recurring,dynamicpatternof our perceptualinteractionsand motor programsthat
givescoherence andstructureto our experience(ibid.: xiv).
68
Image schemasand bodily experiences
Lakoff (1987) takes the experimentalist approach in which he attempts to characterise
meaning in terms of "the nature and experienceof the organismsdoing the thinking" (ibid.: 266).
Objectivism tends to define meaning independently of the nature and experience of thinking
beings. On the contrary, Lakoff claims that his and Johnson's experiential realism charaterises
meaning in terms of embodiment, that is, in terms of our collective biological capacitiesand our
physical and social experiencesas being functioning in our environment (ibid. ). They consider
this in two parts: structure and the embodiment of that structure. Their basic idea is that our
concepts are structured, as shown in ICMs. What makes structure meaningful is conceptual
structure embodied (i. e. tied to) our preconceptualbodily experiences. For our preconceptual
experiences,they posit two kinds: basic-level structureand kinesthetic image-schematicstructure.
"Basic-level categoriesare defined by the convergenceby our gestalt perception,our capacity for
bodily movement, and our ability to form rich mental images" (ibid.: 267). Kinesthetic image
schematic structure is the image schemasthat "are relatively simple structures that constantly
recur in our everyday bodily experience:CONTAINER,PATHS,UNKS, FORCES,BALANCF, and
various orientations and relations: UP-DOWN, FRONT'-BACK, PART-WHOLE, CENTER-
PERIPHERY,etc. (ibid. ). Lakoff (1987) further posits two ways in which abstract conceptual
structure arises from basic-level and image-schematic structure. One is by metaphorical

projection from the domain of physical to abstract domains; the other by the projection from
basic-levelcategoriesto superordinateand subordinatecategories.
Lakoff (1987) praisesJohnson's(1987) insights,statingthat experienceis structuredin a
significantway prior to, and independentof, any conceptand supportsJohnson'skinesthetic
image schemas(Lakoff, 1987: 271). He providesan exampleof the CONTAINERschema.
This schemaconsistsof a boundary. It distinguishesinterior and exterior. The CONTAINER
schemadefinedthe most basicdistinction,for example,betweenIN and OUT. Our bodiesare
regardedascontainers,for example,air is inhaledinto the lungsof our body and exhaledout of
them. He explainsother bodily experiencesto illustratehow our conceptsare bodily oriented.
Gibbs (1994), consideringan experimentin developmentalpsychology,supportsthe idea of
imageschema,especiallyin connectionwith sensorimotorschemas in children,andmaintainsthat
the imageschemaof containmentamongothersis importantbecauseof its relevanceto preverbal
thinking. Babiesexperiencemany kinds of containment,for example,drinking and eating,
feelingtheir bodieswhenclothesareput on or takenoff and whenbeing
put into or takenout of
bed.
Image schemas,abstractionand transformation

Finally, we will look at an exampleof another
of imageschema(its concreteand
characteristic
69
abstractrelation)offeredby Kawakami(1996). Kawakami(1996:47) refersto the in, giving an
exampleof Thepresentin the box, wherea containerschemais employedand it belongsto the
spatial domain. He also alludes to the characteristicsof image schema,providing the following
examples,where there are domain differences(i. e. social, emotional and abstractdomains) but the
abstractimage schemaof the in still remains in thesedifferent domains.
to thesocialdomain.
My brotheris in highschool.-This belongs
My brotheris in love.- This belongsto theemotionaldomain.
My brotheris in trouble.- This belongsto theabstractdomain.
He alludesto the metaphoricalmappingthat takesplace betweenthe two relationswhile

imageschemacaninvolvean abstractstructureapplicableto wholedomains.
of imageschemas
Still anothercharacteristic is flexibility, or imageschematransformation. An
example is one of the numerals in Japanese,the `hon' or `pon.' It is a numeral attachedto nouns
possessedof a long shape like a pole or a stick. To indicate numerals for a bat (baseballequipment)
or a pencil, we say `batto ippon,' i.e. à bat' or ènpitsunihon,' i.e. `2 pencils.' In thesecases,there is
a transferfrom a schemafor something long, i.e. pole or stick to something of a similar shape,i. e. an
allusion from the shape. Therefore, it can be used to describe an arch of a home run hit or to
describea throw in Judo, for example, one dropping shoulder throw (seoi-nageippon, t jf
*). Lakoff (1987: 104) alludes to the extensionof the Japaneseclassifier hon, stating that it can be
extendedto what are presumably less representativecases. This transfer is made possible because
our image schema expands from something concrete to something abstract. The similar
phenomenaof transfermay occur in other cases(PATH,LINKS, etc.) as illustrated earlier.
In summary,imageschemais a cognitivestructureand someof the imageschemassharea

universality beyond languageand culture. We form a certain image structuredby bodily
for example,spatialexperiences
experiences, (e.g. front andback).
As statedin the theoryof conceptualmetaphorrelatingto imageschemas,
imageschemasplay
a role in linking experiencewith languageor vice versa. If mental activities such as
conceptualisationby schemasand activationsby image schemasare smoothly undertakenby
languagelearners,their ability to understand may be enhanced.
andusemetaphoricalexpressions
Image, schemaand image schemacan be summarisedas follows: an image is
a form of
representationwhich is specificto perception,more specificallysight. Schemasare generalised
knowledgeabout a sequenceof events(Rumelhart,1980)
and image schemasare something
similar to a cognitivemodelsaccountof prototypeeffects(Lakoff, 1987). A similar notion is
proposedby Jackendolls (1983) conceptualstructures. According to him, it is a `conceptual
70
structure,at which linguistic,sensory,andmotorinformationarecompatible'(ibid.: 17).
Johnson(1987) also follows Rumenhart'sdefinition of schemaas generalisedknowledge
abouta sequenceof events. It originatesin SchankandAbelson'snotionof a scriptedactivity as
a basic knowledgestructure. Lakoff (1987) follows Minsky's (1975) frame, Schank and
Abelson'sscripts(1977),andRumelhart'sSchemas (1980),all of which are similarto Fillmore's
frames. Lakoff and Johnson(1981) call them propositionalmodels. They are all network
with labelledbranchesthatcancodepropositionalinformation.
structures
Rumelhart's schemas,originating in Fillmore's (1968) earlier work on caseframes, are widely
used in computational approachesto cognitive psychology. Frames, scripts, and schemasare all
attemptsto provide a format for representinghuman knowledge in computational models of the
mind. The structurescontain empty slots, which can be filled by individuals, occurring in a given
situation that is to be structured.
The studies reviewed above show that we have cognitive faculties assisting inference of
abstract images (i. e. image Schemasin this case) from concrete images. These cognitive
faculties enable construction of our conceptual structures which constitute or characterisethe
world of meanings. Previous studies of image schemashave provided evidence of individual

schemas,for example, a CONTAINER schema or PART-WHOLE schema, and have not yet
synthesisedrelationshipsbetween/amongimage schemas,nor clarified to what extent and degree
image schemasare universal or to what degreethey transcendlanguageand culture. Although
there is more to be investigatedon thesethemes,past investigation (Lakoff, 1987; Johnson, 1987;
Yamanashi, 2003) makes clear the mechanismsof some image schemaswhich originate in our
cognition of space,sensori motor experiencesand so on. The investigated schemasare thus

limited but important, becausewe can make use of their views on image schemasin order to
develop our metaphorresearch.
Analogy,analogicalreasoningandmetaphor
An original meaningof analogy(ana logon in Greek to mean àccordingto a ratio') is
similarity in proportionalrelationships(Britannica,Vol. 1: 367; OED, Vol. 1: 304). A general
meaningderivedfrom the original meaningwidely usednow is the act of comparingone thing
with anotherthat is similar in someway. For example,when we explain the movementof
`light,' we use the analogy of `water.' Analogical reasoningrefers to the
comparisonof
similarityacrossdifferentknowledgedomainsandthe inferenceof sharedsimilarity acrossthem.
In understanding differentphenomena, for example,the systemsof the currentof `water'
andthat
of èlectricity,' the knowledgeor domainof the sourceof the water,the
storageof the water,the
waterstream,the waterpressure, etc.is comparedwith the knowledgeor domainof the sourceof
the electricity,the storageof theelectricityor battery,the
electricstream,the electricpressure,etc.
71
In the comparison,the similarity in elementsand the similarity of the systemare examined. The
transfer from the former domain, that is, a base domain to the latter domain, that is, a target
domain is called mapping. Analogy is made use of in learning and/or solving problems, or
constructing and/or creating a new idea. Similarities which are based on analogy comprise
surfacesimilarity, structuralsimilarity and relational similarity.
Here a questionarises:is thereany differencebetweenmetaphorand analogyor analogical
reasoning? Part of the answeris found in Genteerand Jeziorski(1994) and anotherpart in
Johnson(1987). GenteerandJeziorski(1994:447-8)analyseanalogyandmetaphor,statingthat
be
analogycan viewed as a kind of highly selectivesimilarity. In processinganalogy,people
implicitly focus on certainkinds of commonalitiesand ignoreothers. They further statethat a
theoryof humanprocessingof analogyand similaritycan be put in structure-mapping:
the central
is baseduponthe ideathat"an analogyis a mappingof knowledgefrom
ideaof structure-mapping
one domain (the base) into another (the target) and a systemof relations that holds among the base
objects also holds among the target objects" (ibid.: 449). They state that, in interpreting an
analogy, people seek to put the objects of the basein one-to-onecorrespondencewith the objects of
the target so as to obtain the maximal structural match (ibid. ). The correspondingobjects in the
basetarget do not needto resembleeach other. Object correspondencesare determined by roles
to be played in the matching relational structures. "Thus, an analogy is a way of aligning and
focusing on relational commonalities independently of the objects in which those relations are
embedded" (ibid. ). What is important in the mapping process is the principle of systematicity:
"people prefer to map systems of predicates governed by higher-order relations with inferential
import, rather than to map isolated predicates. The systematicity principle reflects a tacit
preferencefor coherenceand inferential power in interpreting analogy" (ibid. ).
Johnson(1987) distinguishesmetaphorfrom analogicalreasoning,citing from Gentnerand

Gentner's(1983) explanationof electricity as `flowing water.' His explanationis that "in
analogicalreasoningwe mapstructuralrelationsholdingamongobjectsin the sourcedomainonto
objectsin the targetdomain. We do not mapthe particularattributesof those
the corresponding
objects,which is the chief differencebetweenmetaphorandanalogy." (ibid.: 110). He discusses
this distinctionusingthe following example. In our understanding
of the relationof an electron
to its nucleuson analogywith the relationof a planetto its sun,"the relevantmappingtransfers
selectedstructuralfeatures(e.g. ATTRACT,REVOLVES AROUND,MOREMASSIVETHAN), but
not particularattributes(e.g. the sunis hot, massive,andyellow,while the nucleuspresumablyhas
noneof theseproperties)"(ibid.). Accordingto Johnson,analogyor analogicalreasoning
resorts
to structuralrelationsholdingamongobjectsin the domainsnot to the attributes the
of objects,on
theotherhand,metaphorincludesthe particularattributesof theobjects.
72
Gibbs(1994)who supportsGentnerand Gentner's(1983) scientificreasoningin a studyof
of electricityor electricalcircuits confirms that their study showedthat
studentsunderstanding
metaphoror metaphoricimagescould elicit scientific reasoning(Gibbs, 1994: 161). Gibbs
that the pervasivenatureof metaphorin everydaylife and the metaphoricalnatureof
postulates
our conceptualsystemcouldmakethis happen.
Anotherexampleof Gibbs' is the metaphoricalnatureof thoughtthat can be evidencedin the
psycholinguistics of idiomaticity. Traditional theories presumed that idioms (for example,flip
your lid and blow your stack) were arbitrary meanings, however, "recent psychological data
suggest that the meaningsof idioms are not arbitrary but can be explained in part by independent
conceptualmetaphors"(ibid.: 162). Gibbs (ibid.: 162-3) suppliesthe evidenceof theseexpressions
which belong to the conceptualmetaphorsTHE MIND IS A CONTAINERand ANGER IS HEATED
FLUID IN A CONTAINER from his and other scholars' research. They examined people's
mental images of the idioms blow your stack;flip your lid and hit the ceiling and found that these
idioms share characteristicswith `stacks are blown, ' `lids flipped' and `ceilings hit' In these
casesthe internal pressurecausesa violent releasingof some substanceupward. All of theseare

physical reactions but it was discovered that they metaphorically map onto the above idioms and
peopleunderstandthe figurative meanings.
Rumelhart (1980-.55) commentsthat schemasplay a central role in all of reasoning. Most
of our reasoning apparently does not involve the application of general purpose reasoning skills.
Rather, it seemsthat most of our reasoningability is tied to particular schemasrelated to particular
bodies of knowledge.
There remain uninvestigatedareasin this field of cognitive science. The complete picture of
how analogy is createdand used by the human brain has still to be comprehensively investigated.
Analogy assistsour understanding and metaphor makes language lively, however, we should
consider the risks which analogy or metaphor can give rise to. Kusumi (2001: 364-70) points out
two such risks: (i) ambiguous or implicit correspondencesbetweenthe sourceand target it may cause
misunderstanding. For example, the metaphor THINKING IS CALCULATION may cause us to think
of only one aspectof thinking becauseof the exclusion of the whole; (ii) ignoring characteristicsof
analogy or metaphor also cause problems. We should note that analogy or metaphor is a way in
which one thing is meant in terms of another. For example, CONTAINERmetaphor, such as storage
of short-term or long-term memory, may lead us to think that we store our memory in those specific
vessels,however, actually our memory is stored in every part or system of our brain. To avoid the
risks of miscommunication, metaphor users need to be cautious about the correspondencebetween
the source and target and the effects by the use of metaphors. This involves intention
users'
suggestedby pragmaticians (see 2.2-2. Part II). At the same time, cause and effect (especially,
73
failure)shouldbe consideredevenallowing for the fact that metaphorhasthe advantages
of malting
discourselively andexpressions
morecolourful.
Mapping
The term `mapping'originatesin mathematics. It meansan act of fitting onememberof a set
exactlyontoa memberof another set (Summers,et al, 1992:810). Based uponthis, mappingcan
be definedasa processby which the componentsof two analogs,a sourceanda target,areput into
communicationwith eachother. Mappingis an operationof correspondence.
Lakoff (1987,1994) developshis metaphor theory in Lakoff and Johnson(1981) and postulate
that metaphor is mapping from an ICM in one domain to an ICM in another domain, that is,
mapping between the source and the target domains (ibid.: 206-7). As we see in the conceptual
metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, the mapping is a set of correspondences. In the LAVE-IS-A-
JOURNEYmapping, a love relationship corresponds to a vehicle. According to Lakoff (1994-

211-2), a vehicle is a superordinatecategory that includes such basic level categoriesas car, train,
boat, and plane. The examples of vehicles are typically drawn from this range of basic level
categories:car (long bumpy road, spinning our wheels), train (off the track), boat (on the rock,
foundering), plane (just taking off, bailing out). Lakoff and his colleague Johnson found that
mappings are at the superordinaterather than the basic level. "A mapping at the superoniinate
level maximizes the possibilities for mapping rich conceptual structuresin the sourcedomain onto
the target domain, since it permits many basic level instances,each of which is information rich"
(ibid.: 212). Elsewhere in Lakoff (1987), he also posits there are mappings between mental
imagesand betweenschemas.
Kovecses (2002: 6-7) uses the same conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEYto explain
mapping. In one of the linguistic realisations of this conceptual metaphor, We aren't going
anywhere, the portion `going anywhere' refers to travelling to a certain destination. The word
`we' refers to travellers. In a word, this sentenceprovides three elements of a journey, i. e. the
travellers (agent), the journey (process) and the destination (goal or result). If we hear this
expression in a situation talking about a love relationship, we understandthe journey to mean an

abstractnot a physicaljourney and the whole expressionmeans that there is a problem in the love
relationship. We understandthis abstraction becausethe journey domain is applied to the love
domain that illustratesthe concept of love with this particular structureor set of elements.
considersthemappingsbetweendomainsasthe uniquehumancognitive
Fauconnier(199712002)
facultyof producing,transferringandprocessingmeaning. Accordingto his mentalspacetheory,in
using languageor in understanding meanings,
our faculty executesour fundamentalcognitiveability
to setup domainsand establishmappingsbetweenelementsin thesedomains. This appliesto our
of
understanding metaphor. Some elementsin a sourcedomain are mappedonto corresponding
74
elements in a target domain. He posits three mappings: projection mapping, pragmatic function
mapping and schemamapping. The projection mapping "will project part of the structure of one
domain onto another" (ibid.: 9). In the pragmatic function mapping, the two relevant domains are
mapped onto each other by a pragmatic function as seen in metonymy and synecdoche. Schema
mapping operates"when a generalschema,frame, or model is used to structure a situation in context'
(ibid.: 11). Mappings operateto build and link mental spaces. Mental spacesare "partial structures
that proliferate when we think and talk, allowing a fine-grained partitioning of our discourse and
knowledge structures"(ibid. ). For example, a mental spacein Liz thinks Richard is wonderful refers
to a spacefor a reporting Liz with a structure correspondingto wonderful Richard. He concurs with
Lakoff's ICM, as it is a form of schematic mapping. He assertsthat these mappings are central to
any understanding of semantic and pragmatic language interpretation and cognitive construction
(ibid.: 12).
In sum, Lakoff (1987,1994) used the term "metaphor" to refer to conceptual mapping. It is a
mode of thought, defined as a systematic mapping between the sourcetarget domains. Mapping
takes place betweensource-targetdomains at any cognitive level such as mental image levels, words
and schema levels. Fauconnier's (1997/2002) three mappings: projection mapping, pragmatic
function mapping and schemamapping are noteworthy. The implications proposedby Lakoff and
Fauconniercan be made useof in the analysisof the test results in this study.
Network
The idea of network is inseparablefrom mapping, therefore, the following discussion has to
incorporatethe conceptof mapping.
Aitchison(1987)refersto the origin of the ideaof networkasfrom SamuelJohnson,the 18th
centurylexicographer. Shecitesfrom SamuelJohnsonthat a networkis "anythingreticulatedor
decussatedat equal distances,with intersticesbetweenthe intersections"(ibid.: 72). It is
somethinglike a fishingnetwith equidistantintersections. Her definitionof a networkin relation
to thementallexiconis that a networkis "an interconnectedsystem"(ibid.). Shedescribesthree
networks:semantic,lexicalandphonological. Shesuggeststhereare closelylinked and loosely
linked networks.
Sheclaimsthatresearchers mostlyagreeon the existenceof a networkof sometype,but they
disagreeon its organisationand the explorationmethods. She points out problemsin
early
work on meaningnetworksand simple word associations. Early work on meaningnetworks
suggestedlinguistic habitsand experimentedon simple word associations. One finding was
that peopletendedto selectitemsfrom the semanticfield of the original word, for
example,the
mostoftenmentionedwordsfor `sewing'were `thread,' 'pin(s),' èye' and `sew'; peopletended
75
to selectpairing words or words with opposite meanings,for example, husbandand wife; adults
tendedto selectthe sameword class,for example a noun for a noun, etc. She has some doubts
about word associations,for example, "thinking up an immediate responseto just one word is an
unnatural activity and may not reflect ordinary speech processes"(ibid.: 73) and the standard
resultsmay differ on how to presentwords in an experiment However, she examinesthe links
of four words (butterfly, hungry, red and salt) and classifies the responsesinto four clusters:co-
ordination, collocation, superordinationand synonymy. Her resultsare as follows: coordination
and collocation links seem to be powerful and long-lasting (ibid.: 79,85). The links between
hyponyms and their superordinatesmay be weaker than the above two but available when words
are prototypically clear or commonly used ones (butterfly links to insect; red to colour) and
synonymous links include ordinary and rough relations (hungry links to starved). We must
note here that among theselinks, a prototype link may causeproblems for EFL studentsbecause
they may not adequately develop prototype systems in their mental lexicon. Aitchison
concludesthat the "treatment of superonlinates firm

suggests connections,such as those between
co-ordinatesand those betweencommon hyponyms and superoniinates,are used in conjunction
with our reasoningability to make other temporary links as we need them''"(ibid.: 82). Her idea
on this point shareswith Lakoff's. Connectionsbetween different topic areasmay also be weak
and made on the spot by meansof active matching and decision-making (ibid.: 85).
Kovecses (2002: 227-8) postulates that imaginative or figurative human thought is
constituted by the manipulations of structured domains of experience or ICMs. He follows

Fauconnier and Turner's notion of `mental,' or `conceptual space' to describe this processof
humancognition. He employs a `network' or `many-spacemodel' (following Fauconnier and
Turner) insteadof the two domain model and emphasiseson-line understandingto account for
metaphorical and nonmetaphorical aspectsof utterance. "A mental spaceis a conceptual on-
line packet,smaller than a conceptualdomain and more specific" (ibid. ). For example, when
we hear a speakersay, "Yesterday, I saw Susan," we build a spacefor what the speakerdid and
another spacefor yesterday when the speaker saw Susan. These are mental spaces. They
are not conceptual domains like JOURNEY or FIRE The mental space for "yesterday"
containsthe specific speaker,Susan. On the other hand, conceptualdomains are more general
than thesemental spaces. The network model consistsof input spaces,a blended space,and a
generic space. This sharesTurner's idea of network models.

Turner's (1998) "conceptualintegration" developedin collaboration with Fauconnier
relatesnetworkmodelsasfollows
conceptualintegrationis a basiccognitiveoperationthat operateson two input

mentalspacesto yield a third space,the blend. For example,in Vanityis the
76
one
quicksandof reason, input spacehasquicksandwhile the otherhasvanity
andreason;theblendhastrapsfor reason. In blending,thereis a partialcross-
spacemappingbetweentheinput spaces. In the quicksandexample,the
travelerin oneinput is thecounterpartof reasonin the otherinput (ibid.: 64)
He explains how this network occurs: we can imagine, from the movie Lawrence of Arabia, a hot
dry desertas a generalbackground and a scientific frame for quicksand. In this expression,the
quicksand of reason blend hints a dangeroustrap, i. e. quicksand, but the blend does not take the
knowledge the traveller should have for the danger of desert from the quick and, but from the
reason input. He further states that, in addition to these inputs and the blend, "conceptual
integration involves generic space" (ibid.: 65). The cross-spacemapping between the inputs
comprises the content of the generic space. It contains an abstract structure connected to both
inputs,for example,"the genericspacefor vanity is the quicksandof reason has action (not
specifiedas physicalor mental)intendedto achievesomething,and a difficulty for that action"
(ibid.: 66). If we illustratedthe figure of this networkmodel (Figure2-1), we shoulddraw four
spaces:a genericspaceat the top, two input spaceshorizontallyon both sidesbelow the generic
spaceanda blendspaceat the bottorn.
Figure 2-1
FIGURE
oolo. p. o.
, ,,
MPIA 11
Input 12
(Figure2.1. Conceptualintegration,Turner, 1998:65)
Thereare severaltypesof integrationnetwork a frame network,

a single-framingnetwork
anda sharedtopologynetwork. In a frame network,all spaces,i.e. inputs,generic
andblend,
share a topology provided by an organising frame. One of the examplesTurner and
77
Fauconniergave is "Regatta." The caseof "Regatta" illustrates the sharedtopology networks.
A ship `Northern light' set the record for an oceanvoyage. The report about it issuedin 1993
can be analysedas follows: all four spaces have the organising frame boat making an ocean
voyage. The blend has an extension of that frame: two boats making ocean voyages and
moreover, racing as they make them. In a single-framing network, one input is a familiar
abstractframe and the other input is a relatively specific situation.

Anotherexampleis a kin relationshipbetweentwo people,John and James:John is the
father of James. One input is the frame of kin relationship;the other input is for Johnand
James. In theblendis John is thefather of James. It meansthatJohnplaysa role of James'
father. Then,in a sharedtopologynetwork,all spacessharethetopologyof a genericspace.
In sum,Tuner's networkmodel implies that meaningconstructioninvolvesconstruction

of blended spaceswhere pieces of input concepts can be combined and form new
conceptualisations.
Finally, let me briefly discussLangacker (1991) and Tsuji (2002), both cognitive linguists.
They statethat a network is literally a network system,and the terms often employed in cognitive
linguistics are a meaning network and a neural network. In cognitive linguistics, a spreading
activation model illustrates networks of words to words link, and words or conceptsto concepts
link. This model represents prototypical structures and structures of mental lexicons.
Therefore, it can be utilised to explain priming effects (i. e. an application of revitalisation, such as
of a dry well receiving a small amount of water to revive it) or to investigate an activation of
schemas.
The network model proposedby Langacker(1991) refersto a connectionamong schema,
prototypeandextension. He it
illustrates asfollows
Thereis an intimateconnectionbetweenthe"outward" growthof a network

throughextension,on theonehand,andits "outward" growththrough
on theother. The processof extensionoccursbecausea
schematization,
speakerperceivessomesimilaritybetweenthe basicvalue(i.e. the local and
globalprototype)
and the extended
value. This similarity perceptionrepresents
thecommonalityof the basicandextendedvalues,so it constitutesa schema
havingthetwo for instantiations,
asdepictedin [the] Figure(Langacker,1991:270-1).
78
Figure2-2
schema
prototype """" extension
(Adoptedfrom Langacker,1991:270-1)
The abovefigure represents

a minimum structureof a networkconsistingof a prototype,extension
and schema. The prototype is cognitively salient in the sensethat it representscategoryand
assumesthetypicality of the category;therefore,it functionsasa core of category(seeNote 9 for
`salience'). The extensionis connectedby a prototypeandits extendedcategoricalrelation. The
extensionmay have differentfeatures
from but
a prototype bearssomesharedsimilaritieswithin
the samecategory. In otherwords,the instantiationof a schemais a prototypeand its extension.
A networkmodelhasa horizontalextensionandtendsto createschema,andat the sametime it has
a verticalschemafisation.
Lakoff (1987: 91) proposesanother network model called a "radial model," where a category
(for example, mother) is "structured radially with respect to a number of its subcategories(for
example, adoptive mother, birth mother, foster mother, surrogate mother, etc.). All of these
relateto prototype categorisations.
In sum,we imagineby networkor on networkstructurewhereneuralcellsconstructa circuit

As Aitchison (1987: 195) states,finding a word in the mental lexicon can be envisagedas
following a path through this complex network. Some networksare strongerthan others.
For well-known,commonwords,the pathsare wide and well troddenand it is easyto reach
themquickly. But for occasionallyor seldomusedwords,the pathsarenarrowandnot easyto
find. "Eventuallynew tunnelsareperpetuallybeingdug. Furthermore,the word itself cannot
ultimatelybe regarded
asa finite package. Sinceeachword haslinks with so manyothers,and
with the generalmemory of information,all theseconnectionsare in a sensepart of the sum
total" (ibid.).
2.5. CONCLUSION
Pastresearch
Pastresearchon metaphorstudiesin appliedlinguisticsconsistsof two types:
awarenessand
competence. Both categorieswere investigatedwithin the cognitive and linguistic arenas,
mainly by occidental researchers. These studies aimed to discover ESL students'
79
comprehension and use of metaphors focussing on the awareness or identification, originality
and/or aptnessof expressions
metaphor/metaphorical (Low, 1988; Low and Cameron, 1999a &
1999b; Deignan, Gabrys and Solska, 1997; Boers, 2000 & 2001; Littlemore, 2001b; Charteds-
Black, 2002; Cameron,2003; Carter, 2004).
Researchon metaphorical competencein an EFL situation is quite limited becauseof the
natureof the educationalor communication environments. For example, accessto metaphorical

expressionsis rarer in the EFL than in the ESL situations. However, English learners' encounter
with metaphorical expressionsoccurs more often than expected, for example, in essays,poems
and journalism, or even in catch copies in advertisement. In this sense, it is meaningful to
investigate how EFL learners comprehend and use metaphorical expressions and what
backgroundknowledge is necessaryto pursueresearchon metaphorical competence. To pursue
research on metaphorical competence, one should have cognitive linguistic and semantic
knowledge, for example, knowledge of polysemy, idioms, schemas,image schemas,analogy or
analogical reasoning,mapping and network, together with the concept and function of metaphor.
Polysemy is defined as "several meanings in an individual word" (Carter, 1998: 12). If
learners have a rich polysemous knowledge of words, it will stimulate their imagination, i. e.
activate their schemasand image schemasand it will expand links among words so that mapping
and/or networking can take place more easily.
Idioms vary from being opaque in their meaning (e.g. to kick the bucket), to being semi-
opaque(e.g. to passthe buck) and to being relatively transparent(e.g. to seethe light) (McCarthy,
2001). Although it is difficult for non-native English speakersto distinguish which is opaque,
idioms are often used as metaphorical expressions. If learnersknow the conventional meanings,
most of which involve etymological backgrounds,the meanings can be understoodquite easily.

Culturally bound idioms may provide good research material. This is why the tests of
metaphoricalcompetencein my study include severalidiomatic expressions.
Neemarybackgroundknowledgeand four assumptions

I proposedthe following 4 assumptionsfor understandingand use of metaphorical
expressionsin the section2.2-3 FACTORS POSSIBLY AFFECTING METAPHORICAL
COMPETENCE.
(a)if metaphoris conceptuallystructured,schemasarerelatedto theunderstanding
anduse
of metaphoricalexpressions,
(b)if metaphoris a mappingbetweentwo (or more)domains,imageschemasmay link
thesedomains,
(c) if metaphoris conceptuallystructuredon a linguisticbasis,the network
of wordsto
wordsmay play a partin mappingand
80
(d) analogicalreasoningmay help understandmetaphorical meanings.
We haveso far investigatedthe semanticand cognitiveelements and looked at the theoriesor

The following are the answers to these assumptions. As for the
views of past research.
(a), a schema is not only a schema for a certainobject but its feature(s) or schema
assumption
minds comprisea richly interconnected network of schemas (Arbib and
and our
assemblages
Hesse, 1990). Schemas play important roles in cognition, especially in comprehension
(Rumelhart,1980;Carrell,1984). (1987)
Can-ell's commenton the importance of the background
is
knowledgeof any text content quite noteworthy. We should pay attention to Carrell and
Eisterhold's(1983) three reasonsfor readers' failures in understandinga passage:lack of
schemas; the author's insufficient clues provided in a passage; readers'
appropriate
of the author'sintention. The first and the third are the readers' responsibilities,
misunderstanding
the second is the author's. This shouldbe taken into account when we plan assessments
while
learners' comprehension. Another noteworthy implication obtained from them
and measure
) is
(ibid. that lessproficientstudents tend to be word-bound, on the other hand more proficient
less to
susceptible vocabularyproblems but have structural difficultiesin reading.
studentsare
Metaphor is conceptually rooted in human cognition. A schema is a data structure for
our generic concepts stored in the mind. This conceptual view and the role of
representing
in comprehension are evidenced by key researchers who suggest that schemasplay an
schemas
in
important role metaphorcomprehension. This is an answer to the assumption (a).
The following answers the assumption (b). Concepts of image schemas have not been
the exception of the conceptualisationbasedupon bodily experiences.

completely establishedwith
These image schemashave been well investigatedin English, and in Japaneseto a degree,with the
example of image schemasof CONTAINMINT, FORCE, BALANCE, PATHS, CYCLES, SCALES,
LINKS and CENTER-PERIPHERY. There are a great many metaphorical expressionsresulting

from or interpretedby theseimageschemas. Somebodily experiences
andtheir expressions
may
in More investigation
seemsnecessary. However,since human beings
vary raceand culture.
sharegeneric for
elements, example, of the imageschemas quotedabove,we can take advantage
of theseimage schemas for our study. According to Johnson(1987), in the image schemas
there
quotedabove, is a single,
recurringimage-schematic
patternwith a definiteinternalstructure.
We canusethis schemefor metaphoricalunderstanding
and use. Imageschemasplay a role in
linking experiencewith languageor vice versa. An imageis a form of representation
which is
specificto perception(mostly sight). Schemas are generatedknowledge abouta sequenceof
events(Rumelhart, 1980). Image schemas
are somethinglike cognitive modelsresultingfrom
Prototypeeffects(Lakoff, 1987).
We utilise analogy or analogicalreasoningin understandingor explaining somethingby
81
it to
comparing somethingelseand make useof it in somethingnew. Metaphor
teaching/learning
hasa similarmechanism. Distinctionsbetweenmetaphorandanalogyor analogicalreasoningare
as follows: "an analogyis a way of aligning and focussingon relationalcommonalitiesof the
objectsin which thoserelationsare embedded"(GentnerandJeziorski,1994:449). In analogical
reasoning,we mapstructuralrelationsputtingobjectsin the sourcedomainonto the corresponding
objectsin the targetdomainbut we do not map the particularattributesof the objects. This is a
chief differencebetweenmetaphorandanalogy(Johnson,1987:110). Whicheveris highlighted
in domains,structuralrelationsor particularattributes,there is one thing in common:that is, the
function of mappingbetween/among domains. This may answerthe assumption(d) in that the
analogyor analogical can
reasoning be utilisedin comparisonto attaincomprehension.
Mapping is a set of correspondencesbetween vehicle and target domains, as we see in the
conceptual metaphor LOVE IS A JOURNEY, where a love relationship corresponds to a vehicle

(Lakoff and Johnson, 1981). Kovecses(2002), using the samemetaphor, alludesto the abstraction
made in the journey domain applied to a love relationship. Lakoff's (1987) term `metaphor' refers
to the conceptualmapping and it is a mode of thought, defined as a systematicmapping betweenthe

source-targetdomains.
Aitchison's definition of a network in relationto the mentallexicon is that a network is an
interconnectedsystem. Fauconnier (1997/2002) usesthe term `network' or `many-spacemodel'
for the two domain model usedby the other researchersand he has proposeda view of mental space.
"A mental space is a conceptual on-line packet, smaller than a conceptual domain and more
"
specific. Langacker's (1991) network model synthesisesschema,prototype and extension. The
extension is connectedby a prototype and its extendedcategorical relation. The instantiation of a
schema is a prototype and its extension. Thus, the mapping and network proposed as the
assumptions(c) and (d) may play an important role not only in metaphorical manipulation but also
in mental activities.
Regardingtheassumption(c), it canbe saidthatmetaphorplaysthe role of connectinganalogyor
analogicalreasoningto verbalactivitiesby mappingor networking. It also sustainsthe diachronic
and synchronictransitionsof meanings. We can take advantageof theselinguistic featuresof
metaphor. In this sense,it is meaningfulto investigatethe mappingor networkingof learners'
verbal aspectsof metaphor comprehensionand use in order to enrich their linguistic and
Thisthesisfocuses in language
on metaphor education. PartIII aimedto investigate
pastkey
studieson metaphoricalcompetenceand to study the necessarybackground knowledge to
investigatemetaphoricalcompetence(i.e. schema,imageschema,mapping,
analogyor analogical
reasoningandnetwork). This chapterhasbeenconcludedby fulfilling theseaims.
82
CHAPTER 3
STUDY 1: PREPARINGTHE STUDY INSTRUMENTSFOR METAPHORICALTESTS
This chapteraddressesan overviewof the whole study(Studies1- 4) and discusses

the search
andpreparation for measurementdevicesto be used for EFL students'metaphoricalcompetence
andits relatedfactors.
3.1. OVERVIEW OF THE FOUR STUDIES

The purposeof the four studies(Studies 1-4) is to discover the factors that affect EFL learners'
understanding and use of English metaphorical expressions and the appropriate instruments by
which to measurethesefactors in order to attain my final goal. The goal is to discover the abilities
and skills of Japanese EFL learners' recognition and production of English metaphorical
expressions. To attain this goal, some measurement instruments are necessary.
I madea searchof pastresearchfor this specificpurpose,but found it is quite limited for EFL
although,
situations, as statedin the earlierchapters,there are a numberof works on metaphors,
metaphorcognition theories,experimentsand reportsavailable. For example,in the study of
metaphors,thereare Lakoff and Johnson(1981), Lakoff (1987),Johnson(1987), Kittay (1989),
Ortony (1979/1994),Gibbs(1994)and Steen(1994),to namea few, and in the pedagogicalstudy
of metaphors,Carter(1998;2004),Gibbs (1999),Cameronand Low (1999a;1999b),McCarthy
(2001)andLittlemore(2001a;2001b). Much of my studyis indebtedto this pastresearch. My
studyalsorelieson my pedagogicalexperienceandpreviousexperiments.
The inspiration for the present study is based upon my previous experiments in EFL lessons,
I
where attempted to discover general aspects of Japanese students' recognition of English
metaphors/metaphorical expressions. One of the experimental lessons concerned the
identification of metaphorical expressionsin a newspaperarticle, first with my guidance and then
through students' independent identification (Appendix 3-1). I explained how often figurative
languageis used in our native language in everyday life, giving the following examples of simile,
metonymy and metaphor in NL and English: `yakano-yona-shigoto, ' `work like a mountain' as an
example of simile; `hamu-sandoicchiga matteru,"a ham-sandwich is waiting' as metonymy; `told

wa kanenari,' `time is money' as metaphor in my guidance. I added a brief explanation of the
mechanismof metaphor,using `Time is Money, ' where something important in the concrete notion
of `money' is mappedonto something important in the abstractidea of `time. '
Firstly, it emergedfrom this experimentthat the studentsunderstoodbetter if there
was
sufficientinformationor explanationavailablein the article (i.e. contextualsupport)and if it was
taughtin guidedreading(i.e. pedagogicalsupport). They could easilyinfer meaningsfrom the
contextandat timeswith the supportof their teacher.
83
Secondly,it emergedthat it was hard for some studentsto discover metaphorical expressionsby
themselves. This was discovered from the task in which they were told to find some other
metaphorical expressionsfrom the article without the teacher'sguide. Only 15% of the students
were able to discover for
an expression, example, threw its hat into the ring (marked with in the
Appendix 3-1). It was hard for the studentsto interpret the whole meaning of this expression.
The difficulty lay in the metaphorical use of this idiomatic expression. Even though they knew the
meanings of individual words: `throw', `hat' and `ring', they could not interpret this expression
entirely correctly. This difficulty basically involves knowledge of vocabulary and idioms.
Furthermore, it involves metaphorical understanding of idioms (throw a hat in the ring). They
actually asked in the lesson what a metaphorical expression (`hiyuteki hyogen' in Japanese)was.
This indicates that they lacked adequate experience of encountering a variety of idioms or
metaphoricalexpressions.
To summarisethese phenomena,it can be said that there were three main causesinvolved in
this case:the first causeresulted from a lack of vocabulary, the secondfrom a lack of training in
metaphorical understanding (and schema training in language lessonsin a broader sense)and the
third from a lack of assistancefrom schema activation clues provided in the context This and
in
other experiences my English lessonsinspired me to conduct this seriesof studies.
3.2. STUDIESIN THIS THESIS

The whole cycles of researchconsistsof 4 studies: Study 1: Preparationfor tests (addressedin
this chapter); Study 2: Pilot test (in Chapter 4); Study 3: Main test 1 (in Chapter 5); Study 4: Main
test 2 (in Chapter6).
3.2-1. HYPOTHESESON FAC'T'ORSAFFECTING ENGLISH METAPHORICAL

UNDERSTANDINGAND USEAND INVESTIGATION METHODS
The following 3 factorsarehypothesised
and,therefore,investigatedin the4 studies.
EFL learners'vocabularysizeanddepth
Factor1:Japanese
The EFL learners'vocabularybreadthanddepthaffectsoverallunderstanding of English.
of Englishmetaphoricalexpressions. Therefore,the
It alsoaffectsthe understanding
investigationinto whetheror not thereis somerelationshipbetweenlearners'vocabulary
sizeldepthandthe depthof understanding of Englishmetaphoricalexpressions
is worthy
of consideration.
EFL learners'lexicalandsemantic
Factor2: Japanese network
(i) Polysemy:oneof theJapanese EFL learners'weakpointsis a lack of polysemyknowledge,
which may be of literal andmetaphoricalmeanings.They tendto think
relatedto understanding
Englishwordsare rathermonosemous. This tendencymay be
relatedto their recognitionof
84
English metaphorical expressions. Therefore some investigation into polysemy may be
useful.
(ii) Lexical network it is easyto understandmetaphoricalexpressionsin our nativelanguage
but it is hardto understand in a foreign language. The causemay residein a
their counterparts
lack of lexical knowledgeand its networking,which may be one of the factorsrelatingto the
breadthand depthof understanding and useof Englishmetaphoricalexpressions. In order to
examine this specificissue,

an into
investigation Japanese
EFL learners'
lexical networkusing
testsof word associationsand semanticfields and/or polysemy and a comparisonof the
similaritiesand lying
differences betweenthoseof Japanese
EFL learners
and thoseof native
Englishspeakers may be useful.
Factor 3: Cognitive and cultural aspects:cognitive and cultural aspectsmay be involved in
understandingand useof metaphorical expressions. Since investigations into theseaspects
seemto involve some difficulty in quantifying data in the test resultsand subtlety which may
appearin EFL students' answers,it is better conducted qualitatively by interviews and/or reports
on certainEnglishmetaphoricalexpressions
or targetexpressions.
3.2-2. OVERALL RESEARCHQUESTIONSFORTHE FOUR STUDIES

which affect(s)EFL students'understanding
(1) What is/arethemain component(s) of
e.g. vocabularyknowledge(sizeanddepth)or other
Englishmetaphoricalexpressions,
elements?
(2) Is there any relationship betweenEFL, students' vocabulary knowledge and
understandingof English metaphorical expressions?
(3) How doesEFL students'vocabularysizeanddepthrelateto its semanticfields andlexical
networking?
(4) What imageschema(s)or mappingphenomenado EFL studentshavewhenthey
encounterEnglishmetaphoricalexpressions
andmanipulatethem?
(5) Are thereany suitableteststo measureandanswertheaboveresearchquestions?
3.2-3. METHOD
Tests necessaryfor the studieswere the teststo measurevocabularysize and depth,
metaphoricalcomprehension and metaphoricaluse. Thesetestswere to be selectedfrom

paststudiesor developedby the author. They wereplannedto be administeredon Japanese
EFL studentsat universitylevel afterpilot testswereconducted.
Treatment of collected data processing

(1) quantitativedataobtainedfrom testswastreatedby statisticaldataanalysis
85
(2) interviews and/or reportswere treatedby qualitative data analysis
The summary of the hypothesesand the instruments in the studies

Quantitativedatarelatingto Factors1&2 in the hypotheses:
" vocabularysize testto measure

vocabularybreadth
" testsof word and

associations polysemyto measure vocabularydepth
" testsof interpretation to measurecomprehension

anduseof metaphoricalexpressions and
useof metaphoricalexpressions
Qualitativedataspecificallyrelatingto Factors3 in thehypothesis:
interview
" an oral retrospective in which studentswereaskedaboutthecognitiveprocess
thattheywentthroughor imagesthey conceivedwhentheycomposedsentences.This might
provide some aspectsof awarenessof metaphorical
expressions. This interviewwould take
placein thelaterpartof the studies.
3.3. PREPARATIONFORTESTS
Most importantly, the specific measurement instruments to measure English metaphorical
comprehensionand use were searched for, or developed if there are no appropriate tests. Other
linguistic tests relevant to measuring metaphorical competence were also searched for. The
rationale for the devices

measurement will be made clear to show that they are appropriate to satisfy
of the research.
the assumptions/hypotheses
3.3-1. RESEARCH QUESTIONS IN STUDY I

Which linguisticor vocabularytestsareappropriate for the studies?
-
What metaphorical testsare for the studies?
appropriated
-
Proceduresin the searchfor appropriatetests:

In order to investigatethe factorsof the proposedassumptions/hypotheses statedabove and
answer the researchquestions,the following search for
steps appropriatetestsweretaken.
(1) Searchingpastresearchfor a suitablevocabularybreadthtestfor Japanese
EFL learners.
This testplaystherole of an indextestfor the restof the tests.
(2) Searchingpastresearchfor testsof word associations
suitablefor Japanese
EFL students
or developingthem. The testaimsto measurethe depthof their vocabularyknowledge.
(3) Searchingpastresearchfor testsof semanticfields and/orpolysemysuitablefor
JapaneseEFL studentsor developingthem.The aim is asthe sameas
above.
(4) Searchingpastresearchfor testsof metaphorinterpretation/production
suitablefor
JapaneseEFL studentsor developingthem.
86
3.4. RATIONALE FORTESTSAS MEASUREMENT INSTRUMENTS IN STUDY 1
Teststo be found or developedas measurementinstrumentsare vocabularytests(size, i.e.
breadth,and depth, e.g. tests of word associationsor polysemy) and tests of metaphorical
anduse.
comprehension
Testsof vocabularysize
for an appropriatevocabularytestto measureEFL students'vocabularysize.
Firstly I searched
I plannedto useit as an indexthroughoutthe studies. The surveyedvocabularytestswere those
designedfor secondand/orforeign languageeducation. Pasttestsin this field can be classified
into two groups:oneis measurementsfor the breadthof vocabulary(Nation, 1990& 2001;Laufer,
1992;Schmitt, 1997 & 2000; Meara, 1997; Aizawa, 1998);the other is thosefor the depth of
(Read,
vocabulary 1994 & 1997;Schmitt,1997 & 2000). Both of thesewerenecessary resources
for my studies.
The test of the breadth of vocabulary or vocabulary size measures how much English
vocabulary ESIJEFL learners have acquired. There are two types in this group: The European
Vocabulary Size Tests (Mears and Buxton, 1987; Meara and Jones, 1988) and Vocabulary Levels
Tests (Nation, 1990 & 2001 and Schmitt, 2000). The former consistsof 60 English words and 40
false English words to which testeesanswer `Yes' if they know the meaning or `No' if they don't.
The format is simple and the test seemsto be easy to answer but there may be some doubt as to
whether the test really measuresthe ability of the testees' understanding of the meanings (Kadota,
2001). On the contrary, the latter is meant to measurelevels of vocabulary size, which is crucial to
my studies.
Nation's(1990;2001)VocabularyLevelsTest(VLT, hereafter)consistsof the2,000-wordlevel,
the 3,000-wordlevel,the5,000-wordlevel,the UniversityWord list level and 10,000-wordlevel,
while Schmitt (2000) and Schmitt et al. (2001) have provided validation evidence for the
VocabularyLevelsTest which consistsof the 2,000-wordlevel, the 3,000-wordlevel, the 5,000-
word level, the 10,000-wordlevel and Academic Vocabulary in two Versions (Version 1 and
Version2). In eachlevel of Schmitt's(1997)test,thereare ten blocksof itemsto matchthree
definitionswith the correctthreeout of six optionsof words,which total thirty items. In Schmitt
(1997)therearetwo versions,from which sixty itemsareavailable,whereastherearesix blocksof
itemsin eachlevel in the samescheme(eighteenitemsin total) in Nation. I checkedeachitem to
find out which test was to be used in my survey in terms of frequencyand familiarity levels.
Schmitt'stestseemedto be bettersuitedto my experimentfor threereasons:the numberof items,
the words to be testedand the most importantly,the validity of the test (Schmitt, 1997& 2000;
Schmittet al., 2001).
87
There were no statisticswhich showed exactly how much English vocabularyordinary
Japaneseuniversitystudentshaveacquired when they reachtheir universitylevel. The Courseof
Study (1997/1999)set by the Ministry of Educationdeterminesthe size of vocabularythat can
appear in teachingmaterials(i.e. textbooks)
authorised as follows: 900 words at lower secondary
levelsplusfrom 900 to 1,800wordsat uppersecondarylevels,dependingupon the type of upper
secondaryschools in which learnersstudy. Taking this indicationinto account,we can estimate
that the vocabularysize of ordinaryJapaneseEFL studentswho graduatefrom upper secondary
schoolmight range around2,000 words, with specialexceptions of those who possessa large
vocabulary,suchas students
who intendto major in Englishor thosewho have a largervocabulary
for someotherreason. Therefore,the 2,000-wordlevel (or 3,000-wordlevel at most) may serve
asa measurement in my study. Anotherconsiderationwas on an appropriatenumberof itemsto
test students'vocabularysize. The total of 60 items in Schmitt in comparisonof 18 items in
Nation may providemore statisticallyvalid datafor the users. The abovewere the reasonsfor
choosingSchmitfs test(2000)and Schmitt, et al.'s (2001)for my study.
Still anotherresourcefor vocabularyis JACET 4000 Basic Words (1993) (JACET 40100,
hereafter). It proposes4,000 recognitionvocabularyfor the first 2 year university level. I
scuritinisedthe inclusiveratios of the targetwords of Schmitt's VLT 2000 and 3000 levels in
JAGET4000. The inclusiveratio of theVLT 2000level in JACET 4000andthatof 3000level in
JAGET4000 were 97.5% and 77.5% respectively. The inclusiveratio of both levels in it was
87.5%. This resultsupportedmy selectionof Schmitt'sVLT.
Testsof vocabulary depth

The other vocabularytest necessaryfor my survey is the test to measurehow deeply a
knowledgeof vocabularypenetratesthe mentallexicon and how well words are associatedwith
other words. I surveyedpast research for tests by which to measurehow deeply testees'
knowledge of vocabulary penetratestheir mental lexicon and to discover testees' semantic
processingstrategies
which affect deeperunderstandingof meanings. Pastresearchon lexical
and
semantics word is
associations in
abundant the broadersense,for example,the conceptof word
thetiming of associationspeedandthe countingof numberof associations.
associations,
While I tried to discoverhow EFL students'lexical networkoperatesin their mentallexicons,I
havefound that the idea of word associations
tests(Boix, 1995;Read, 1994unpublished;Read,
1997andSchmitt,1997Doctoralthesis)(testsof word associations,hereafter)seemsto be suitedto
the purposeof my study for the following reason:they measurebreadthand depth of testees'
vocabularyknowledge. Read(1994) attemptedto bridge the gap betweenmeasures breadth
of
and depthof vocabularyknowledgeand developedthe word associates format as a measureof
depthof vocabularyknowledge. He first developeda 50-itemvocabularytest (the
pilot test)and
88
throughseveralvalidationprocedureshe finally settledon a 40-item vocabularytest (the revised
version). The targetwords were adjectivestaken from the UniversityWord List (Nation, 1990)
for the50-itemtestandfrom Barnard'sSecondandThird Word Lists (Nation, 1986)for the40-item
test His reasonfor choosingadjectiveswas to maintain"consistencyin the relationshipbetween
(Read,1994:3). Schmitt(1997;2000)alsoexperimentedwith the
thetargetandtheassociations"
statesthat the tests "have value in measuring[L2 learners']lexical
testsof word associations,
(2000,42)
organization" and ensuresthe reliability and validity of the testsas for
measurements the
depthof their vocabularyknowledge. Read's(1994:4) revisedformat of word association
testis
asfollows:
The target word: sudden

beautiful quick surprising thirsty change doctor noise school
The answersto the targetword suddenarequick and surprisingon the left column(paradigmatic)
and changeand noiseon the right (syntagmatic). He variedthe patternsto preventrespondents'
guessing.
Adjustments for the test of word associations

Testsof word associationin my study do not exactlyfollow the sameformat as Read's. I
simplified the format (one target word to which testeeschose an answer from four options), so that
it would be easierfor EFL studentsto answer. Before I completed the format, I had to collect the
words to be used in the test of word associations.
Criteria for the selectionof target/prompt words for a preparatory test

Firstly the lexicalandsemanticaspectswereto be takeninto accountin the choiceof words as
in
stated the selectionof target/promptwords (Nation, 1990;2001; Read, 1997;Schmitt, 2000;
2001). Secondlyeachword shouldhavephysical,psychologicaland/orsensorymeanings,which
aimed at discoveringthe depth of JapaneseEFL students'comprehensionlevels. For example,
empty means bare and/or nothing in space(physically) and at the sametime, hollow in mind
(psychologically). Thirdly word classesshould be considered. Frequencyand familiarity for
EFL studentswere also to be checked. The latterwas checkedin the word list providedin the
Courseof Study(theMonbusho,1997/1999),andan authorisedEnglishtextbook(EnglishCourse1,
1992),whosemarketsharewasvery high.
The target/promptwordswere selectedfrom the most popularEnglishandJapanese dictionary
(Konishi, 1988)in which the frequencylevelsare rankedwith specificmarks. The target/prompt
words were chosen mostly from the highestfrequencywords and alsothe next highestfrequency
89
level in the dictionarywith a few additionallow frequencywords included. Meara(1982)warns
of the risk of using high frequencywords, however, a risk for no responseto the target/prompt
words might be more damaging to the survey, because if most of the words belong to low
frequencylevels,testeeswould give fewer responses.
Fifty-two targetiprompt(i.e. stimulus)words (18 adjectives,22 nouns including the words
which sharethe sameword classesand 12 verbs,all of which have physical,psychologicaland
sensorymeanings)were includedin the test. These52 wordsbecamethe promptwords(stimuli)
in a preparatorytest.
Fifty-two words usedin the preparatory test

A: 18 adjectivesof physical, psychological and/or sensorymeanings:
barren,bitter, calm, cool, empty,fair, harsh, hot, huge, loud, mad,pure, poor, rigid, sharp,
smooth,vivid andwarm
B: 21 nouns (some of which sharethe same word classes but used as nouns) of physical,
psychologicaland/orsensorymeanings:
anger, anxiety, black (a/n), blue (a/n), burden, concern (n/v), delicacy, discussion,distance,fire,
green (a/n), head (n/v), heat (n/v), heart, honour, joy, mind (n/v), mood, red (a/n), sorrow and
white (a/n)
C: 13 verbs (some of which sharethe same word classes but used as verbs) of physical,
psychologicaland/orsensorymeanings:
absorb, appreciate, bake, break, create, defend (v/n), deliver, digest (v/n), grieve, imagine,
reveal, sootheand strike (v/n)
The low frequencywords for ordinary EFL studentsin the abovelists are barren, harsh, rigid
anxiety,absorb,appreciate,grieve,revealand soothe. This wasto be consideredwhen the main

testwascompiled.
The test of word associationsin the preparatory test

This testaimedto elicit associativeresponses. The subjectswere askedto write associative
wordsin responseto the target/promptwords. In the test,they wereaskedto write the first three
words which immediatelycameto mind, then to rate the word which had the strongest/deepest
associationas threeand finally to give a brief reasonfor the rating. The other two associative
wordswererated two and one by the subjectsin the orderof associationstrength. An exampleof
theformatwith directionfor writing answersandthefirst item of thetestis shownbelow.
The formatof the preparatorytestof word associations:

Writethefirst 3 wordsyou thinkof whenyou readeachpromptwont in the
spaceprovided Then,rate
90
associationsas 3, the next 2, and the last 1 in the squarebracketby circling the
the strongesddeepest
numberandthenexplainbrieflyin thespacewhy thatword (rated3) is thestrongest/deepest

association.
1.ahwrhi )[3 11,( ) 3,2,1]. ( ) 3,2,1]
.,
The reason(s):
3.5. EXECUTION OF THE PREPARATORYTEST

Subjects,date and location
Subjectsfor the preparatorytest 7 volunteerBritish undergraduates
who studiedin School of
EnglishStudiesat theUniversityof Nottingham:1 male,aged19-20;6 female,aged19-20.
Dateandlocation:November26,1999;the Schoolof EnglishStudiesat the Universityof
Nottingham.
Classificationsof responses
Riegel,Ramsey,and Riegel's (1967) classificationexplainedin Schmitt (1997) includesthe
coordinates,synonyms,contrasts,functions(e.g. fork-
following sevencategories:superordinates,
(e.
eat),attributes,andparts g. fork handle). Schmitt(1997:69-70)notesthat Clark's rule (1970)
relies on the idea of semanticfeatures. Schmitt (ibid.) summarisesClark's paradigmaticand
rules.
syntagrnatic They canbe briefly summarised
as follows.
Rules:
Paradigmatic
* The Minimal-ContrastRule:If a stimulushasa commonòpposite',it will always
elicit thatoppostite... Most common...minimal contrast, i.e. man-woman=[+/-male]
* The MarkingRule:unmarkedman producesmarkedwoman,changea feature...
* FeatureDeletionandAddition Rules:deletionproducessuperordinates
(e.g.
fruit from apple),additionof featuresproducessubordinates
(e.g. applefrom fruit)
* CategoryPreservation Rule:word classis preservedbecauseit is a `high' feature
SyntagmaticRules:
* The SelectionalFeatureRealizationRule: adj.,adv.andv. elicit more syntagmatic
responsesthanit ; adj.+n elicit more syntagmaticresponses
(80%)
* The Idiom CompletionRule:e.g. whistlestop;justicepeace
Schmitt(1997)classifiesassociates into syntagmaticand paradigamticcategoriesaccordingto

the featuresof relationbetweenthe targetword andthe fast answer. I followed his classification,
becauseit is rational. Thus, the main idea of classificationappliedto the categorisationin this
preparatory testwas takenfrom Schmitt (1997). The notioncanbe

summarisedasfollows.
91
(1) syntagmatic
rule: (i) The feature
selectional (Si,
realizationrule, e.g. young+animal hereafter)
(ii) The idiom completionrule, e.g. whisde+stop(S2,hereafter)
(2)parad.igmatic rule:
0) Paradigmatic pair rule ("The ast
minimal-cont rule") includes
*contrastive,opposite(e.g. man-woman)andpair (Pc,hereafter);
*antonym (Pa,hereafter);
*synonymous(e.g. blossom-flower)(Ps,hereafter);
type (e.g.
*relationship(e.g. black-white,table-furniture,reflect-affect;object-attribute
hammer-steel); object-referenttype ( e.g. foot-shoe);
concept-referent (e.
set g. banana fruit);
(Pr, hereafter)
*dimension-referent
rule icludes
(ii) Featuredeletion/addition
*superordinate>subordinate(Pf, hereafter)
Hence, the basic classifications in my study were based on "syntagmatic" and "paradigmatic"
Presumably there were some answers which could not be classified into these two
categories.
categories in the case of EFL students' answers, therefore, it might be better to have another
categoriessuch as "miscellaneous" and "illegible" referring to non-categorical.

As for the classificationof word classes,McNeil's (1966)tripartitedistinction(homegenous-
same word class (hom) stated in Schmitt (1997); heterogenous,-different word class (het);
in
syntagamatic-sequential nature)should be noted, however, in this study,the straightforward
methodsof classification,suchasthe into
classification partsof speech,wereemployed.
Resultsand analysis
The responseswritten by 7 British native speakerswere totalled,classifiedinto syntagmatic,
miscellaneous
paradigmatic, and illegible categories(Table 3-1). The word classesof the
strongest/deepestassociation (rated 3, i.e. the strongest/deeper by
association, the respondents)were
alsocounted (Table 3-2). After these procedures, a testof word in
association multipie choicetype
for Study2 (a pilot test,which will appearin Chapter4) wasformulated.
Table3-1 Categoricaldistributionof responsesin word associations(%)

N'7 Britishundergraduates(N.B. 5 stimuli (colours)are not included)
Category syntagmatic paradigmatic miscellaneousillegible Total
13verbs 25.3 74.7 0 0 100
16nouns 8.9 91.1 0 0 100
18 adjectives 23.8 73.8 0 2.4 100
The numberof subjects(7) in this preparatorytestwas small,however,sinceall of the 7 were

NSs,this shouldbe sufficientfor nonning purpose3 in the initial test-building. As shownin Table
92
in 13 18
3.1,the syntagmaticand paradigmaticratio the verbsand adjectiveswas quite similar (24-
25 % vs. 74-75%),while that in the 16 nounsshowed a differentratio (9% vs. 91 %). The nouns
No "clang" answerswere found in the response (the
aremoreproneto paradigmaticassociations.
term "miscellaneous"in the table refersto the term "clang" in Schmitt, 2000). It was probably
because were all native
the respondents English speakers. Results be different
might considerably
if thenumberof subjectsincrease.
Table3-2 (%)
Elicitedwordclassesof strongestassociation
N= 7 Britishundergraduates(N.B. 5 stimuli (colours) are not included)
Elidtedword dass verbs nouns adjectives miscel.ans.
syntag/parad syntag/parad syntag/parad 0

_
.......
_.................
_.................
........ _.......
_
__............
..... .__...._.
_.....
_ __ ...
_ _
13 verbs 0/ 40.3 31.9/20.8 0/6.9 0
_...
__...
....................
......... _.
_....__...............
.. _....
_. ....
................
_................ ..... _........
_
_....................
_.................... __
...........
16 nouns 0/0 4.9/80.5 0 /14.6 0
18 adjectives 0/0.9 23.5/ 13.0 0/ 61.7 0.9 (adverbs)
As for (Table
the word classes 3-2), the implicationselicitedby the first in
answers 47 stimuli
words numbered from 1 to 47 in the test (the five stimuli, i. e. black, blue, green, red and white,
which sharetwo word classeswere excluded, because the instruction in the test referringto word
classeswas ambiguous) were as follows:
*the nounselicitedmorenounsthanthe otherword classesandmore in a paradigmatic

relationship (85 %).
*the noun did not elicit any verbs but a small number of adjectives in a paradigmatic
relationship(15 %)
*the verbselicitedthesameword class(paradigmaticverbs)(40%) but not asmanyas
thenouns(52 %)
numberof the sameword classin a paradigmatic
*the adjectiveseliciteda considerable
relationship(62 %)
As a whole,the responses in this preparatorytest providedusableresultsand the reasonsthe
wrote
students for the strongest/deepestassociationswere informative. These implicationswere
takeninto accountin the compilationof a quantifyingmultiple choicetype word associationtest
which would of
consist 20 stimuli and a polysemy testof 10 stimuli to solicit from
responses both
nativeEnglish and
speakers ESUEFL studentsin Study 2. The other 22 words were discarded,
it wasfound thatthe stimuli werenot asappropriateasthe above30.
because
Polysemytests
In understanding lexicaland semanticnetworkingplaysan important
metaphoricalexpressions,
93
role. Polysemycan be used as one of the devicesto investigatethis issue.Polysemy testsand
someexperimentalstudiesrelating to them are found only in Anderson & Ortony (1975) and
Cowie (1982). Anderson& Ortony (ibid.) examinedmemory and recall stimulatedby clue and
context,while Cowie (ibid.) upon
experimented degrees of relatedness
and separationof meaning.
Unfortunatelytheir measurement instrumentswere not suitablefor my contextand participants.
ThereforeI hadto compilea newtest,learningfrom pastresearchon polysemy.
To quantify the state and effect of networking, we need a measurementdevice. One of the
devices
measurement may be a polysemy test. My idea of a polysemy test was inspired by the
following statementsgiven by Gibbs (1994) and Miller (1994). Gibbs (1994: 157) statesthat "the
metaphoricalnature of thought comes from recent study of polysemy, a statein which words have
multiple meanings that are systematically related." He further explains that the meanings of
polysemous words are related to one another in terms of family resemblanceand that many of a
polysemousword's meaningsare motivated by the metaphorical projection of knowledge from one
domain to another (ibid. ) and gives the example of prepositions over and above quoting from
Brugman & Lakoff (1988). Miller (1994: 397) also statesthat metaphor is frequently cited as a
sourceof polysemy, referring to "leg' of a table.
Compiling/developinga polysemytest
In developinga polysemy test, the following implications and warnings were taken into
account
(1) Relatednessand distanceof meaningsfrom Miller (1994), Gibb's (1994), Lakoff (1994) and
Carter (1998): Their implication is that polysemy plays an important role in understanding
metaphoricalexpressions.
in conceptualmapping(Lakoff, 1994)and
(2) Lakoffs warningon polysemygeneralization
Goddard's(1998: 19)explanationof distinctionbetweenpolysemyandsemanticgenerality:
Polysemy(i.e. the existenceof severaldistinct-but-relatedmeanings)mustbe distinguished
from semanticGENERAllTY. This designates a situationin which a word hasa single
generalmeaningwhich canbe usedin differentcontexts. "A usefulindicatorthat we are
dealingwith polysemy,ratherthanwith generality,is the presence
of differentgrammatical
with the (proposed)differentmeanings"(ibid.).
propertiesassociated
(3) Differentiationof polysemyfrom hyponym(samepronunciation),homograph(samespelling)
(Cowie, 1982;Carter,1998;Gibbs, 1999;Goddard,1998).
(4) Goddard'swarningson lexicalandgrammaticalelementsfor non-nativespeakers: He wamson
non-nativeEnglishspeakers'difficulty for distinguishingpolysemousmeanings,for example,
(i) kindsof verbs(transitiveor intransitive),(ii) relatedness
of meaning,(iii) part-ofspeech.
The following is a brief summaryof his implicationsof (i) to (iii).
94
Goddard's(1998)implicationfor polysemouswords:
with the word skip embeddedin them:(a)
(i) kindsof verbs:he givesan exampleof two sentences
The childrenskippedhappilydown the street;(b) We skippedthe first chapter,and explainsthere
are two distinctmeaningsinvolved in the example:the skip in the sentence(a) is an intransitive
verb;theonein the sentence(b) a transitive(1998: 19).
of meaning:he explicatesfurther,askingthe differencesin meaningof whetheror

(ii) relatedness
the
not meaning in (a) is closelyrelatedto the meaningin (b). His explanationis thatthesetwo are
connectedin the sensethatoneusualstepor elementis missingin a sequence. He statesit is hard
to find this relatedness.
for non-nativeEnglishspeakers
(iii) part-of-speech:another warning is of the part-of-speechas in the word tables(noun, as on the
table) and tablet (verb, as in Don't table that document) (1998: 20).
Selectionof target words for the polysemytest (Polte and the format of the test
Ten target words for the polysemy test, PolyT, were chosenfrom the words used in the test of
word associations. These 10 words were chosen after the pilot test of word associations,which
was interpretedby two (a British male and a Canadian female) postgraduatesto ensurethe validity
of the meanings. The format of the preparatory polysemy test was as follows:
Interpretan underlinedword (1) and describethe state,actor situation meantby
the word or the sentence(2). The following example shows the first targetitem
Defend:
1Theydefendedtheirgoalwith greatskill.
(1)
(2)
2.Thelawyeris defendinghisclient'srightsin thecourt.
(2)
After analysingthe resultsof the preparatorypolysemytest(of course,therewas no problemin

theinterpretations),
the polysemytest,PolyT,for Study2 (Pilot test)wasformatted. The pilot test
was to be into
amended the following format to makeit easierfor EFL studentsto answerandnotes
to low frequencywordswereaddedin Japanese in the Main test
The formatof thepolysemytestfor Study2 (Pilot test):

Interpret an underlined word in Japanesein (1)and describethe state,
act or situatIon meant by the
word or the sentencein (2).
95
Defend:
1.1hey defended their goal with great skill
(1)
(2)
2. The lawyer is defending his client's rights in the wort. (Note:client: ft3TW
(1)
(2)
3.6. TESTSOF UNDERSTANDINGAND USE OF METAPHORICAL EXPRESSIONS

I searchedpastresearchfor metaphortests. They were quite limited in number,especially
testswhich couldmeasuremetaphoricalunderstandingand usein an EFL situation,however,there
were two experimentswhich greatlyinspiredme. They were Winner, Rosenstiel
and Gardner
(1976)andGibbs(1980). I compiledtwo kinds of testsinspiredby theseexperiments:one wasa
test of metaphoricsensitivityand skills stimulatedby the former and the other was a test of
literal/metaphorical
understandingand usestimulated by the latter. Metaphorical
competencetest
asMC, hereafter.
is abbreviated
Test of metaphoricalsensitivityand skills (MC-XY Test)

Winner, Rosenstieland Gardner (1976) experimented on children's metaphoric understanding
using the psychological-physicalmetaphor and the cross-sensorymetaphor, the tasksof which were
multiple choice and explication. The psychological-physical metaphor refers to the kind of
metaphor such as The prison guard was a hard rock, while an example of the cross-sensory
metaphor is Her perfume was bright sunshine (ibid.: 290). From Asch & Nerlove (1960) they cite
that both kinds of metaphors have "dual-function adjectives (e.g. hard and bright), which have a
primary, physical meaning and a secondary meaning acquired through metaphorical extension.
The secondary meaning may be psychological (e.g. a hard man) or may make reference to a
different sensorymodality (e.g. a hard sound)" (ibid.: 290).
Winner,et al. (ibid.) usedthe sentencepatternof An Xis an adjectiveY.,in which an X andaY
are nounsin their experiment. My interpretationof this sentencepattern is that the sentence
patternitself takesthe format of a conceptualmetaphor,andthat in the sentence An X is an adjective
Y.,theadjectiveplaystheimportantrole of a pivot or a point of junction of two ends(a nounat both
ends)to let the one end (noun) meet and connectto the other (noun). The use of adjectivesto
connectthesetwo endspromotespolysemyskills, which, I believe,will examinetestees'ability of
metaphoricalcognitionand productionand will enhanceusers'ability if taughtin class. It will be
a usefulexercisefor Japanese
EFL studentsto learnhow to usea figurativelanguage
or a metaphor,
and to producesome on their own. The experimentin my study differs from their survey,
96
althoughit usesthe same sentencepattern. The sentencepatternof this testtakesthe patternof a
conceptualmetaphor, X is Y, it
hence, is namedXY Test,and abbreviated asXYT, hereafter.
Selectionof the target words for MC-XYT

The 10 adjectives,which have primary, physical,psychologicaland cross-sensory meanings
and which belong mostly to high frequency,
were selected. They were bright, cold, dark, grey,
hard, high, keen,lofty, weakandwild. The format of the testof metaphoricsensitivityand skills
wasas follows. The instructionin the preparatory testwas "Write two sentences using the target
Use
adjectives. eachadjective in a literal sensein one of the (L)
sentences and figuratively in the
"
(F).
othersentence
MC-XYT
usingthe tnd adjectiveslistedbelow. Useeachadjectivein a literalsensein one of the

Writetwo sentences
(L),
sentences and in
figuratively theother (F).
sentence
Formatis:AnhheX isa(n)adj.Y. for X andY.
Useanyword(s)tphrase(s)/clause(s)
Example:Gard L: Theobjecton thetableisa hard stone.

F: Mike Tyson'smusclesarebid steel.
1.bright(L )
(F )
Tests of lteral/metaphorical understanding and use (MC tests)

In the compilationof the testsfor metaphoricalunderstandingand use,the implicationsof
Gibbs' (1980: 150)experimentson understanding and memoryfor idioms are so importantthat I
took the essence of his originalexperimentsandusedit in my own way. He used8 storieswith a
"literal" targetsentenceand 8 storieswith an "idiomatic" targetsentence(ibid.) In addition to
this kind of readingexercisemay be especiallyusefulfor EFL studentsas it helps
testingpurposes,
them to understandthat the sameexpressionsconveydifferent implicationsin different contexts.
Storieswith idiomaticcontextembeddedin them can be usedfor EFL learnersto practicedeeper
reading/comprehension ability. Thus, the idea of the tests for metaphor interpretation
(paraphrasing)and for producingpassagescame from Gibbs' implication, and the tests were
arrangedto fit in an EFL A
situation. numberof idiomsandproverbs(sayings)wereselectedfrom,
for example,ThePenguinDictionary of EnglishIdioms (Gutland,et al., 1994)and Seigorin(Arai,
1992).
97
Criteria for selectionof idioms and expressionsfor MC tests
Eachidiom or expressionchosenwas one written in easyEnglish in order to minimize EFL
however, it in it
was alsoone rich context,and was suchthat could be usedin
students'anxiety,
both physicaland psychologicalmeanings,that is, lexically easybut slightly complicatedin the
senseof culturalimplication.
Sourcesof wordsand idiomsto beusedfor MC tests

* Schmitt'sAppendix7.2 Word ClassLists in his doctoraldissertation(1997)
* Vocabulary& Idiom guidelinesof theMonbushoCourseof Studyfor Lower andUpper
SecondarySchools(1997/1999)
* The Penguin Dictionary of English Idioms (Gull and, et al., 1994)
* Oxford ThesaurusPenguin Dictionary of English (Spooner, 1998)
* Nichiei kotowazano hikakubunka (Okutsu, 2000)
* Seigorin(proverbsandidioms)(Arai, 1992)
Some of the expressionsselectedfor the tests may sound somewhat odd to English native
speakers,but it was becausethey were taken from popular Japanesesources. Since Japanese
studentslearn from these sources, it made senseto include some expressionsfrom them, even if
they are somewhatodd.
Expressions (sentences)and idioms used in the preparatory MC tests

Idioms:
a pain in the neck, to be offone's head,to countheadsor head to

counting, hold one'sheadhigh, to
let the cat out of the bag,to seewhich way the catjumps, to standin someone'sway andto takea
leaf out of someone'sbook.
Expressions(sentences):
A little pot is soonhot, Fish beginsto stink at the head,Omelettesare not madewithout breaking
eggs, The rotten apple injures its neighbours, Wake not a sleepinglion and You cannoteat your
cakeand haveyour cake.
The format of the preparatory MC tests

The instructionin the preparatorytest was to write two pairsof passages
with the sametarget
idiom or sentenceembeddedin eachpassagein different contexts,one of which is literal and the
othermetaphorical. The following Gibbs' (1980: 150)examplewasalsogivenin thetest.
"He'ssinginga differenttune."
Targetidiom/sentence:
Uteral: Nick and Suewere listening to JacksonBrowne on the radio.
98
All JacksonBrowne songssound alike." Sue said. "Now isn't that the samesong
we heard him do on'N recently."

'No. " Nick replied:
'He's singing a different tune."
*Paraphrase:I%s not singing the samesong."
Idiomatic/figurative/metaphorical: On 1V there was a program dish Carter'sfirst
year in office. One reporter talked about the military budget.

'In the campaignCarterpromisedto cut that budget. '
"But now that he'sPresident,"

'Tie's singing a different tune. "
*Paraphrase: He's now changed his mind. "
3.7. CONCLUSION
The research questions were proposed and initial steps for searching and compiling tests
necessaryfor the studies were taken. It was decided to adopt Schmitt's VLT to investigate EFL
students' vocabulary size, however, the other tests were at preparatory stages. Since the target
words or expressionsfor the polysemy test or PolyT and the tests of metaphorical competence or
MC testswere selected,thesetestswill be administered in Study 2 as pilot tests.
99
CHAPTER 4
STUDY 2: PILOT TESTING OF METAPHORICALCOMPETENCE
4.1. THE PURPOSEOF STUDY 2

In Study 1, the hypothesesand researchquestionswere proposedand the teststo examine
theseissuesestablished. In Study 2, the executionof pilot tests will be conductedand the
revisionsto them, if necessary,will be carried out and discussed. At the sametime, the
formationof newtestswill be proposed.
Pilot testsconsistof testsof word associations,polysemy and metaphorical understandingand
use. The test of word followed

associations Read's (1994,1997) principle. The idea of the tests
of metaphorical understandingand use derived from the idea that semantic processingstrategies
affect the deeper understanding of meanings (Carter, 1998; Ellis, 1997). The tests of
metaphoricalunderstandingand use, MC tests,attempted to measurethis and they will be further
refined and developed into the main tests with the same objective(s) in Study 3 and Study 4 in
to
order obtain quantitative data in actual EFL situations. If revisions are they
necessary, will be
carried out. If the tests are found to be appropriate (or inappropriate), results obtained from the
testsshould be analysedand discussed.
4.1-1. PILOT TESTING OF MC TESTS

Researchquestionsfor the pilot tests
What resultscan be obtained from the pilot tests of word association,polysemy and metaphorical
comprehensionand use? Are there any modifications or revisions necessaryto finalise the tests?
4.1-2. METHOD
Pilot teststo be usedin Study 2
The pilot testsin Study2 consistedof thefollowing specifictestscompiledby the author.
(1) Testsof word associations,abbreviatedasWAT, hereafter.
from the prompt/stimuluswords:The test
(i) a multiplechoicetype:to solicitassociations
aimed to discoverlexicalandsemantic factors relatingto metaphoricalunderstanding
quantitatively.
(ii) a descriptive
type:thetestaimedto investigate factorsagain.
associative
A specialemphasiswasplacedon WAT in this study,becausethetargetwordsselectedfor
WAT wererecycledfor thefollowing testsof polysemyandmetaphoricalsensitivityor skills.
(2) Polysemytest,abbreviatedasPol Tr,hereafter. This testaimedto measurelexicaland
semanticexpansion.
(3) Testof metaphoricalsensitivityor skills,abbreviatedasMC-XYT, hereafter.This test
aimed
100
to measureliteral and metaphorical skills in the sentencepattern of X is a(n) adjectiveY.
(4) Testsof literalandfigurative/metaphorical interpretation/writing:
passage The testsaimedto
measureunderstanding embeddedin passages

of metaphoricalexpressions (receptive),
abbreviated asMC-RT hereafter,

andthe useof metaphorical in
expressions passage
writing (productive),abbreviatedasMC-FT hereafter.
The MC testsincludea shortinterview with respondentsto discoverwhetheror not thereis

any revisionnecessary. The tests to
aim compare the English native speakers'
semanticfields
andtheir interpretation
and useof metaphoricalexpressions
with thoseof JapaneseESL learners.
Thesetestsintendto obtaina quantitativeinformationaboutthe lexical,semanticand cultural(if
possible)aspectsof understandingand use of metaphorical expressionsin the main tests. All of
the above tests cover the abilities of recognition and production, however, oral communication
abilities (hearing and speaking) will not be examined in thesetests.
Considerationsfor JapaneseEFL studentsin caseof revisions

In reviewing and revising the testsof word associationand metaphorical tests in Study I (the
tests),
preparatory the following considerations
were takeninto account
for theWAT:
Considerations
(1) thenearlyequalratio of syntagmaticallyrelatedandparadigmaticallyrelatedwords.
i.e. the balancednumberof nouns,verbsandadjectivesif possible.
(2) theword classes,
for all of thetests:

Considerations
(3) theword frequencyandthe vocabularyrangeof ordinaryJapanese
EFL learners
(4) theattentionto low proficiencyin the useof idiomsof ordinaryJapanese
EFL learners
(5) theavoidanceof confusingwordsfrom the point of view of Japanese
EFL learners
(6) theattentionto Japanese
EFL learners'limited exposureto Englishmetaphorsor
metaphoricalexpressions
(7) thetestsshouldnot be too complicatedfor EFL studentsto answer
The confusingwords referringto item 5 above were such words as mine and
saw. The
former (mine)is usuallyrecognisedas the possessive pronounby Japanese EFL learners,not as
mine as in `coal '
mining. If the optionsfor the targetword (strike)in the WAT were [bell,
gold,
mine,iron], for example,theword minemight createconfusion,therefore,it might be betternot to
useminein theoptionsfor strike. This meansthat the word strikemay not be usedfor an item in
the paradigmaticfield as I had plannedin Study 1, thoughactuallythereare quite a few
native
101
with
speakers'associations labourers'
strike. The latter(saw)is usuallythe pasttenseof the verb
seefor EFL.
Japanese Thereforeit would confuse JapaneseEFL studentsif the optionsaw was
usedin the sense
of a'cutting tool.' Similartreatmentswereappliedto otheroptions.
The sourcesof words and idioms to be usedfor the tests

They arethe sameasthosein Study 1.
Subjects
(1) PreliminaryPilot
students:7 male; 17female,aged19-20(Englishmajors);
24 British undergraduate
10 JapaneseESL undergraduateand postgraduatestudents:3 male; 7 female, aged 22-35.
Their majors varied from English to Businessstudies.
The totalsof NSsandESL were34.
(2) Revisionstage:
(i) WAT-1:
11 British undergraduatesdifferent from the above 24: 4 male and 7 female, aged 19-20.
(ii) WAT-2:
42 Japanese
EFL students,aged18-20.
(iii) MC-PT:
7 maleand 17femaleaged19-22,half of whom overlapped
24 British undergraduates:
with theabove24 British students.
20 (5 male; 15female)newJapanese
ESL aged22-45.
The totalsof NSsandESL were44.
Timeandlocation
December,1999 for (1), (2) (i) and (iii) at the School of English Studiesat the University of
Nottingham;May, 2000for (2) (ii) at Kobe GeijutsuKoka University.
Procedure
The pilot tests,take-hometype tests,exceptfor WAT-2, were distributedto the British studentsby
the tutorsin the Schoolof EnglishStudiesat the Universityof Nottinghamand collectedby them.
The authordistributedtheteststo theJapanese
ESL andEFL, andcollectedthemherself.
4.2. PILOTTESTING OFTHE MC TESTS

4.2-1. TEST OF WORD ASSOCIATIONS or WAT
A multiple choicetype WAT
In order to obtain quantitative data from WAT, the descriptive (association
soliciting) type test in
the preparatory test in Study 1 was converted into a multiple choice type
where examinees
102
discriminatedunrelatedwordsfrom relatedwordsin responseto the targetandthe otherchoices.
In the descriptivetype test in Study 1, there were 52 prompt words (stimulus) (18 adjectives,22
nouns including the words which sharethe same or more word classes,and 12 verbs). Each word
has physical, psychological and/or sensory meanings, which aimed at discovering JapaneseEFL
students' comprehensionof the depth of vocabulary. After the responsesin the descriptive type
test in Study 1 were surveyed, 20 words (an almost equal ratio of syntagmatic and paradigmatic
stimuli and an almost equal number of word classes(i. e. 5 nouns, one noun-adjective, 8 adjectives
and 6 verbs) were selected based upon the clarity and majority of the answers. For example,
absorb (v. ) was selectedand classified into an item in the syntagmatic group, becausethere were
more collocational (syntagmatic) answers in the descriptive type test, such as absorb+alcohol and
+water than paradigmatic (synonymous) answers such as soak (up) and take (take in or up).
Using the same method, the 20 words were selectedfrom the 52. The selected20 words were
absorb, anger, bake, black break, burden, cool, create, deliver, distance, huge, loud, mad, mood,
rigid, sharp, smooth, sorrow, strike and warm. The words belonging to the syntagmatic group
were absorb, loud, sharp, smooth, deliver, create, mood, bake, strike, warm and the other words
belonging to the paradigmatic group were anger, black, break, distance, huge, rigid, sorrow, mad,
burden and cool. These 20 words were used as targets(stimuli) in a multiple WAT (the example is
shown below). Another 10 words from the remaining 32 were again used as a descriptive type
WAT in Study 2.
After the 20 words of word associationsin multiple choice questions (absorb, anger, bake,
black, break, burden, cool, create, deliver, distance, huge, loud, mad, mood, rigid, sharp, smooth,
sorrow, strike, and wann) were tested,they were classified into two categories,i. e. the syntagmatic
and the paradigmatic,depending upon the relationship between the stimulus and the options.
Whethera specificword wasusedin the syntagmaticor the paradigmaticfields wasdecidedby
the answersgiven in the preparatorytest. It was sometimeshard to draw a line betweenthe
syntagmaticand the paradigmatic. However, the reasonsgiven for the strongest/deepest
associationswritten in a column of the descriptivetest, to some extent, indicated into which
category their answersmost likely fitted. The other problem was to discover a proper
classificationof the two categories(fields). I classifiedthe answersbasedupon the following
concepts,that is, the answersclassifiedasbelongingin the syntagmaticfield werethosedependent
on syntacticand grammaticalelements(collocations,such as a noun phrase(adjective+noun),a
phrasal verb (verb+noun) and noun/verb +function word(s) before or after, while in the
paradigmaticfield were those answerswhich seemedto come from the paradigms,that is,
and
categorical conceptual ideasand those of similarity, contiguity (synonyms),the contrastive
oppositepair or opposites(antonyms),the attributestfeatures
addedor deleted,and others. The
exampleof absorbwasstatedin the part of the preparatorytest The furtherexampleof the word
103
angercould be cited here. As the word anger is a noun, therewere more synonymousanswers,
suchasfury, rage and violence,which made me decideto use this word for a questionin the
paradigmaticfield in the pilot andmain tests. These 20 wordswereclassifiedinto oneof the two
fields:thesyntagmaticandthe paradigmatic,of which 11words belongto the syntagmaticand9 to
theparadigmatic.
All of the vocabularyusedin thesetwo testswere checkedfor their frequencylevel in the
vocabularylists of the MonbushoCourseof StudyGuideline(1997/1999)and English Course1

(1992),oneof themostpopularhigh schoolEnglishtextbooks,sothatan equalbalanceof high and
low frequencyfor Japanese
EFL studentscouldbe guaranteed.
The format and instruction of a multiple choice type WAT is as follows.

In eachitem, there are four words listedafter the target word. Three words out of four are
strongly linked to the target word and to the other three words, but a fourth one is not.
Put a cross on the one that is not linked to either the target word or the other three words.
Exmnple: 'IYhetarget word: grieve: 1( ) mourn 2( ) cry 3(X) smile 4( ) weep
1.ahso br: 1( )aboohol 2( )diet 3( )heat 4( )water

2.1( )fury 2( )mistake 3( )rage 4( )violence
3. bake: 1( ) bread 2( ) cake 3( ) oven 4( )potatoes
4. black: 1( )cat 2( )death 3( )night 4( )white

5. real : 1( ) close 2( ) crack 3( ) destroy 4( ) smash
6. burden: 1( ) ease 2( ) load 3( ) stress 4( ) worry
7. g2a- 1( )calm 2( )exciting 3( )sweet 4( )trendy
8. create:1( ) design 2( ) dictionary 3( ) mood 4( ) story
9. deliver. 1( )baby 2( )man 3( )speech 4( )package

10. distance: 1( )car 2( )Journey 3( )length 4( )rni'les
11.huge: 1( ) enormous 2( ) gigantic 3( ) massive 4( ) minute

12.ice: 1( ) dnunn 2( ) music 3( ) novel 4( ) voice
13. naa: 1( )angry 2( )crazy 3( )dangerous 4( )hot
14.E : 1( )aura 2( )bad 3( )good 4( )sad
dEdd: 1( ) firm 2( ) hard 3( ) square 4( ) stiff
16. b: 1( ) knife 2( ) pencil 3( ) razor 4( ) niler
17.snooht: 1( ) marble 2( )Sandpaper 3( ) silk 4( ) skin

18. r vw.1( ) anguish 2( ) grief 3( ) pain 4( ) rejoice
19.strike: 1( ) bell 2( ) gold 3( ) hammer 4( )iron
20.warm: 1( )exercise 2( tunper 3( )milk 4( )weather
104
4.2-2. RESULTS AND ANALYSES OF WAT
Results and analysis of a multiple choice type WAT
The distribution of the intended answersis shown in Figure 4-1. The syntagmaticcategory is
groupedon the left and the paradigmatic on the right with spacebetween. Both groups are placed
in the order from the higher agreementof answersto the lower. The Iabsorb:dietl at the baseof
the graph indicatesthat the intendedanswerto absorb is diet, and the sameapplied to other items.
Figure 4-1 Distribution of the intendedanswersin WAT (%)
O 24 English NSs
10 Japanese ESL
wGr 0 A. 40 L 4p N
y d L.
4 L. L 4 4p IA Z
w X 4 0

a
G N > > N 0 iP t i0 U y
E
0 L a : d cdr v
L a d O L'
x E
Y E '
i vv
w0 4 7 L } Y
rp
t x0 0
-21
40 M E t
jb Q 7
t M 72 E L L
M 'A Y d 7
} y L (0 C J2 L L. a
0 i0 4
E L 'A
IA U
The general overview of the distribution of the intended answers was that the Japanesestudents'
answers were dispersedover the choices, while those of the native speakersinclined towards the
intended answers. There was no 100% agreement to any of the options by the Japanese. If
there were, the test would have been too easy, therefore, it should be reconsidered. The answers
which gained the 100 % agreementby the native English speakerswere absorb, loud, sharp and
smooth in the syntagmatic category, and anger, break, huge, rigid and sorrow in the paradigmatic.
The items with more than 90% agreementswere deliver (96%), create (92%) in the syntagmatic
and mad (96%) in the paradigmatic,while those ranging from 89% to 71% were mood (79%), bake
(75%), black (75%), strike (75%) and warm (71%) in the syntagmatic; burden (83%),
cool (71%)
105
and distance (71%) in the paradigmatic. Thus, those that obtained more than the 90% agreement
by the NSs were usablein the final test as they were. However, some reconsiderationand revision
on the agreementbelow 89% were necessary. These were the options for the target words: bake,
black, burden, cool, distance, mood, strike and warm. Among these words, the word burden had
the highest agreement(83%). I consulted two British language teachers. They assuredme that
the item and its options worked well, therefore, there was no revision made to this item. The other
revisions to the target words and their options were made and tested on British undergraduatesat
another time. The revisions are shown below. At this stage, the target word deleted from the
pilot test was cool, becausethere was some ambiguity among the options [calm, exciting, sweet,
trendy]. The word calm would take its place in the test. Another target word imagine was added,
becausethere should be more verbs in the test. The options for the target words (bake, black, calm,
distance, imagine, mood, strike and wann) were tested on 11 new British NSs of the School of
English Studiesat the University of Nottingham in January,2000 and the following revisions were
made.
Revisions to a target word and the options for the target words (stimuli)
Some options for the target words (stimuli) were not appropriate, as stated above. For
example, the options for the stimulus bake in the pilot test are [bread, cake, oven and potatoes].
The word bake was classified into the syntagmatic category, becausethere were more collocational
answersin the preparatorytest in Study 1, such as cake (syntagmatically collocates to bake: 43%),
oven (syntagmatic/paradigmatic:29%), cook (paradigmatic: 14%) and butter (the answers seemed
to belong to the paradigmatic: 14%) (the answersseemedto belong to either the syntagmatic or the
paradigmatic: 14%). What made this classification possible was the reasonsthat the respondents
gave for the strongest/deepestassociations. The word oven was the intended answer, becausein
the caseof oven a function word is necessary(e.g. in the oven), while the other words are collocated
without any word intervention between. The word bake collocates easily with bread, cake and
potatoes in the pattern of S+V. However, the result of the test showed that native speakers'
association(i. e. semanticfield) in this casewas tightly interwoven regarding the relationship of the
words, bake, oven, bread and cake. This probably caused the answers to be divergent, and
therefore in anotherretestthe options were changedto [bread, cake,pot, potatoes] and [bread, cake,
fish, potatoes]. However, the answer to the former options was too obvious and the
one to the
latter too confusing for Japanese,becausebake, grill, toast, etc. are all `yaku' in Japanese. Thus it
seemedto be better to have the original options.

The target words to be reexamined were bake, black, calm, distance,
mood, strike, burden,
warm and imagine. The results (%) of the items were listed in contrasting those in the pilot test
(A) with the resultsof 11 new subjects' answers(B).
106
The resultsof theitemsreexamined:
hake
(A)Thepilatoatl( )bread 2( )rake 3oven(x) 4( )potatoes...75%
(B)Answasgivmby11newsubjeas1( )biswits 2( Yxead 3( )cake 4(x)oven... 91%
black:
(A)Thepildtar 1( )mot 2( )deah 3( )night 4(x )white 75%

...
(B)Answasgiveaby11newsubjeur1( )cat 2( )dnm 3( )ie 4( x)white... 91%
mol (71%)iathepilattestwas convenedto dm.

.
rdlm: 1(x)exdting 2( )peaoa'ul 3( )quiet 4( )e1 1 ... 91%
dist21
(A)Thepilotoc 1(x)ca 2( 3( length 4( )miles... 71%
(B) Answersgiven by 11 new subjects:1(x) direction 2( )pu rvey 3( )length 4( )odes... 100%
mmd:
(A)Thepilottat 1(x)nra 2( bad 3( )good 4( )sad 8O%

...
(B)Answersgiveaby 11 new subjects:1( )bad 2( )sappy 3(x )bad 4( )good 100%

...
9 kr
(A)Thepilomst 1( )bell 2( )gold 3(x )hammer 4( )ran... 75%
(B)Answeisgivenbyllnewsubjects 1( )bell 2(x)pm 3( )hammer 4( ion 100%

...
teachers(nirive English speakers} They
him-len (83%) in the pilac test was tested on two 1mnguage geedon the intended
'then'ace,nod angewasmade.
answer'ease,
(A)Tkiepilott 1(x)eceiose 2( jumper 3( )Wilk 4( )weaha... 71%
besam theanswercaiowaslessthan9046andceplaoad
wasdeleted,
(B)TInsadjective by a vab imWin Andherteon
wastbgtdHxeshouldbemcrevgbsinthetes.Thetesultoftbenewtageiwasshownbelow.
imagin
(B)Answasgwenby 11newsubjedsl( )dream 2(x }speak 3( )suppose 4( ) bink... 100%
The formatof thetestfor a revisedversionwasthe sameasin theformertest. The testitemswere

absorb,anger, bake,black, break,burden, calm,create,deliver,distance,huge,imagine,loud, mad,
mood,rigid, sharp,smooth,sorrowandstrike. The revisedWAT is shownin Appendix4-1.
A descriptive(associationsoliciting) type WAT

The other 10 words(barren,defend,digest,discussion,empty,heart,hot,pure, poor and
vivid)
of the original 52 were usedagainas stimuli in the WAT for a descriptivetype in the pilot tests.
The formatof thetestwasthe sameasthat in the preparatorytestin Study 1.
107
Resultsand analysisof a descriptive(associationsoliciting) type WAT
First a categoricalclassificationwas considered. The WAT descriptivetype consisted
of 10 words:6 adjectives(barren, empty,hot, poor, pure and vivid), 2 verbs (defendand
digest), and 2 nouns (discussion and heart). The reason for the larger number of the
adjectives used here was that adjectives seemed to have more soliciting tendencies. The
answerswere classified into the syntagmatic and the paradigmatic groups, and also into the
following sub-groups. The sub-groupsof the syntagmatic was abbreviatedas the s; the sub-
groupsof the paradigmaticwere as the pc (categorical and conceptual ideas),the ps (the ideas
of contiguity, similarity and synomym), the pp (contrastrastiveopposite pair, opposite), the pa
(antonym), the pf (attributes/featuresadded or deleted) and others (e.g. illegible, etc.). The
detailed resultswere to be shown later in the sectionsof General and Specific features.
The distributionof the answersof the 10 words (6 adjectives,2 verbsand 2 nouns)and
their syntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationis shownin Figure4-2.
Generaland specificfeatures
The generalfeature of both of the native speakers'and the Japaneseanswerswas that their
answers belonged more to the paradigmatic field. The Japanese answers appeared
frequently in the paradigmatic field as shown in the Figure 4-2, but the fact was that their
answerswere not as systematicas the native speakers'.

A specific feature of the native speakers'answers was that in the syntagmatic field, they
produced more answers in collocation in verbs, such as digest + food, while those of the
JapaneseESL did not show a specific feature in verbs. Their answersdiverged from eat to
stomach, etc. (the paradigmatic) and there was no such collocational answer as digest +
information which appearedin the NSs' responses. Another native speakers'featureswas
that nouns in the paradigmatic answers showed the similar demography as the Japanese.
The Japaneseanswersseemedto be more paradigmatic but this did not necessarilymean that
their answers were rich in content The reason for a large number of the Japanese
paradigmaticanswerswas that they answeredthe words which were associatedwith attributes

or features,for example, in discussion, they associatedit with the location where discussion
takes place (seminar and meeting,etc.), and in heart, they associatedit with attributes of heart
(love and mind, etc). Additionally, a greater number of subjects would
produce a different
result
108
Figure4-2 Distributionofthe answersto the ten target words (%) (N=24 EnglishNSs;10 JapaneseESL)
O6 adjectives
85
vl J L]
t2
)
a V
)
W W
cV lb E rd Q)
E CA 0
CL
Lei l C e CL
L-1
M
_
C
Vd rd -13 Ed rd
(L)
'n rd Cl
vii
z z
Syntagmatic Paradigmatic
The ratio of the syntagmatic/paradigmatic categories

Table 4-1 shows the resultsof the ratio of the syntagmatic and paradigmatic answers.
Table 4-1 The ratio (%) of the syntagmatic/paradigmatic answers to
the 10 target/stimulus words in the pilot test (NS--24; J.ESL=10)
category syntagmatic paradigmatic

word class/subjects N.S. J:ESL N.S. J:ESL
6 adjectives 34 48 66 52
2 verbs 33 20 67 80
2 nouns 21 14 79 86
Total:10words 31 36 69 64
Table 4-1 indicatesthat the syntagmatic and paradigmatic ratio of the native speakerswas 3.1
to 6.9, while that of the Japanesewas slightly different (3.6 to 6.4). If subjects were not as
advanced as the examinees who answered this test, then the result would be different.
Greaterlanguageproficiencynormallyleadsto moreparadigmaticanswers.
As a whole the number of paradigmatic answerswas larger than those of the syntagmatic
(approx. 70% vs. 30%), while the results of verbs and nouns were different between the two
subjects.
109
The word classes
The word classes
of thefirst in
answer the 10targetwords(stimuli) areshownin Tables4-
2and43.
The word classesof the NSs' responses
to the adjectiveswere equally divided between
nouns (in collocation,i.e. syntagmatic)and adjectives(in synonymysor antonyms,i.e.
paradigmatic). On the other hand,the Japaneseresponses tendedto be more to nouns(in
i.
collocation, e. syntagmatic,suchas hot + noun andpoor + noun)thanto adjectives. In the
caseof the verbs,the nativespeakers'answerswere alsoequallydivided betweenverbsand
answerswerelinked moreto nouns.
nouns,but theJapanese
Table4-2&43 Thewad dassof the 1stanswerinthe10tacgetwofds

(%)
Table 4-2 Native speakers of English (N=24)
noun adjective verb others zero ans.

6 adjectives 50 49 0 1 0
2 verbs 52 2 46 0 0
2 nouns 82 0 15 2 0
Total: 10 words 58 30 11 1 0
Table 4-3 Japanese ESL students (N=10)
noun adjective verb others zero ans.

6 adjectives 67 27 0 2 5
2 verbs 70 0 25 5 0
2 nouns 75 5 15 5 0
Total: 10 words 69 17 8 3 3
In general,the nounsstimulatedmore answersin the associations

of the nounswith other
(i.
nouns e. content words). For example, the word discussion stimulated synonymous
argument (as a synonym of debate and discussion) both in the native speakers' (80%) and in
the Japaneseanswers(75%), although there was a considerabledifference in the content of the
answers. For example,in the caseof Japanese,there was no such word as debate or
communicationgiven asanswers.It was probablybecausethe Japanese
avoid argumentative
communicationin their daily life. The answerssuggested
theJapanese
schemaof this word.
In this sense,it may be a cultureboundword.
Overall featuresof the 10 stimuli

The resultsandfindingsof the 6 adjectives(barren,empty,hot,poor,
pure and vivid), the
2 verbs(defendanddigest)and the 2 nouns(discussionand heart) are
now discussedwith a
specialfoci on the generalfeaturesof the 6 adjectivesfirst and then on the other 4 stimuli,
110
followed by the interpretationsof the results.
Figures4-3 and 4-4 show the features of the 6 adjectives. The abbreviations in Figures
are as follows: the s standsfor the sub-groupsof the syntagmatic, the pc for the sub-groupsof
the paradigmatic (categorical and conceptual ideas), the ps for the ideas of contiguity,
similarity and synomym, the pp for contrastrastive opposite pair, or opposite, the pa for
antonym, the pf for attributes/featuresadded or deleted,and others (e.g. illegible, etc.).
Figure 4-3: 6 adjectives: British NS (n=24)
barren
14
empty
PC
Ps
-*-- pp
K pa
-a- Pf
hot
Figure 4-4: 6 adjectives: Japanese ESL (n=10)

barren
The overallfeaturesof thenativeEnglishspeakers'responses werethatthe adjectives
vivid andempty occurmore in the and
syntagmatic in the fields
paradigmatic andtheadjective
pure in the while
paradigmatic, the of
responses the Japanese
ESL showedthat the adjective
hot accumulatedthe majority of the syntagmaticanswersand that the adjectivepure was
more in the paradigmatic. Specific featuresof each item focussingon collocation,the
semanticfieldsandimagesare briefly summarisedin the following section.
For the verbs defend and digest, the paradigmatic (synonymous) answerswere provided
more by the NSs, for example, protect or fight. The Japanesealso provided a synonymous
protect. The contents of the answers were quite different. The NSs' answers tended
toward human rights, while those of Japanesewere sports related, for example, football or
offence. The NSs' answers to the digest were syntagmatic, the Japaneseanswers were
divergent.
There were more paradigmatic (synonymous) answers given by the NSs for the nouns
discussionand heart. The featuresof the Japaneseanswers were associationswith attributive
elements,for example, class or meeting. The noun heart stimulated more reaction to nouns.
This tendency was shared by both groups. The tendencies in eliciting nouns by nouns
sharedsimilar phenomenain the two nouns.
Specificfeatures:the collocations,the semanticfields and the images

Specific figures with interpretations of syntagmatic and paradigmatic features of the 10
target items (Figures 4-5 to 4-14) are shown in Appendises4-2.
Briefly, the NSs' responseswere systematic, while most of the ESL Japanesediverged, as
provided in the stimuli discussion and heart. Furthermore the syntagmatic/paradigmaticratio
was quite similar. It may have resultedfrom the linguistic capacity of the ESL subjects. They
have more exposureto English than EFL subjects.
As for the semanticfields and imagesfound in the responses,

the following summarycan be
made. The similar (or almostsimilar) tendencies discovered both in the NSs' and the ESL
Japanesearefor the stimuli empty,hot, vivid, poor and digest. In the responses to empty,the
spaceand containerimages were prominent; in the caseof hot, it was sensoryphysicalfeelings;
in the caseof vivid, dynamic(clear, strongand bright) imagesand allusionsto colourswere
evident;in the caseof poor, therewere imagesof materialisticpoverty;in the caseof digest,the
field
semantic of (i.
physical e. eat)andmental(i.e. understand)
connotationwaspreeminent.
The stimuli showing considerabledifferenceswere defend, discussionand heart. The
responsesto defendprobably indicatedculturaldifferences:

for the NSs the word stimulatedtheir
images of human rights, while the ESL studentspossibly imagined
sports scenes. The
discussionalsorelatedto culturalelementsnot only in the sensethat it
elicitedthe contents(or
112
synonymous images) of the but
discussions that the ESL studentsimagined the attributive
featuresof the word, e.g. the placewherethe discussiontook place. The NSs' imagesof the
word heart tendedtowardthe functionsof the heartand the hierarchical

systemand something
to
relating emotion. The ESL displayed
Japanese the emotionrelatedimages,e.g. `love' and
`mind.'
in-betweenof beingsimilaranddifferentarebarren
The stimuli which elicitedthe responses
andpure. The similaritysharedbetweenthe two partieswasthat of a spaceimage. As stated
the
earlier, ratio of the in
responses
unanswered barren was high. The imagesof pure seemed
similar. The imagined
respondents from
ìnnocence' this word, hencethe colour `white' was
elicited. These results provided me with considerable background information for selecting
target words when I compiled a polysemy test.
4.2-3. POLYSEMYTEST or Pol f

The 10 words in the PolyT were from the 52 words in the initial WAT: 6 adjectives (barren,
empty,hot, poor, pure and vivid), 2 verbs (defend and digest) and 2 nouns (discussionand heart).
The resultsof the responsesto these 10 words in the descriptive WAT has already beendiscussed
above.
These 10 words are polysemous and most of them belong to high frequency vocabulary,
although barren and vivid belong to low frequency, and digest is probably in-between high and
low for JapaneseEFL students. We must pay attention to Meara's caution in using high
frequency words (Schmitt, 1997). He claims that in the caseof high frequency words, we are
unableto tell whether the answerscome from L2 or from LI translation, and that the associations
may change as the learners advance in the target language. However, if most of the words in
the test were not high frequency, EFL studentswould not be able to answer the questions, and
the resultswould then be meaningless. Therefore most of the words in this study belong to the
high frequency vocabulary range. The format of PolyT was the same as that in Study 1. The
subjects were the same 24 British NSs and 10 JapaneseESL The results were as follows.
The answersprovided by the NSs accumulated 100% correct answers. Those by JapaneseESL
were shown in Table 4-4. In the table the numbers (1) and (2) referred respectively to core
and
secondary(or after secondary)meaningsin the test.
Table4-4 Thecorrectanswerratio(%) of coreandsecondary(or aftersecondary)meaningsin PolyT

ESL)
(N=10Japanese
targetwords barren empty hot poor pure vivid defend digest discussionheart
(1) 80 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
(2) 90 100 90 100 100 80 90 90 90 100
113
In summary,most of the core (or primary) meaningsof the targetwords were interpreted
correctly. Only one word barren in the core meaningand the secondary(or after secondary)
meaningsof barren,hot, vivid, defend,
digestand discussion but fairly
were not perfectlyconnect
well interpreted. These phenomena may have been dueto the ESL students'high accessibilityto
the targetlanguage. These 10 targetwords may well be usedas test items in the PolyT (see
Appendix4-3), althoughit canbe predictedthat EFL studentsmay showdifferentresults.
4.2-4. TEST OF METAPHORICALSENSITIVITY AND SKILLS or MC-XYT

This test originated in Winner, Rosenstieland Gardner (1976), who used the sentencepattern of
An X is an adjective Y, in which an X and aY were nouns in their experiment. The same sentence
patternwas employed in this study and examineeswere asked to write two sentencesusing the target
adjective embeddedinto them: one employed was literal and the other had a figurativelmetaphorical
meaning. This also aimed to measurepolysemy and metaphorical skills, using the combination of
adjectives and nouns. The 8 adjectives, which have primary, physical, psychological and cross-
sensory meanings and which mostly belong to high frequency levels, were selectedfor the pilot test.
They were bright, dark, grey, high, keen, lofty, weak and wild The format and instruction for this
.
test is the sameas in Study I. The resultsare shown in Table 4-5.
Table 4-5 The meanand SDof the 8 target items in the MC-XYT
target words literalor fig/met BritishNSs(Max=1) JapaneseESL(Max-1)
,
mean SD mean SD
bright literal 0.91 0.08 0.72 0.24
fig native/metaphorical 0.88 0.12 0.50 0.28
dark literal 0.85 0.08 ; 0.71 0.19

figuurative/metaphorical 0.83 0.09 0.54 0.34
grey literal 0.80 0.12 0.72 0.28

fig xative/metaphaical 0.77 0.10 0.44 0.34
,
high literal 0.84 0.10 0.68 0.26
flgurative/metaphorical 0.79 0.08 0.50 0.33
keen literal 0.81 0.15 : 0.64 0.36

figuative/metaphorical 0.60 0.28: 0.29 0.36
lofty literal 0.72 0.20 0.25 0.32
,
figuative/metaphorical 0.64 0.30 ' 0.15 0.23
weak literal 0.74 0.20 0.65 0.31

fig=We/metaphorical 0.75 0.25 : 0.43 0.38
wikl literal 0.80 0.12 0.60 0.32
!
fixative/metaphorical 0.74 0.22.0.47 0.40
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of the meansbetweenthe literal and figurative/metaphoricalusesand
The discrepancies
thoseof SDsby NSscomparedwith thoseof JapaneseESL weresmaller. The discrepancies of
themeansandSDsof JapaneseESL studentswere greater,especiallythe meandiscrepancies
of
greyandkeen. The means
of lofty in the figurative/metaphorical
were lowest.
Revisionsto the pilot MC-XYT

From the answers in the pilot test, I noticed two problems. The first was an ambiguous
instruction. The use of the word "figuratively" was too broad. Therefore, the instruction in
the main test would becomemore precise,i. e. "metaphorically" insteadof "figuratively". Some
explanation of simile and metaphor should also be added. The other problem was the target
words. The number of target words in Study 2 was less than the preparatory test becauseof the
time constrainton examinees. The 8 words (bright, dark, grey, high, keen, lofty, weak and wild)
were used in the pilot test basedupon their easeand usability for JapaneseEFL students. There
was still a problem in the selectionof words, such as keen and lofty. As shown in the results in
Table 4-5, their means were lower than that of the other words. These two words are low
frequency for JapaneseEFL. Therefore, only six words, omitting keen and lofty, would be used
for JapaneseEFL examinees.
The answersin the literal andmetaphoricalproductiontestwererated/judgedby threenative

speakersof English. Theseratingswould be usedasbenchmarksin orderto judge the creativity
of EFL
Japanese students.
4.2-5. TESTSOF LITERAUMETAPHORICAL PASSAGEINTERPRETATIONor MC-RT

The passageswritten in Study 1 were usedasthe MC-RT. The purposeandthe format of
the testwerethe sameasin Study 1. The ratingsof the answersfor this testwere madeby the
author.
The target expressionsand idioms (Thefull textswerelistedin Appendix4.4.)

(1) A little pot is soonhot.
(2) Therottenappleinjuresits neighbours.
(3) a pain in theneck
(4) to be off one'shead
(5) to countheads
(6) to hold one'sheadhigh
(7) to let thecat out of thebag
115
(8) to stand in someone'sway
(9) Wakenot a sleepinglion.

(10)Fish stinksat thehead.
(11) You cannot eat your cake and have your cake.
4.2-6. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF MC-RT
and idiomsdo not belongin the low frequencycategory,

The vocabularyof thesesentences
though if they are embeddedin the passages,there may be some risk that EFL learnerswill not
fully understand them. All of the passagesembedded with the target expressions were
distributed to 24 NSs and 10 JapaneseESL studentsto interpret (paraphrase)in order to examine
whether or not there were problematic expressions. Fortunately more than one answer
(paraphrasing)could be obtainedfrom both the NSs and JapaneseESL (except for item 5). All
of the NSs interpretedthe passagescorrectly. The passagescontaining (1) to (11), excluding (5)
(which one NS said she had never heard of, even though her answer was correct), were
interpreted with 100 % accuracy by the NSs. It could be estimated that NSs or those highly
proficient in English might not have interpretation problems and that the initial validity of the
passageswas guaranteed. Some problems were found in the answers provided by ESL
students, as summarised below. However, this misunderstanding did not mean that these
were
passages not usable for the test, becausethere should be a variety of levels of expressions
ranging from high to low frequency in and familiarity with words and idioms.
The misunderstandingby one Japanese(ESL) studentwas of the following idioms and proverb:
(4) to be of one'shead in the literal passage:it was taken for remember.
(6) to hold one's head high : an ambiguity was found in the interpretation in the literal passage
(That's their life).
(7) to let thecat out of thebag : the interpretations

in theliteral andfigurativemeanings
werethe same(Shewould like to tell secretto others;Shecannotkeepsecret).

(8) to stand in someone'sway : the interpretation in the figurative was wrong (He has to
speakwith audiencestanding in front of Thompson).

(11) Youcannoteatyour cakeand haveyour cake.(this was interpretedasa positivemeaningin
the literal passage).Possiblereasonsfor misunderstandingin the above answersmay have
involvedidiomatic expressions. More investigationin a new study into idiomatic expressions
seemsnecessary.
4.2-7. TESTSOF UTERAUMETAPHORICAL PASSAGEWRITING MC-PT

or
I noticedthat there should be more test items for the MC tests. Therefore,
additional
116
responsesto new passageswith the same purpose were collected from 24 British (half of them
were new) and 20 new ESL respondents in the pilot test. All of the 11 test items were
distributed. The researcher required her questionnaire to be distributed to a nearly equal
number of respondents,but in fact she had no control over the distribution. As a matter of fact,
there was only one responseavailable for items (12), (13) and (22) from a single JapaneseESL
subject Answers were measuredon a3 point scale(the same as in Chapter 3) by the author.
The additionalexpressionsridioms
were
(12) Although the sun shines,leave not your cloak at home.
(13) If you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom.
(14) The bird hasf lown away.
(15) to cometo a head
(16) to keepone'shead above water
(17) to keepone'sheaddown
(18) to spill thebeans
(19) to tell someonewhere to get off
(20) to throw out the baby with the bath water
(21) to seewhich way the cat jumps
(22) to take a leaf out of (someone's)book
The results of the test were as follows.

No NSs' answers were problematic. Among the
answersprovided by the JapaneseESL, items 12,13,14,14,17

and 21 were not problematic. Item
19 showed no problem in the literal but the average in the figurative/metaphorical answer was
1.7. Items 16,20 and 22 showed a full point in the literal but a null in the
figurative/metaphorical answer. Zero points were ratedin items 15 and 18. We shouldpay
attentionto the idiomatic hereagain.
expressions
These22 passages are potentialtest itemsfor comprehensionand useof English literal and
which will be usedasthe receptiveandthe productivetestsin Study3.
metaphoricalexpressions,
4.3. CONSIDERATIONFOR USABILITY OFTHETESTS FORAN EFL SITUATION

To measuresubjects' vocabulary depth I proposed WAT and PolyT. The WAT for NSs
and
ESL students did not seem to be problematic. Further considerations
were how EFL subjects
reacted to this test and whether or not both the WAT and Po1)TI'were administered to the same
subjects,especiallyin view of the time limitation. The revised WAT (i. e. WAT-2), Poly'I'
and VLT
were administeredto 42 JapaneseEFL subjects. The format was the same as in that for NSs
and
117
ESL. The resultsof theVLT, PolyTandWAT areshownin Table4-6.
Table4-6 MeansandStandardDeviationsof the VLT,PolyTandWAT

Tests N Mean S. D.
VLT (120 points) 42 76.27 19.81
PolyT(20 points) 42 11.41 3.64
WAT(20 points) 42 11.33 3.92
The meansof the PolyT and WAT revealedsimilar resultsand the standarddeviationof
PolyTwasslightly smallerthanthe WAT's. From thesedata,eitherof PolyT or WAT seemed
to be usable. The following resultscanbe alsotakeninto considerationwhenchoosing.
In this pilot test,respectivetestitemsfrom the MC-RT (Wakenot a sleepinglion) and MC-
PT (Thebird hasflown away)were administered. The MC testsincludethe MC-RT andMC-
PT (6 pointsin total). Table4-7 showsthePearsoncorrelationcoefficientsof the4 tests.
Table4-7 Correlationcoefficientsof the MC tests,VLT, PoI F andWAT

Tests MCtests 'LT PdyT WAT
MCtests 1.0000 6695* 6656* 2801 *
. . .
(42) (42) (42) (42)
p. P-.000 p. 000 p.072
VLT 1.0000 8170* 4764*
. .
(42) (42) (42)
P-. p.000 p.001
PolyT I 1.0000 3687*

.
(42) (42)
P-- p. 013
WAT 1.0000
(42)
K-
/* pc05
(coefficient/(cases)
The correlationcoefficientsin the tablerevealedthatthe MC testspositivelycorrelatedwith theVLT

(0.669)andthe Pol) T (0.666)and that the correlationsbetweenthe WAT and the VLT (0.476)and
betweenthe WAT and the Polg (0.369) were not as strong as the former correlations. More
importantly,the correlationbetweenthe MC testsand the WAT showeda non-significantresult
(0.280). From theseresultsit appearsthat the subjects'lexical abilities,i.e. vocabularyknowledge,
suchasvocabularysizeandpolysymyability, might relatemoreto the understanding

of metaphorical
than
expressions word knowledge.
association
The final considerationwas the practicability of the tests. I noticed that the
subjects' anxiety
about the WAT was high. They mentioned that the WAT was difficult to answer. They said that
118
it was too complicated. And, it took them more time than the other tests. Taking the students'
anxiety toward the test into account,and also considering the effects of polysemy ability, as statedin
Chapter2, which may help stimulate and promote semantic extensionsand networking from words
to words, I decidedto use PolyT insteadof WAT to measuresubjects' vocabulary depth, basedalso
upon the result of non-significant correlation of WAT with MC.
4.4. CONCLUSION
The WAT, Pol)FF,MC-XYT, MC-RT and MC-PF were testedon British NSs and Japanese
ESL subjects. Though the number of subjectswas small, I was able to refine my tests in
for
preparation thenextstudy.
Both a multiple choice and a descriptive WAT was piloted on the NS and ESL subjects. The
revision of the WAT was tested on 42 JapaneseEFL These students displayed a negative
attitude toward the WAT, while they did not show any negative feelings to the Pol}'T. The main
reasonseemedto result from the characteristicsof the test, i. e. paradigmatic or syntagmatic rules
necessaryin answering. Those who could not find such rules may have felt helpless. As a
matter of fact, one studentwho had the highest VLT score intuitively found a rule to employ, but
the rest of the studentscould not. The WAT seemedto be suitable for those who have good
vocabulary knowledge. However, the PolyT seemed to be accepted by ordinary students. In
this sense,it can be used as a test to measurethe depth of the target words. In a sense,the WAT
informed the developmentof the PolyT, but did not prove suitable as a stand-alonetest in its own
right.
The target words of the MC-XYT revealed some problems, therefore, the problematic words
will be excluded in the main tests. Although the MC-RT and the MC-PT may require additional
revisions in the main tests, the answers in these tests did help in choosing for expressions or
passageswhich are suitablefor the MC-RT or the MC-PT.
Basedupontheaboveresults,theformationof the new testscanbe summarisedasfollows.

(1) WAT: a multiplechoicetypeformedin the pilot studyto measurean associativeability
may be oneof theoptions. However,it hasseveralweaknessasa testfor EFL subjects:
(i) therewasno significantcorrelationwith the MC tests,(ii) studentscould not do it well
nor did they like it and(iii) theremay havebeensomeproblems(e.g. syntagmaticor
paradigmaticdistinction)in thetestitems. As a result,it wasonly usedto inform Pol)1T.
(2) PolyT:the 10targetwordsexaminedin the pilot studyto measureknowledge the depth
of
of words. This testis usableto measurevocabularydepth.
(3) MC-XYT: the6 targetadjectivesto measurethe literal and
metaphoricalskills of
manipulationsof the targetadjectivesembeddinginto a conceptualmetaphorpattern,X is Y,
119
are usableas test items.
from the piloted22, which areembeddedin the literaland
(4) MC-RT: the 11expressions
are
metaphoricalpassages, for
usable measuring
a receptiveability, i. e. interpretation.
(5) MC-FT: the 11 expressionsfrom the piloted 22 to ask examineesto embed into passages
literal and metaphoricalmeaningsare usablefor measuring a productive ability, i.e.
controlledwriting.
for the receptivetest,i.e. the MC-RT andthe productive

The respective11targetexpressions
test,i.e. MC-PT, will be introducedin the earlysectionsof Chapter5.
120
CHAPTER 5
STUDY 3: ASSESSING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:
FIRST EXECUTION OF THE MAIN TESTS (Testing of the MC tests)
5.1. THE PURPOSEOF STUDY 3

In Study 3, the testsof metaphoricalcompetencedesignedin the previous studieswill
be testedon JapaneseEFL students,and the results will be analysedand discussed. The
overall objectives of the tests are to assessEFL students' metaphorical competence(i. e.
their ability to understand and use English metaphorical expressions),to specify the
principal component(s) or factor(s) affecting their metaphoricalunderstandingand use,and
to discoverwhether or not there are relationships betweentheir metaphoricalcompetence
and linguistic competence,such as vocabulary size and depth. More specifically, the study
intends to investigate EFL students' receptive and productive competence of English
metaphoricalexpressions and also to validate the instruments.
measurement
5.1-1. TESTS OF METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

The MC tests and the Pol}1T piloted, revised and validated in a small scale study in Study 2
will be used as measurement instruments for assessing metaphorical competence in Study 3 to

find out whether or not these tests are feasible on a reasonable number of subjects. In Study 2,
22 test items of the MC-RT and MC-PT, and 8 items of MC-XYT were tested on 24 NSs and
10 JapaneseESL students at the preliminary stage. At the revision stage WAT was re-tested
on 11 NSs and 42 Japanese EFL students and MC-PT on 24 NSs and 20 Japanese ESL
students. The pilot indicated that most of the test items selected in Study 2 were usable as
measurement instruments. Other selections for measurement instruments involve vocabulary
size and depth. Vocabulary Levels Test already validated by the compilers (Schmitt, 2000;
Schmitt, Schmitt & Clapham, 2001) will be used as an index test for vocabulary size. The
PolyT was found to be more suitable to use for assessing vocabulary depth of Japaneselearners
of English than the WAT in Study 2.
Researchquestions
The following researchquestionsare investigatedin this study.
1) What kind of metaphorical competence(in receptive and productive modes)do
JapaneseEFL students demonstrate on the tests of metaphorical competence
designedfor this research?
These researchquestions will be investigated using both receptive and productive tests of metaphorical
competence(i.e. MC-RT and MC-PT).
121
2) What mapping and/or networking do Japanese EFL students perform when they
deal with English metaphorical expressions?
This researchquestionwill be investigatedusingthe test of metaphoricalcompetence,i.e. MC-XYT.
3) Is there any relationship between Japanese EFL students' linguistic competence
and metaphorical competence?
This researchquestionwill be investigatedusing datagatheredfrom all of the testsadministeredin this study.
5.1-2. METHOD
Instrumentsand treatmentof data
The following are the tests used in this study and a brief summary of the tests of
metaphorical competence. The statistical data obtained in the study is quantitatively
treated by SPSS 11.0 for Windows. The contents of the answersare also qualitatively
analysed.
Tests used in Study 3

Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT, hereafter) (Schmitt, 2000; Schmitt, Schmitt & Clapham,
2001): the same word levels used in the previous studies (2000 and 3000 word levels).
This test aims to measure subjects' vocabulary breadth and functions as an index for
other tests. The total points allocatedto VLT were 120.

PolysemyTest or Poly'T:the same10 target words usedin the previous study.
This test aims to measure subjects' vocabulary depth. The total points allocated to
PolyT were 20.
Testsof metaphoricalcompetenceor MC tests:
(1) the receptivetest, abbreviatedas MC-RT:
(i) the receptiveliteral part, abbreviatedas MC-RT-L: 3 points
(ii) the receptivemetaphoricalpart, abbreviatedas MC-RT-M: 3 points
(2) the productivetest, abbreviatedasMC-PT:
(i) the productive literal part (MC-PT-L): 3 points
(ii) the productivemetaphoricalpart (MC-PT-M): 3 points
Thesetwo kinds of testsaim to investigatethe receptiveand productive competence
using literal and metaphoricalexpressions.The testsintend to collect data
and
quantitatively qualitatively. As part of investigation,
an interviewis included.
(3) theXYtest,abbreviatedasMC-XYT:
(i) the XY literal part (MC-XYT-L): 3 points
(ii) the XY metaphoricalpart (MC-XYT-M): 3 points
This test aims to discoverwhether or not subjectscan manipulateliteral
and
122
6
metaphoricalexpressionsusing target adjectivesin the sentencepattern `X is an
adjectiveY. ' It also aims to discover what semanticfields they expandstimulated
by the 6 adjectives.
Brief summary of Tests of Metaphorical Competence

SinceVLT and Pol)!T have already been discussedto a great extent in Chapter 3, the
testsof metaphoricalcompetenceare briefly summarisedhere.
The tests of metaphorical competence,MC-tests

The tests of metaphorical competence, MC-tests, consist of the following three types:
(1) the receptive test (MC-RT), which consists of (i) the receptive literal (MC-RT-L) and
(ii) the receptive metaphorical (MC-RT-M) parts; (2) the productive test (MC-PT), which
consists of (i) the productive literal (MC-PT-L) and (ii) the productive metaphorical (MC-
PT-M) part; (3) the XY test (MC-XYT), i. e. the test of metaphorical sensitivity and/or
skills. This also consists of (i) the literal (MC-XYT-L) and (ii) the metaphorical (MC-
XYT-M) parts.
(1) The receptive test, MC-RT and (2) the productive test, MC-PT
The first two types of the tests of metaphorical competence intend to cover two modes:
receptive and productive. They consist of (1) passage interpretation (hence, named
`receptive') and (2) passage writing (hence, named `productive'). In the receptive test,
subjects were asked to paraphrase/interpret a target expression embedded in a short passage,
in one of which the target expression was used literally and the other metaphorically. In
the productive test, subjects were asked to write a pair of passages,into which they literally
and metaphorically embedded a target expression (i. e. a test item) different from the one in
the receptive test. This did not involve creating new metaphors but involved producing
new passages, which is a difficult task for EFL students, and is therefore called a
productive test. These two types of tests are abbreviated as MC-RT and MC-PT
respectively.
Eleven target expressionsin MC-RT

The following were the eleven target expressions(i. e. test items) in MC-RT. The
labels in brackets at the end of a target expression in the list indicate the following
characteristicsof the expressions:"S" shares the similar idea, meaning or connotation
betweenin English and in Japanese;"I" standsfor an idiomatic
or proverbial expression;"I
+" indicates that a passage has a strong contextual support. The format
and the
123
instructionof the testswere the sameasthose in the previous studies.
(1) MC-RT test items 1-11:

R-1 to let the cat out of the bag [I +]
R-2 A little pot is soon hot. [S]
R-3 Fish beginsto stink at the head. [S/IJ
R-4 to stand in someone'sway [I]
R-5 to be off one's head [I]
R-6 a pain in the neck [I]
R-7 Therotten apple injures its neighbours.[S]
R-8 to hold one's head high [S]
R-9 to count heads[S/I]
R-10 Wakenot a sleepinglion. [S]
R-11 You cannoteat cakeand have your cake. [I]
The following is an exampleof the item R1 (to let the cat out of the bag) of MC-RT. In
an actual test, there was no indication of which of the two passages (i. e. passage i. or
passage ii. ) was literal or metaphorical. (seeAppendices 4-4 and 5-1 for the texts from R-
I toR-11)
Example:
Instruction: Write or interpret the meaning of the underlined expression embedded in the following
or in English.
passagein Japanese
Target sentencelidiom:R-1: to let the cat out of the bag
(i)"Mr. Brown's fed up with the cat killing his birds. He says he'sgoing to put it in a bag and drown it,"
she said. "How awful! " Joan replied. "When he's not looking you'll have to let the cat out of the
bW
(ii) "I told Janeeverything." Mickey said.
"I told you shecan'tkeepa secret." Ruth said. "Shealways letsthe cat out of the bag."
This test item is marked with [I +] in the above list. As read in the passage(ii), the
meaning of the target item (she lets the cat out of the bag) has already paraphrased in the
...
preceding sentence (she can't keep a secret). The rest of the passagesin the test contain
medium or subtle implications.
Eleven target expressionsin MC-PT

The following were the eleven target expressions(or test items) in MC-PT. The labels in
bracketsat the end of a target expressionin the list indicate the following characteristics:
124
"C" conveysclear images of movement or situation in the expression;"I" standsfor an
idiomatic or proverbial expression. The format and the instruction of the tests were the
sameasthosein the previous studies.
(2) MC-PT test items 1-11:

P-1 to throw out the baby with the bath water [I]
P-2 to keepone's headdown [Cl! ]
P-3 to seewhich way the cat jumps [C/I]
P-4 to spill the beans[I]
P-5 to keepone's headabovewater [I]
P-6 Although the sun shines,leave not your coat* at home. [GI] *The original word
`cloak' is replacedby the word `coat' becausethe latter is a more familiar word.
P-7 to tell (someone)whereto get off [I]
P-8 If you climb the ladder,you must begin at the bottom. [C]
P-9 Thebird hasflown away. [C]
P-10 to take a leaf out of (someone's)book [I]
P-11 to cometo a head [I]
The following is an example of one of the test items of MC-PT.
Example:
Instruction: Write a pair of short passages,each of which consists of easy sentenceswith the
same target sentence/idiom embedded in it in different contexts (one is literal, and the other
metaphorical). Target sentencelidiom: P-1: to throw out the baby with the bath water
(3) The XY test,MC-XYT

This test aims to measureliteral and metaphorical sensitivity/skills in the sentence
patternof `X is an adjectiveY' using six target adjectiveswhich convey primary, physical,
psychological and/or cross-sensory meanings: bright, dark, grey, high, weak and wild.
This test concernswriting skills, therefore,it comprisespart of the productive test.
In this test, subjectswere askedto write two kinds of sentences,into which an adjective
in
was embedded a sentencepattern of "A(n)/The+ noun is/are (a/am)aaective + noun,"
where in one, the adjective should be used literally and in the other it should have a
metaphoricalconnotation. The adjectivehard was usedas a target word in the instruction
for a literal and a metaphoricalexample. The following is an example.
Instruction:Write two sentences using the targetadjectiveslistedbelow. Use eachadjectivein a literal
sensein one of the sentences (L), and metaphoricallyin the other sentence(M). The format
of the
sentenceis A/An/TheX(noun) isa(n) acfiectiveY(noun)asshown in the examples. (Do not usesimiles
in which like is usedin the comparison,i.e. The prison guard is il
a hard rock'.)
125
Example: Target word: hard Literal: The object on the table is a hard stone.
Metaphorical:Milke Tyson's musclesarehard steel.
Consideration of the allocation of the tests

As is often the case,the number of available subjects and time is a problem. The
estimatedtotal number of subjectsfor this study ranged around 100 and the available time
was one classperiod (90 minutes in total). It seemedto be hard to administer all 22 test
items of MC-RT and MC-PT to all the subjectsdue to time constraint, therefore,a certain
schemewas taken: a combination of one MC-RT item and one MC-PT item, for example,
a combination of R-1 to let the cat out of the bag with P-1 to throw out the baby with the
bath water, and so on. There were 11 combinations, and one combination was administered
to a certain number of subjects (see the section of Participants), while VLT and MC-XYT
were administered to all the subjects. If the subjects are divided into groups and if we
compare the data across the groups, we need to investigate the homogeneity of the groups.
Participants:
The same number of subjects took VLT, PolyT and MC-XYT: 106 (24 male; 82
female) aged 18-25, freshmen and sophomores who studied at Kansai Gaidai University.
However, the number of subjects for MC-RT and MC-PT varied. The number of subjects
who answered the same test items varied from 7 to 12 depending upon available responses.
There were 11 combinations, i. e. 11 groups. The actual number of responses (i. e.
subjects) for the combinations of the test items is shown in Table 5-1. Among the
subjects were 7 (3 male; 4 female) interviewees who volunteered for an interview.
Table 5-1 The numberof subiectsin the 11 combinations

Combination MC-RT Label MC-FT Label No. of subjects
1 R-1 to let thecat out of the bag 1+ P-1 to throw out the baby with thebath water I 10
2 R-2 A little pot is soonhot. S P-2 to keepone's headdown Gj 11
3 R-3 Fish beginsto stinkat thehead. S/I P-3 to seewhich way thecatjumps C/I 12
4 R-4 to standin someone'sway I P-4 to spill the beans j 9
5 R-5 to be off one's head I P-5 to keep one's head above water 1 9
6 R-6 a pain in theneck I P-6 Although thesun shines, CII
leavenot your cloak at home.
7 R-7 Therottenapple injures S P-7 to tell (someone)whereto get off j 7
its neighbours.
8 R-8 to hold one's headhigh S P-8 If you climb the ladder, C 11
you mustbegin at the bottom.
9 R-9 to count heads S/I P-9 The bird hasflown away. C
10 R-10 Wakenota sleepinglion. S P-10 to takea leaf out of (someone's)book I
8
10
11 R-1I You cannoteatyour cakeand haveyour cake. I P-11 to cometo a head I 8
Total 106
126
Time: May-July, 2000
Locations & Procedures: The tests were administeredto 106 subjectsat Kansai Gaidai
University. The allocated length of time was approximately 40 minutes for VLT and
Pol)'T, and approximately 50 minutes for the tests of metaphorical competence. This
comprised a class period (90 minutes). Interviews took place according to the
volunteers'convenience. The procedureof the test was the sameas that in the previous
tests.
5.1-3. ASSESSMENT OF VOCABULARY LEVELS TEST AND POLYSEMY TEST

There were 120 test items in VLT and 20 in PolyT, each of which was allocated 1
point. The total points were 120 for VLT and 20 for PolyT. The items of thesetests
were objective (i.e. either correct or incorrect), therefore,were made by the author.
5.1-4. ASSESSMENTAND TREATMENT OF THE ANSWERS IN TESTS OF

METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE
Scoring of MC-RT, MC-PT and MC-XYT
Since MC-RT, MC-PT and MC-XYT constitute the main body of the whole study,
the delineation of criteria used in scoring for these tests is explained in the following
sections. The answers in both of MC-RT and MC-PT were rated on a subjective scale of
three points each. Two raters (one is a middle-aged male British native speaker who
teaches EFL students in Japan; the other the author) assessed the answers. There was
moderation between the two if there were judgement problems. In general, the
assessmentswere made on the clarity of paraphrasing or interpretation in MC-RT, while
in MC-PT, a clear linkage between source and target domains was weighed. MC-XYT
was also assessedby the same raters. The overall agreement ratios of the raters were
approximately 80% in the initial judgement. After readjustment, the agreement
ratios
reached 95%. The disagreement remained in the judgement for the defects
of spelling
and grammar and the lack of collocation. In such cases, the scores were averaged. The
criteria and the points are specified in its designated section.
The criteria used in scoring MC-RT

In MC-RT (both in RT-L and RT-M), a correct and clear interpretation
of a meaning
or implication was allocatedthree points; an answerwhich was judged correct but which
included some ambiguity two points; an answer which stopped
explanation halfway but
was correct up to that point was allocated one point; an incorrect or no answer received
127
zero points. In MC-RT (both in RT-L and RT-M), to
studentswere allowed answer in
their native language(Japanese).

The main concernof this study is on metaphorical competence,therefore, the criteria
for the metaphorical parts of MC-RT-M is focused upon more than MC-RT-L to
investigatesubjects' comprehensionof metaphorical meaning. Table 5-2 summarises
the criteria usedin scoringthe metaphoricalparts of MC-RT-M.
Table 5-2 Criteria used in scoring of metaphorical parts of MC-RT-M

Score Criteria for interpretationof a metaphoricalpassage(MC-RT-M)
3 The meaningof the targetexpressionis interpretedcorrectly.
2 The interpretationof the targetexpressioncanbejudged correct,but the answerincludes

some ambiguity in interpretation and/or is lacking detail or precision.
I The answeris too brief to bejudged preciselycorrector incorrect;an incomplete

interpretation.
0 An incorrect answer or no answer written.
The criteria used in scoring MC-PT

MC-PT-L and MC-PT-M were also scoredon a three-point scale:three points for an
answerwith correct use of the target two
expression; points for an answerwhich seemed
to be correctbut which included clumsinessor crucial errors; one point for an incomplete
or ambiguous answer; zero if an incorrect or no answerwas provided.
Scoring of MC-PT-M was more complicated than scoring MC-RT-L, MC-RT-M or
MC-PT-L. The productive metaphoricaltest (MC-PT-M) intended to measurehow well
(or not) EFL studentscould manipulate metaphorical expressionsin writing. It also
involved the aspectsof image schema,its activation, mapping, and networking of words
and images (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980; Tourangeau & Sternberg, 1981; Ortony, 1994;
Black, 1994) combined with general writing skills. With regard to measurementsof
metaphoricalcompetence,the implications provided by Tourangeau& Sternberg's(1981)
aptnessin metaphor and Littlemore's (2001b) originality of metaphor production are

meaningful. However, the languages experimented on in past researchwere closely
related to the learners' native language, for example, the comparisonsof L2 (English)
with LI (French, Belgium, German or Dutch), and the subjectsexamined in the testswere
intermediateor higher learners of English as L2. Since the language distance in this
study is greater than that used in past researchand the subjects in this study are EFL
students,a specific learning context, such as an EFL situation, can be taken into account.
In the caseof JapaneseEFL students,some lexical, grammatical and syntactic errors are
expectedbesidespoor skills of manipulation of metaphoricalexpressions. Therefore, as
128
long as errors do not affect the meaning of a whole passage, that is, if
even a subject-
is lacking, or if there is in
an error singular-plural noun distinction,
predicateagreement
is
but when a passage able get to the meaning across,most of such errors may well be
discounted. Taking this generoustreatmentof errors into account,the following scoring
criteria for of productive metaphorical
the assessment writing was established. Table 5-
3 explains the criteria used in scoring MC-PT-M on the left column together with
students'sampleanswerson the right column.
Takle 5-3 Criteria used in scoring of metaphorical parts of Productive Test (MC-PT-M)
Criteria for Examples from the students' answers to Target
Score producing a
expression:P-2 to keep one's head down
metaphorical passage
3 The meaningof the targetexpressionis Oneday, Benwent to his friend, Ken's house. He was
invited to Ken's birthday party. At the end of the
embodiedand fits well in a passage;
relatednessor mapping between party, everybody start to give a present to Ken, but
semantic
Ben didn't have anything. he forgot to buy it.
the source and the target (the vehicle and the
Ben seems to keep his head down that day.
topic) is clear;degreeof metaphoricityis high.
2 The meaningof thetargetexpressionis John isn ' t good at English. But his sister is very
embodied in a passageto some extent, but good at English. So, Ken' s sister always teaches
semantic relatednessor mapping between English to Ken. Ken keep his head down.
the sourceandthe target(the vehicleand the
topic) is not asclearas3. Additional
linkage(s) or sentence(s) is necessary.
I The meaningof the targetexpressionis not

embodied in a passage.The relationship My son is too shy to talk to a stranger, when he
betweenthe sourceandthe target(the vehicle walks the road. He walks to keep his head down.
and the topic) in metaphorical use is
lacking. Anomaly. Confusion involved,but
thereis an effort to usean expression.
0 An incorrectansweror no answerwritten. He was keep his head down. Because he is bright.
The criteria used in MC-XYT

Each answerwhich made sensein a literal sentenceand which showed a reasonable
mapping from `vehicle' to `topic' in a metaphoricalsentencewas rated as one point each:
one point for a literal and one point for a metaphorical meaning. A half-point score was
if
permitted a sentenceran well in a literal and/or a metaphorical sensebut there was
ambiguity between a topic-vehicle linkage or if it did not follow the required format. The
following first examplesare the answersrated as one point for a literal use and one point
for a metaphoricaluse, and the secondare rated as a half point for literal and metaphorical
usesrespectively.
129
An exampleof a student'sanswerwhich obtainedone point:
Targetadjective:bvg&
Literal: At night this streetis a bright street.
Metaphorical:Her eyesare bright jewels.
An exampleof a student'sanswerwhich obtaineda half point:

Targetadjective:g
Literal: My father's hair is g=.
Metaphorical:I have a gar life.
The final treatmentwas taken in this test when totalling: the total points each subject
obtained in the literal and metaphorical parts were 6. The total points (Max=6) were
divided by 2 in order to make an individual's maximum in Literal and Metaphoricalparts
of XYT 3 points respectively. This aimed to scale them in equal balance with other
components of the metaphorical tests, which were 3 points in MC-RT and MC-PT
respectively.
5.2. RESULTS ANDANALYSES

Results of the test of metaphorical competenceand VLT used as an index
Table 5-4 and Table 5-5 respectivelyshow the raw mean scoresand SDs of MC-RT
(RT-L & RT-M) and MC-PT (PT-L & PT-M) (3 points each) contrastedwith those of
VLT (120 points maximum) which was usedas an index.
Table 5-4 Mean scoresand SDs of MC-RT (RT-L & RT-M) and VLT
ReceptiveTest items N RT-L RT-M V.LT. SD
106 Means(3 p. max) SD Means(3 p. max) SD (120p. max)
R-1. to let the cat out of the bag 10 2.4 1.4 2.1 1.5 100.6 9.1
R-2. A little pot is soon hot. 11 1.9 1.5 1.9 1.5 97.5 17.5
R-3. Fishstinks at the head. 12 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.5 90.0 22.4
--T-. Y M Mmm W -1.3 M _
R-4 to stand in someone's way 9 1.7 1.6 0.8 101.6 12.9
'
to be off one'shead 9 2.8 0.5 0.7 1.3 97.7 14.4
.
R-6.a paininthe neck 11 1.9 1.5 1.8 1.5 91.6 16.2
R-7.Therotten appleinjuresits neighbours. 7 1.3 1.6 1.3 1.6 94.1 9.4
R-8.to holdone'sheadhigh 11 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.4 96.0 9.3
R-9.to countheads 8 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.4 98.9
9 20.8
2
...
R-10.Wakenot a sleepinglion. 10 2.6 1.0 2.1 1.3 97.9 10.0
__.
_.. __._. _......
_..... _.
_..........
_._ __ ___..
__ . .. M_
____.. -... __..
_.... ..
_.....
. _..
_ ..._......
_............_....
_._
R-11.Youcannoteat your cakeandhave 8 2.1 1.5 1.1 1.4
Average
yourcake.
(1.95)
.....(1.46)
96.9 12.4
114.7
- 96.4
130
Table5-5 MeanscoresandSDsof MC-PT (PT-L & PT-M) andVLT
ProductiveTest items N PT-L PT-M V.LT. SD
106 Mean(3 p. max) SD Mean (3 p. max) SD (120p.max)
P-1. to throw the baby with the bath water 10 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.5 100.6 9.1
2. to keep one's head down 11 1.4 ' 1.4 0.7 1.2 97.5 17.5
P-3. to see which way the cat jumps 12 1.1 1.4 0.3 0.9 90.0 22.4
P-4. to spill the beans 9 1.3 1.2 0.1 1 0.3 101.6 12.9
P-5. to keep one's head above water 9 0.6 1.0 0.5 1.1 97.7 14.4
P-6. Although the sun shines,leave not your 11 1.1 1.2 0.6 0.7 91.6 16.2
coat at home. 1
1
P-7. to tell (someone) where to get off 7 1 1.1 0.2 0.3 94 1 94
. .
P-8. If you climb the ladder, you must begin 11 2.3 1.0 1 1.2 96.0 9.3
at the bottom.
P-9. The bird has flown away. 8 2.1 1.4 1 1.2 98.9 20.8
^ W--- 97.9 10.0
P-10. to take a leaf out of (someone's) 10 0.9 1.1 0.4 0.9
book.
- 1.2 0.7 96.9 12.4
P-11.to cometo a head 8 1.6 1.0
Average (1.30) - (0.51) - 96.4 14.7
The mean scores of the literal parts in both tests were higher than those of their
metaphorical counterparts. The discrepancies between the literal and the metaphorical parts
in some test items were large, especially in several test items of MC-PT. These may have
been caused by the differing degrees of ease and difficulty among the items or by the subjects'
linguistic ability. This will be further developed in the discussion section.
VLT intendedto measurevocabulary breadth and at the sametime intended to serve as an

index to other tests. It was also used to investigate homogeneity among the groups. The
mean scoresof VLT ranges from 90.0 to 100.6 and the SDs also varied to a degree. From
thesescoresit seemedon the surfacethat there were some gapsamongthe groups.
In order to guaranteehomogeneityamong the 11 groups,ANOVA for VLT was computed.
It showedthe result of F Ratio= .580 and of F Prob.= .827. Considering from this result, it
can be said that there was no significant difference between the subject groups in terms of
vocabulary size. Therefore, further discussion of the results obtained from the tests of
metaphorical using
competence VLT as an index could be carried on.
Since the homogeneity among the 11 groups was establishedstatistically, the following
overall cross comparisons could be summarised from the average mean scores:the average
mean scoreof MC-RT (3.41) was about 2 times higher than that of MC-PT (1.81); MC-RT-L
(1.95) about 1.3 times higher than that of MC-RT-M (1.46); MC-PT-L (1.30) about 2.5 times
higher than that of MC-PT-M (0.51); MC-RT-L (1.95) about 1.5 higher than that of MC-PT-L
(1.30); MC-RT-M (1.46) about 2.8 times higher than that of MC-PT-M (0.51). The average
meanscores of thesecrosscomparisons are illustrated in Table 5-6.
131
Table 5-6 The averagemean scoresof MC-RT and MC-PT in crosscomparison
Combi- N MC-RT-L MC-RT-M MC-PT-L MC-PT-M
nation# 106 Mean(3p. max) Mean(3p. max) Mean (3p. max) Mean(3 p. max)
1 10 2.4 2.1 0.9 0.2

2 11 1.9 1.9 1.4 0.7
3 12 1.2 1.3 3..
............ ___1.....
1.3 -_-__.
_- .....
__.....
_..:
0.1 _ ...............
4 9 1.7 0.8
....................
......... __...
_. _.....................
........__..
............ _.__...
.___.. __._ 0.6
5 9 2.8 0.7 0.5
1.9 1.1 0.6
6___
_._..._.. _ .. ......
__. _._..........
...... _.; .......
.._._._ ..........
_.._.... 1.3 _......
__._...___ _. _ ___.. w...______..
1.0
_..__ ._____....
0.2
7 7 1.3
11 1.6 1.3 2.3 1.0
8
9 8 1.9 1.7 2.1 1.0
10 10 2.6 2.1 0.9 0.4
...........
..... ...............................................
...................... _......
...............................
..................................... ...............
.........
_..............
_... _..........
....
11 8 2.1 1.1 1.6 0.7
#Combinationon the left column refersto the combinationof testitemsshown in the left column of Table 5-1.
Resultsof MC-XYT
Table 5-7 shows the results of MC-XYT. Since the answer was calculated in decimal
points, the decimals in the table were shown down to two places. The results indicate that the
mean of the metaphorical parts was lower than that of the literal. One of the reasons was that
there were quite a few students who wrote only literal sentencesfor the target adjectives. The
other reason was caused by the contents of the answers in metaphorical expressions. More
details of the results are explained in the discussion section entitled ÈFL students' semantic
web and mapping. '
Table 5-7 Meansand SDs of MC-XYT

Combi- N= Meansof MC-XYT-L, MC-XYT-M & total
nation# 106
XYL(3p.max) XYM(3p.max) Total (6p.max) SD
1 10 1.93 1.47 3.40 0.84
2 11 2.13 2.07 4.20 1.13
.._.._.. ......................
.... .._....... _._....
.......... _.
__... __._.................
................ _..__.... _.........
__. _.__..
_...
_............
_ .........
_....
3 12 1.73 1.57 3.30 1.38
..... ............... _.._..._...
_............ _.............
_......
....... _._.__..
_.._...._._._............. __._ m.__.....
_.
_........
_....
_. _ __ _- __
4- 9 1.84 1.76 3.60 1.05
...._. ................
....
............
.............
._......... 0.82
5 9 1.48 2.30 0.76
6 11 1.79 1.11 2.90 0.84
7 7 1.83 1.17 3.00 0.94
11 .-- 2.05 .ww 1.55 -. -. . .
8 3.60. 0.65
8 ........................
......._.................... 2.00 ......
........
.......................
_. _..... _............
_......... ......
......
............................
..
.............
9 1.80 3.80 1.09
..._..10 _._......
_.......... _........
__......
1.68
10 1.52 3.20 1.16
11 8 1.95 1.55 _3.50 1.13
Mean 1.86 1.49 3.34 -
#Combinationon the left columnrefersto the combinationof testitemsshown in the left column of Table 5-1.
132
5.3. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QUESTION 1
Research question 1) What kind of metaphorical competence (in receptive and

productive modes) do Japanese EFL students show in the tests of metaphorical
competence designed for this study? (i. e. metaphorical competence measured in MC-
RT and MC-PT)
5.3-1. FEATURES OF THE ANSWERS IN MC-RT- L AND MC-RT-M

Discrepanciesbetween literal and metaphorical competence
On the whole, the literal competence in interpretation showed higher mean scores
compared with that of the metaphorical counterpart. In order to clarify the

discrepancies in competence between the literal and metaphorical interpretations and to
show the characteristics of the answers at a glance, the results are classified into three
ranks from high to low mean scores of the test items (Table 5-8).
Table 5-8 From high to low mean scoresof MC-RT test items
Ranks MC-RT
RT-Ltest items (means) [label] RT-Mtest items (means) [Label]
High mean R-5 to beoff one's head (2.8) [11
R-10 Wakenot a sleepinglion. (2.6) [S]
scores (over2 R-1 to let the catout of thebag (2.4) [1+]
points) R-11You cannoteatyour cakeand haveyour cake. R-1 to let the catout of thebag (2.1) [1 +1
(2.1) I R-10 Wake not a sleepinglion. (2.1) [ Si
R-2A little pot is soonhot (1.9) [S] R-2 A little pot is soonhot (1.9) [S]
Medium mean
R-6 a pain in the neck (1-9)[11 R-6 a pain in the neck (1.8) [11
scores R-9 to countheads (1-9)[S/11 R-9 to count heads (1.7) [S/I]
R-4 to standin someone'sway (1.7) [I ] R-3 Fish stinksat the head. (1.3) [ S/I ]
(1.9 -1.0 points.)
R-8 to hold one' s headhigh (1.6) [SJ R-7 The rottenappleinjuresits neighbours.
R-7 The rottenappleinjuresits neighbours.(1.3) [S] (1.3) [S]
R-3 Fish stinksat the head. (1.2) [ S/I J R-8 to hold one's headhigh (1.3) [SJ
R-1I You cannoteatyour cakeandhaveyour
cake. (1-1)[11
Low mean R-4 to standin someone'sway (0.8) [1]
R-5to beoff one'shead (0.7)[11
scores
(below 0.9 points)
The discrepanciesof the mean scoresbetween the receptive literal and metaphorical
competences showed the following features:the largestdiscrepancywas found in R-5 to
be off one's head, where the literal mean score was 2.1 points higher than that
of the
metaphorical counterpartwhich obtained the lowest mean score (0.7 points). Next to
this discrepancywere in R-11 and R-4. The literal mean scoresof R-11 You cannot eat
your cake and have your cake and R-4 to stand in someone'sway were 1.0 and 0.9
points higher than those of the metaphoricalcounterpartsrespectively. In these items,
133
the mean scoreof the metaphoricalpart of R-11 was medium (1.1) and that of R-4 was
slightly lower (0.8). On the contrary, the smallest discrepancy was in R-3. The
metaphorical mean score of R-3 Fish stinks at the head was slightly higher than or
almost equivalentto the literal counterpart(0.1 point difference), where the mean score
of the metaphoricalpart was medium (1.3 points).
The medium or small rangediscrepancieswere in the R 10 Wakenot a sleepinglion,
R1 to let the cat out of the bag, R-8 to hold one's head high and R-9 to count heads.
The meanscoresof the metaphoricalparts of theseitems were 2.1 points in R-10,2.1 in
R-1,1.3 in R-8 and 1.7 in R-9. Thesemean scoresbelongedto high or medium ranges
(seeTable 5-8).
There were no mean scorediscrepanciesin R-2 A little pot is soon hot and R-7 The
rotten apple injures its neighbours. The mean scoresof the metaphorical parts in R-2
and R-7 were 1.9 and 1.3 respectively. Thesebelongedto medium range scores.
These results possibly indicate that the EFL students could interpret the literal
meanings better than the metaphorical implications and, at the same time, that they could
interpret the metaphorical implications fairly well in certain expressions, such as the 5
items which attained more than half (the mean score 1.5) of the maximum point: R-1, R-
10, R-2, R-6 and R-9. This will be discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Methods used in interpretation and competence

The expressionswith higher meansin MC-RT-L (the top three) were the items RT-L
R-5 to be off one's head, RT-L R-10 Wakenot a sleeping lion and RT-L R-1 to let the
cat out of the bag, followed by RT-L R-11 You cannot eat your cake and haveyour cake.
Only one of the four items of the same expressionsin the metaphorical interpretation
attained this level, especially MC-RT-M R-5 was situated at the bottom in the
metaphorical interpretationand MC-RT-M R-1 l was ranked third from the bottom. In
order to interpret the students' answers,it is better to look at the contents of the first
three.
R-5: to bone's head
Literal: Dave and Grahamaregardeners,andwere discussingheadgear. Grahamsaid,"I
don't want to wear a hatto the gardenparty this year."

"But I wore it last year, and its a tradition. We've been wearing that hat for almost thirty
years."
"I'll makesomeoneelsewear it this year. Its itchy."
"Well, aslong asit can be off my head."
Metaphorical:Bob and Jameswere discussingJohnny'sBirthday plans.
134
"So, we'll do a pub crawl then. How many pubs aretherein London?" saidBob.
"Too manyto count," repliedJames.
"Oh well, the main thing Johnnywantsfor his Birthday is to be off his head.
R-10: Wake not a slee g lion.
Literal: In the zoo the wardenexplainedhow aggravatedand violent the animalsget when
provoked. He the
addressed visitors "Wake not a sleepinglion".
Metaphorical:Shehadhad a lot on her mind lately. Especiallyat home, and schoolonly
madethingsworse. He knew he had offendedher but desperately

neededto speakto her.
His friend advisedhim saying"Wake not a sleepinglion".
R-1: to let the cat out ofthe bag
Literal: "Mr. Brown'sfed up with the catkilling his birds. He sayshe'sgoing to put it in a
bag anddrown it," shesaid.
"How awful! " Joanreplied. "When he'snot looking you'll haveto let the catout of the bae "
Metaphorical:"I told Janeeverything." Mickey said.
"I told you shecan'tkeepa secret." Ruth said. "Shealwayslets the cat out of the bag."
In the test items R-5 and R-1, most of the words used in the passagesof the literal parts
belonged to the high frequency range; there were only a few unfamiliar words for
JapaneseEFL students,such as itchy in RT-L R-5. On the other hand, in the item RT-L
R-10, there were more unfamiliar words, such as warden, aggravated, and provoked.
However, the studentsmight have beenable to infer the meaningfrom the context and the
words preceding or succeedingthe problematic word, such as aggravatedin RT-L R-10.
They could infer the meaning of aggravated from the succeedingword violent. The
unfamiliarity with the words did not seem to affect their interpretation greatly if a certain
amount of contextual support was available in the passage. In addition to the contextual
support, the expression "Wake not a sleeping lion" is a conventional proverb which is
familiarised in their daily discourse. Theseelementsmay assisttheir understanding.
In the parts of the metaphoricalinterpretation,fewer answerswere obtained in RT-M
R-5. It seemedthat the metaphoricalmeaning of this idiom was beyond understanding
by most of the students. It was found in the interview that most of the intervieweessaid
they had never met this idiom before, but that few who interpretedthe meaning said that
they usedanalogy from òff + head.' This way they interpretedR-5. On the contrary,
they saidthat RT-M R-10 was easyto interpret.They usedtheir NL schemaso effectively
that they mapped "her" (heroine) onto the `lion' or vice versa in RT-M R-10 and
135
interpretedit correctly. As to RT-M R-1, the cue is overt in the precedingsentence`she
can't keep a secret.' Theseresults indicate that both familiar words in a passageand a
certainamountof contextualsupportaffect comprehension.
To explain the interpretationsof the items with medium mean scores,the items R-3
(Fish stinks at the head) and R-7 (The rotten apple injures its neighbours.) are taken up.
The passages
of the items R-3 and R-7 are as follows.
R-3: Fish begins to stink at the head.
Literal: Laura, Sally and Peggy were preparing a meal.
"Is the fish still alright to eat for dinner? "
"Smell it to see."
"If you smell the head it is the best way. "
"Fish begins to stink at the head."
Metaphorical:The four men stoodhuddledtogethertalking quietly, "there is a rat in the

"
systemsomewhere.
"Privateinformationis being leakedto othercompanies.
"
"I don't trust the boss myself; he may not be involved, but he is a part of the problem. "
"Fish begins to stink at the hears."
injures its neighbours.

R-7: The rotten an lisle
Literal: Sally and Tom had a beautiful garden. At the bottom of the garden there was an
apple tree. On Sunday afternoon they picked all the apples and put them in the box.
However, a rotten apple had been put in by mistake and it turned all the others bad. When
Sally realised, she said "The rotten apple injures its neighbours. "
Metaphorical:Somervilleusedto be sucha nice area," saidAnne.
"Yes," agreedCheryl, "but oncea few bad families startedto move in the areagot a really
bad reputation."
"The problem is that the rottenapple injuresits neighbours," repliedAnne.
The problem of R-3 lay in the key-word stink in the target expression. This problem
was
discoveredin the interview with the studentsafter the test. This problem might have
beengreaterfor thosewith vocabulary size not sufficiently large (for those
with less than
70 % score in VLT). The same vocabulary problem seemedto
also affect the score of
metaphorical interpretation of the same target expression RT-M R-3 and the target
expressionR-7, where the studentswith smaller vocabulary (below 70 % score)
pointed
136
out the words that they did not know were rotten and neighbours. These words are not
exactly low-frequency words, but are rather unfamiliar to some JapaneseEFL students.
This possibly indicatesthat the levels of words and familiarity to words are part of the
factorsin comprehensionand that the test items should consist of various levels of words
and expressions.
What was found so far is that there seems to be three factors affecting EFL students'
understanding metaphorical expressions: their vocabulary knowledge, the utilisation of
cues and contextual supports in a passage, and the activation of analogical reasoning,
some of which may relate to their NL knowledge. In the following sections, the
contextual supports and cues in the passages,schema activation and analogical reasoning
are discussed.
Contextual support and schema activation

The top two metaphorical test items which obtained comparatively higher scores were
RT-M R1 and RT-M R 10. The expression RT-M R -I to let the cat out of the bag is a
very familiar idiom to native English speakers, though only a few Japanese knew this
idiom (about five percent in my past small scale survey). The reason they could interpret
the expression even though they did not know the idiomatic meaning, was there was a
preceding contextual support in the metaphorical passage: "she can't keep a secret."
This contextual support in this passage might have been too direct. However, in daily
discourse, we consciously or unconsciously attempt to get a point across by alluding to
the meaning in a preceding or succeeding utterance. This passage may represent such a
situation. Therefore, if there is a paraphrasing in discourse, EFL students may
understand a metaphorical meaning quite well.

As for RT-M R-10 Wakenot a sleepinglion, there seemedto be no difficult words in
the metaphorical passage,and as stated earlier, the expression in English connotes a
similar meaning in Japanese. The Japanese proverb usesa child or baby instead of à
lion' ("Wake not a sleeping child/baby"). That is a difference. If you wake up a
sleeping child or baby, he/shewill cry, which will bring forth a problem. It is better not
to causea problem by waking him/her up. Studentsencounterthe metaphorical use of
this expressionin their daily discourse. In addition, there is such a phraseas à sleeping
lion' ( rW16J ) in Japanese,which expandsthe usageto an expressionlike `He is
a sleeping lion. ' The word `sleeping' metaphorisesthe state of being `motionless'
or
`quiet'; `lion' is a metonymy, which stimulatesthe image schemaof
strengthor ferocity.
As a whole, it metaphorically means that he is motionless and quiet now, but once he
wakes up, he will be active, powerful, and even violent. These schemaelements(L1
137
schema or native languageschema, NL schema) seemed to assist the better understanding
of this kind of expressionto a great extent. It was confirmed in the interview that the
activation of NL schemastook place in the test items labeled S in Table 5-1 and that the
other items were interpretedby analogyor intuition.
Cues, schemasand metaphorical competencein interpretation

It can be said from the contents of the answers that the metaphorical competence
seemed to be affected by how much activation of schema(s) took place and how well
analogical reasoning was employed. In order to activate a certain schema, vocabulary
knowledge plays an important role as a first aid and it calls in NL knowledge and
stimulates analogical reasoning. In the case of EFL students, if their vocabulary was too
small, mapping and/or networking would not expand to related semantic fields, therefore,
a mental activity would stop there. It would block understanding and might not go
further. To investigate such phenomena, it may be worth while looking at how the
cues (words) in the passages stimulate understanding or are related to the possible
activation of schemas and/or analogical reasoning. For this purpose, the cues in the
passages and the utilisations of the cues in understanding metaphorical expressions
together with the realisation of analogical reasoning are examined. In the following
sections, the target items, topic/event, cues ("words") in a passage followed by estimated
implications and schemas to be employed are summarised first in the lists, then main
investigations follow.
(i) The caseof the high meanscores(over 2 points)

Items topic / event Cues ("words") In a passage-estimatedimplications Schemasto be employed
R-1 let [1+j gossiping preceding sentence:"she can't keep secret"; Contextual support: preceding
"cat"-secret; "out"-disclosure; "bag"-ccmtalner passage
R-1 Olion [S] advice "offended her"-problem: "wake not. "sleeping"- NL schema,analogy frccn a
avoid problem; "lion"-matonymy for heroine Japanesesaying and analogy by
metonymic mapping
The subjectsshowedhigh competencein the metaphoricalinterpretationsin the abovetwo

items (R-1: to let the cat out of the bag, R-10: Wake not a sleeping lion). The high
resulted from the effect of a strong contextual support in the first
competence case. That
of the secondwas due to the similar ideas sharedbetweenthe two languages(or cultures).
In these cases the cues in the passage were well utilised. Especially, metonymic
mappings were evidenced successful in the answers. It can be said from these
phenomenathat the combination of some degreeof contextual support and the subjects'
knowledgeaboutthe idiom affectedEFL students'metaphoricalcompetence.
138
(ii) The caseof the medium meanscores(1.9 - 1.0 points)
Items topic / event Cues ('words") in a passage-estimatedimplications Schemasto be employed
R-2 pot [S] gossiping "hadn't seen"=time lapse; "18 yrs old now", "gorgeous"' NL schema,analogy by
adulthood; "pot"-metonymy for heroine; "hot"-nature metonymic mapping
R-6 pain [I] homework "teacher", "cannot speak English", "not grasp the main lessonschema
Ideas, etc."=problem; "pain"-problem: "neck"-receptacle of!
problem
R-9 count ' lost love ended relationships-lost love; feel down-pessimistic; love schema
heads good-looking girls-new love; cheered up-encourage;
[S/I] count heads-hope for the future
R-3 fish [S/I] leakageof "huddled"-act of event, "quietly"-serlousness of the NL & mystery schema,
inner event; analogy by metonymy and
Information `rat"-metonymy for problem, Le. boss; "system"-company; a similar Japanese
"leak"'problematic action; "boss"-core of problem; expression
"fish"-metonymy for boss
R-7 rotten gossiping "bad famllles"-source of problem; "bad reputation"- NL schema, analogy from a
[S] problem; `rotten"=bad; "apple"-metonymy for problem; Japaneseproverb
"injures"-cause disgrace; ` neighboau s"-environment
Rad drowning & "Incident" " wave" " drowned " =problem; " saved" -solved NL schema,body schema
, ,
high [S] rescue problem; "head high"=praise for bravery
R-11 cake [I] world problem "President Clinton"-problem solver, "to end world hunger, politics schema
etc."-to solve problems; "confused"-ignorance;
"cannot eat/have"-fail to solve problems; "cake"-means to
solve problems
The expressionsranked at the medium position varied from the expressionssharing

similarity in languages
(or in cultures) or similar implications in the idioms/proverbswith
the NL to the idiomatic expressions.
The contentsof the answersrevealedthat the subjectsresortedto the NL schemasin
the items R-2 pot, R-9 count heads, R-3 fish and R-7 rotten (excluding R-8 head high)
and made the most of these schemasin interpretations. In addition to the benefit from
the NL schemas,the following phenomenaof schemaactivation were also observed in
the contentsof the answers.The items marked with [S] or [S/I1 are looked at first, then
followed by thosewith [I].
(a) the caseof R-2 pot 1.9 meanscore

The answersrevealedthat the interpretation of "hadn't seen" could be linked to the time
lapse and that the interpretation of "18 years old now" and "gorgeous" referring to
adulthoodwas well inferred so that this led to a smooth mapping of metonymy of "pot" to
a heroine and of "hot" to her maturity. The stimuli-responserelationship seemedto be
executed well. This may have led to the successfulmetaphoricalanalogy. As
a result,
the subjectsperformedat a higher level.
139
(b) the caseof R-9 count heads:1.7 mean score
Comparedto R-2 pot, there were some cueswhich could not be well utilised in this item,
the
especially, meaning of the key words "count heads" could not be successfullyinferred,
while the other cue words listed in the list seemedto be successfullymade useof.
(c) the caseof R-3fish: 1.3 meanscore

The subjectsseemedto well utilise the important words in the cues. They could identify
the "rat" as a metonymy with a problem, i. e. the boss;the "system" with the company;the
"boss" with the core of the problem. Therefore, even though some of them did not know
the meanings of "huddled" or "leak," they could infer the implications to mean a
a
suspicion and problematic action respectively. This phenomena were especially
evident in the answersprovided by those with high VLT scores(over 70 % scorein VLT
and PolyT). The cues in this passage could successfully stimulate the subjects'
recognitionand theseelementsas a whole led to understanding.
(d) the caseof R-7 rotten: 1.3 meanscore

The subjectscould identify "bad families" with a source of problem, "bad reputation"
with a problem, the word "rotten" to meanbad and the word "apple" as a metonymy for a
problem. However, they seemedto have difficulty in inferring the cue "injures" to mean
causingdisgrace and "neighbours" to mean environment. They could not schematisethe
mappings of thesecues, especiallythosewith lower vocabulary (below 70 %). Probably
those who could not infer the meaning failed to expand the cues "injures" and
"neighbours"to abstractimplications. They seemedto apply the physical meaningsto this
situation. Their metaphoricalreasoning may not have been executedwell in these two
words.
(e) the caseof R-8 head high: 1.3 mean score

The cues"incident''and "wave" were well utilised, however, the word "drowned" caused
a problem. A meaning from the cue "saved" seemedto be inferred. Another serious
problem for the subjectsto cope with seemedto be the cue "head high". Most of the
answers interpreted this phraseas a physical action not as praisefor bravery. Those who
did this kind of interpretationshoweda low competence.
(f) the caseof R-6 pain: 1.8 mean score

The cues indicating the problems, such as "our teacher cannot speak English" and the
students"could not graspthe main ideas," seemedto be well understood,however, the
140
key word "pain" causeda slight problem. There was such a tendency,but most of the
subjects utilised the cues in the passage well, which led to medium metaphorical
performance.
(g) the caseof R-11 cake: 1.1 mean score

There were only a few answerswhich showed high metaphorical interpretation in this
item. The cues"PresidentClinton" and "to end world hunger" may have beenunderstood,
however, there was a doubt whether or not the cues "confused" meaning ignorance,
"cannot eat/have' meaning to fail were well inferred by the subjects. The metonymic
mapping of "cake" to the means to solve problems did not seemto be identified. These
to
phenomenanecessitates be investigatedfurther. This will be carried on in Chapter6.
(iii) The caseof the low mean scores(below 0.9 points)

Items Cues ("words") in a passage-estimatedimplications Schemasto be employed
R-4 stand [I] election "campaign", "election"-event; "rival"-obstacle; "stand in"- election schema
campaign obstruct; "way", `road to re-election"-success;
"popular"-problem
R-5 off head birthday plan "birthday", "pub crawl", "Johnny's want"-events; birthday or pub schema
[I] "off head'--get drunk or lose reason
The lowest were the two idiomatic expressions: R-4 and R-5.
(a) the case of R-4 stand: 0.8 mean score
The cues "campaign", "election" and "road to re-election" seemed to be utilised in
interpretation to an extent, the metonymic interpretation of "rival" as an obstacle was
identified successfully,however, the "stand in" did causea slight problem becausethere
were answers in which the subjectswrote a literal interpretation. There was a confusion
between literal and metaphorical interpretations. This phenomenawere found in both
high and low VLT scorersin this item.
(b) the caseof R-5 off head: 0.7 mean score

This item showed the lowest metaphorical interpretation. The answers revealed they
partially understood, for example, "birthday" and "Johnny's want" to mean events in this
passage, but the cue "pub crawl" may not have been understood clearly. The
interpretation of the words is one of the problems and another problem concerned the
idiom "off head." There were few answersin which they interpretedit as getting drunk or
lose reason. The item is a highly conventional idiom. Most of the studentsmay not
have encounteredwith this expression before, therefore, those who could not execute
metaphoricalreasoningseemedto leavethe answerblank.
141
Summary of the metaphorical competence displayed in the interpretation
The abovefeaturespossibly indicate that the EFL studentscould interpret metaphorical
expressionssuccessfullyor without much difficulty if they can resort to their lexical and
cultural knowledge. The similarity in ideas and cultures may have assisted their
understanding. On the contrary, in the caseof idioms or proverbs, where they lack any
clue to resortto, they may have more difficulty in understandingor may fail to understand.
As a whole, some of the EFL students'metaphoricalcompetencein recognition was high
but the majority of them were moderate,and the metaphorical competenceof those with
weakervocabularyknowledgewas low.
Another important discovery was that they could identify metonymy quite well.
Metonymy is not as complicated as metaphor. Generally speaking, in metonymy they
can identify one with another in contiguity. On the other hand, in metaphor, as is termed
"inyu" (i. e. hidden implication) in Japanese, more abstract and complicated elements are
involved. Therefore, more subtle sensitivity and richer lexical knowledge may be
necessary for its recognition and manipulation. That's why the EFL students showed better
understanding and better recognition in metonymy than in metaphor. In metaphorical
understanding, metaphorical reasoning sometimes works successfully but other times, not.
Metaphorical understanding seems to be the most successful when assisted by lexical,
semanticand cultural knowledgeand contextualsupport.
5.3-2. FEATURES OF THE ANSWERS IN MC-PT-L AND MC-PT-M

The `productive' in this study does not refer to creative writing. It is rather a
compositionrestrictedby the controlled requirements. Composition in a foreign language
requires various basic skills: spelling, grammar, syntax and structure of a passageand so
forth. It is the most difficult task for EFL studentsto perform. Therefore,I established
a generousscalefor assessingtheir passagewriting, as statedearlier.
Discrepanciesbetween literal and metaphorical competence

Table 5-9 showsthe mean scoresin three ranks from high to low in MC-PT-L and MC-
PT-M. Most of the scoresin the productive tests shown in the table were much lower
than thoseof the receptivetests,especially,in the metaphoricalpassagewriting.
142
Table 5-9 From high to low mean scores of MC-PT test items
Ranks MC"PT
PT-Ltest items (means) [Label] PT-Mtest items (means) [Label]
High mean P-8 If you climb the ladder,you must

beginat the bottom. (23) [ C]
scores P-9The bird hasflown away. (2.1) [C]
(over 2 points)
Medium mean (1.6) [I] P-8 If you climb the ladder,you must
P-11to cometo ahead
scores P-2to keepone's headdown (1.4)[C/1] begin at thebottom. (1.0) [C]
(1.9 -1.0 points.) P-4 to spill thebeans (1.3)[1] P-9 The bird hasflown away. (1.0) [C]
P-3to seewhich way the catjumps (1.1) [C/I]
P-6Although the sunshines,leavenot
your coatat home. (1.1) [C/f
P-7to tell (someone)whereto get off
1.0
P-1to throw the baby with the bath P-2 to keepone's headdown (0.7) [C/1]
Low mean (0.9) [I] P-11to cometo ahead (0.7) [11
water
scores P-10 to take a leaf out of (someone's) P-6 Although the sun shines, leave not your
(below0.9 points) book (0.9) [I] coatat home. (0.6) [ C/I ]
P-5 to keepone'sheadabovewater(0.6) [I] P-5 to keepone's headabovewater (0.5) [I]
P-10 to takea leaf out of (someone's)book
(0.4) [11
P-3 to seewhich way the catjumps (0.3)[ C/I ]
P-I to throw the baby with the bathwater
(0.2)[11
P-7 to tell (someone)whereto getoff (0.2) [I]
P-4to ill the beans (0-1)[11
The discrepanciesof the mean scoresbetweenthe productive literal and metaphorical

competences showed the following differences: first the discrepancyin the mean scores
betweenthe literal and metaphoricalin the productive test was about 2 times greaterthan
that in the receptivetest; second,there were about 1.7 times more subjectswho provided
no written answers in the productive test.
The largest discrepancies(over 1.0 point mean score difference) were found in P-8
ladder, wherethe literal mean scorewas 1.3 points higher than the metaphoricalcounterpart,
it
although was the highest mean scoresin the metaphoricalpart (1.0). Next to this was in
P-4 spill, where was there a 1.2 point mean score difference. We must note here that the
metaphoricalmean score of this item was the lowest (0.1). In P-9 bird, there was 1.1 point
mean score difference, where the metaphorical part obtained the equivalently high mean
scoreto P-8 amongthe whole answers.
The medium rangediscrepancies(0.9 - 0.5 mean scoredifference) were in P-11 to come
to a head, (0.9 point mean score difference); in P-3 cat jumps and P-7 get off (0.8 point
difference respectively);in P-1 baby and P-2 head down (0.7 point difference respectively)
in
and p-6 sun and P-10 leaf (0.5 point difference respectively).
The smallest(lessthan 0.5 point meanscoredifference)was in P-5 abovewater (0.1
point difference).
Probable reasonsfor discrepanciesbetween the literal and the metaphorical
are as
143
follow:
(i) the caseof the large discrepancies:P-8 ladder, P-9 bird and P-4 spill
The discrepancies of the mean scores of the first two between the literal and
metaphorical parts were larger, however, these two items ranked the highest in the
metaphorical manipulations. As stated earlier, these items had common characteristics,
i. e. they have clear images conveyed by the expressions themselves. Compared to these
two, the mean score difference (1.2 point difference) in P4 spill was the second largest
but the mean score of this item was the lowest. The P4 spill seemed to have a specific
characteristic in the expression itself. The answers showed that most of the subjects used
the expression in a literal sense. They could not use it appropriately as an idiomatic or
metaphorical expression. It was discovered in the interview that the lack of the
knowledge of its idiomatic meaning was the main cause.
(ii) the caseof the items resultedin the medium discrepancies:

There seemed to be three kinds of characteristics in the discrepancies. One was the
literal manipulation which was approximately two times (or more than two times) better
than the metaphorical, as in P-11 come head, P-2 head down and P-3 cat jump. The
weaker manipulation in these items in common seemed to be resulted from the mixture of
literal and metaphorical manipulation, and a NL interference, for example, in P-11 there
were 2 answers in which the subjects seemed to apply the Japaneseexpression (meaning
to get angry) to this English expression.
NL interference itself is another interesting
research theme concerning metaphorical expressions, however, it may need another

investigationconcentratingonly on this issue.
A secondcharacteristicwas that the subjectscould provide fairly meaningful answers
in the literal partsbut not asmeaningful in the metaphorical,such asP-6 sun and P-10 leaf,
though thesewere betterthan the others,such asP-7 get off, P-I baby andP-5 abovewater.
Possiblereasonsare that the expressionof P-6 sun is explanatory and the words in P-10
leaf are familiar to the subjects. Those who could utilise literal implications could
possibly bridge the in
schemas literal manipulation to metaphorical.
A third characteristicwas scarcityin metaphoricalanswers,such asP-7 get offand P-
1 baby. It was found in the interview that there were somewho did not know the meaning
of the phrase get off nor the meaning of the idiom to throw out the baby with the
bathwater. Therefore, those who knew the meaning of get off
seemed to provide
meaningful answers in the literal but in the metaphoricalpassagesome them failed to
of
manipulate the item. Concerning P-1 baby, there was only
one subject who could
144
successfully manipulate both literally and metaphorically. This highly conventional
idiom seemsto be hard to manipulate in a metaphorical sense. It may be necessaryto
investigatemetaphoricaluse of the conventional idioms since sufficient evidence could
be
not obtained. This will be carried on in Chapter 6.
(iii) the caseof the small discrepancy:P-5 above water

The discrepancywas small, however, the mean scoresof the literal and metaphorical
were low. About one third of the subjectscould correctly use this expressionin a literal
sensebut among those, there were still fewer studentswho could provide a correct or
acceptablemetaphorical use. Whether or not they could provide acceptableanswers
seemto dependupon their past experiencesof how much accessthey had to idiomatic
expressions.
In writing a passage, whether it is literal or metaphorical, the subjects need various
basic linguistic skills ranging from vocabulary to the structure of a passage. The
interviewees said that even though they understood the meaning of the target item, they
had difficulty in putting it into English. A limitation concerning their performance
mentioned by the interviewees was that they could not do better than their linguistic
ability. They also said in the interviews that they did their best in this test and that they
would be more interested in learning English if they could understand and use English
expressions metaphorically just as they did in their mother tongue. They mentioned that
comprehending metaphorical expressions was interesting but using or manipulating
expressions was more interesting because they contrived and designed how to use the
expressions effectively in a passage.
It was also found in the contentsof the answersthat the schemasand image schemas
they used in writing metaphorical passagesplayed a part in successfulperformance in
addition to lexical knowledge. It was confirmed in the interview that they employed
certain specific schemasfor certain expressions. In the following sections,these issues
are discussed.
Schemasand image schemasdisplayed in writing metaphorical passages

This and the following sectionsdiscusswhat schemasand image schemaswere
used
in writing. In order to investigatethe schemasand image schemasfor the items, the
cues
or devices in
embedded the target expressionsas stimuli and the schemasand image
schemas activated by the stimuli are looked at. The stimuli, the schemas
and/or analogy
possibly stimulatedby the stimuli and the image schemasresulted from the schemasare
shown in the lists first, followed by the investigationsrelating to
eachitem.
145
(i) The caseof the high meanscores(over 2 points)
There was no item which obtained more than 2 points in Productive Metaphorical
parts.
(ii) The caseof the medium meanscores(1.9 -1.0)

items stimuli "schemes" / analogy IMAGE SCHEMAS/
Metaphor
P-8 ladder [C] climb (action) + ladder (metonymy) + `ladder schema" leading to MOVEMENT/MORE IS UP
begin (action) + bottom (metonymy) progress / movement
P-9 bird [C] bird (metonymy) + fly away (action) personification / departure OVEMEIVI'/SPACE/
Ontologigl or Orientational
metaphor
The above items P-8 (If you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom. ) and P-9 (The
bird has flown away) marked with [C] obtained higher mean scores (2.3 and 2.1
respectively in the literal; 1.0 in the metaphorical parts). In these items, the answers did
not show an extremely high but a moderate metaphorical manipulation. Possible reasons
for the mean scores higher in the P-8 and P-9 than the rest were that the words in the
targets were simple ones and that the images the respondents could picture in their mind
stimulated by the words were simple and vivid ones. Some interviewees mentioned they
could clearly draw pictures in their mind by these expressions. In addition, there is a
similar expression in Japanese (a Japanese saying implies "start from the beginning") to
the P-8; the image (a ladder and climbing the ladder) is not an abstract one and the
expression probably stimulates the image schema of a physical movement climbing from
the first step to the top, which is related to a conceptual metaphor: MORE IS UP; UPWARD
MOVEMENT IS AN ACCOMPLISHMENT. As a matter of fact, most of the students
employed this image schema for metaphorical mapping. This was confirmed in the
interviews.
In the metaphoricalpassagewriting using the P-9, the schemathe studentsemployed
was also movement (quick departing movement, in this case). They mapped the bird
onto the motion of flying away by airplane or spendingmoney quickly. Their mapping
seemedto run actively and smoothly in this expression. These reasonsmight explain
why they performed the higher competence. In brief, the expressionswhich convey
clear images could stimulate the respondents' imagination and make mapping smoother
and stronger. This may lead to the higher competence.
146
(iii) The caseof the low mean scores(below 0.9 points)
items stimuli "schemas' / analogy MAGE SCI-IEMAS/ Metaphor
P-2 head keep (state) + head (metonymy) + "body schema" / emotion EMOTION IS DOWN/
down [C/I] down (location) tologica1metaphor
P-11 ccaneto come + head (metonymy) (down-top schema /"body hierarchical /
[I] ' schema"
_ sun shines(protection) + leave not "schemasof sun, coat"/ warmth/container
P-6 sun [C/I] (caution) + coat (protection) + home protection
(location)
P-5 above keep (position) + head (metonymy) + "body schema" / Ontological metaphor
water [I] above water (location)
P-10 leaf [I] take & out of (action) + leaf (metonymy)
+ book (container) container / detachment container
___
P-3 cat_jump_ see (action) + which way ( ice) + "cat schema" MCmON/Ontological or
[C/I] cat (metonymy) + jump (action) choice or departure Odentatlonal metaphor
+
P-1 baby [I] throw out (action) + baby (metonymy) schemasof baby, bath" / MOTION/Ontological or
with + bath water (metonymy) treasure, disposal ntational metaphor
P-7 get off tell (action) + where (location) + get off transportation schema avement / termination
[I] (destination or termination)
P-4 spill [I] spill (action) + beans (metonymy) (not specified) /disclosure contalner/Ontological or
entational metaphor
First the items marked with [C] or [Cu]Ithen those with [I] are looked at.
(a) the case of P-2 head down: 0.7 mean score
The contentsof the answersshowedthat the subjects employed BODY schema. If we
limit the meaning of this idiom to the genuinely idiomatic expression,the mean score
would be low, however, in a broader sense,the following features were found. The
stimulus "head" as a metonymy combined with the phrase "keep down" indicating a
...
low physical position was mappedto a physical posture, which one takes to escapefrom
dangerby protectingthe important part of one's body (the head), which is an ontological
way of using it literally or metaphorically, or the low position of a headwas mappedto a
pessimistic, emotional state of mind or vice versa, as is often used in the metaphor
EMOTIONIS DOWN. A representativestudents' answer in a metaphorical sensewas a
passagedescribinga pessimisticfeeling (e.g. keeping one's head down due to a failure in
an examination). It may be a universal schema to employ in describing both physical

and mental statesor feelings by using the important part of a body. Although the mean
scorewas not very high, it can be said from the results,togetherwith the fact that this item
ranked third in the whole productive metaphorical items, that the subjectscould cope with
this item betterthan the rest of the items in this rank.
(b) the caseof P-6 sun: mean score0.7

The mean scoreof this item was the sameas the head down, but the contentswere not as
good as the former. The subjects seemed to resort to the "coat" or "home" as a
protectionrather than to the "sun" schemawhich intendedto utilise the implication of the
147
benefit of the sun or sunshine. One of the reasonsfor the low metaphoricalperformance
in this item was probably there were not sufficient utilisation of the sun schema,and the
other was there were more than two elementsin the item they had to in
use composition:
one was the in
sunshine a subordinateclause and the other "leave not", "coat" and "at
home" in a principal clause.This item was not as simple as an item with one element.
(c) the caseof P-3 catjump: 0.3 mean score

The mean score was low, however, the contents of the answers showed that those who
provided answersseemedto well utilised the "cat" schema.They seemedto infer the
meanings from the "see" as a viewer's action, from the phrase"which way" as a choice
and from the "jump" asa cat's action, and the combination of "which way" and "jump" as
a choice or departure,i. e. movement. These elementswere put together and stimulated
the image schemaof MOTION. Those who attemptedto apply theseelementsseemedto
manifesta fairly good metaphoricalperformance.
(d) the caseof P-I 1 cometo: 0.7 mean score

There was a subject (over 70 % score in VLT) who seemedto infer the meaning of this
idiom and write a metaphorically appropriate answer. However, others utilised only a
hierarchical schema,such as the "head" to mean the top of a position, for example, the
leader. If we only limit the meaning of this item to the genuinely idiomatic expression,
the EFL students'competencewould be very low. If we include the applicationsof the
BODY schema(i. e. down to top) in an appropriateanswer,the result of the data would be
higher. This study took the position of a broaderinterpretation.
(e) the caseof P-5 abovewater: mean score0.5

The same phenomenaas stated above were found in this item. Those with broader
vocabularycould manipulatedthis item metaphorically, even though they did not use the
conventionalmeaning of this idiom. Thosewho usedthe BODY schemashoweda fairly
good metaphoricalperformance.
(f j the caseof P-10 leafi mean score0.4

The subjectswith more than 70 % score in VLT manipulated this item successfully,for
example, they could identify the "leaf' and "book" with an important idea or thing and its
container respectively. Therefore, metonymic identification was well executedand this
seemed to lead to metaphorical manipulation of this expression. The metaphorical
competenceof thosewho provided their answerswas an acceptableone.
148
(g) the caseofP-1 baby: meanscore0.2
The metonymic identificationsof thosewho provided their answersto this item were also
good. However, the problem seemedto reside in the stimuli which did not work well for
some especially
subjects, for thosewhose vocabulary was not sufficiently large.
(h) the caseof P-7 get off. meanscore0.2

There were too few answersto analysethe manipulation, however, what can be said from
a scantyanswer is that the idiom "get off' could stimulate the imagination of an action or
event termination. The subjects' metaphorical performanceusing this idiom was poor.
There was no specific reasonfound in the contentsof the answers.
(i) the caseof P-4 spill: mean score0.1

This idiom had a similar aspect to the previous one. However, there was an answer
(provided by the subject with 70 % score in VLT and 60 score % in PolyT) in which the
"spill" was connected to the meaning of disclose and the "beans" to an important thing.
There was no answer provided by those who were below 70 % in VLT and 60 % in PolyT.
Summary of the metaphorical competence in the use of metaphorical expressions

There were no items rated with high mean scores in the metaphorical parts. All the
answerswere rated as being medium or lower. The expressionswhich obtained higher

mean scores, among the medium and low mean scores, both in the literal and
metaphoricalpassage writing (the top two) were P-8: If you climb the ladder, you must
begin at the bottom and P-9: The bird has flown away. The mean scores of these
metaphorical passageswere higher than any other items although the mean scoresof the
metaphoricalparts themselveswere not as high as in the literal counterparts,which were
twice those of the metaphoricalpassages. Probable reasonsfor these results were: the
words usedin the two items belong to the high frequency level; the imagesstimulated by
the expressionsare probably direct and motional. The words, such as climb, ladder,
begin and bottom, may have stimulated their imagination of the motion starting from an
initial stageto going upward. The schemaswhich the subjectsseemedto apply in these
expressionsare probably UPWARDMOVEMENT schema. Similar operation in mind
might have beenapplicableto P-9: The bird hasf own away, where the words bird andf ly
away stimulated their imagination of departure (i. e. DEPARTUREschema). The third
in
rank the productive metaphoricalwas P-2: to keep one's head down. In this case,the
BODY schemawas employed. The implications of these phenomena
possibly indicate
149
that the EFL students can perform metaphorical competence without much difficulty by
using their schemas and image schemas, especially MOTION and/or BODY Schemas,
stimulated by the target expressions.
However, if the stimulus was not sufficiently strong or they could not understandthe
meaningsof the for
expressions, example, P-5: to keep one's head abovewater or P-10: to
take a leaf out of (someone's)boob it seemedthat they failed to activatetheir imagination.
This was confirmed in the interview. The interviewees answeredthey could not make
senseof theseexpressions.
The weakest competencewas found in the understandingand manipulation of the
idiomatic expressions. The lowest mean score in the productive metaphoricalwas P-4 to
spill the beans (0.1 point); the next to the lowest were P-1 to throw the baby with the bath
water (0.2 point) and P-7 to tell (someone) where to get '(0.2
o, point). Among the three
expressions,the first two idioms are especially unfamiliar to JapaneseEFL students.
This was also confirmed in the interview.
Finally, the following phenomena can be summarised: all of the target expressions
with the lowest mean score in the productive literal were idioms (P-5: to keep one's head
above water, P-1: to throw the baby with the bath water and P-10 to take a leaf out of
(someone's) book). None of these expressions contain difficult words, however, there
were more incomplete answers. These tendencies possibly suggest that these idiomatic
expressions seem to be problematic not only in metaphorical but in literal performance.
5.3-3. CONCLUSION
The overall phenomenadiscoveredin the results of this study was that JapaneseEFL
students' metaphorical competence was better in understanding than in using. The
averagemean score of the receptive metaphoricaltest was approximately 3 times better
than that of the productive metaphoricaltest. As statedearlier, they could make use of
contextualsupportin the caseof the receptivetest, however, in the caseof the productive
test, they had to manipulatethe expressionson their own.
To sum up, the factors which may affect understandingare (i) students' familiarity
with the words used in a passage;(ii) familiarity with the expressions/idiomsused in a
passage;(iii) contextual support in a passageand civ) understanding of metaphorical
transfer in a passage. The factors that may affect production (i. e. using) of a passage
with a metaphorical meaning embedded in it include these four factors, but more
importantly it may involve students'generalwriting ability.
The EFL studentswho havebroaderand richer vocabularyknowledge
seemedto be
ableto link a wordor anexpression
to its relatedsemanticfields easilyand
resultin better
150
performance in interpretationand useof the metaphorical expressions. The ideal level of
vocabularyis estimated to be 70 % or more in 2000 & 3000 word levels in VLT, as will
be describedin ResearchQuestion3.
5.3-4. TOWARD ANEW STUDY

The metaphorical test items for further use
In the previous sections, the differences found in the test items in the metaphorical
tests were discussed qualitatively in point of the test items and the contents of the answers.
Additionally, another quantitative point must be addressed. Taking both quantitative and
qualitative results described in Study 3 into consideration, the test items for a new study
should be selected. For this purpose, the means, the SDs and F ratio were again
scrutinised. The means and SDs did not indicate a great difference among the 11 items.
The computed F ratios of MC-RT-L, MC-RT-M, MC-PT-L and MC-PT-M were
reviewed. The results were as follows: MC-RT-L=1.657 (prob. =. 102); MC-RT-
M=1.258 (prob. =. 265); MC-PT-L=1.821 (prob. =0.067); MC-PT-M=1.231 (prob. =. 281).
First, these F ratios did not indicate significant differences between the items, thus
demonstrating that there was not a great deal of variability among the test items. Second,
the results of the Levene test also showed no significant difference in variance. However,
due to the small number of subjects for each item, these results were also examined by
Multiple Range Tests. The results of the Multiple Range Test (significance level=. 05)
suggested further examination of the differences was necessary between the items shown
in Table 5-10. On the other hand, the Modified LSD (Bonferroni) (significance
level=. 05) indicated only two items of MC-RT-L (between the items RL R-11 You cannot
eat your cake and have your cake and RT-L R-5 to be off one's head) were significantly
different. The differences were also indicated in the ANOVA and Multiple Range Test.
Table 5-10 Multinle Range Tests

MCtests Multiple RangeTest Modified LSD
(between) Item and Item Bonferroni
MC-RT-L 11 and 3,1,10,5 11 and 5
7 and 10,5
MC-RT-M 5 and 1,10,2 No two groups are significantly
different at the 050 level.
.
MC-PT-L 5 and 9,8 the same as above
1 and 9,8
10 and 9,8
MC-PT-M 4 and 8,9 the same as above
7 and 8,9
1 and 8,9
151
Concerning these two test items, however, since the metaphorical parts were not
problematic,theseitems were retainedin the test.
Taking into considerationthe earlier result of the reasonablehomogeneityacrossthe

11 groupsas statedin the early part of RESULT AND ANALYSES and the resultsfrom
the Levene test and the Multiple RangeTests, we can treat the mean results of the MC
tests acrossthe groups. Basedupon these mean scores,the following classification is
made for a selectionof the test items for a new study.
MC-RT:
For the first choice: (the mean scores with over 2.0 or nearly 2.0)
R-1 to let the cat out of the bag; R-2 A little pot is soon hot; R-10 Wake not a sleeping
lion.
For the secondchoice: (the meanscoreswith below 1.8)
R-6 a pain in the neck;R-3 Fish stinksat the head; R-7 The rotten apple injures its
neighbours;R-8 to hold one's head high; R-11 You cannot eat cake and haveyour cake;
R-9 to count heads;R-4 to stand in someone'sway; R-5 to be off one's head
MC-PT:
For the first choice: (the meanscoreswith over 1.0)
P-81f you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom; P-9 The bird has f lown away.
For the second choice: (the mean scores below 0.9)
P-2 to keep one's head down; P-11 to come to a head; P-6 Although the sun shines, leave
not your coat at home; P-5 to keep one's head above water; P-10 to take a leaf out
of
(someone's) book; P-3 to see which way the cat jumps; P-1 to throw out the baby with
the bath water, P-7 to tell (someone) where to get off, P4 to spill the beans
152
Researchquestion 2) What mapping and/or networking do JapaneseEFL students
perform when they deal with English metaphorical expressions?(i. e. metaphorical
competencemeasured in MC-XYT)
5.4-1. METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE MEASURED IN MC-XYT

Reasonsfor implementing MC-XYT for this study
Low (1988: 126) reclassified metaphor in the notion of `X is Y', in which the `X' is
treated as if it in
were, some ways, the `Y', for example, Anger is fire. The `X' is defined as
`prime', `tenor' or `topic', while the `Y' is `borrowed by', `transferred to' it or called
`vehicle. 'The conceptual metaphor is usually stated in a sentence pattern of `X is Y', such
as LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Therefore, in this study the students' metaphorical competence is
in
examined this sentencepattern.
5.4-2. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

The use of the 6 adjectives
When the usage of adjectives is taught in EFL lessons in Japan, the probable first step is
to teach them about either predicative use or attributive use or both. Therefore, the answers
were first checked in relation to the ways in which the EFL students used the 6 target
adjectives. Table 5-11 shows the ratio of the use of the 6 adjectives and zero answer ratio.
It shows that some adjectives were used more in the predicative use than in the attributive use
and vice versa. The predicative use in this case is focused on the aspects of Nexus use, i. e. a
subject-predicate relation in the sentence pattern of + be-V + adjective + N' and the
attributive use is on those of Junction, i. e. the combination of an adjective with a noun
àdjective + N' in a sentence. The higher ratio of the attributive use is on the adjectives
bright and high and the adjectives grey and weak showed the higher ratio where no answer
was given.
Table 5-11 The use of the 6 adjectives in metaphorical expressions (N-106)
Use Predicative Attributive Zeroanswers(%)

6 adjectives use (%) use (%)
bright 37.7 60.4 1.9
_...
_.............
__.....
46.2 __..
_... _
.... 38.7 ._.._.. 15.1
dark
_....
_....
_.................
...........
grey 40.6 22.6 36.8
high 23.6 55.7 20.7
weak 19.8 45.3 34.9

..... __...........
_........
35.8 _ .. ..__.
_._....
_......
_.
_. _....
1wild 48.1 16.1
153
Lexicallsemantic and metaphorical features shown in MC-XYT
Winner, Rosenstiel and Gardner (1976) analysed the children's metaphoric understanding
and use and classified their answers into four ranks: magical, metonymic, primitive
metaphoric and genuine metaphoric. Malgady (1980: 242, cited from 1975) demonstrates
"figurativeness" in the continuum of anomaly-metaphor-tautology and suggeststhat the topic
and vehicle terms share a moderate degree of similarity in a successful manipulation.
Taking these implications into consideration, two major categories can be established in an
EFL situation: metaphorical and non-metaphorical answers. The former (metaphorical) can
be further classified and assessedfor metaphorical satisfaction, that is, whether the answer is
either primitive or skilful/sophisticated in a metaphorical sense. Thus, the answers in the
metaphorical use were assessed/scaled in three ranks: 1 point for a satisfactorily

skilful/sophisticated answer in which a target adjective was used metaphorically in the
sentence pattern of `S + be + adj. + N'; 0.5 point for a primitive and/or unsatisfactory (but
-V
including a certain metaphorical) answer and zero for no answer written, an inappropriate
answer or an answer with some confusion of the metaphorical with the literal. The
evaluation given to a skilful or sophisticated answer does not mean attainment of a native
speaker's level but it does contain a certain level of metaphorical use.
The total points allocated for MC-XYT were 12: 6 for the literal and 6 for the
metaphorical use. However, for the convenience of comparisons, the sum of XYT was
halved so that respective MC-RT-L, MC-RT-M, MC-PT-L, MC-PT-M, MC-XYT-L and
MC-XYT-M were equally allocated 3 points.
In the following sections,somesampleswere quotedfrom the original answers(seeall of
the answersin Appendix 5-2) in order to discussthe contents,levels and featuresof the EFL
students'metaphorical competence. Therefore, though the answerscontainedgrammatical
errors, they were not correctedin the quotations. The samplesare marked or unmarked in
the lists: no mark referring to a satisfactory answer; a question mark (?) referring to an
unsatisfactoryanswer which is grammaticallyand/or syntactically incorrect but which should
be looked at for analysesof metaphoricaluse. The number after the samplesindicate the
number of answersto that specific answer. If there is no indication, it indicatesthat there
wasonly oneanswer.
The main concernis on EFL students'metaphoricalmanipulation, however, the answers
in the test revealed linguistic features as well as metaphorical features. The following
two
these
sectionsaddress features.
Overall features
The following two major aspectswere observedin this test: 1) the
answerswhich were
154
written in the required format of S (noun) + be-verb + (an) a iective and 2) the answers
which were not written in the required format. The results differed according to the
adjectives. Table 5-12 showsthe number of answerswritten in the required format and their
average.
Table 5-12 The number of answers and averages in the

required format in the metaphorical use (N-106)
adjectives Noof answersinthe Ave.

required format (each max=0.5)
bright 21 0.37
dark 14 0.29
......
............ 4.......
_......
............................ E......................
_......... 25........_._ .
gey.......
high 19 0 18
.
weak 19 0.20
wild 13 0.31
The number of answersvaried from the fewer (the fewest was 4 answersas indicated in the
grey column) to the more (the most was 21 answers in bright). The largest number did not
necessarily ensure the quality of the answers. For example, there were 21 answers for the
adjective bright with an average of 0.37 and there were only 13 answers for the adjective wild
with an average of 0.31, while there were only 4 answers for the adjective grey with an
average of 0.25. These three averages were not so far apart partly due to the low maximum
point, however it was found that the quality of the answers in the adjective grey was the
lowest of all the answers when qualitatively evaluated. It can be said that the EFL students
could manipulate some adjectives better than others.

Table 5-13 showsthe meansand SDs of MC-XYT of the 6 adjectivescontrastingthe data
betweenLiteral (XYL) and Metaphorical(XYM) uses.
Table 5-13 Means and SDsof MC-XYTof the 6 adjectives (N. 106)
Literal(Max=0.5) Metaphorical(Max-0.5)
adjectives Mean SD Mean SD
I
bright 0.24 0.15 0.28 0.21
dark 0.22 0.14 0.13 0.16
grey 0.22 0.16 0.11 0.15
high 0.21 0.17 0.14 ? 0.1
___.
_...
_..... __........
.. .._.............................
._. _ _. ._.._. M ...
__..
weak 0.10 0.14 0.12 0.18
wild 0.27 0.21 0.18

Total 1.26 0.52 1.01 ! 0.60
155
Most of the adjectiveswere better manipulated in the literal use than in the metaphorical
exceptfor the adjectivebright and weak, where the metaphoricalmanipulationswere slightly
higher (0.04 in bright and 0.02 in weakhigher mean scoresrespectively). Two times better
manipulated in the literal use was grey and nearly two times better were dark and high, then
wild followed. The distribution of scoresshown by SDs indicate that there were scattered
scoresin bright and wild. These data should be taken into account when the results are
analysed.
In the following sections,the individual featuresof the results of the target adjectivesare
analysedunder the following headlines:
1) the metaphoricity/skillsin the answersin MC-XYT which were written in the required
format, with all of the answerslisted in Appendix 5-2;
2) the metaphoricity/skillsin the answersin MC-XYT which were not written in the required
format. Then the headline2) was further classifiedand examinedunder the sub-headlines:
2-1) Nexus features,that is, the subject-predicaterelation, in other words, what word was
usedasa subjectof a sentencefor the target adjectives.
2-2) Junction features, that is, the attributive use of the target adjectives.
(SeeAppendix 5-3 for the individual answersin the Nexus and Junction features)
Individual features of the results of the 6 target adjectives

The target adjective bright
1) The metaphoricity/skillsin the answerswhich were written in the requiredformat:
S (noun) + be-verb + (g) bright N.
a) Her eyesarebrightjewels. / b) Her eyesarebright balls. / c) Your smile is a bright sun. /
d) Lucy's smileis bright sun. ^- e) His characteris bright sun. / f) Her seile is bright star.
" g) Walt Disneyis a bright man
" n) The boy is a bright student / o) ? Dog is a bright animal
" q) ?His headis bright light / r) ?ABemoonis a bright sky. / s) ?Eiersmile is bright floor.
Thetypicalfeaturesin the aboveanswerscanbe summarised

asfollows.
a):
eyes bright+jewels
'-'- cleverness/beauty/
Cbright+balls f happypersonality
b'
eyes
156
d) 0:
-)---("'bright+sun/star warmth/liveliness
smile
The answersclassified in a) - n) are successful ways of using the adjective bright as

metaphoricalexpressionsto someextent. In the sentences
a) & b) listed above,the eyesasa
perceptionorgan seemed to map an object of similar quality (Le.jewels) or similar shape(i. e.
balls, which are too similar in a shape)or vice versa, and the eyescombined with the target
word bright brings forth the conceptof intelligence
cleverness, or beauty. In the sentences
c),d) & f), the smile as an expressionof emotion seemsto elicit the picturesqueimage of the
sun or stars and the smile combined with the target word bright createsan atmosphereof
warmth and liveliness as if the sun is giving us its energy. In both casesthe word bright
seems to be used to create positive images. On the contrary, the answersfrom g) to n) were
ordinary. The answers e) and such answersas o) - s) are not so in
successful the way they
describedthe attributes of the subjectsof sentencesusing the target word bright or they
involved such errors as a wrong choice of word and a misspelling. For example,in q) His
head is bright light, the combinationof headwith bright light did not make sensein English,
however,if the word head was interpretedas ìdea' or `thought', it would make sense,and if
the word floor in s) Her smile is bright floor was correctly spelt, it would be `flower', in
which caseit turned out to be a beautiful sentenceof `Her smile is a bright flower. '
2) The metaphoricity/skillsin the answerswhich were not written in the required format
(The answersin the headline 1) are included in the total of the headline2)
2-1) Nexus features
There were more answersof the non-human subjects(49 %), Non-human-S,hereafter,
suchas someone'ssmile is bright or future

someone's is bright than thoseof human subjects
(9 %), Human-S, hereafter. Next to the Non-human-Sswere the personal pronouns, for
example,s/he is bright (42 %). Table 5-14 summarisesthe subjectsof the sentenceswritten
in the answers. Figure 5-1 illustratesthe Nexus featuresof bright.
Table 5-14 The subjectsusedin the sentencepattern of `X is bright Y'

Subjects Total number of answers %
Nouns Human-S 4
21 58
Non-human-S
Pronouns Human-S 18 42
157
Figure 5-1 Nexus featuresof bright
friend 5%
girl 299
2-2) Junction features

Table 5-15 summarises the nouns in the answers which were used to connect to the
adjective bright. Figure 5-2 illustrates the Junction features of bright.
Table 5-15 The noun connected to the adjective bright

Adjective + noun `Total number of answers %
33 67
bright + noun (human)
_.......
..................
... r......
.......
noun (non-human) 16 33
158
Figure 5-2 Junction features of bright.
world hair mood personality

success 2% 2% 2% 2%
image
idea 2%
2%
brain
2%
man
27%
2%
light
4%
Junction
brigh t
l person
people students
2% girl 8
guy 8%
2%
teacher
child woman
2%
2% 4%
The target adjective dark

1) The metaphoricity/skills in the answers which were written in the required format:
(noun) + be-verb + (a dark N.

* a) My heartisa dark stone. / b) My mind is a dark hole. / c) My feeling is dark sea. / d) Miki's feeling is dark sky.
* e) Hereyesarelike the bottomof dark sea / t) Your eyesarelike a dark sky.
* g) My life is dark stairs.
* j) ?Hereye'scolor is dark ocean.
* k) ?The scorein examis darkone.
The typical featuresin the aboveanswerscan be summarisedas follows.

a)-d):
C
h eart/mind/feeling dark + stone/holdspace negative cmolion
_0.
e) f):
eyes dark + sea/ocean colour density or negative
emotion
159
g):
life )L--J, dark + stairs )( LIFE IS STRUGGLE
It canbe saidthat the abovea) - d) were successfulways of writing metaphoricalexpressions,

and that the e) - g) were rather primitive, but better than the rest of the answers. In the
answersa) - d), the heart, mind and feeling were associatedwith such solid objectsasstone,
hole, sea and sky and were treatedas if they were containersinto which emotion is placed.
In the above samplesthese images were combined with the target word dark, and were
mapped to mental and psychological statesof mind. Then the messages becamepessimistic
or mysteriousas seenin my heart is a dark stoneor my mind is a dark hole.
The answers e), f) and j) can be said to be superficial because they merely described the
colours of eyes or a possibly unfathomable state of mind, though it can be said that they were
L1 transfer because there is such a Japaneseproverb as `the eyes are the window of mind. '
The answer g) conveyed the concept of the relationship of stairs to life which can be
interpreted as a conceptual metaphor LIFE IS STRUGGLE. The rest of the answers are not
very successful in the sense that the images did not convey clear messages nor were they
successful from the point of view of L1 transfer in the connection of score to dark. There is
a Japanese expression `thelsomeone's future is dark, ' therefore the student who wrote k)
probably had a sense of foreboding of his/her test score, intuitively thinking that the result
was a bad one. This kind of skidding image was sometimes found in the answers.
2-1) Nexus features
There were more answersof Non-human-Ss(61 %), such as heart,face orfeeling, in this
sentencepattern,then followed personalpronouns(39 %), though in the noun Non-human-Ss,
the words heart,face feeling eyes,and mind representa human mental state.
Table 5-16 summarisesthe subjectsof the sentenceswritten in the answers. Figure 5-3
illustratestheNexusfeaturesof dark
160
Table 5-16 The subiects used in the sentence pattern of `X is dark Y'
Figure 5-3 Nexus featuresof dark.
mind
3%
7 3%
score
2% hair/hair colour
5%
surroundings
2%
atmosphere
result 2%
2%
prison 2%
relationship 2%
character personality
2%
2% story hole ; kin sky
2% 2% 2% 2% 2%
2-2) Junctionfeatures
Table 5-17 summarises the nouns in the answers which were used to connect to the adjective
dark. Figure 5-4 illustrates the Junction features of dark
Table 5-17 The nouns connected to the adjective dark

%djeCtive+ noun Total number of answers %
lark + noun (human) 8 22

. (non human)
.... 28 78
noun
161
Figure 5-4 Junction features of dark
`Hoods result
doll 3%
3% 3%
dress
3%
stairs
3%
girl
hell 8%
3%
6%
hole ?r;;
3% person
6%
stone --7
3%
Junction
r- I dark
past
3%
point `
3% sea/ocean
8%
character
sky 1196
6%
The target adjective grey

1) The metaphoricity/skills in the answers written in the required format:
S (noun) + be-verb + (a)gryA"

* a) The sky was grey curtain. / b) My heart is grey sky.

There were only two answers metaphorically (though not quite satisfactorily) written in the
required format using the word grey. Although the samples were scant, these samples can
be interpreted as follows: the vast sky was mapped to the expansion of space like a curtain as
written in a) and the implication of grey + curtain conveyed the threatening state of the sky;
in the second sample the heart is connected to the sky indicating a grey atmosphere. From
it
these samples, can be said that the description using the word grey probably conveys a
state of mind or surroundings. More features can be seen in the Nexus and
pessimistic
Junction features.
2) The metaphoricity/skills in the answers which were not written in the required format
(The answers in the headline 1) are included in the total of the headline 2)
162
2-1) Nexus features
There were more answers of the Non-human-Ss (84 %), such as heart, feeling or mind, in
this sentencepattern than those of Human-Ss (16 %).
Table 5-18 summarises the subjects of the sentences written in the answers. Figure 5-5
illustrates the Nexus features of grey.
Table 5-18 The subjects used in the sentence pattern of `X is grey Y'
Figure 5-5 Nexus featuresof grey
problem
brain 346 character
3% 3%
truth
3%
atmosphere
judge
3%
163
2-2) Junction features in the target adjective grey
adjective dark. Figure 5-6 illustrates the Junction features of grey.
Table 5-19 The nouns connected to the adjective grey

Adjective + noun Total number of answers %
1>
grey + noun (human)
..............................................................................................................................
............................................................
8 89
noun (non-human)
Figure 5-6 Junctionfeaturesof grey
Jwomar
answer
11% 11%
Junction
spirit grey
11%
4596
feeling
11%
The target adjective high

t) The metaphoricity/skills in the answers which were written in the required format:
S (noun) + be-verb+ (a) high N.
* a) Her guard is so high wall. / b) This examination is a high wall.
* c) ?My eyes are high quality. (4 answers)

a)andb):
164
C D---high-+wall
uazd
Unappmachability/
difficulty
examination high+wall
is
The answer a) grammatically incorrect but its implication can be inferable. A probable
is `Her guard is such a high wall. ' In this vein, this answer is
correct sentence
understandable.
C:
)- high + quality intelligence

eyes -
This answer is also grammatically incorrect (as is often the case with JapaneseEFL students)
inappropriate. However, if it is corrected to be `My eyes are of high
and metaphorically
quality, ' then it makes a correct sentence. And if the eyes in this answer is interpreted as the
èye' in such a phrase as `to have an eye for, ' it makes sense. The èye' can refer to seeing
and knowing and therefore `judging' in this case. Though this sentence is metaphorically
the testee tried to express `his/her judgement is of high quality. ' Other features are
clumsy,
delineated in the following section.
2-1) Nexus features
There was an almost equal percentage(50 %) gained in personal(human) pronounsand
nouns as subjects. In the nouns, the Non-human-Ss were dominant (43 %). Table 5-20
summarises the nouns in the answerswhich were used to connect to the adjective high, and
Figure 5-7 illustratesthe Nexus featuresof high.
Table 5-20 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivehigh

Nouns Human-S 4 17
Non-human-S 25 43
Human-S 28 so
pronouns
Non-human
165
Figure 5-7 Nexus features of high
king
everybodyy tudent 2Tom
2% 2%
tension
11%
feeling
4%
mood
2%
Nexus ability
pronoun: 2%
50% high intelligence
2
jo e
2%
skill of piano
2%
blood pressure
2%
temperature
price 2%
2%
percentage of
king examination alcohol
2% wall guard TOEFL score test 4% 2%
2% 2% 2% 2%
The higher percentage in the above answers were such expressions as someone's
tension/feeling/mood, among which answers the word feeling is not appropriate as an
expression. It probably came from such a Japanese expression as `someone is emotionally
high' (i. e. L1 transfer). The next to highest was the level of tests/examinations is high, the
expression of which is usually used by Japanese people. Japanese students often mention
the levels of tests or examinations, for example, `someone's TOEFL scores are high. ' The
implication of the intelligence is high can be interpreted in the same vein. The answers,
such as skill, blood pressure and so on, indicate that the conceptual metaphor MORE IS UP
seemed to be utilised here.

Table 5-21 summarisesthe nouns in the answers which were used to connect to the
adjectivehigh, and Figure 5-8 illustratesthe Junction featuresof high.
166
Table 5-21 The nouns connected to the adjective high
1djective + noun Total number of answers %
24
iigh+ noun (human)
_-..............
_.....
_.. 46 _.....
_ 9E
noun (non-human)
Figure 5-8 Junction features of high
The highestpercentagein the answersto the linkage of the adjectivehigh with nounswas the
girl
maker guy
tree 2%
2%
2%
cost
2%
price
2%
color
2%
pressure
2%
positior
4%
implication of the psychological state as shown by high tension, and next to it were high
quality and high level. The concreteposition expressedby high wall and high scoresand
high place followed.
The target adjective weak

S (noun,) + be-verb+ (q) weakN.
* a) The lady was a weak little child. / b) John's feet are weak sticks. / c) ?My head is a weak stone. /
d) ?My character is a weak dog. / e) ?His bone is weak tree. g) ?Her heat is weak mind.
-
* i) The voice wasa very weakvoice.
* j) My weakpointisto swimin thesea. / k) His weakpointisbeingshy.

- m) Mathismy weakpoint. /
167
n) His weakpoint is girlfriends. - r) My weak point is left side.
* s) ?Shoji is a weakpaper.

a) - g):
Body/ bodyparts(feet, '*. / weak+shape/ \ fragile or poor physical/

\
I substance / mentalconditions
head,bony attributes
1' fragilility or physically/

l voice weak+voice
emotionallypowerlessness
Most of the answerswritten in the required format in this target adjectiveweak were not
satisfactorynor grammatically correct. The answersseemed to be primitive. Although the
answers needed the corrections,the featuresof the answerscan be summarised as follows.
a)- g):
The answersa) - g) were not sophisticatedin the sensethat the comparisonsof lady
or patient with baby, feet with sticks, head with stone, and bone with tree were very similar in
shapes. There was not much transfer in the meaning.

The intentionsof the compositionsa)--d) can be interpretedas follows: a) The lady or the
patient is/was physically weak; b) John's feet were slenderand weak like sticks; c) Ì' am not
clever; d) Ì' am not a strong-willed person. The answers c) and d) seemed to be Ll
transfers:for the answer c), there is an expressionsuch as `stone head' (stone-headedin
English, the original meaning in Japaneseis à head as hard as a stone'). It means a
stubborn person or a mentality which is rigid or unadaptable,while a counterpart is `sot
head' (soft-headed)in Japanese;for the answerd), a dog can allude to such an expressionas
à defeateddog' both in English and Japanese. Therefore, if the answer d) is correctedto
My characteris of a weakdog, it makesmore sense.
i): In this sentence

thephysicalweakness
wasmappedto voice.
j) - r): The adjectiveweak was used in the set phraseof weakpoint in thesesamples,and is
commonly used in a Japanese expression. Concerning weak + points, an additional

discussiontakesplaceat the end of this section.
s): The word shoji is a Japanese
sliding door madeof paper,therefore,it is weak. This
168
sentencedescribed nothing more than what the sliding door shoji is.
2) The metaphoricity/skills in the answers which were not written in the required format
(The answers in the headline 1) are included in the total of the headline 2)
2-1) Nexus features
There were more answers of the personal pronoun subjects (40 %) but there were a few
noun Human-Ss, such as lady and patient (3 % respectively), however, the body and body
parts and human attributes occupied 37 %. Table 5-22 summarises the subjects of the
sentenceswritten in the answers. Figure 5-9 illustrates the Nexus features of weak.
Table 5-22 The subiects used in the sentence pattern of `X is weak Y'
Figure 5-9 Nexus features of weak
lady
patient
3%
z"
imagination
3%
sight
3%
es
bone character
3% 3%
Table 5-23 summarisesthe nounsin the answerswhich were usedto
connectto the
adjectiveweals and Figure 5-10 illustratesthe Junction featuresof weak.
169
Table 5-23 The nounsconnectedto the adjective weak
.Total number of answers %
adjective + noun
4 10
veak+ noun (human)
38 ...... 90
noun (non human)
Figure 5-10 Junction features of weak
tree man boy
dog
8%
will
2%
The outstanding Nexus features found in the target adjective weak fell on a linkage to points
(55 %), while the answers linked to human nouns were only 10 %. In our daily life the
Japaneseoften use an expression such as `my weak points are so and so.' `Voice', `mind' and
`will' also belong to human attributes, which were linked to the adjective weak in the answers,
which implies powerlessness.
The target adjective wild

S (noun) + be-verb+ (a) wild N.
* a)The wind is a wild wind.
* b) The way of his eatingis a wild animal. / c) Ben's attitudeis wild animal. - e) His action is a wild animal.
* f) His characteris wild hunter.
170
* g) Me personalityis wild animal.
* h) ?Her eyesarelike wild animaL / i) ?His faceis wild animal.
* j) Tanan is a wild man. / k) My boyfriendis a wild man.

a):
wind i_-( wild+wind strengthlviolence

, .?
b) e):
manner/behaviour/ \_. _
wild+animal violence
attitude
fl:
character )( wild+hunter "( boldness
g (personality!
wild+animal boldncss/violence
character
The featuresof the aboveanswerscan be interpretedas follows.

a): This but
answerwas not sophisticated it made some sense.
b) - e): In theseanswers,manner,behaviourand attitude were associatedwith wild + animal,
meaningviolence.
f): If this answerwas written grammaticallycorrect, it would be fine.
g): In the sentence g), the word personality seemedto be confusedwith one's characteror
attributes. If the answer was Someone's character is that of a wild animal, it could be
illustratedasabove.
h) & i): The meaningsof thesetwo answerswere ambiguous. Was the answerh) intended
to meanthat her eyes(eyesight?) are as good as those of a wild animal or as stem as those of
a tiger or evenas cute as thoseof a kitten? The meaning of answeri) is also too ambiguous
to infer clarity from the whole sentence.
Not all of the answerswere satisfactory,however, there was an interestingphenomenon
in the characteristicsof the subjects. The gender chosenas the subject of a sentencewas
mainly masculineexcept for one answer (i. e. the item i). For example, the answers,such as
171
`he' was a wild animal, were dominant. It seemsthat the combination of wild + animal
solicited a masculineimage.
j) & k): Thesetwo sentencesmerely describedvaguely how the personis.
Besidestheseanswers,therewere someanswersusing a simile, for example,He is like a wild
monkey. A probableimplication is that the person's looks or his behaviour was mappedto
that of a wild monkey or animal or vice versa.
2-1) Nexus features (The answers taken up for analysis include the verb `look' instead of
`be-verb')
There were more answersof the personalpronouns as subjects(64 %). The masculine
pronounhe occupied 56 % of all the Then
answers. the Human-Ss man and Tarzan followed,
and next to it came the Non-human-Ss, such as character, etc. Table 5-24 summarisesthe
subjectsof the sentenceswritten in the answers. Figure 5-11 illustratesthe Nexus features
of wild.
Table 5-24
Nouns Human-S =46
Non-human-S 19 30
Human-S 40 64
pronouns
Non-human
*The gamein this answerdoesnot refer to the `game' in card gamesnor to
the `wild card' in a metaphoricalsense.
172
Figure 5-11 Nexus features of wild
I you man Tarzan

2% 2% 5%
she 2%
5% behaviour
5%
he
5 5% character
5%
action
3%
way of eatinc
2%
Nexus
lifestyle
wild 3%
way of hairstyle
3%
temper of lior
Africa 2%
game fashion
2% 2%

adjective wild, and Figure 5-12 illustrates the Junction features of wild.
Table 5-25 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivewild

%djective + noun :Total number of answers %
15 at
wild + noun (human)
n..
noun
...(non-human) 22 ............ 59
173
Figure 5-12 Junction features of wild
floor character
hair 3%
3%
clothes 3%
apetite 3 o/o
3%
man
21%
win
cat
3% 5%
5%
Junction
person
wild 5Yo
guy
animal
28%
?hunter
3%
The outstanding Junction feature is that there were more connections of the target adjective
wild with nouns, such as wild + animal and wild + man, which imply appearance, i. e. what a
person or thing looks like; the wild + human nouns (boy, person, guy and hunter) followed;
then the wild + kinds of animals (lion, monkey and cat). The other feature was that the word
wild connoted manners, attributes or aspects, such as the wild + wind, the wild +-appetite,
wild + character, and so on. From these answers, it can be said that the meaning of the
word wild affectedthe implication conveyedby the word.
5.4-3. DISCUSSION
Linguistic, syntactic and metaphorical problems
There were a few answers written in the required format of A/An/fhe X is a/an adjective
Y (X and Y are nouns), as stated in the sections of the overall and individual features of the
test results. There seemed to be two problems with the EFL students' fulfillment of the test
of A/An/The X is a/an adjective Y: one was syntactic and the other metaphorical. The
defects in the syntactic problem were either in the subject of a sentence or in the predicate.
An example of the former defect in such a sentence is `j is a bright man. ' It does not
fulfill the requirement of using a noun for the subject of a sentence. An
example of the
latter defect is such a sentence as `Her smile is bright. ' It did not meet the requirement
of a
174
of adjectiveplus noun in the predicate,either.
combination
There are two probable causesfor the above problems in the JapaneseEFL students' use
is imprinting in the learning of adjectives, i. e. the way they learn adjectives
of adjectives: one
in their early stages of learning in a junior high school. They learn a predicative use of
little than an attributive use, but almost at the same time they learn the
adjectives a earlier
I consulted the five most popular authorised Monbusho
attributive use of adjectives.
English textbooks for the first year of junior high school. Four textbooks out of five provide
lessons for the predicative use of adjectives in the early lessons, for example I'm sleepy, I'm
late! I'm very hungry, and Canada is a big country (New Horizon 1,1997). Both usages
learned in sentence patterns. This relates to the lessons teaching be-verbs in

are very simple
the early learning stages. The other cause may originate in L1 transfer. In Japanese there
adjectives (originally verbs, but used like

are adjectives and adjective-verbs or verb-like
be used both in predicative and attributive uses. Japanese adjectives
adjectives), which can
to English adjectives, for example, `There was a d= hole in the soft trunk' or
are similar
`The wind was rDid on the sold night. ' (Nitta, 1998: 33). The adjective-verbs resemble
English participles, for example `Their son was drafted by the army' or `the man milking at
the hospital.... ' (ibid. ). Nitta (ibid. ) made a small scale survey of the uses of Japanese
and verbs in a pocket book with 510 pages to see whether they belonged to the
adjectives
predicative use or the attributive use (Table 5-26). If survey materials differed, the results
differ, however, the results of his survey suggests certain conclusions. It implies that
would
the expressions with the nuance of verbs tend to converge to the predicative use, while those
with that of adjectives to the attributive use. These tendencies might have consciously or
affected the uses of English adjectives by Japanese speakers. The EFL
subconsciously
use of adjectives may oscillate between the two.
students'
Table 5-26 The predicative use and the attributive use

in Nitta's survey
Use lattributive
predicative
I
Parts of speec
85% 15%
verbs
adjectives 37% 63%
A secondproblem revealed in the test of A[An/ The x is a/an adiect is the EFL
students' lack of success in metaphorical manipulation. There were dual tasks for the
studentsto fulfil in this test: one was syntactic use as stated above and the other was the
metaphorical use of adjectives. In metaphorical manipulation, the students had to connect
the subjectof a sentenceto the predicate,in which in addition the target adjective should be
metaphorically embedded. Therefore, the studentswere tested on the uses of adjectives
175
linguistically and metaphorically in the combination of the subject of a sentencewith the
predicate. These dual tasks seemed to be difficult. In the interview with the students,
those who had richer semanticfields (tested by PolyT) of the target word seemedto have
fewer problems. They seemedto expand the meanings of the word and connect these
meanings from word to word without much difficulty. The knowledge of polysemy or rich
semanticfields to
seemed play an important role in this task. Therefore, if we look closely
at the EFL students' answers in this context, their linguistic ability and metaphorical
competence in the target adjectives may become clear. In the following sections,these
aspectsare discussed.
Semantic webs and metaphorical sensitivity/skills

Target adjective bright
In the test of Metaphoricalsensitivity/skills, the testeeswere askedto write a sentencein
the required format, for exampleHer eyesare bright jewels (the sentencea. in the previous
section). The answersmost commonly written were sentencesin the pattern of `X is
(e.
adjective' g. My future is bright), as also stated in the previous section. Another
phenomenon discoveredin the answers was the influence of the core meaningsin English.
Japanesedictionaries. Thosewho usedthesekinds of dictionaries seemedto have a similar
mental lexicon of that of the English-Japanese
dictionaries. The meaningsof the adjective
bright from the core or primary to the peripheral listed in an English-Japanesedictionary
(Iwasaki, et al.: 1998)are 1) bright in the degreesof brightness,2) clear, transparent3) clear
in colour, 4) lively, 5) clever, 6) glorious, etc.
Basedupon the results of all of the answerswritten in the metaphorical use of bright,
including both the answersin the required format and those not in the required format, the
following featurescan be summarised.
Theadjectivebrightwasmetaphorically by
used theEFL studentsto mean
1) cleverness,intelligenceor knowledgewhen usedin combination with eyesor human
perception,or in allusion to people's attributes,for example,Her eyesare bright jewels or
My friend is a bright person.
2) warmth, livelinessor full of life when usedin combination with smile or positive human
expression,for example, Your smile is bright sun or Her successis bright.
3) somethingshining or glittering when usedin combination with star, light orjewelry, for
example, Mild's dress is bright jewelry.
Figure 5-13 summarisesthe EFL students'typical semanticweb of the adjective bright.
176
Figure 5-13 The semanticweb of the adjective bright
man person
sattle
students
future I\II' girl
woman
jewels }----{ bright
jewelry )+ \` star
sunshine ( \ s
sunlight light )l
A comparison of English NSs' use of the target word bright with that of the EFL
be worthwhile. A consultation of the corpus (the high significance listing of
students' may
the top 40) provides the following information. Some of the EFL students' semantic webs
of this adjective are shared with the NSs'. The words in the COBUILD corpus top 40
with the EFL students' answers are: light, lights, future, eyes, sun,
collocations which overlap
idea, ideas and hair. There seems to be a fair amount of similarity
sunshine, sunlight, star,
in the target word bright between the NSs and the EFL students.
In conclusionthe following summary can be made about the EFL students' metaphorical
in
competence using the target adjective bright. The adjective bright conveys a visual,
sensoryand psychologicalmeaning in itself and it has a positive interior image. Therefore
thosewho used thesecharacteristicsin the context of the word bright and who could link or
transferthe meaningof the subjectof a sentenceto the predicateand match thesetwo items
using the target adjective wrote a satisfactory metaphorical answer. The answers which
employed the sensory use of bright were quite successful in their metaphorical use of this
adjective(as in the sentencesa), b), c) d) and f) in the previous section). The answerswhich
used the adjectivein a plain way were not quite metaphorically perfect but they made sense
to a certain degreeas shown in the sentencesg) to n) in the previous section. The answers
of the adjectivebright gainedthe highest meansamong the 6 adjectives.
Target adjective dark

Therewere more answersin a predicativeuse of dark than an attributive use, for example,
177
S/He is/was/looksdark or someone'sface/heart is/becomesdark rather than, for example,
dark sidesin an attributive use. The influence of the core meaningsin an English-Japanese
dictionary was also found in the answers. The meaningsfrom the core to the peripheralin
an English-Japanese dictionary are 1) dark, an antonym to clear or light, 2) sombermeaning
lower in brightness,suchas dark green,3) obscurein meaning,4) ignorant, 5) gloomy, etc.
The following featurescan be summarisedin the metaphoricaluse of the adjectivedark,
though there were fewer answers written in the required format than for the previous
adjectivebright.
1) somethingconcreteis dark, as seenin a/the sky/hair/skin/faceleyes/hole
is/are dark or
dark hair/hole, etc,
2) somethingabstractor a psychologicalstatecan be dark to meanpessimistic,as seenin
heart/mind/feeling/atmosphere/moodis dark or darkfeeling/atmosphere/mood,
3) descriptionscover both concreteand abstractphenomenaor states,such asdark sides/past.
Figure 5-14 summarisesthe EFL students'typical semanticweb of the adjectivedark.
Figure 5-14 The semanticweb of the adjectivedark
girl
persona!
man
pronouns
person
heart
mind
character face
dark
eyes
mood
hair
atmopsphere
sca
feeling
sidelsides
cean
sky
The EFL students'useof the word dark in comparisonwith that of the NSs' is follows.
as
The COBUILD corpus top 40 collocations which overlap with the EFL students' answers
are: hair, haired eyes,side, skin, sky, colour, colours and man. There was no entry for
mincecharacter,personality, mood, atmosphere,future, surroundings and relationship in the
top 40 collocations. The Japanesestudents used the adjective dark to describe
more
psychologicalstates.
178
Finally the following summary can be made about EFL students' metaphorical
competence in using the target adjectivedark. The adjective dark, scientifically, implies a
limited degreeof brightness,however, it seemsto stimulate our sensoryorgan to map from
to
visual cognition a mental and psychological implication. In the students' answers,the
adjectivedark tendedto be usedto describemental and/or psychological states,especiallyto
describepessimistic,unfathomablestates,moods or feelings. The answersemploying this
characteristicsof the word turned out to be metaphoricalto a degree.
Target adjective grey

The adjectivegrey showedsimilar results to those of the adjective dark. However, the
zero answerratio was the highest among the 6 adjectives. It seemedto be difficult for the
studentsto use this adjective metaphorically. There were two types of answers,one of
which describes somethingconcrete and the other something abstract. There were more
combinationsof the adjectivegrey with abstractnouns, such as heart,feeling, mind or ways
of thinking, which mean that the stateor atmospherewas not promising, then followed the
combination with answer and decision. The implication of the latter seemedto mean
obscurity in the related matter. The meanings from the core to the peripheral in an
English-Japanese dictionary are 1) grey (the colour betweenwhite and black) or dim, 2) grey-
haired, 3) dull, sombre, cloudy, 4) dreary, 5) old-aged, etc. Figure 5-15 summarisesthe
EFL students'typical semanticweb of the adjectivegrey.
Figure 5-15 The semanticweb of the adjectivegrey
The COBUILD corpustop 40 collocationswhich overlap with the EFL

students'answers
179
hair and hairs. There were fewer matchesin this adjective than in others.
are:
The EFL students'metaphoricaluse of this adjective was monotonous. The word grey
be in
can used a visual, sensory meaning which may express a negative image. However,
the students'answersdid not go much further into metaphorical manipulation. At best it
was Thesky wasgrey curtain.
Target adjective high

There were more answerswritten in the attributive use of the adjective high. It occupied
the secondhighest meansin the attributive use. It was possibly affected by daily Japanese
in
conversation which the word high is used. The meanings in an English-Japanese
dictionary are 1) the level of altitude or a distanceabovethe ground, of which antonym is low,
2) situatedat an important/high position, 3) noble, sublime, 4) progressed,5) important or
prominent, 6) dear or expensive,etc.
The most popular answerswere someone(mostly pronouns)is high and next to them were
to
allusions something abstract,for example, tension,feeling, quality or the levels of tests
is/are high, and high tension/level/quality/scores. Figure 5-16 summarisesthe EFL
students' typical semanticweb of the adjectivehigh.
Figure 5-16 The semanticweb of the adjectivehigh
personal
-) )t hoot
tension Pronouns
examination
pressure
testscores
feeling ){ high
quality
mood
level
intelligence
ability )l class
The COBUILD corpus top 40 collocations which overlaps with the EFL students'
answersare: school, quality, level, levels,pressure,prices, heels,price, cost, temperature,

temperatures,class and tension. There seemsto be a high degreeof similarity betweenthe
180
NSs andthe EFL students.
The adjective high indicates an ontological position, altitude or location. This physical
meaning maps to a mental implication. As stated in the section of the results and analysis,
the metaphorical use of the adjective high seemed to relate to a conceptual metaphor MORE
IS UP. It can be said that the concept and image of UP is abstract and used to imply
the usual level, amount, rate or degree. The high indicates a

someone or something above
vertical position, therefore, it is used to scale the level of examinations or as a measure of a
test level. Such answers as high tension, high quality and high level are commonly used in
daily conversation by Japanese. Both languages and culture seem to share the same
metaphorical concept.
Target adjective weak

There were more attributive answers,especiallyin the combination of weak with points.
The core meaning in an English-Japanesedictionary is physically weak as in weak
constitution, the meaning of which is the opposite of strong. A secondary meaning is to
mean not vigorous in mind or will, a tertiary meaning is insufficient, then poor, etc follows.
The dominant answerswritten by the studentscoincided with the lexical meanings in the
dictionary.
A number of answersusing this adjective were someone(personal pronouns) is weak,
then body/mind/head is weak, wind/coffee is weak eyesight/imagination is weak and
character/imagination is weak followed in the predicative use. The outstandinganswer in
the attributive use was weakpoints. The zero answer ratio was the secondhighest to the
adjective grey. Figure 5-17 summarisesthe EFL students' typical semantic web of the
adjectiveweak.
The COBUILD corpustop 40 collocationswhich overlap the EFL students'answersare:
he, points, voice, legs, will, she, men and minded. There does not seem to be much
overlappingbetween the NSs and the EFL studentsfor this adjective.
As for the EFL students' metaphorical competence in using this adjective, the
characteristicsof the implication of physical weaknessmapping to mental weaknesswas
exemplified in some of the answers, for example, the sentences a) - i) in the previous section.
This was affectedby the core meaning of the word weak which implies physical weakness,
scarcity of strengthor power, all of which had a static image. On the other hand, most of
the answers used the combination of weak and points, which was quite ordinary in a
metaphoricalsense.
181
Figure 5-17 The semanticweb of the adjectiveweak
Target adjective wild

The ratio of attributive use in the answersto wild was slightly more than the previous
weak, and the zero answer ratio was not very high. The core to peripheral meaningsof wild
in an English-Japanesedictionary are 1) untamed, 2) uncultivated, 3) natural, 4) savage,
5) crazy, 6) untidy, etc. As analysed in the results section, the core meaning was
violent,
mapped to the person'scharacter or attributes, behaviours or appearance. In addition, the
core meaningwild was combined with animal (wild + animal). In such a case,it meansthe
manner, behaviour or character is wild. The analogy from the image of wild animal
to influence the use of the word wild. All of the connotationsconverged to the
seemed
meaningof strength,power or violence. Figure 5-18 summarises the EFL students' typical
semanticweb of the adjectivewild.

The COBUILD corpustop 40 collocationswhich overlap the EFL students'answersare:
hair, cat andAfrica. They sharea degreeof similarity.
animals,man,
The meansof this adjectivewas secondto the adjective bright. In the metaphoricaluse
of this adjective,the EFL students'semantic web stretched its threadsto a variety of words,
and so their imaginationexpandedto include a variety of expressions. The word wild elicits
a dynamic image compared to the previous adjective weak. It shows the dynamics of the
word which affect our imagination. The same effect is true of the adjective bright. These
words inspire a wider variety of responses.
182
Figure 5-18 The semanticweb of the adjectivewild
animal
lion
monkey
behaviour
action
wild boy
U __A
person
character
wind
lifestyle hair/hairstyle
5.4-4. CONCLUSION
In successfulmetaphoricalexpressions,the items to be linked in the expressionshare
some similarity, but not too much. Aitchison (1987: 149) states that when humans
consciously use metaphor they subconsciously follow certain guidelines. They tend to
compare items which come from different semantic fields, which share minor but obvious
characteristics. She also emphasises the power of the mental lexicon. The mental lexicon
containsmechanismswhich enablea personto continually expand old words and coin new
ones (ibid.: 143). Especially in an EFL situation, learners' mental lexicons play an
important role not only in metaphorical manipulation but in all aspects of language
performance. If they have richer semanticfields, they can usethem for networking of word
to word connections. And, another important element for understanding and using
metaphoricalexpressionsis the intuition or ability to connectthe vehicle to the topic or vice
versa. In an example such as `Mike Tyson's muscles are hard steel,' learnersshould know
the relation of `muscle' to `steel' and that of the stateof the muscle to `hard.' The meaning is
created by the combination of these words. This kind of training may be necessaryfor EFL
learners to become more familiar with metaphors. Ikegami (1975: 274) indicates the
importance of understanding transfer in meaning, giving an example of a Japanese
expression `flame licks,' in which there are two crossings or transfers operating in
combination: `flame bums' and `tongue licks', thus we get `flame licks.' The test of `X is
Y' in this senseensuresa necessarytraining for this purpose. There were only 6 adjectives
(bright, darb grey, high weak and wild) testedin MC-XYT. From the resultsof the test for
183
the first three adjectiveswith visual and sensory meanings, the expansion from sensory
and/or psychological nuances to metaphorical expressions was demonstrated by the
and
participants, for the remaining three adjectives,the characteristicsof the nuancesof each
word were utilised in the metaphorical expressions. The meanings which words convey
stimulateour imaginationand createtheir metaphoricalworld.
184
Research question 3) Is there any relationship between Japanese EFL students'
linguistic competenceand metaphorical competence?
5.5-1. VOCABULARY SIZE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

The final discussionin this study is whether or not there is any relationship betweenthe
subjects'vocabularybreadth and competence.

metaphorical Table 5-27 showsthe resultsof
the testsof metaphoricalcompetence(MC tests)and of VLT.
Table 5-27 Contrastingthe resultsof MC teststo thoseof VLT

Combination#of Means of MC tests Meansof VLT
items in MC-RT& (120 p)
N MC-RT MC-PT MC-XYT Total
MC-PT (6p) (6p) (6p) (18p)
1 10 4.5 1.1 3.4 9.0 100.6
2 11 3.8 2.1 4.2 10.1 97.5
3 12 2.5 1.4 3.3 7.2 90.0
_.............
9 _._.
_..
__....
_...
2.5 __.
_---_ 1.4 3.6
4 7.5 101.6
5 9 3.5 1.1 2.3 6.9 97.7
6 11 1.7 2.9 8.3 91.6
7 _3.7_
2.6 1.2 3.0
7 6.8 94.1
11 2.9 3.3 3.6 9.8 96.0
9 8 3.6 3.1 3.8 10.5 98.9
.._._........_.._... 4.7
_ 10 .... __ _ ... _ w_... ___ _..
_ ....
_...
_...
_ _.
_.....
_...........
_ ..._................
_
10 1.3 3.2 9.2 97.9
11 8 3.2 2.3 3.5 9.0 96.9
Total 106 WA WA 36.8 94.3 1060.8
average N/A N/A 3.34 8.56 96.4
#Combinationon the left columnrefersto the combinationof testitemsshown in the left column of Table5-l.
It can be said from the results in Table 5-27 that JapaneseEFL students' difficulty in
recognition and production of metaphorical expressionslies in using them rather than in
understandingthem. In understandingmetaphorical expressions,they can resort to the
contextualsupportmore or less,however, in using them, they haveto be independent.
Another issue that this study attempts to investigate is whether or not the subjects'
vocabularyknowledge is relatedto the metaphoricalcompetence. The following table 5-28
shows the results of the Pearson correlation coefficients. There were problems in using
correlation statistics due to the insufficient number of subjectswho participated in the MC
tests. This leads to non-significant p-values. Although there was only one significant
result, the face value in the table indicatesthat the correlation between vocabulary size and
metaphorical competence at least was not negative. Vocabulary size may have a
relationship with metaphorical knowledge, but this will need to be tested
with a study
including greaternumberof subjects.
185
Tahle 5-2R CorrelationbetweenVLT and MC tests
Combinations V.LT. (1 20 p) Tests of Metaphoricalcompetence(18 p) Correlation betw.VLT/MC tests
N Mean SD Mean SD PearsonCor. p-

of MC-RT&PT
1 10 100.6 9.1 9.0 3.2 0.533 0.113
11 97.5 17.5 10.1 4.5 0.436 0.180

2
22.4 7.2 4.5 0.858* 10.000
3 12 90.0
9 101.6 ` 12.9 7.5 2.9 0.618 0.076

4
9 97.7 14.4 6.9 2.6 0.607 0.083
5
11 91.6 16.2 8.3 4.9 0.457 0.158
6
7 94.1 9.4M 6.8 3.5 0.676 0.095
g 11 96.0 9.3 9.8 4.6 0.583 0.060
3.4 0.684 0.061

9 8 98.9 1 20.8 10.5
_.. ....................
_..._. .............. .........
................ .
........ 9.21
.
. 10 3.7 0.075 0.837
11 8 96.9 12.4 9.0 3.41 0.040 0.924
Total 106 96.4 1 14.7 N/A N/A WA WA

:
#Combinationon the left columnrefersto the combinationof testitemsshown in the left column of Table 5-1.
* p<05
5.5-2. VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

The Results of the VLT, PolyT and MC tests
It may be necessaryto have a certain amount of vocabulary to understandand use
expressions
metaphorical without much difficulty. Table 5-29 showsthe subjects' vocabulary
size scaledby VLT which was contrastedwith their metaphoricalcompetencescaledby MC
tests.
Table 5-29 Vocabulary knowledgeand metaphoricalcompetence

Ratio of correct answers in VLT N VLT PolyT MCtests
(106) (120 points) (20 points) (18 points)
% Points in VLT Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
90 %a over108points 23 111.3 3.1 16.0 1.7 9.9 3.9

over
89-80 -107-96 44 101.9 3.3 15.0 1.6 9.6 3.3
- 23 90.1 3.7 13.8 1.9 7.9
79-70-M - 95-84 3.6
69-60 83-72 10 77.1 3.7 11.4 2.3 6.2 3.3
-
59-50-- - 71-60 1 71 N/A 9.0 N/A 5.2 N/A
below below59M--- 5 52.2 3.9 7.2 3.0 2.3 2.2
Table 5-29 revealsthat, although the correlation analysiswas unable to show a relationship,
the higher the vocabularyand polysemy mean scoresare, the higher the mean scoresin the
186
MC tests. It also revealsthat as the vocabulary knowledge becameless,the mean scoresof
the MC testsbecamelower. For example,where the subjectshad a vocabulary size of 80%
or higher, their mean scoresin the MC tests were 9.6 (53% correct answers)or 9.9 (55%
correct answers)respectively. The subjects whose vocabulary size were 70-79% in VLT
scoredthe mean 7.9 (44 % correct answers)in the MC tests,and thosewhosevocabularysize
were 60-69% scored 6.2 (34% correct answers), whereas if the vocabulary size went below
59%, which is half of the maximum in the test,they scoredonly 5.2 (29% correctanswers)or
below. This possibly indicates that there is a linear relationship: the less vocabulary they
know, the lower their metaphorical ability. Furthermore, these results possibly suggest that
more than 70% of vocabulary (equivalent to 14 points in Pol)TT) might help manipulation of
metaphorical expressions. If the vocabulary size is smaller than 70 percent, they might still
have a chance to understand better or develop their manipulation with the help of their
vocabulary knowledge and with some other elements, such as general knowledge of the
world and/or analogy from their past experience. It may be hard to manipulate English
metaphorical expressions if the vocabulary size is too small. However, this implication is
not merely applicable for the understanding and production of metaphorical expressions. It
is applicable to most areas of language use.
5.5-3. CONCLUSION
As for the research questions (aspects of Japanese EFL students' understanding and use
of metaphorical expressions and the relationship between linguistic and metaphorical
competences), it can be said that students' vocabulary level may be one of the main factors in
an EFL situation, as was discussed in the last section of this study. Vocabulary range does
not necessarily mean that one knows the meaning of a word alone, but rather it means one
knows the word and at the sametime knows something additional to the lexical meaning.
The knowledgeabout the word and the knowledge of the world would help understandand
manipulateexpressions.
The factors that might affect metaphorical understanding are probably students'
familiarity with the words and expressionsin addition to vocabulary awareness. However,
contextualsupportand/or cues in a discourse/passage
may help their understandingto a great
extent. The schema factor may also affect their understandingand use of metaphorical
expressionsand schemaactivation may elicit metaphoricaltransfersof meaning. The issue
of schemas is a very important point when it comes to teaching metaphorical expressions.
Therefore,this factor will be investigatedin a further study.
The production of a passagewith a metaphoricalmeaning embeddedin it includes these
factors, however,more importantly it involves students'generalwriting ability,
especiallyin
187
an EFL situation. The researchquestion of mapping and networking had been touched
to
upon a degree, but further investigationwill still be necessary. This will be also taken up
in Study4.
In Study 3 the test items to be usedfor assessingmetaphoricalcompetenceand the index
tests were selected;however, these tests need be examined on a reasonablenumber of
subjects. Therefore,thesetestswill be administeredon an appropriatenumber of subjectsin
a new study,whereconsequently the resultswill be analysedand discussedquantitativelyand
qualitatively. In brief Study 4 will re-examine the feasibility of the tests and address
JapaneseEFL students' metaphorical competence, factors affecting their metaphorical
competence and a relationshipbetween their mental lexicons and metaphoricalcompetence.
188
CHAPTER 6
STUDY 4: ASSESSINGMETAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:
SECONDEXECUTION OF THE MAIN TESTS (Re-testingof the MC tests)
OF STUDY4
6.1. THEPURPOSE
In Study 3, two experimentswere carriedout, the results analysedand severalaspectsof
JapaneseEFL students' understandingand use of English metaphoricalexpressionswere
discussed. However,the studyneedsto be expandedto cover a greaternumberof subjects. It
an
necessitates appropriatenumber of subjectsto be testedon eachtest item. Therefore,this
chapteraims to the
re-test test items of metaphorical competence usedin Study 3 andto analyse
and discussthe study quantitativelyand qualitatively with referenceto the previousresultsif
necessary.
6.1-1. RESEARCHQUESTIONS
The following researchquestionswill be investigatedandansweredin this study.
1) What results will be obtained if the tests of metaphorical competence used in Study 3
are tested on different subjects ?

2) What aspectsof metaphorical competencedo EFL studentsdisplay in the testsof
metaphoricalcompetence?
3) Are the test items suitable astest items of metaphorical competencefor Japanese
EFL students? (Le.to scrutinisethe reliability and ensurethe validity of the testsof
metaphoricalcompetence)
4) Is there any relationship betweenJapaneseEFL students' metaphorical competence
and other linguistic competences,such asvocabulary sizeand polysemyknowledge?
6.1-2. METHOD
The methodologyandprocedures usedin the previousstudiesareemployedin this study.
The dataobtainedfrom the testswill be quantitativelytreatedby SPSS11.0for Windows
andthe supplied
answers by the subjects
will be qualitativelyanalysed.
The testsusedin Study 4 and the aims of the tests

[I] Thetestsof metaphorical MC tests:Theycomprise3 typesof tests:
competence,
1)The receptivetest,abbreviatedasMC-RT.
2) The productivetest,abbreviatedasMC-PT.
3) XY Test(or thetestof metaphoricalsensitivity/skills),
abbreviatedasMC. XYT.
Theaimsof tests1),2) and3) arethe sameasthosein Study3. They intend
to measure
189
anduseof Englishmetaphoricalexpressions.
examinees'understanding
[II] VocabularyLevelsTest,abbreviatedasVLT (Schmitt,2000and Schmitt,Schmitt&
Clapham,2001):The aim of this testis the sameasthat in Study3. It will playa role asan
indexto othertestsin orderto examinewhetheror not the testgroupsarehomogeneous and
testthecorrelationbetweenthe subjects'vocabularysizeandtheir metaphoricalcompetence.
It will alsoserveto examinethe homogeneityof the subjectsin Study4.
[III] Polysemytest,abbreviatedasPolyT:The aim of this testis the sameasthat in Study3.
It will measurelexicalandsemanticnetworkingquantitatively.
MC-XYT, VLT and PolyT are the sameas those in Study 3. Although most of the test
usedin Study3 remainastestitemsin Study4, the
itemsin thetestsof metaphoricalcompetence
for MC-RT and seventestitems(i.e. targetexpressions)
tentestitems(i.e. passages) for MC-PT
are from
selected the 11
respective testitemspreviouslyused.
6.1-3. INSTRUMENTSAND PROCEDURES

Participants
The total number of subjectsin this study was 172: 55 male; 117 female students,aged 19-
21, freshmen and sophomores who studied at Kansai Gaidai University and Kobe Geijutsu
Koka University, among whom were 5 subjects with 1 year or less experiences of studying
abroad. All of the 172 subjectstook the sameVLT, Pol}%I'and one of the testsof metaphorical
competence, i.e. MC-XYT. It was estimated that MC-RT and MC-PT of the tests
of
metaphorical competencewould take a long time for examinees to complete, therefore, some
arrangementwas necessary. In order to enable at least 50 subjectsto be allocated to the same
metaphorical tests,the subjects were divided into 3 groups for MC-RT and MC-PT: Group I
consistedof 57 (15 male + 42 female) subjects;Group 2 consistedof 56 (20 male + 36 female)
subjects;Group 3 consistedof 59 (20 male + 39 female) subjects. The testswere administered

in May-July,2002
Considerationof the executionof the tests

Psychologicalsides:
In general,testsshouldbe easyto administer. The considerations
takeninto accountfor
of thetestsof metaphorical
theexecution wereasfollows:
competence
1) thetestsshouldnot give examineestoo much anxiety(i.e. they shouldnot look too
difficult to answer);
2) thetestsshouldnot takelongerthanthe examinees'endurable
concentraiontime;
3) thetestsshouldbe easyto assess.
190
Technical sides:
A normal classperiod in Japanese universitieslasts 90 minutesand each classmeets
about 15 times per term. The available length of time to administer the tests of
metaphoricalcompetencefor this studywas estimated to be 90 minutes(oneclassperiod)or
180 minutes (two class periods) unless the class specifically dealt with enhancing
understanding
metaphorical and use. The estimatedtotal number of subjectsranged
around200. Under thesecircumstances, it might not be possibleto retest
all of the itemsin
the testsof metaphoricalcompetenceon all of the subjects.For this reason,a schemewas
necessary to allocatethe numberof to
subjects specifictest items and thereforea selection
from thetestitemsof themetaphoricalcompetencewasmade.
Supposethe estimatedtotal numberof subjectswere about200 and they were divided
into three groups,then approximately65 subjectswould be availablefor each group as
examinees. In otherwords,the testitemswere to be classifiedinto threegroupsin orderto
teston approximately65 subjects. Writing (i.e. productive)testsusuallyrequiremore time
for subjectsto completethanreading(i.e. receptive)testsdo. Therefore,theremay well be
more receptive test items than productivetest items if a groupingof test items are made.
The more test itemsthere are in the test,the betterthe resultsstatistically. However,the
time constraintdoesnot allow this to happen. If one classperiod (i.e. 90 minutes)can be
to
allocated administer 3 kinds of the tests of metaphoricalcompetence(the tests of
metaphorical i.
receptive, e. MC-RT, thoseof metaphoricalproductive,MC-PT, and XYT,
i.e. MC-XYT), anotherclassperiod can be allocatedto VLT and PolyT. Taking these
into
constrains the
account, numberof possibleitemswithin the time allowancewasdecided
upon:a maximum of 4 itemsfor MC-RT, and 3 for MC-PT of metaphoricalcompetencefor
eachgroup. This allocationmakes12 test items for MC-RT and 9 for MC-PT possiblein
total. However, one of the items in MC-RT and MC-PT was respectivelyused as a
benchmarkacrossthe groups. This madethe total test items for MC-RT 10 and thosefor
MC-PT 7. The 6 testitemsin MC-XYT were testedon all the subjects. To examinethe
reliability and validity of a small numberof testitems,a specialstatistictreatmentby SPSS

for thetestresultswastaken. This will be delineatedat the relatedspecificresults.
Since all of the subjectsare divided into three groups,the homogeneityamong the
be in
groupsmust examined, casetheresultsamongthe groupsarecompared. VLT is used
as an index for the restof the tests,andat the sametime, one of the test itemsfrom both the
receptiveand productivewill play the role of a benchmark. From the findings of the
ease/difficultyof classification of the test items and the contentsof the answersin the
previoustests in Study3, the items R 10 (Wakenot a sleepinglion) for MC-RT
andP-8 (If
you climb the ladder,you must beginat the bottom)for MC-PT could respectivelyserveas
191
benchmarksfor the remainderof the MC-RT and MC-PT. The test items are recycled
from thepreviousstudy.
The selection and grouping of the test items for the tests of metaphorical competence in
Study 4
The groupingof the testitemswasformedbasedupon the resultsof ease/difficultylisted
in Tables 5-8 and 5-9 in Study 3. There were two considerationsin comprisingthe
grouping. the shown

ease/difficulty in the test resultsand the characteristics
and/orquality of
thetestitems. The ideal components of the testitems in a grouparethat one item servesas
a benchmark; another item or items should have a high score from the previous test;
secondlyone or two items should havea medium score;finally one item shouldhave a low
score. The reasonfor includingthe testitemsof higherand lower scores was that different
levelsof testitemsandthe slightly differentquality embeddedin the testitems/passages may
be ableto measurea wider rangeof competence.
Familiarity/unfamiliarity with the expressions is also a matter of consideration. The
quality of the answersmay also be important. About half of the four English expressions
(i. e. test items) in each group in the receptive test share similar meanings to the Japanese
equivalentsand the rest are idiomatic or proverbial including unfamiliar expressions. In the
productive test, the majority of the three English expressions (i. e. test items) convey clear
imagesand the rest are idiomatic or proverbial also including an unfamiliar expression.
The test items in the 3 groups

The following are the test items allocated to the 3 groups.
The receptivetest,MC-RT:
In this test,abouthalf of the four Englishexpressions
(i.e. testitems)in eachgroupshare
similar meanings (including subtle implications) to the Japanese

equivalents(indicatedby
the letter S in the following test item lists) and the remainderare idiomatic or proverbial
(indicatedwith I in the following test item lists). One of the passagesis an idiomatic
indicated
expression with I +, in which a strongcontextualsupportis provided,while others
are contextual.
moderately This is to investigate
how effectivecontextualsupportis for an
idiom which is assumedto be unfamiliar to EFL students. One sameitem servesas a
for everygroup.
benchmark
MC-RT itemsfor Group 1:

(The letterandnumberat the endof the item, for example,(R-101coincidewith thosein
Study3. The sameis applicableto the othergroups.)
192
1. Wake not a sleepinglion. (benchmark)(S) (abbreviated as lion)[R-101
2. Fish stinksat the head. (S/I) (abbreviatedasfish)[R-3]
3. to let the cat out of the bag (I+)(abbreviated as let) [R-1]
4. to be of one's head (I) (abbreviatedas o#)[R-51
MC-RT itemsfor Group2:
1. Wakenot a sleepinglion. (benchmark)(S)[R-10]
2. Therottenappleinjuresits neighbours.(S) (abbreviatedasrotten)[R-7]
3. a pain in theneck(I) (abbreviatedaspain)[R-6]
4. to standin someone'sway (I) (abbreviatedasstand)[R-41
MC-RT itemsfor Group3:
1. Wakenot a sleeping lion. (benchmark)(S)[R-10]
2. A littlepot is soonhot. (S) (abbreviatedaspot)[R-21

3. Youcannoteat* your cakeand haveit. (I) (abbreviatedascake)[R-11]
*The original English proverb is `You cannot have your cake and eat it. However, it may
be misunderstoodby EFL studentswho might think that if you do not have your cake,
you can not eat it or that if you have eatenyour cake, it will be gone and you cannot have
it in your hand. To avoid thesemisundestandings,the order is as it is in the test.
4. to hold one'sheadhigh (S) (abbreviatedasheadhigh)[R-8]
The productive test, MC-PT:

Similar consideration was taken in selection and grouping of the productive test items.
Three test items, one of which was a benchmark expression, were allocated to each group.
The majority of the three English expressions (i. e. test items) convey clear images of
movement or situation (indicated with C in the following lists) and the other is a
idiomatic English expression(indicated with I in the following lists).
conventional
MC-PT itemsfor Group 1:

5. If you climb theladder,you mustbeginat the bottom.(benchmark)(C)
asladder)[P-8]
(abbreviated
6. Thebird hasflown away.(C) (abbreviatedasbird)[P-91
7. to spill thebeans(1)(abbreviatedasspill)[P-41
MC-PT itemsfor Group2:
5. If you climb the ladder,you mustbeginat thebottom.(benchmark)(C)[P8[
6. to seewhichwaythecatjumps (Cl!) (abbreviatedascat)[P-31
7. to keepone'sheaddown(Cl!) (abbreviatedasheaddown)[P 2)
193
MC PT itemsfor Group3:
5. If you climb theladder,you mustbeginat the bottom.(benchmark)(C)[P 81
6. to throwout thebabywith thebath water(I) (abbreviatedasbaby)[P 1]
7. Althoughthesunshines,leavenot your coat* at home.(Cu) I(abbreviated as
sun)[PR6]
*The originalword `cloak' wasreplacedby the word `coat' in the testbecausethe
word `coat' is morefamiliar to EFL,students.
The combination of test items allocatedto a group

Eachgrouphada combinationof 4 receptivetestpassages
numberedfrom I to 4, oneof
which was a benchmark
plus 3 productivetest items numberedfrom 5 to 7, one of which
wasa benchmark. The total number of testitems for a groupwas7 and eachtestitem had
both literal and metaphoricalquestions(i.e. literal and metaphoricalinterpretationsin the
case of the receptive,
and literal and metaphorical
usesin the productive). The format was
the sameasin thepreviousstudies.
Assessment and treatment of the answers in the tests of metaphorical competence,

VLT and PolyT
The criteria for the assessmentand treatment of the answers in the tests of metaphorical
competence, VLT and Pol}TTwere the same as those in Study 3. The total points allocated
to the testsof metaphorical competencewere 54 points, which contained 12 points for the
receptive literal test; 12 for the receptive metaphorical; 9 for the productive literal; 9 for the
productive metaphorical; 6 for XYT literal; 6 for XYT metaphorical, VLT 120 and Poljr
20.
The assessmentsof the testsof metaphoricalcompetencewere made by two raters:a
middle-agedmale native English and
speaker the author. The assessment
procedureand
scoringare the same as in Study 3. The agreementratios betweenthe two raterswere
approximately 80 % first. After the discussion
on differences,
theagreementratiosreached
96%. The disagreement
remainedin the problemsof spellingand grammaticalerrorsand
collocations. The for
assessments VLT andPol)TTwere madeby the author.
6.2. RESULTSOF STUDY4

Treatments of the results
The quantitativeanswerswere computedon SPSS 11.0 for Windows. In the following
severalsections,the resultsof the testswhich all of the subjectstook (VLT, Polvif and MC-
XYT) areshownfirst, followed by the tests(MC-RT and MC-PT) which the
groupedsubjects
194
took andthe correlationsamongthe tests. Then brief summariesof the linguisticcompetence
and the homogeneity of the in
subjects Studies3 and 4 and the differencesin the answersby
areshown.
genderandstudyabroadexperiences
The overall resultsof VLT, PoK and MC-XYT

Table6-1 showsthetestresultsof the 172subjectswho took VLT, Pol)TFandMC-XYT.
Table6-1 Means& StandardDeviationsof VLT, PolyT andMC-XYT. (N=172)

Test/ Max Mean Std. Deviation
VLT/1 20 81.33 19.84
POLYT/20 10.63 4.61
MC-XYT/12 4.66 2.35
The mean scoresof the 172 subjectswere slightly different from those of the previous chapter.
The mean scoresof VLT and SD in the previous chapterwere 96.39 and 14.7 respectively; those
of PolyT were 14.38 and 2.73 respectively; those of MC-XYT were 4.54 and 1.96 respectively.
The mean scoresof VLT and PolyT were higher in Study 3, however, the mean score of MC-
XYT showeda similarity.
Table 6-2 summarises the groupwiseresultsof the receptive,productive,VLT, PolyT and
MC-XYT.
Table 6-2 Meansand StandardDeviationsof the MC-RT, MC-PT, MC-XYT, VLT and
PolyTof the 3 Groups
Test/ Group1 Mean SD Group2 Mean SD Group3 Mean SD
Max N N N
MC-RT/24 57 12.05 6.48 56 12.54 7.61 59 11.83 5.26
MC-PT/18 57 7.05 4.53 56 7.03 5.39 59 5.0 3.84
MC-XYT/12 57 5.11 2.59 56 4.23 2.06 59 4.63 2.35
VLT/120 57 81.31 19.67 56 80.43 20.48 59 82.1 19.09
PolyT/20 57 10.74 4.71 56 10.89 4.11 59 10.29 5.01
The resultsof the whole populationhad alreadybeenshown in Table 6-1. Here in Table 6-2
were the groupwiseresults. Some resultsseemedto show similar phenomenawhile others
were a little different Therefore,first the groupwisehomogeneity of MC-XYT, VLT and
PolyT is lookedat, andsecondthat of the individualresultsof the receptiveandproductivetests
itemsdueto thedifferentnumberof subjects
testedontheitems.
The significancevalues in the Levene statistic for the homogeneity
of variances(.05
significancelevel) with MC-XYT, VLT and PolyT were 43, 82 and 36. The resultsof the
. . .
195
ANOVA with MC-XYT showedF(2,169)=1.27,p=.28; thosewith VLT showed 72,
F(2,169)=.
93;
p=. thosewith PolyT showed 27,
F(2,169). p=.77. These valuesindicatethe homogeneity
was not violated. Therefore,

we can treat all groupsas having the samevocabularyability.
Further analyses and comparisons will appear in the research questions 1 to 4 in the
ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION.
The resultsof the benchmark testsof MC-RT and MC-PT

Oneof the testitemswasusedasa benchmarkin MC-RT and MC-PT. The onein the MC-
RT was `Wakenot a sleepinglion 'and the otherin the MC-PT was 'f you climb the ladder,you
beginat the bottom.
' The following are the data
statistical of thesetwo tests.
must
Table6-3 Means& StandardDeviationsof the benchmarktests

MC-KTWakenot a sleepingbon'(Max=3) MC-PT'Ifyou limb the ladder, bottom' (Max-3 P)
...
_...
_... _..,...........
_.......
_........................... __. __ literal
literal metaphorical metaphorical
Groups N Mean SD (Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
57 2.18 1.31 1.57 1.43 1.85 1.28 1.69 1.27
2 56 2.28 1.67 1.58 1.45 1.76 1.21 1.53 1.29

59 2.15 1.31 11.53 1.47 1.53 1.29 1.45 1.32
3
Total 172 2.20 1.25 11.56 1.44 1.71 1.26 1.56 1.29
The ANOVA results for each item were as follows: MC-RT literal `Wake not a sleeping lion':
F(2,169)=. 16, p=. 86; MC-RT metaphorical `Wake not a sleeping lion': F(2,169)= 02, p=. 98;
.
MC-FT literal Ìf you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom.': F(2,169)= 1.02, p=. 36;
MC-FT metaphorical Ìf you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom.': F(2,169)= 53,
.
p= .59. These results showed that the groups were not significantly different and that the
benchmarksservedtheir purpose.
Overall resultsof the testsof metaphorical competence:MC-RT and MC-PT

Sincethe differenttestitemswere allocatedto the 3 groups,the resultswere shown accordinglyin
Tables64 to 6-6.
Table6-4 Meansof theMC-RTandMC-PT(Group1:N=57)

MC-RTliteral (Maxper item-3 points) MC-RT
met ho ical(Maxperitem-3 points)
..........._.
... ...............
._................. .......
...........
Testitem ].ion 2.11h 3.let 4.off Lion Z.fish 3.let 4.off
......_.................._. _.0.98
....._... __.._.._ ...._.._...
_.
2.05__.
Mean 2.18 1.54 1.57 1.1 2.31 0.33
MC-PTliteral (Maxper item-3 points) MC-PTmetaphorical(Maxper iterrn3 points)
M :. 6.bird 7.spi11...
Test item 5. 5 6 drd 7.
.....
........... ..._..............
................. __ _... .. _- ... _ Y
Mean 1.85 1.74 0.56 1.69 1.08 0.13
196
Table6-5 Meansof the MC-RT andMC-PT ((Troup2: N=56)
MC-RTliteral(Maxper item=3 points) MC-RTmetaphorical(Maxper item-3 points)
1.1ion trotten 3.pam 4stard Un2. rotten 3.pain 4stand

Test item
2.28 1.48 2.18 1.77 1.58 1.39 0.68 1.17
Mean
MC-PTliteral(Maxper item-3 points) MC-PTmetaphorical(Maxper item-3 points)
S.ladder 6.cat7 headdown 5. aaider 6.cat 7.headdown

Test item
I...........
_.... __ ------
_...............
....._....................
1.46 i 1.07 1.53 0.52 0.69
1.76
Table6-6 Meansof the MC-RT andMC-PT (Group 3: N=59)

MC-RTliteral(Maxper item=3 points) jMC-RTmet)horical (Maxper item -3 points)
- -----
---------- 3.cake 4head high
1Dion 2 pot 3.dce 4.headhigh 1 lion 2.pot
Ten item
Mean . 82 0.7 0.82 1.53 0.7
.T .30.82
l (Maxper item-3 points) MC-PTmetaphorical(Maxper item..3 points)
T 5.1adder 6y
Test item 6.baby 7
~ 0.47 1.02 1.45 0.15 0.38
The overallmeanscores indicate that some items obtained high mean scores, while others low
The receptive literal performance of the 7 target items (lion off head rotten
mean scores.
and head high) obtained higher means than the performance of the
apple,pairs stand pot
receptivemetaphoricalcounterparts.
In the receptivetest, the preceding literal passages and/or the clues in the context in the
passages themselves might help comprehension, for example, the contextual
metaphorical
in the item let was very strong, asstated earlier. The similar tendencies,though not so
support
in the item let, were found in the items,such aspot andfish.
strongthecontextualsupportwasas
The meanscoresof these items were higher, in
asshown the tables.
In the productivetest,the cluesor meaningsresidedin the targetexpressions,
therefore,the
had to interpretthose implicationsand embedthem into passages by themselves. In
subjects
this sense, the productive test exemplified their metaphorical competencemore overtly.
Specificdetailsare in
discussed the Discussion
section.
Overall resultsof the test of metaphorical competence:MC-XYT

Featuresof the 6 target adjectives
The resultsof the meansand SDsof the 6 adjectivesof XYT in Study4 are shownin Table
6-7. The answers were assessedon a one point scalefor eachitem in Study4. If the resultsin
3 4
Studies and are compared, the data in Table 5-13 in Study 3 needsto be doubled. It can be
briefly here that the answers in the two studies were slightly different and they showed
said
similar in
phenomena some but
cases different in other cases. This will be investigatedin the
197
analysesin ResearchQuestions 1- 2.
In Study4, too, most of the meanscoresof the literal parts were higher than thoseof the
counterparts.
metaphorical The lowestin the literal usein Study 4 was the manipulationof the
adjectiveweak and the highestthe adjectivewild. The highest in the metaphorical use was the
adjectivebright and the lowestthe adjectivegrey. Table 6-7 shows theseresultsof the literal
of
andmetaphoricalanswers the 6 targetadjectives.
Table6-7 MeansandSDsof the6 adjectivesof MC-XYT (N=172)

literal(Max- 1) metaphorical(Maxs 1)
Mean SD Mean ' SD
adjectives
bright 0.49 0.33 0.54 0.38
i i ...... _. _...............
.................................... ....................... .., .. _.. __...... ........ _ ...... _. _..... __. _.. _. _....
dark 0.52 0.27 0.29 0.35
grey 0.46 0.36 0.22 0.31
h' h 0.44 0.34 '". 0.37 0.33

.
_..... _...........
_............
...
_..............................................................................
................
................ _._...0.36
.....
weak 0.28 0.37 0.24
....................................
.......................................... 0.32 _.
..... __......
.......................
.................................... _...
_.......
0.35_....
_
wild 0.56 0.42
Total (Max=6) 2.74 1.93 '
The subjectswererequiredto answerin a requiredformat `X is an adjectiveY' in MC-XYT.

The number of answersin a requiredformat was countedfirst, secondthe ratio of the
numberof answered in a requiredformat to the whole population(172) was calculated
and it
with
contrasted the average of each item. Table 6-8 shows the raw number of answersin a
requiredformat, the ratios of the answersto the whole population and averages in the
requiredformat in the literal and metaphoricaluses. This aimed to investigate
the relation
betweenthe numberof the answersin a requiredformat and the quality of the answers(i.e.
average).
Table6-8 Theanswerratiosin the requiredformatin the literal andmetaphoricaluses(N=172)

adjectives No. of answers Ratio of answers against Ave. No.of answersin Ratio of answers against Ave.
in literaluse the wholepopulation(`) (Max-1) metaphoricaluse the wholepopulation(%) (Max-1)
bright 58 33.7 0.49 51 29.6 0.54

dark 59 34.3 0.52 40 23.3 0.29
_.............................
.........................
..
........................................
26.2 __...........
_...................
0.46 .
.........
_.....
.............
._...
_......
._..
..................
.............
.....................
_......
M..
_.......
grey 45 17.4 0.22
.....
......
................. .........
.................
30.2 .. ....
_...........................
_.................
0.44 .................
_.....................
_....
__.....
...
__.......
_......
....
.._...........
.......
_
high . 52 38 22.1 0.33
_....................
....................... _....
_.......................
......... _.....
_..... ..........
.................
.
_..
_...
_..............
................
._.....
_..
_......
_.............
_.
.. ..
_
weak 39 22.7 0.28 28 16.3 0.24
-----------------------------
34.3 ---------
----
0.56
wild 59 34 19.8 0.32
The resultsof the meansin Table 6-7 and thoseof the answerratioswritten in the required
198
format (shown in Table 6-8) coincided to a degree though not exactly the same: the lowest
answerratio in the literal use was 22.7 % of the adjective weak with the average0.28, while the
highest 34.3 % of the adjectives dark and wild with the averages 0.52 and 0.56 respectively.
The secondto the highestwas 33.7 % of the adjective bright with the average0.49. The lowest
answer ratio in the metaphorical use was 16.3 % of the adjective weak with the average 0.24,
while the highest was 29.6 % of the adjective bright with the average 0.54, followed by the
adjectivesdark (23.3 %) and high (22.1 %) with the averages 0.29 and 0.33 respectively.
It was found that the averagesin the two studiesdid not show a great difference (seeTables
5-12 and 5-13) although the number of answers written in the required format in Study 4 was
larger than those in the previous study. The averagesin the order from high to low in the
metaphorical use were bright, high, wild, dark, weak and grey. The quality of answers
coincided with this order, for example, the adjective bright provided numerous and interesting
answers, while the grey scanty and poor. The answer ratio in the required format in the
metaphorical use from high to low was: bright, dark, high, wild, grey and weak. A large
number of the answers in a required format did not always mean the quality of the answers
though there was some correspondence. It can be said all in all from these results that the EFL
studentsfelt more accessibleto the adjectives bright, dark, high and wild but less accessibleto
grey, and finally that the adjective weak seemed to bring in some problems. This will be
further delineatedlater.
The confusionof literal with metaphorical usesand vice versa

There was someconfusionbetweenliteral and metaphoricalusesfound in the answers.
The following arethe ratiosof the confusionof a literal usewith a metaphorical(from high to
low ratio):theadjectiveweak22.7%,wild 10.5%, high 9.9 %, bright 1.7%,grey0.6%. There
was no confusionof literal andmetaphorical
andvice versafound in the answersin the adjective
dark, however,this doesnot meanthatthe manipulationof this adjectivewas perfectlyideal.
The ratiosof the confusionof the metaphoricalusewith the literal (from high to low ratio)
were weak 5.2%, wild 2.9 %, high and dark 1.7 % respectively,grey 1.2 % and bright 0.6%.
The highestratioswereon weakandwild, followed by high and then by dark, grey and bright.
Someexamplesfrom the answerswhich showeda typical confusionbetweenthe two usesare
asfollows.
1) the adjectiveweak theconfusionof a literalusewith a metaphorical:weakpoint(s);that of
metaphorical with literal: My pet is a weakdog. / They are weakdogs.
2) the adjectivewild: the confusionof a literal usewith a metaphorical:a wild man or guy;
that of metaphoricalwith literal:The lions arewild animals.
3) the adjectivehigh: theconfusionof a literal usewith a metaphorical:high score/ high
199
tension;thatof metaphoricalwith literal: a high nose/The mountainis high.
4) theadjectivedark theconfusionof a literal usewith a metaphorical:none;that of
with
metaphorical literal: Shehasdark eyes/ the cloudsaredark today.
5) theadjectivegrey:theconfusionof a literalusewith a metaphorical:My feeling is grey;
thatof metaphoricalwith literal:The catsaregrey.
6) theadjectivebright: theconfusionof a literal usewith a metaphorical:a bright person;that
of metaphoricalwith literal: His headis a bright electricball.
Correlationsamong the tests

Spearman's rho (rank-order-correlation)
was usedto discoverthe overall between
correlations the
4 testswith a view to investigatinga relationshipbetweenJapaneseEFL students'metaphorical
competenceand linguistic competence. Tables 6-9 to 6-11 show the resultsof Spearman'srho
coefficientsfor MetT (MC-RT plus MC-PT) and MC-XYT togetherwith
(rank-order-correlation)
VLT andPolyTfor the 3 groups.
Table 6-9 Correlation in Group I (N=57)

Test / Max MetT/42 MC-XYT/12 VLT/1 20 PolyT/20
MetT/42 1.000 533** 582** 674**

. . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 000 000 000
. . .
MC-XYT/12 1.000 503** 591**
. .
Sig.(2-tailed) 000 000
. .
VLT/120 1.000 735**
.
Sig.(2-tailed) 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
(2-tailed)
Sig.
atthe.01 level(2-ttibd).
S*: Cormktionis significant
Table6-10 Correlationin Group2 (N=56)

Test / Max MetT/42 MC-XYT/12 VLT/120 PolyT/20
Met T/42 1.000 534** 784** 820**

. . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 000 000 000
. . .
MGXYT/12 1.000 588** 405**
. .
. .
VLT/120 1.000 691**
.
(2-tailed)
S'ig. 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
Sig.(2-tailed)
* *: Conflationissignificartl the 011eve1(2-taib4

.
200
Table 6-11 Correlation in Group 3 (N=59)
Test/ Max MetT/42 MC-XYT/12 VLT/1 20 PolyT/20
MetT/42 1.000 375** 499** 523**

. . .
Sg.(2-tailed) 003 000 000
. . .
MC-XYT/1 2 1.000 606** 515**
. .
. .
VLT/120 1.000 806**
.
Sig.(2-tailed) 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
Sig.(2-tailed)
issignificantatthe 01 level(2-taibd).
*+: Correlation .
The overall featuresare as follows: all of the correlationsamong the tests showedpositive;
betweenVLT and PolyT were high
especially,the correlations
the
The correlationsamong metaphorical VLT
tests, andPolyT are asfollows.
(i.
1) A strong correlation e. r-. 50 between Met T (i. e. the metaphorical receptive & productive
-1.0)
tests) and VLT was found in Group 2 (r 784; p<. Ol) and in Group I (r=. 582; <. 01) and the
.
(i. 30 49) in Group 3 (x. 499; p<. 01).
medium correlation e. r=. -.
2) a strongcorrelation between Met T (i.e. the &
metaphoricalreceptive productive tests)and PolyT
found in all of the 3 Group
groups: 2 (r. 820;p<.01), Group 1(rr. 674; p<.O1)and Group 3
was
(r. 523;p<.01).
between
3) A strongcorrelation MC-XYT and VLT was found in all of the 3 groups:
Group3 (r=.606;p<.01), Group2 (r=.588;p<01) andGroup I (r=.503;p<.01).
These results indicate that the correlations of VLT and PolyT to the metaphorical tests were
However, since the above results include the literal parts, the specific results of the
significant.
the metaphorical parts to the other tests will be discussed later in Research Question
correlations of
4.
The linguistic competenceof the subjectsin Study 3 and Study 4

Since the subjectsin Study 4 were not the same as those in Study 3, the linguistic
competenceof the subjectsin the two studieswas examined using the 2000 and 3000 word
levelsof VLT (Max=120points). From the point of view of raw scores,the meanscoresof the
in
subjects Study 3 were higher than thosein Study 4 with a mean differenceof 15.06. The
meanscore of Study 3 was 96.39 (80.33% scorein 120points in VLT) and that of Study 4 was
81.33(67.78% scorein VLT). This indicatesthat the differencewas not small. The t-test
also indicatedthat there was a differencebetween the subjectsin Study 3 (M=96.39,

result
SD-14.69) andthosein Study4 [M=81.33,SD=19.84;t(266.75)=7.241, pc05. The linguistic
ability of the in
subjects the two studies
was not homogeneous. Therefore,
the re-testingwill be
201
able to investigate whether or not there is any difference in the results of these two executions
and in the long run, whether or not the testsof metaphorical competencecan be universally used
for any EFL subjects.
The homogeneityof the 3 groups demonstratedby VLT

The differentmetaphoricaltestitemsin the receptiveand productivewere allocatedto the 3
groups, VLT
therefore, wasagainusedasan index to the othertestsin orderto discoverwhether
or not homogeneity among the 3 groups was violated. If the homogeneity in VLT is
among
guaranteed the 3 groups, the resultsobtainedin the testscanbe treatedequallyacrossthe
in
groups comparison of the results. For that purpose, the ANOVA/Levene procedure for the
homogeneityof variancewas conducted. The significancevalue in the Levenestatisticfor
equalityof variances (with the significance level 05) was p=.82. The resultsof the ANOVA
.
with VLT showed F(2,169)= 11, p= 90, therefore, the homogeneity among the groups was
. .
demonstrated at least
in terms of vocabulary sizeand it will ensurethatdiscussionis possible.
6.3. THE EFFECT OF STUDYING ABROAD AND THE GENDER DIFFERENCE

The effectof studying abroad
There were 5 subjectswith studyabroadexperiencesof l year or less. These5 caseswere
compared with non-study abroad 5 subjects with vocabulary scores equivalent to the former's.
The metaphoricaltest items used for the comparison were the benchmarks and all of the 6 items of
MC-XYT. The results of the VLT mean score of the study abroad was 98.6 points (82.17 %)
while that of non-study abroad was 95.4 points (79.5 %). The study abroad subjects' score was
slightly higher. The averagesof the metaphorical tests were shown in Table 6-12.
of the benchmarksandXYT 6 items

Table6-12 The averages
Studyabroador N Receptive(Max=3) Productive (Max=3) MC-XYT(Max-6)
non-studyabroad literal metaphorical literal metaphorical literal metaphorical

Studyabroad 5 3 3 3 3 3.3 2.4
Non-studyabroad 5 3 2.8 2.8 3 3.4 2.7 v
The averagesof thereceptiveliteral andmetaphoricalof theformer were 3 points(100 %) each;the

averagesof the receptiveliteral and metaphoricalof the latter were 3 (100 %) and 2.8 points
(93.3%)respectively. The averagesof the productiveliteral and metaphoricalof the former were3
pointseach while thoseof the latter were 2.8 (93.3%) and 3 (100 %) respectively. On the other
hand,the averagesof MC-XYT of the former and the latter were reversedon the
receptiveand
productivetests. From a qualitativeanalysisof the answers(checking the answersagain), no
202
significant difference was found. It may be too early to conclude becausethere were only 5 cases
to compare,but the resultsprobably indicate that there may not be a direct influence from the study
abroad on metaphorical competenceif it is a short period (1 year or less) as shown in the case of
thesesubjects. However, this does not deny the possibility of influence from a greateramount and
quality of exposure to a foreign language. It must be investigated in new research. This
possibility aside, the metaphorical competence seems to be more related to the subjects' language
proficiency, especiallyvocabulary knowledge, as will be seenin the later sectionsof this chapter.
The genderdifference
To examinea genderdifference,a t-testwascomputedon the scoresof VLT, MC-XYT andthe
benchmarkitems of the metaphoricaltest First the results of VLT and MC-XYT were
andthenthoseof the receptiveandproductivetestsof metaphoricalcompetence.
summarised
The resultsof VLT and MC-XYT:

All the resultswere quoted from Èqual variancesassumed' column since the significance val uesof
Levene's Test for Equality of Variances indicated more than p=.05.
1)Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresfor malesVLT (M=82.36,SD=19.89),andfemale
VLT [M=80.81,SD=19.91;t(170)=.48, p=.631.
2) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof the MC-XYT literalfor males(M=2.59,
SD=1.24),andfemalesXYT literal [M=2.83,SD=1.22;t(170)=-1.21,p. 231.
3) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof MC-XYT metaphoricalfor males(M=2.0,
SD=1.31),femalesMC-XYT metaphorical[M=1.94, SD=1.39;t(170)=.27, p=.791.
The aboveresultsshowedthere was no significant differencein scoresin VLT and MC-XYT
betweengenders.
The resultsof MC-RT and MC-PT:

Concerningthe resultsof the MC-RT and MC-PT, the 3 significancevaluesof Levene'sTest
for Equalityof Variancesindicatedlessthan p=.OSand the other more than p=.05. The former
werethe resultsof the MC-RT literal and MC-PT literal benchmarkitems(lion L&M and ladder
L). Therefore,the t-testresultsfor Equalityof Meansfor these3 itemswere quotedfrom Èqual
variancesnot assumed' in the following 4) - 6), while the significancevalue of the MC-PT
metaphorical(ladder M) was p=.22, where the t-test result for Èqual variancesassumed'was
quotedin the following 7).
4) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof the MC-RT literal for males(M=2.33, SD=1.12),
femalesMC-RT literal [M=2.11,SD=1.33;t(123.41)1.07, x. 291.
5) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof the MC-RT metaphoricalfor
males(M=1.85,
203
SD=1.34),femalesMC-RT metaphorical[M=1.44, SD=1.47;t(115.33)=1.81,p=.07].
6) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof the MC-XYT productiveliteralfor males
(M=1.89,SD=1.13),femalesMC-XYT productiveliteral [M=1.65, SD=1.31;t(121.34)=1.24,
p=.22].
7) Therewasno significantdifferencein scoresof the MC-FT metaphoricalfor males(M=1.69,
SD=1.25),femalesMC-PT metaphorical[M=1.54, SD=1.32;t(170). 72, p=.471.
The aboveresultsalso showedtherewas no significantdifferencein scoresof the benchmarksin
MC-RT andMC-PT betweengenders.
204
6.4. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONFOR RESEARCHQUESTION 1
The overall resultsin Study 4 were describedin the previous sections. Analysesand
for theresearchquestionsaredelineatedhereafter.
discussions
Research Question 1) What results are obtained if the tests of metaphorical competence used in
Study 3 are tested on different subjects? (Le. re-testing of the same tests on different subjects)
Since the numerical data in Study 4 was shown in the previous sections,the main focus here is on
analysis and discussion of the data with a view to discovering the features or characteristicsof the
answerstogether with the schemasemployed in the interpretation and use of the targets expressions.
The number of subjects in MC-RT and MC-PT in Study 3 was far smaller than that in Study 4,
be
therefore, we should careful about comparisons. When the numbers of the subjectsdiffer, it may
be betterto take measuresfrom both content-basedqualitative analysis and numerical analysis.
The following first severalsectionsdiscussthe similarities and differences found in the featuresin
the receptiveand productive tests in Study 4, referring to those in Study 3, with a focus on the schemas
used by the EFL students. The later sections will consider the features of MC-XYT in the two
studieswith the samefocus.
6.4-1. THE FEATURESAND SCHEMAS FOUND IN THE ANSWERS

MC-RT (i. e. the receptive test)
Most of the featuresin the answers(i.e. phenomenaof the schemas)in Study4 were similar to
thosefound in Study 3. Tables 6-13 to 6-16 summarisethe answersin MC-RT in Study 4 in
contrast with thosein Study3. As the differenttestitemsof MC-RT andMC-PT wereallocatedto
the 3 different groupsin Study 4, the resultsare shownaccordingly. The resultsshownin red in
the following tablesindicatethat there was a considerablediscrepancy(20 % point difference)
revealed in the two studies. The featuresof the answersin MC-RT are collectivelydescribedin
the sectionof aspectsof the schemas and featuresafter Tables 13-16, becausethere are a few
outstandingitemsto be focussedupon:fast the benchmark item andthenthe itemswhich showeda
great between
discrepancy thetwo studies.
The schemasemployedin the benchmark lion

Table 6-13 showsthe summaryof the schemasin the benchmarklion in Study4 in contrastwith
the summary of the same item in Study 3. The marks in the tables indicate the following
O=manifestation
classifications: of literal interpretationin the Literal part and manifestationof
metaphorical in
interpretation the Metaphorical
part; 0=miscellaneousanswers/partial
error, X=lack
of manifestationof interpretationor misunderstanding;*=no answer. The sameis applicableto
205
Tables6-13to 6-16.
Table6-13 The schemas

employedin the benchmark
lion
MC-RT
literal metaphorical
items Study3 Study4 Study3 Study4
ran 080% 081 % Onterpretation supportedby knowledge& Onterpretation supportedby knawledge&
x20% X17% mappinglion=she; heralone
wakenot=leave mappingrion-she;wakenot=leave
heralone
* 2.3% 60% 67%
63096 x14%
*10% *19%
(Theru berof subjectsinStudy3 -10, the rxmberof subjectsinStudy4-172, i.e.Groups1-3)
The schemasemployedin the itemsfish, let cat and off head

Table6-14 showsthe summaryof the Schemas in the itemsfish, let andoffhead in Study4 in contrast
with thosein Study3.
employedin the itemsfish, let cat andoffhead

MC-RT
liiteral metaphorical
Items Study 3 Study4 Study3 Study 4
fish 058% 043% OMMprig/analogy: head-boss;stink-collapse CMapping/anaogy: head-boss;stink-cc1k! se
L8% 628% or trouble 50% or trouble S1%
x33% x24% x16% x19%
* 14% * 33% * 28%
it- ......... .........
_..._.
_... _...
...... _..
_.............
CMapping cat-secret; let out-reveal 80% _......
_
cat 060% 067% CMapping cat-secret; let...cut-revveal 77%
...
d3.5% A3.5%
x30% x18%
*10% *13% *20% *14%
off head 089% 058% C1diointerpretation 33% Gdiomaticinterpretation21%
L11% 626% X67% X54%
* 16% * 25%
(Theru berof subjectsin Study 3: fish=12;let cat=10; off head=9;the rxrnber of the subjectsin Study4-57, i.e. Group1)
The schemasemployedin the items rotten,pain and stand

Table 6-15 showsthe summaryof the schemasin the items rotten,pain and stand in Study 4 in
contrastwith thosein Study3.
206
employedin the itemsrotten,pain andstand
MC-RT
literal rnetaphorical
Items Study3 Study4 Study3 Study 4
055% Chapping rotten=bad neigibo r 29% CMapping rotten-bad red-bar 50%
rotten 057%
L29% x14% x25%
X43% X *57% *25%
*16%
_.._...
.-............ ........
_....... _........
_............................... ....
-___................
__.......
....... _...
_...........
Q4nalogy.__ in 45%
pain 064% 079% QAnalogy. pain in the neck=difficufry 55% pain the neck-Miiculty
x27% x19% x27% x29%
* 9% * 2% *18% *20%
_.........
...
059% ......
.......
-.._.....
_....
anterpretation__._..______. by the iamatic gomatic interpretation& analo9Y
stand 067% 943ported
x33% X34% knowledge& context 44% way-obstacle 41%
* 7% x44% x 43%
*11% *19%
(Thenumberof subjectsin Study3: rotten-7; pain-11; sta xi. 9; the mxnberof subjectsin Study 4- 56, Le.Group2)
The schemasemployedin itemspot, cakeand headhigh

Table6-16 showsthe summaryof the schemasin the itemspot, cakeand headhigh in Study4 in
contrastwith those in Group 3.
Table 6-16 The schemasemployed in the items pot, cake and head high
MC-RT
Items Study3 Study4 Study 3 Study 4
pot 063% 095% CNtappingpot-girt, womam,hot-grow up 73% CMapping pot-girl, woman;hot-grow up 76%
X18% A 3% * 27% X14%
*18% *2% *10%
038% 6132% ......................
Chapping/analogy _.25%
_...
__.
..._.......... _.._.._ w.....
_...... __..._. _..._.._ .. ._._...................
_......
__.._._..............
27% _......_ _.........
_
pke ng/ gy
x38% d54% x38% 046%
* 25% *14% * 38% * 27%
head 036% 029% Oldiomaticinterp etation 36%, Cldiomatic i terpnetation14%
high x55% 0 29% A47%
*13% *39% x36% x22%
* 27% * 17%
(The numberof subjectsin Study 3: pot=11; cake=8;headhigh-11; the numberof subjectsin Study 4- 59, i.e. Group3)
Aspectsof the schemasand featuresin MC-RT

Most of the phenomenaof the answersin Study 4 were similar to those in Study 3. The
following specificsimilaritiesand differencesare found: the item lion showedsimilar featuresin the
two studies,while the items which displayed a considerablediscrepancyin the two studiesare the
itemsoff headin Table6-14, rotten in Table 6-15 andpot in Table 6-16. The discrepancies in the
two items(offhead andpot) were in the literal interpretationsandthe others(rottenand headhigh) in
the metaphoricalinterpretations. The discrepancies in the item of head(the manifestationof
proper
207
interpretationratios were 89% in Study 3 and 58% in Study 4) and in the item pot (32 % point
difference)in the literal counterpart. The incorrectanswersprovidedin the literalpart of the item off
headvariedfrom "the sizeand/ordesignof the hat doesnot fit the head" or "put on the hat" The
latter was interpretedas an oppositemeaning. In the caseof the item pot, there was confusion
betweenthe literal and the metaphorical,i.e. the metaphoricalinterpretationin the literal part, for
example,"the child growsup quickly" or "the child hasbecomea chef."
in the item rottenbetweenthe literal andthe metaphoricalin the two studieswas
The discrepancy
largerthan in the rest of the items. The problem seemedto be causedby the vocabulary,suchas
injure,rottenand/orneighbours. It canbe saidfrom a qualitativeanalysisthat the problemresidedin
the interpretationsof thesewords in the metaphoricalpart. For example,there were answersin
Study4 in which the subjectsinterpretedinjure asphysical(body) injury not ashavinga metaphorical
meaning. It was alsofound in the interviewthat someintervieweesdid not know the meaningsof
rottenandneighbours,either. In the caseof headhigh,therewere quite a few misunderstandings
in
the metaphoricalmeaning. And therewas more zero answerratio in this item in Study 3 than in
Study4. Thesephenomena probablycausedthe discrepancy.
As a whole, the more subjectsthere were in the tests,the greaterthe diversity may have been in the
answers. However, it seemed that vocabulary knowledge was a great factor for the subjects to
understandthe meaning of a passageand a target expression.
MC-PT (i.e. the productive test)
Most of the phenomenain Study4 were similar to thosefound in Study 3. Tables6-17 to 6-20
summarise the representativeanswers in MC-PT in Study 4 in contrastwith thoseof the sametest
itemsin Study3, followed by analysesof the answersin the individual groups. The resultsshown
in red in the following tablesindicatea considerablediscrepancy(20 % point difference)revealedin
the two studies. Sincethe answersin MC-PT showedmore specificfeaturescomparedwith those
in the MC-RT, someoutstandingschemafeaturesare individually describedafter the items of each
groupareshown.
The marksin the Tables6-17 to 6-20 indicatethe following classifications:manifestation
of
literal use in the Literal part and manifestationof metaphoricaluse in the Metaphoricalpart; A
=miscellaneousanswers/partialerror, x =lack of manifestation of metaphorical use or ill-
manipulation or misinterpretationof the item; *=no answer.
Since the featuresof the answersvaried according to the items, a discrepancy is looked fast
at and
then specific features on at schemaswere employed and how they can be interpreted from the
contents of the answers, first about the benchmark, then the rest of the items. A
considcrable
discrepancybetween Study 3 and Study 4 was with the item baby. This
will be discussedlater in the
208
sectionof baby and sun. First the benchmark ladder is looked at and then the other items. The
contentsprecededby a circle in the tablesare looked at carefully and thoseby a triangleand an x are
alsotaken the
up when contentsof the answers signify strongimplications.
The schemasemployedin the items ladder

Tables6-17 showsthe summaryof the schemasemployedin the benchmarkitem ladderin Study
4 in contrastwith thosein Study3.
Table6-17 The schemasemployedin the benchmarkladder

MC-PT
Items Study3 Study4 Study3 Study4
Wier 055% 062% CMapping ladder-stagesof acconVWvr ent; gvpping ladder stages of acoarpishr, ent;
bottom tart; dimb=actionor efforts 82% bottom tart; climb-action or efforts 75%
x36% x16% 09% A9%
*27% 22% *9 % * 16%
1*
(Thenumberof subjectsinStudy3-11; the numberof subjectsin Study4-172, i.e.Gnx s 1-3)
Analysis of the schemasand features in the benchmark ladder

The breakdownsof the majority of mapping(75%) of the answersin the metaphoricalpart of the
item ladderin Study4 are
learninglanguages and/or playing sportsshouldbe startedfrom the basics-55%
-
the basicsis importantin our life asa generalmoral-12%
-
to go up to/bethetop, for example,to be a big staror to be successfulin business,the basic
is important-8%
The majorityof the answersweredidactic,suchasgiving advicefrom someoneto someoneelse
or from to
oneself oneself The image mappingsseemedto take place with physical and
implications.
psychological The featuresof the answerssharedin the two studieswere in
common.
The schemasemployedin the items bird and spill

Table6-18 showsthe summaryof the schemasemployedin the itemsbird andspill in Study
4 in contrastwith thosein Study3.
209
Table 6-18 The schemasemployed in the items bird and spill
MC-PT
items Study3 Study4 Study3 Study4
bird 050% 049% CMapping:bird=friendor forture fly away-lose CMapp' bird-friend or fortune; fly away=lose
x13% x19% 38% 47%
* 38% * 30% x13% x9%
*50% *44%
spill O56% 1% bear secret22%
Clapping spill=sdose; Chappingspd-dsdose;bears-secet 2%
L S% x11% x16%
* 44% * 74% * 56% * 82%
(The runber of subjectsin Study3: bird=8;spil1=9;the nrnber of subjectsin Study 4= 57, i.e. Group1)
Analyses of the schemasand features in the items bird and spill

The item bird
Thebreakdownsof themapping(47%) in the item bird are
child, lover or pet,is goneaway 24%
- someone,e.g.
important, e.
g. money, peace, luck is lost
23%
- something
Themajority of theanswersweredescriptiveor narrative,suchasgiving adviceor telling a story.
Therewasa metonymicmapping,suchasthe onebetweenbird andchild or lover.
The item spill
Thebreakdownof the mapping(2%) in the item spill is
in a everything
quarrel, cameout 2%
-
Though therewas a 20% point differencebetweenStudy 3 and Study 4, any crucial causes
could not be found in theanswers. However,it can be saidthat the high incorrectanswerratio
andno ratio
answer may havestatisticallycontributedto this low resultbut more fundamentally
it may havebeencausedby the EFL students'unfamiliarity with the expression The same
was
phenomenon found in the other idiomatic to throw out the baby with the
expression,
bathwater. This will be discussedlater. The majority of the answerswere descriptiveor
narrative.
The schemasemployedin the items catjump and headdown

Table&19 showsthe summaryof the schemasemployedin Study4 in contrastwith thosein
Study3.
210
Table 6-19 The schemasemployed in the items cat jump and head down
MC-PT
Items Study3 Study4 Study3 Study 4
cat 042% 043% gvlapping cat=haw whichway selection CMapping cat-hsnarr, whichway=selection
,
jum D 8% i 16% 17% 21%
* 50% *41% x 8% 05%
* 75% x 9%
*64%
head 045% 043% CMapping headdown=thepost me of fare C Mapping:head down-the posture of failure
down x18% X7% orsappoinvnent36% or disappointment,or to show humbleness
*36% *50% x9% 26%
*55% 014%
X5%
1*55%
(The numberof subjectsin Study3: catJum. 12; headdown=11; the numberof subjectsin Study 4= 56, i.e. Group2)
Analysesof the schemasand featuresin items catjump and headdown

The item catjump
Thebreakdownsof themapping(21%) in the item catjump are
selection,i. e. to choose,as in gambling (e.g. a pachinko game) or in shopping-12%
-
hard decision making-9%
-
The majority of the answerswere descriptive.In the interview, the following information was
discovered The imageof cat stimulatedimaginingsomethingor someonethat movedswiftly
andthe wordjump stimulatedthe view of quick movementwhich linked to a quick alternative
choice.
The item headdown
Thebreakdownsof themapping(26%) in the item headdown are
the postureof revealingor showingdisappointment
or repentance-12%
-
_the postureof showing respect or a salute-12%
thepostureof avoidingdrawingattention--2%
The majority of the answerswere descriptiveor narrative. The image mappingsseemedto
takeplacein physicaland psychologicalimplications. Therewas only one answerin Study 4
which exemplified the originalmeaning of this idiom
The schemasemployedin the items babyand sun

Table 6-20 showsthe summaryof the schemasemployedin Study4 in contrastwith thosein
Study3.
211
employedin the itemsbabyandsun
MCPT
term Study3 Study4 Study3 Study4
baby 050% thing/person;throw
022% Chappingbaby=important
015% out=loseor abandon;bath water- Partialmapping baby='utportantthing or
x40% X1 2% unnecessary thing person30% bath
person;throw out-lose or abancforg
* 10% *51% x30% water- unnecessarything/person 11%
* 40% * 89%
sun 036% 036% OAnalogals interpretationof the proverb 18% 0 Analogous interpretation of the proverb
08% x9% 17%
x9% x8% *73% x7%
* 55% 1*47% 1*75%
(Thenumberof subjectsin Study3: baby-10; sin-11; the numberof subjectsin Study 4- 59, i.e. Group3)
Analysesof the schemasand featuresin the items babyand sun

The item baby
The quantity and quality of the mapping in the item baby (11 % in Study 4) was not high,
because most of the answers in Study 4 could only involve a partial use of either of the
expressions to throw out the baby or with the bathwater, for example, `the important person or
thing' was mappedto the baby, or `to lose or stop something' to to throw out. It seemedto be
hard for the subjectsto combine the two elements at the same time in one passage. Therefore,
there was no single answer evaluatedas a full mark in Study 4. There was also no high answer
ratio in this item in Study 4. The only one answer (the vocabulary score of this subject was
103) which attained a full mark was in Study 3, in which both the elements were successfully
embedded in a passage:`the important things in the subject's room' was mapped to the baby; `to
sweep away the important things with unnecessary things in the room' to to throw out the baby
with the bathwater.
The item sun

Thebreakdownsof themapping(17%) of the item sun were
warnings,e.
g. preparingfor examination,
economicslump or general
advice for daily
-giving
life. Themajority of the answersweredidactic.
It canbe claimedasa whole that metaphoricalmanipulationsof the conventionalidiomatic
expressionswere poorly performed.Details concerningmetaphoricalcompetenceare further

in the sectionson ResearchQuestions2 to 4.
discussed
212
6.4-2. SUMMARY OF THE DIFFERENCESBETWEEN STUDY 3 AND STUDY 4
The abovesectionsanalysedthe schemasandfeaturesof the answersin MC- RT and MC-PT.
This section will summarise the differences between Studies 3 and 4, reviewing the schema
employment results revealed in the manifestation classification shown in Tables 6-13 to 6-20,
togetherwith the EFL students'literal and metaphorical performance.
The differencesamongthe items of the MC-RT

Thedifferencesamongthe itemsof the MC-RT betweenStudies3 and4 canbe summarisedin
from the resultsof the schemaclassificationsof Tables6-13 6-16:
thefollowing 3 categories -
1) Itemswith lessthan20 % point differenceboth in Literal andin Metaphoricalparts:
Wakenot a sleepinglion to let thecat out of the bag a pain in the neck
to standin someone'sway and Youcannoteatyour cakeand haveyour cake.
2) Itemswith over20 % point differencein Literal part:
Fish stinksat thehead,to beof one'sheadandA little pot is soonhot
3) Itemswith over20 % point differenceboth in Literal andMetaphoricalparts:
The rotten apple injures its neighbours, and to hold one's head high
Summaryof the featuresof the differences:

(i) Category1.Itemswith lessthan20 % point differenceboth in the literal and in the
metaphoricalparts:
Most of the correctanswerratios,i.e. positiveaspectsof the schemas,were higher in Literal
parts than the Metaphorical counterparts. The first 3 items showed fairly good ratios of
interpretation(mostly over 60 or 70 %) both in the literal and metaphoricalparts,while the
rest
were lower than these. The for
reason the higher answerratiosmay be that the passages
elicited
the meaningseasily. However,the item which revealeda differencewith higherratiosof negative
evaluations(markedwith X and * in Tables6-13 to 6-16) wasthe last item. The datais shown
in Table6-21.
Table6-21 The negativeresults:negativeaspects

items Literal(markedwith x& *) Metaphorical
(makedwith X&*)
Study 3 (%) Study4(%) Study 3 (%) Study4 (%)
x * x * x * *
x
You cannoteat your cake and haveyour 38 2S 0 14 38 38 0 27
cake.
There seemto be two problemswith this item: one may be of vocabulary

and the other the
contentsof the passages. As for vocabulary,thereare unfamiliar
words such as `reproachfully'
213
and/or ìndignantly' in the literal part and `poverty' in the metaphorical part. Those with the mean
score over 70 % in VLT (i. e. a threshold for metaphorical competence as stated in Chapter 5)
obtained two times as high of mean score as those below 69 %, for example, in the item cake, the
mean scoreof those with over 70 % in VLT was 1.21 points while that of less than 69 % was 0.42.
Thus lack of knowledge of the words may have hindered the subjects' understandingand increased
the zero answerratios (marked with*).

Another important issue is metaphoricalinterpretation. As details will be delineatedin
ResearchQuestions3 and 4, herebriefly are somepossiblereasons. The test consistsof paired
one
passages: is literal and the other metaphorical. The subjectsmay have beenassistedby this,
however, it necessitates a metaphorical sensitivity for recognition or metaphorical/analogical
and/or
reasoning activation of mapping operativeto interpretmetaphorical meanings. In addition
it alsorequiresa wider vocabularyor lexicalknowledgeto understandwhat the expressionmeans.
Investigating metaphoricalrecognition, some interviewees mentioned in the interviews that they
understood the meaning of a certain expression by `daburaseru' in their mind, which means
òverlapping' something on/over another thing. Overlapping could be a word, an image or a
movement This actually means `mapping.' They were not conscious of `mapping' nor knew
the exact terminology of what they were doing but they actually followed the procedureof mapping
when they dealt with the expressionsmetaphorically.
To sum up, the possiblereasonsfor the higher interpretation ratios are as follows.
a) In the item lion, they utilised their knowledge of the world concerning this proverb as stated
earlier. In the item let, there is a strong contextual support, as also statedearlier. In the item pain,
the subtlety of the metaphorical meaning in the passagemay have causedsome difficulty compared
with the clear meaning in the literal counterpart and the other items.
b) Contrary to the straightforward meaning in the literal part of the items stand and cake, the
metaphorical counterpart may have been too subtle or complex for the EFL students.
All in all the elementswhich may be relevantto the higher ratiosof interpretationare vocabulary
knowledge,knowledgeof the expressions(including the knowledge of the world), contextual
in
support the passages,
andactivationof metaphoricalanalogy.
(ii) Category2. Itemswith over 20 % point differencein the literal part:

The differenceswerefound in the correctanswerratios,i.e. Positiveaspectsof the 2 itemsoffand
pot as shown in Table 6-22. There was no great differencein the item fish in both studies,
however,it hada slightproblem.
214
Table6-22 The positiveresults:positiveaspects
items litte ( ed Wth 0& A)
Study3 (%) Study 4 (%)
marks 0 0
Fishstinksatthehead 58 8 43 128
Tobeoffone'shead 89 ! 11 58 26
Alittlepotissoonhot 63 0 95 3
Possiblereasonsfor thedifferencesareambiguousinterpretations,suchas èatfish from the head'

for the itemfish and `the daughterbecamea chef' for the pot. The most problematicwas the
item off. Therefore,the negativeanswerratiosof this item were lookedat. The datais shown
in Table6-23.
Table6-23 Thenegativeresults:negativeaspects
items metaphorical(markedwith x& *)
Study 3 Study 4(%)
marks x x
To be offone's head 67 0 54 25
of the item of did not causeasmuchhindranceasin the

The interpretationmadein the literal passage
metaphoricalcounterpartas seen in Tables6-22 and 6-23. The idiomaticexpression`to be off one's
head' is an unfamiliaroneto EFL students.This item could not elicit interpretation,as shownin the
high ratiosof misinterpretation
andzeroanswers.
(iii) Category3. Itemswith over 20 % point differenceboth in the literal andmetaphoricalparts:

To discoverthe causesof the differences,it is betterto look at both the positiveand negative
aspectsof the schema

resultsat the sametime. Table 6-24 showsthe positiveaspectsand Table
6-25thenegative.
Table6-24 Thepositiveresults:positiveaspects
items literal(markedwith 0) metaphorical(markedwithO)
Study3(%) Study4 (%) Study3 (%) Study4 (%)
marks 0 A 0 A O A 0 A
Therottenappleinjuresils neighbours 57 0 55 29 29 0 50 0
Tohold one'sheadhigh 36 0 29 29 36 0 11
4 0
1
215
Table 6-25 The negativeresults:negative aspects
items nxtaphorkA (markedwith x& *)
Study 3 (%) Study 4 (%)
marks x x
Theroden apple ijures its neighbours 14 57 25 25
To hold one's head high 36 27 22 17
The passages
and the answers were examined again. There seemedto be two problems:one
was of vocabularyagain, especiallyfor those with smaller vocabulary and the other was a
hindranceresultingfrom the words in the passages. The first item rotten includesthe words
in the literal and passages
metaphorical and reputationin the metaphorical.
rottenandneighbours
The seconditem headhigh includesmajesticin the literal andcrown in the metaphorical. These
have hindered interpretation, the
especially word down which might be confusedby
wordsmay
EFL studentswith the word down.Theseelementsmay havemadeinterpretationdifficult. The
sizeseemedto affecttheir interpretations,
as seen in the resultsof the meanscoresof
vocabulary
thoseover 70 % in VLT and below, for example, in the item rotten,the former obtained2.21
the latter0.44andin the item headhigh, the former 0.94 vs. the latter0.38.
pointsvs.
To sumup, thepossiblereasonsfor the lower interpretationratiosareasfollows.

a) of
misinterpretations the literal passage,such as àpplesare stolen' or `the applesbelong to
neighbours' in the answers to the item rotten. In addition, the answers were dispersed,
for
example,there were various interpretationsin the answers to the item head high. This
phenomena seemed to be caused by misunderstanding of the words and poor inference.

b) confusionsbetweenthe literal and metaphoricalinterpretations,for example, ÌtiThey
look(s)like rottenapples'and `to keepheadhigh' or `to hold the headhigh' weretriggeredby
the metaphoricalpassages.
From thesephenomena,it can be said that knowledge of vocabulary,knowledge of the
(including
expressions knowledge)
general and the subtlety of the influenced
passages the EFL
in
students'performance their literal and interpretations.
metaphorical
The differencesamong the items of MC-PT

The differencesamongthe itemsof MC-PT betweenStudies3 and 4 can alsobe summarisedin
thefollowing3 categories:
4) Itemswith lessthan20 % point differenceboth in Literal and in Metaphoricalparts:
Thebird hasflown away,to seewhichway the catjumps, to keepone's
headdownandAlthoughthesunshines,leavenotyour coat at home.
216
5) Item with over20 % point differencein Literal part:
If you climb theladder,
you must begin at the bottom
6) Itemswith over20 % point differenceboth in Literal andMetaphoricalparts:

to spill the beansandto throw out the babywith the bath water
Summary of the featuresfound in the abovecategories:

(iv) Category4. Itemswith lessthan20 % point differenceboth in the literal in
and metaphoricalparts:
Therewere no great in
differences the correctanswerratios in this category between Study 3
Study4. These 4 items may have stimulated subjects'

cognition with clear images of motion
and
The of
characteristics the may
expressions have led to the good results.
and/ormovement.
(v) Category 5. Item with over 20 % point differencein the literal part:
The difference in the item ladder was in the negativeaspects in the literal part as shown in
Table6-26.
Table6-26 The negativeresults:negativeaspects

items Iltefl (" ated with x& *)
Study3 (%) Study4 (%)

marks x * x
#-you climb the ladder,you must begin at the bottom. 36 27 16 22
Some in
interviewees Study 4 suggestedthey had understoodthis expressionmetaphoricallyat
fast sight.However, the high misuseratio of this item was causedby the confusionbetweenits
literal use and metaphoricaluses. There were some subjectswho could not distinguishthe
literal from the metaphorical,though this tendencywas also generallyapplicableto the other
items and also to MC-RT.
To sum up, the possiblereasonfor a high performancein the metaphoricalpart compared
with the other items is that this item ladder stimulatesa clear visual image of movement. It
be to the of bodily
seemedto easier manipulate expression movement(s)metaphorically.
(vi) Category6. Itemswith over 20 % point differenceboth in Literal andMetaphoricalparts:

The items in this categoryprovided severalnoteworthyinsights:the positive and negative
indicate
aspects the performancedifferencesin the two studiesand in the literal and metaphorical
some of which had alreadybeen described. They are shown in Tables6-27 and
manipulations,
6-28.
217
Table6-27 Thepositiveresults:positiveaspects
Items literal (markedwith O&0) metaphorical (markedwith O&0)
Study3 (%) Study 4 (%) Study 3 (%) Study 4 (%)
Oo 0 0 0
marks
tospill thebeans 56 0 21 5 22 0 20
to throw out the baby 50 0 22 15 30 0 0 11

withthebathwatcr
Table6-28 Thenegativeresults:negativeaspects
items literal (markedwith x& *) metaphorical (markedwith x& *)
Study3 (%) Study 4 (%) Study 3 (%) Study 4 (%)
x x * x * x
marks
to spill the berms 0; 44 0 74 11 S6 16 82
to throw out the baby 40 110 12 51 30 40 0 89

withthebathwater
The positive answer ratios, especially in the metaphorical parts were low while the negative ratios
high. As stated earlier, these items are conventional idiomatic expressions, therefore, there
were
seemedto be a discrepancy between those who knew the meanings and those who did not. This
may have been a major cause.
To sum up, the possible reasonsfor the low ratio of the positive aspectsrepeatedhere, namely,
lack of vocabulary, for example, `spill' or `beans' in the first item and unfamiliarity with the highly
conventional idiomatic expressions.
Differencesviewedfrom the meansof the test items

Here the differencesare lookedat from the perspectiveof the meansin Studies3 and 4. The
itemswhich hada meandifferenceof morethan I point betweenthe two studieswerethe following 3
items. We must noteherethat therewas a limitation to the data,for example,there were a fewer
number of in
subjects Study 3 and not all of the subjectsansweredthe sametest items in Study 4.
However,this problem may be toleratedin data comparisonbecauseof the homogeneityresult
amongthetestgroupsasstatedearlier.
MC-RT literal:to be offone's head(2.8pointsin Study3; 1.54pointsin Study4); Youcannot

eatyour cakeand haveyour cake (2.1 pointsin Study3; 0.7 pointsin Study4)
MC-RT metaphorical:a pain in theneck(1.8 pointsin Study3; 0.68 pointsin Study4)
Severalwords in the first 2 passagesare not ordinary ones and the passagesdo
not have as strong
218
contextualsupports as in, for example, the item let. The vocabulary in the secondpassage,
`reproachfully'and ìndignantly,' may have been problematicfor the EFL studentswith smaller
This
vocabulary. may havehinderedtheir understanding. As a matterof fact,mostof the subjectsin
Study3 providedcorrectanswerswhile someof thosein Study4, whosevocabularysizewas a little
did
smaller not. The interpretations made by those with smaller vocabulary were widely for
spread,
example, `being not able to think' or `not hit upon anything' for the fast item and `you cannothave or
eatyour cake'or `you cannot eatyour cake' for the second.
suchas `contradictory,
Thethird item a pain in the neckcausedmisinterpretations ' `thepersonis
nervous'or `being suffocated'. The may

misinterpretation have been causedby ignoranceof the
truemeaningof this idiomaticexpression.
In brief, the vocabulary,the knowledgeof idioms and the metaphorical/analogical
reasoning
its
and manipulation areprimary in
issues productionaswell as in interpretation.
MC-XYT
Some of the featuresin MC-XYT were describedpreviously in the sectionsof results.
Herearethedatafrom thetwo studiescomparedandthe featuresdiscussed.
The t-testsof the MC-XYT in the two studies

All the subjects took the same MC-XYT, therefore, a t-test was conducted. Firstly the
descriptive statisticsof MC-XYT of the two studiesare shown in Table 6-29 and secondly the test
for the equality of variances in Table 6-30. The L and M in the tables represent literal
and
metaphoricalrespectively.
Table6-29 The DescriptiveStatisticsof MC-XYT in 2 studies

Study Test (max points) N Mean Std. Deviation
Study3 (12)
MC-XYTL+M 106 4.68 1.95
L (6)
MC-XYT 106 2.62 1.20
M(6)
MC-XYT 106 1.96 1.04
Study 4 L+M(12)
MC-XYT 172 4.72 2.27
L (6)
MC-XYT 172 2.74 1.22
(6)
MC-XYTM 172 1.93 1.38
The mean scoresin two studies differed. Therefore, an independent-sample-t-test was

conducted to compare the scoresin MC-XYT L+M, MC-XYT L and MC-XYT M in the two
studies. The dataof the Levene's Test for Equalityof Variancesand the t-testfor Equality
of
Meansshowedthefollowing results.
219
Table6-30 The Levene'sTestand for
t-test the MC-XYT in Studies3 and4
Tests Levene'sTest for t-test for Equalityof means
Study 3 (S3)/ Equalityof Variances
Study4 (S4) F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailed) MeanDifference
L+MS3/ S4 Equalvariances
MC-XYT 3.45 0.06 0.88 276 0.38 0.23
assumed
MS3/ S4
MC-XYT Equalvariances 1.07 0.30 0.02 276 0.99 0.00
assumed
L S3/ S4
MC-XYT Equalvariances
not 5.16 0.02 1.72 250 0.01 0.24
assumed
The Levene's Test for Equality of Variances and the t-test for Equality of means in the MC-XYT L
+M and MC-XYT M did not show significant differences (>. 05), while MC-XYT L indicated a
problem Its significance level of Levene's Test was 02. It might violate the assumption of
slight .
as indicated by the equal variances not assumed and the significance value in the t-
equal variance,
test (.01). Therefore, the effect size was investigated using the eta squaredfor the literal parts in
the two studies. The partial eta squared showed 01, which was a small effect. These results
.
guaranteed that comparisons between the two studieswere possible.
The answersin the required format in the metaphorical usein Studies3 and 4
Table 6-31 shows the number of answersand averagesin the required format in the metaphorical
usecontrastingthe datafrom the two The

studies. answers
which showedthe confusionbetweenthe
literalandmetaphoricalusesareexcludedin the data.
Table6-31 Thenumberof answersandaveragesin the requiredformatin the metaphoricaluse

adjectives Study3 (N- 106) Study4 (N-172)
No.of inthe
Ratioof answers Ave.(Max: No. of answers Ratioof answers
inthe Ave.
answers format
requested against to
converted 1) format
requested against (Max-1)
thewhose
population(%) thewhole
population(%)
bright 21 19.5 0. S6 5..... 29.6............... 0.54
_..................
................... _.....
_..................
_.......... _..__..
_.......
_........
......... ...........
....
.
_.............. ...
.......
. ..
_._ ..
_.
dark 4 13.2 0.26 40 23.3 0.29
grey .........
......... _...... . _._.
_.............
........ _
_................
_.._._... ... __...
__..
__. __. __.
_ ..__ _.....
_._ _ ._._..
_ _ ...__...
w.._ _ ._.....
_. _.. ._.
_..
_..
4 3.8 0.22 30 17.4 0.22
high 19 17.9 0.28 38 22.1 0.33
weak 19 17.9 0.24 30 17.4 0.24
12.3 0.40 34 mm19.8 _ .0.32...
wild
The numberof answerswritten in the requiredformat in Study4 was largerthanthosein Study3,

thoughthe averagesweresimilar. The highestaveragesin the two studieswere on the adjective
bright, the secondandthird highestwere wild in Study 3 and high in Study4, followed by dark
and weakin both studies. The lowestaverages
were on grey in Study 3, and grey and weakin
220
Study 4. Viewing from the ratio of answersin the requestedformat, it seemedeasierfor the EFL.
to
students manipulate the adjectivesbright, high and wild. Specific features in the answersare
looked at later in the sectionsof each adjective.
Figurativenessor metaphoricity in `X is Y' concerns the quality of answers in MC-XYT,
therefore,let me briefly reviewit beforeenteringinto detailedanalysisanddiscussion.
Figurativeness/Metaphoi icity in X is Y
The pattern`X is Y' is usedto describea conceptualmetaphor,for example,LIFE IS A
JOURNEY. Therefore, MC-XYT is one of the easiestways to measuremetaphorical
competence. In the sentencepatternof `X is Y', figurativeness
plays an important role in
manipulationof metaphoricityas indicatedby Malgady and Johnson(1980), Malgady (1975)
andAitchison(1987).
Malgady and Johnson (1980) attempted to quantitatively measure figurative language
behaviour, utilising cognitive-feature model (Johnson, 1970), and found that "topic-vehicle
similarity seems to play an important part in metaphor comprehension; that similarity, in turn,
seems to translateinto sharedproperties or features (1980: 241). Concerning the judgements of
the figurativenessof sentences,they quote from Malgady (1975) as follows:
the judgements of the figurativenessof sentencesare nonlinearly related to judgements of

tenor-vehicle similarity when a broad range of properties are sampled from a potential
anomaly-metaphor-tautology continuum. That is, sentencesjudged to be "figurative"
(e.g. Robesare justice.), as opposedto "literal" (e.g. Robes are garments.) or "nonsense"
(Robesare trucks.), occupy the middle range of the similarity continuum. As similarity
increasesor decreases(away from this middle range) "figurative" judgements decrease.
The most typical metaphoric propositions seem to be those in which the topic and vehicle
terms sharea moderatedegreeof similarity, yet are not so transparentas to be trite, nor so
remote as to stretch our imagination too far into the realm of impossibility. (Malgady
and Johnson, 1980: 242)
A similar idea is alluded to by Aitchison (1987), as quoted in the previous chapter.

Theseallusionssuggestthat if the subjectsuseda moderatedegreeof similarity betweenthe
topic and the in
vehicle their answer,it should be an ideal answer. In the caseof EFL
however,
students, all of the did
subjects not necessarilygive ideal answers. Although there
wassuch a tendency in EFL students,some implications could be found in the answers,some
of which have already been described in the previouschapter.
With the implicationsgiven by Malgady and Johnson(1980) and Aitchison (1987) in
221
mind, the metaphoricity/skills performed by the EFL, students in the MC-XYT will be
analysedand discussedin the following sections.
Features of the metaphoricity/skills using the 6 target adjectives

In thefollowing sections,themetaphoricity/skillsof the answerswhich werewritten in
therequiredformatS (noun)+ be-verb+ (a) adectiveN aresummarisedfirst, followed by
theanswersnot writtenin therequiredformat S(noun) + be-verb+ (a) adkctive N.
The answersare roughly groupedaccording to the classificationsused in Study 3,
however, there were more variations to the answers in Study 4, hence, some other
classificationsare added in this study. Though there may be answers which might be better
classified in other categories,the classifications are made by my interpretations or assessment

of the contentsof the answers. Several samplesfrom the answersare listed in each group for
discussionpurposes. All of the answersare shown in Appendices 6-1 to 6-6. The number
placed before the answer correspondsto that in the Appendices. A question mark placed at
the head of a sample indicates that the answer has a nonsensical meaning or shows an ill
manipulation (i. e. anomaly) and/or includes a grammatical error. L and M placed at the end
of the answer respectively stand for Literal and Metaphorical. Errors (e.g. those of articles)
are left as they were in the list due to the prevalenceof the same errors (most of these errors
are the ones causedby the EFL students' primitive linguistic ability).
Individual featuresof the metaphoricity/skills using the 6 target adjectives

The target adjectivebright
in theanswerswhich werewritten in the requiredformatS (noun) +
1) the metaphoricity/skills
be-verb+ (a) a&ctive N:
The answersareclassifiedinto thefollowing 4 categoriesaccordingto the implicationsof
(ii) warmth,livelinessor full of life, (iii) full of light, shining or
(i) cleverness/intelligence,
brightcolourand(iv) miscellaneous.
(i) the implications of clevernesslintelligence

1) Youreyesarebrightstoncs. - 3-3)My uncleisa brightperson. - 10)Mikeisa brightrobot.
(n) the implications of warmth, liveliness or full of life
11-1)Her smileis thebrightsun.(2 answers) - 12-1)Hcr mind is brightsun. - 13-1)Her heut is a brightsun.
of yourteacheris a brightsun -
14)Thecharacter 16)The smileis brightstar. - 21)IIie girl is a brightangel.
(i) the implications of full of light, shining or bright colour

23)Themoonlightisabrightpart[sic](i.e.pearl).
(vi) Miscellaneous(seeAppendix6-1)
222
The typicalfeaturesin theaboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.
Thereweremoreanswerswritten in the requiredformat in Study4 (51 answers= 29.6%)than
in Study 3 (21 answers=19.5 %). The means in the two studiesare 036 in Study 3 (converted to
a one point scale,and the sameis applicable hereafter) and 0.54 in Study 4.
Although there were a larger number of the answers provided for this adjective in Study 4 than
in Study 3, there were not as many successful metaphorical manipulations as expected. The
following answersmay be among the most successfulmanipulations: 23) The moon light is a bright
part [sic] (i. e. pearl), the answers 11) -16), and 21) The girl is a bright angel and 10) Mike is a bright
robot. In the first case,there is a mapping between the colour and texture of the moon light and
thoseof a pearl. No mapping was found between eyes and jewels or balls in Study 4 as in Study 3.
In the answers 11-16), the state of smile, mind, heart, etc. was described by using the warmth,
liveliness of the sun or the shining texture of a star. The subjectsof the last two sentences(21. The
girl is a bright angel and 10. Mike is a bright robot) are human, and the similarities between the
topic and the vehicle are not so far apart and metaphorically well linked. The quality of the
manipulations in the answers 1) -' 6) was not especially good becausethey are the ordinary usesof
the adjective bright. someoneis a bright + human noun, though not wrong in metaphorical use.
2) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were not written in the required format:
the answersin the headline 1) are included in the total of Tables 6-32 and 6-33.
2-1) Nexus features

Table6-32 summarises usedin the answers.
the subjectsof the sentences
Table6-32 The subjectsusedin the sentencepatternof `X is bright y,
Subjects Answers(numberof answers) Total %
Nouns Human-S m* (21 sDn(2), ncle(2), fadvx(I), 38 28
P (11 S) P (, Propertwuns,e.g.Tom(12)
Non-human-S smile(61 head (4) I'e M dog(s)(31 het (2, mind (2), life (2), knowkxlj (1), 33 24
flunking (1), dhvactr (1), behavior(1), way (1), fit= (1), light (1),
eyes(11
cheek I hair 1 star 1
Pronouns Human-s Pnl Pronowishc(36) she(241you(6) 66 48
Non-human-S it(1) 1
Table6-33 summarises
the nounsconnectedto the targetadjectivebright.
223
Table 6-33 The nouns connectedto the adjective bright
Answers(numberof answers) Total 9'0
(20), boy (13), student(s)(13), man (11), gi(s) (7), thud (1), foreigner(1), 67 59
bright+ noun (human)
i
noun (non-human) sun(16),star(3),ball (3), fl inking (21smle(2), animal(s)(2), dog (1), cut(1), monkey(1), 46 41
God(1), angel(11 wife (1), robot(1),jewels(1), brain(1),eyes(1), face(1), charac*x(1),
futtre1 choice1 thin 1 flower 1 omn 1 stone 1
Typicalfeaturesin theaboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.

In the Nexus features,the number of pronouns used as subjects was slightly larger than that of
nouns,for example, He/She is a bright boy/gid. In the Junction features, the ratio of connections
betweenthe target bright to the human and non-human nouns showed equilibrium. The examples
are: he is a bright man, the person is a bright man/boy/girl or her smile is the bright sun. These
answersare the ordinary usesof bright.
The target adjectivedark

1) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were written in the required format S (noun) + be-
verb + (a)djective N:
The answersare classified into the following 6 categories according to the implications of (i)
something without light or the colour tending toward black or something concrete is black, (ii)
being psychologically gloomy, (iii) being gloomy, secret, hidden or ambiguous in concrete and
abstractmeanings,(iv) having an evil, sinister or threatening quality, (v) secretor hidden ability and
(vi) miscellaneous.
(i) the implication of something without light or the colour tending toward black or
somethingconcreteis black
5) Herhairis darkcu taia
() the implication of being gloomy somethingabstract or psychological

10)Herheartis a darknom. 11)Todaymy heartis darksea. 12)The boy's heartis a darksky.
13)His mindis darksea. 14)My life is darksky. 15)The life withoutmoneyis darkocean.
16)His futureis darksky. 17)The modis a darksnake. 18)A nightat NewYork City is a dark forests.
(iii) the implication of being gloomy, secret,hidden or ambiguous in concrete and abstract
meanings
23)Thepersonhasa darkant
iv) the implication of having evil, sinisteror threatening quality

isdarkcloud.
29)Hercharacter 30)Monster
isadarknight 31)?Thathomeisadarkzone.
v) the implication of secret or hidden ability
32)Thewinningpersonis a darkhorse.
224
vi) Miscellaneous
35)?Tom's friendis darkstomach-LI t rnsfer
Typical featuresin the above answerscan be summarised as follows.

Thereweremoreanswerswritten in the requiredformat in Study4 (40 answers= 23.3%)than
in Study3 (14 answers= 13.2%). The meanin Study4 was higher (0.29) than that in Study 3
(0.13).
The successfulmanipulationsof dark in XY patternin the aboveanswersare probably 10)
18) and 32). In the first 9 cases,the heart, mind, life and future as a container are mapped
to
smoothly such a space as the sea, ocean or sky. The answer 32) a dark horse appeared in this
study but not in the previous one. It is a common English expressionfor English native speakers
is
and sometimes used by the Japanesein their discourse, too. The meaning of a dark horse is
positive, but the original meaning is negative in the sense that the ability of the horse is not yet
known and it may have a hidden power.
An interesting answer is 35) Tom's friend is dark stomach. The combination of dark with
stomach seemed to originate in the Ll transfer. The student who wrote this answer might take
advantageof their LI knowledge. In Japanese there is an expression"haraguroi", in which "hara"
means stomach or abdomen and "guroi, " a mutation from "kuroi, " meaning that someone has a
black stomach. The colour black connotessomething sinister or evil and the stomach is the organ
in which living creatures preserve food. The food maps thought, as in "food for thought" in
English The parts of the body used in the expression differ (one is a stomach and the other a
heart) and the colour gradation slightly differs (one black and the other dark), but the implication is
shared. However, a question arises as to whether or not the sentenceTom's friend has a dark
stomach makes sense in English. Two British informants mentioned it made no sense. The
meaningof this is,

sentence of Tom's
course, friend is a black-hearted
or evil-heartedperson. As
seenin this casein Study4, thereweremore varietiesof answersdueto a largernumberof subjects
than in Study 3, which may provide someother interestingsamplesof LI transferin other target
adjectives,aswell.
in the answerswhich werenot written in the requiredformat

the answersin the headline1) areincludedin the total of Tables6-34 and6-35.
2-1) Nexusfeatures
225
Table 6-34 The subjectsused in the sentencepattern of `X is darkY'
Subjects Answers(number of answers) Total %

(sx6 3W ) xxd(1), son(1), gu1(1),
worka(1), loosa(1), Tom(1), 19 15
Nouns Human-S
i o 1
h(8), dtiarx 5), fitum(5), mind(41 fl 4) hait(31 tifc(21eyesf21pi M1ality(2), 61 48
Non-human-S
thinking(2), color of T 2), night(2), color of wnbbelk(1), foetid), kJc 1),
voice(1l exam(1), sociery(1),Japan(1),NY City(1),
nnpression(1),atrnosphere(1),
road(1j mouniain(1), home(1),room(1j dim ond(1),cloud4I), monlc (1), novck1),
IkkWilrunning(l)
he(241
shc(9),you(5),I(5),we(1) 44 34
Pronouns Human-s PcrmTalpronouns:
i3) 1) 4 3
Non-human-S
Table6-35 the the
summarises nounsconnected targetadjectivedark.
Table6-35 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivedark

Answers(number of answers) Total %
pews(S), 3),gi 1(3),boy(2),stud nIl) 14 19
dark + noun (human)
sky(7). Ex(5), 9*3), wodd(3), fccling(2), fiten 2), dia (2) exp sskn(2), 60 81
noun (non-human)
side(21eyes(21plan(21hoise(2),color(2),dhought9(1),imgc(1), kIc 1), mallcr(1),
point(1l pat(I) aumspl l), room(111hok(1), wit4(1), night(1), dird(1),
powet(1), occan(1), mck(1) cloud(1), angcl(1), bluc(1j stoma*1. stmx*l),
a ii 1 stak 19 11

In the Nexus features,the descriptionsof persons' gloomy or pessimistic statesor their emotions
using non-human nouns as the subject of a sentencewere found slightly more often than human
personalpronounsas the subject of a sentence.

In theJunctionfeatures,too, thereweremore answersconnectingthe targetdark to non-human
nouns.
The target adjectivegrey

in the answerswhich were written in the requiredformat S (noun) + be-
verb + (a) adectiveN:
The answersareclassifiedinto the following 4 categoriesaccordingto the implicationsof (i) a
mixed colour of black and white, (ii) a gloomy or dull statewithout light, (iii) ambiguity,and (iv)
miscellaneous.
(i) the allusion to a mixture of black and white

1) ?Thestoneis a greysky.
() the implication of being gloomy or dull without light

2-1) My heartisa preysky. - 4) My feelingis a graysky. / 5) My heartis greywatet.
226
6) His fatheris greyghost
(iii) the implication of ambiguity

16-1)The problem is a grey zone. 16-2)The problem goesinto grey zone.
(iv) miscellaneous (seeAppendix 6-3)
Thetypicalfeaturesin the aboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.

There were more answersand a greater variety of answers in the required format for the target
grey in Study 4 than in Study 3, however, the quality of answerswas not as high as that for the other
target adjectives. The successfulmanipulations are probably 2), 4) and 16). In the casesof 2-1)
and 2-2) My heart is a grey sky and 4) My feeling is a gray sky, it successfully implied the stateof
one's gloomy mood. In thesesentences,a probable manipulation of the words and meanings is as
follows: the heart and feeling as the topic and the combination of the sky as the vehicle, which
stimulate our imagination of vastness,with the target grey as a hook or connector in between. On
the contrary in the caseof 5) My heart is grey water, the word water was a poor fit as a description
becauseof its unclear meaning. The answer 6) His father is grey ghost (i. e. His father is a grey
ghost) is primitive and childish, but better than the very worst answers. The expressionsof a grey
zone in 16-1) and 16-2) are commonly used in Japanesedaily conversation. The word grey means
ambiguity, as in the caseof a grey area. All of the answers of the target grey conveyed negative
images.
2) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were not written in the required format;
2-1) Nexusfeatures
Table6-36 summarises usedin the targetgrey.
the subjectsof sentences
Table6-36 The subjectsusedin the sentencepatternof `X is greyY'

Nouns Human-S 2j '(1),Peon(s) 4 S
Non-human-S 11(9), life(S),face(4),fccli (4), sky(4), probk*31 clia
aci2(3), kxlay(3), thought(21 62 73
mind(21weati 2), eyes(21world(2),muwcrp2 mood(1),manory(1l opinion(1),fxx(1),
a loi{1), color of this tDwn(1j d=ry of evolution(IAday(1 n in(1)rtumd(11 hou.I),
01 sbo 1 mov' 1 ?loo 1
Pronouns Human-s penal pronounsI(6),he%shc(3),you(3), 1) 15 17
Non-human-S rt(2)lIm(2) 4 S
Thefollowingwereexcludedfromthetotal:cat(s)(LXI mousc(LXl)
the nounsconnectedto the targetgrey.
.
227
Table6-37 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivegrey
1 2
grey+ noun (human) PcrsOn(1)
noun (non-human) sky(81day(s)(3),ai 3jcoior(3) cbud(31 aone(21atrnospt (2), , h*2), lifi(21 47 98
vwatet(2), stonc(1), wall(1l idcas{1I hTk%1(1), mOO((I
so=Xl), tiit(1), faoe(1),ghos91),kilc(1), Iit dun(1),
sihuatkn(1),?sean[sic](Le.
histo 1 to 1 wall 1 sound 11

The Nexusfeaturesin the targetgrey showthat nounswere usedmore often asthe subjectof a
sentence than for
pronouns, example,My heart/life is grey or My heart/life is grey sky. The
Junctionfeaturesshowthetargetgreywasconnectedoverwhelminglymoreto non-humannouns.
The target adjectivehigh

1) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were written in the required format S (noun) + be-
verb + (a) adkctive N

The answersare classified into the following 5 categories according to the implications of (i)
height, (ii) high standard/rank,skillfulness or importance in a concrete or abstract sense(iii) moral
goodnessor character,(iv) high feeling, statesimilar to drug ecstacyand (v) miscellaneous.
(i) the implication of height of concretethings

1-1) Ken is a high wall.
(ii) the implication of high standardrank, skillfulnessand of importance in an abstract sense

isahighquality. / 3-1)Theexamination
3)Thecomputer ishighlevel. / 3-2)Theboy'sabilityishighlcvd.
(i) the implication of moral goodnessor character
12)His thoughtisa highopinion.
(iv) the implicationof high feeling,similar to chugeffect

14) His tensionis high tension.-L1 transfer 15) My emotion is high sky.
-L1 transfer
(v) miscellaneous(seeAppendix 6-4)
The typicalfeaturesin the aboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows

There were slightly more answerswritten in the requiredformat in Study 4 (38 answers
=
22.1%)thanin Study3 (19 answers=17.9%). The meansin the two studiesdid not differ greatly
(0.33 in Study4 and0.28in Study3). The featuresareasfollows.
The probableintentionof mostof the answersin category(i) seemedto emphasisethe height
of
someoneor something. These expressionsare primitive and ordinary but successfulto a degree.
For the intentionto meanhigh or a high standard,suchasin the categories(ii) and (iv),
mostof the
228
answers (exceptfor the answerswith a question mark) were in
successful the sensethat they
themeaningof heightin the concreteto thatof abstraction.
transferred
Thereweresomeanswerswhich seemedto be affectedby LI knowledge,for example,14)His
tensionis high tensionand 15)My emotionis high sky. There aresimilar expressions
in Japanese,
for example,someone'stensionis high or someone'snervesor emotionis highly strung.
There were answerswhich were partially successful,for example,12) His thought is a high
opinion. In it, the portionof `high opinion' makes however,

sense, asa whole sentence, the topic
andthevehiclearetoo close.
Therewas no answerwhich implied `the most importantpoint (of time)', for example,`high
time' providedin this study.
in the answerswhich werenot written in the requiredformat;

2) themetaphoricity/skills
theanswersin theheadline1) areincludedin the total of Tables6-38 and6-39.
2-1) Nexusfeatures
Table6-38 The subjectsusedin the sentencepatternof `X is high Y'

Subjects Answers(number of answers) Total 1%
Nouns Human-S man(3)boy(1),&i(l) motc(1), Pcop1c(l),
bo I), Totn(1),Mike(1;,Kcr(1) 11 11
Non-human-S, lcnsior(5), building(4), fccing(sx3), exa /examination(3),Ievel(3), p idc(2), hvc(21 S3 52
height(2),*tall(1), ability(1),score(t),Position(1),pricc(1),gamc(1) soccerb un(1), NBA
playei(1I comput1)s salary(1I lifi(1 lifistykXl) cmotion(1),though 1), bJavkx(lX
siae0f Pwpos41), mountain(11 climbing mountain(1),wi3i1), i1I i), cok)r(1),
sh' 1 ai 111 clock(] 'um 1 animal 1
Pronouns Human-s 1(12),he(Ilshe(91you(2),dxy(2lwe(1) 37 37
Non-human-S
the nounsconnectedto the adjectivehigh.
Table6-39 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivehigh

high + noun (human) pown(i) 1 2
noun (non-human) uns)(11), Fujryama(1), 6X tirm(51 walksX3),truc(21{witicxK2Iopinion(2), 63
rornsiQI 98
k'vel(21 soom(21sDddA2X riAgj mood(11 spirit(I), qua6ry(I),
l). pcice(ll
s andanl(I), c1azj cl
(Le. c1a Xl), s hardlelsici (LehunlICXl) qle0d(1), SP[lmw (LC"pltStilLCXI
ci c(1), COloltl), ey2*1l nosc(1l F,tlloft(1), bui Iing(I 1), sky(I), j M11
bwei bini(I),

Non-humannounswere usedmore often as subjectsof the sentencesthan human-nouns,for
229
example,my tensionis high or the is
examination a high hurdle. In the Junctionfeatures,
too, the
majority of the answerswere those connectingthe target high to non-human nouns, for example,
difficulty or unattainability. The following tendency
high mountainor high tensionto emphasise
wasparticularlynoticeable:the combinationof high + concretenounsreferringto an objectat the
positionof high location;the combinationof high + abstractnouns connoting high in level or
standard. Both well
weremanipulated in the answersasmetaphoricaltransfers.
The target adjectiveweak

1) the metaphoricity/skillsin the answerswhich were written in the requiredformat S (noun) + be-
verb + (a) adjective 1V
The answersare classifiedinto the following 5 categoriesaccordingto the implicationsof (i)
physicalor mental weakness or fragility in personality,(ii) lower skill or ability, (iii) lack of
(iv)
effectiveness, wateryliquid, and (v) miscellaneous.
(i) the implication of physical weakness/ the implication of mental weaknessor fragility in
personality
1-1) The personis a weak cat / 1-2) Aki is a weak kitty. / 2) His heart is weak glass.
(ii) the implication of lower skill or ability

13) The man has a weak point / 14) My friend describes my weak p(Ant. / 15-1) My weak point is sports.
15-2) English is my weak point- Ll transfer / 16) ?Mike's brother is weak head.
-LI transfer
(iii) the implication of lack of effectiveness
19)Theproblem isaweakeconomy.
(iv) the implication of watery liquid
20)?Thedrinkisweaktaste.
(v) miscellaneous
25)Your heartis a weakworn.
The typicalfeaturesin theaboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.

The ratio of the answerswritten in the requiredformat in Study 3 (19 answers= 17.9%)was
slightly higherthan that in Study4 (30 answers=17.4%). The Meansin the two studieswerethe
same (0.24). The following arethe features
of the answers.
The successfulanswersare 1-1), 1-2), 2) 13) and 14). In the first 3 answers,a human and
his/herattributeswere mappedto a weak animal or somethingeasyto breakto indicatefragility.
The latter2 answersusedthe combinationof weak+ point. Commentson theseissuescontinuein
the sectionof Junctionfeatures.
The noteworthyanswersare 15-1). 15-7), 16) and 25). All of theseanswers
seemedto result
230
from Ll transfer. The expression `weak point' (jakuten' in Japanese,which consists of jaku',
meaning weak, and `ten' meaning point) means inferiority or something/someonelacking in ability
or skills. The sametendencywas found in the both studies.
Concerning the answers16) ?Mike's brother is weak head and 25) Your heart is a weak worm,
thereareJapanese suchas"atamaga yowai," `weakin head,' meaningdull or slow in

expressions,
and
understanding, "yowamushi," `weak worm,' meaning coward. Both concernthe human
organs'ability of function: one refersto the brain and the other to the heart. Interestinglyboth
describethesestatesmetaphoricallyin theJapanese sense,however,it is a problemasto whetheror
not they makesensein English. One of the two British informantssaidthesetwo answersmade
sense. He referredto "weak in the head"for the answer16) (weak head)and commentedon the
communicabilityof `weakhead'to someextentand he also mentionedthat the answer25) (Your
heart is a weak worm) made sense. On the other hand, the other informant said both were
nonsense.
in the partof the expressiona weakeconomy,however,
The answer19)waspartiallysuccessful,
therewasa mismatchbetweenthetopic andthe vehicle.
2) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were not written in the required format:
2-1) Nexusfeatures
Table 640 summarisesthe subjectsof the sentencesused in the answers.
Table 6-40 The subjectsusedin the sentencepattern of `X is weak y'

Subjects Answers(number of answers) Total %
Nouns Human-S man(41woman(I), pason(1), hwrtiun(1),chiki(1), brodxa(1),grdrximodxx(I),k xr(1) 14 15
1J1 Tp 1
Non-human-S he
13eact(5)' (1),a ix(4),voicc(41),
stomaii(2), point(3),brain(2),huad(2),
minx1(2), 49 52
mentaJ(1feeling(1),hope(1j ima iniion(1), Iifi(1), ability(1), danx.tr(1), lxubkan(1),
legs(1j nosc(1),eye(1),muscls(1), position(1),pktm(l),
powa(1), sm d(1), drink(1),
snokin 1 sto 111 Ak' i.e,dienameofcy 1 rn li 1 miihcni;ti 1
Pronouns Human-s he(9)she(6)1(61
you(2) 23 24
Non-human-S 1461 drAI) 4- 9
the nounsconnectedto thetargetadjectiveweak.
231
Table 6-41 The nouns connectedto the adjective weak
b0Y(2jPemn(1),beby(1) 4 6
weak + noun (human)
noun (non-human) Puint(sX19),cat(s),voice(4),body(3),m K3),dog(21m mal(sX2),gW2) hcart(2),wc(21 63 94
head(1),brain(1),mind(ll abRity(1),knowlcdge(1),argumc11(1), qucstion(1),kvel(1),
eoonomic(1), sopha(1),coffee(l),womi(t), aunt(arl?Xl), g s(l), bugs(1),kiy(1),bird(1),
u1 ti 1
Theanswerdog(LXI) wasexcludedfromthetotal.

Non-humannounswereusedmoreoftenasthe subjectsof the sentences asshownin the Nexus
features. In the Junctionfeatures,too, the majority of answersconnectedthe targetweakto non-
human nouns. Representativeanswersfor this are someone's heart is weak or someone's voice is
weak. However, most prominently mentioned is a weak point. There were 19 answers which
useda weakpoint. This tendency was quite similarin the both studies.
The target adjectivewild

1) the metaphoricity/skills in the answerswhich were written in the required format S (noun) + be_
verb + (a) adjective N

The answersare classified into the following 4 categoriesaccording to the implications of (i)
violence, uncontrollability of behaviour/feeling or thoughtlessness, (ii) violence or lack of

thoughtfulness and/or excitement or eagerness,(iii) being untamed or uncultivated, and (iv)
miscellaneous.
(i) the implication of violence, uncontrollability of behaviour and/or feeling, or lack of

thoughtfulness
I) Todayis a wild windy day. 1 2-1)Thewundis a wild animal. / 2-2) Men areawild animal.(2 answers)
2-10)ILabuisa wild pitcher.(Ilabuis a professional

baseballpitcher) - 4)1115mind is a wild rock /
5) My bossisa wild lion 10)MikeTysonis a wild horse.
(ii) the implication of violence or lack of thoughtfulness / the implication of excitement or

eagerness
11)Your life is a wild life. / 12)The man'spolicyis wild living.
(iii')the implicationof beingnot tameor cultivated

19)Thelandis a wild world.
iv) miscellaneous(seeAppendix6-6)
The typicalfeaturesin the aboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.

There werefar more answerswritten in the requiredformat in Study4 (34
answers= 19.8%)
232
thanin Study3 (13 answers= 12.3%). However,the meansin the two studieswere not far apart
(0.32in Study4 and0.40in Study3).
As for thefeatures,the answersclassifiedinto 1) N 10) useddynamicimagesof the meaningof
to the
wild emphasise of
powerfulness the wind, humansand their attributes(part of a body, mind
andact). It is noteworthythattherewerea considerablenumberof answerswhich usedthe word
+
wild animal, lion, monkeyand horse. Theseanimalsare by no meansweak in strength. In this
these
sense, answers implied power and were successful. The answer 19) doesnot give a strong
impression,but it is successfulin the sensethat it connotesthe vastnessof space. Another
of
characteristic the use of this adjectiveis that there was a confusion between a literal and a
metaphorical use in the answers. The subjects may not have been so consciousof literal and
metaphoricaluses.
in the answerswhich werenot written in the requiredformat

2) themetaphoricity/skills
theanswersin theheadline1) areincludedin the total of Tables6-42 and6-43.
2-1) Nexusfeatures
Table 6-42 summarisesthe subjectsof the sentencesused in the answers.
Table6-42 The subjectsusedin the sentencepatternof `X is wild Y'

Nouns Human-S ffwK5b nierKII on(1),bo 33 n(2), p pkl), wort II bo4Il soewr pkiycr(I), 20 19
TonijGwrpcQj h- T )' I
Non-human-S W41 d act (3), Iion(sX3),way(2), ac(21 faoc(21smK2),kd(1X wot1d(I), 39 36
song(1),
haIf1I hair styk(1), kthn styl(t), cbtlxa(1), body(I), hcui(I),
spirit(I), mirxi(I),
mov lj acxion(1Alooking(1), music(I), poIiicy(I), whxi(I), hxlay(I)r +d ily(I),
ho Shi thenameofado 1
.I
Pronouns Human-s he(36)I(S)1she(3) 44 41
Non-human-S thi ),ice) 4 4
thenounsconnectedto thetargetadjectivewild.
Table6-43 The nounsconnectedto theadjectivewild

Answers(numberof answers) Total 1%
noun (human) (5bby(5pcra n(41h n(lj kvjy(Ij &1(1) 11 26
wild +
noun (non-human) aniftd(sx11),Gon(1),monke cu-=(31 hm*sX2), dog(2),syk(2 hair stykfl 48 74
life(2),worki(2),atmospt (2j gt(l), mixi(1X body(1)<skin I 6ving(I), Gga(1),
i1 *w ' 1I1
Thefollowing fmmthetotal:
weeexcludod fiwtLX I1
al(s)(LX31
Typical featuresin theaboveanswerscanbe summarisedasfollows.

In the Nexusfeatures,we can find the phenomenaof usesof masculine
nouns as noun
233
followed by suchwordsaslife, humanattributesand behaviours. As pronoun
humansubjects,
therewerea largenumberof usesof the masculinepersonalpronoun`he'.
humansubjects,
The Junction featuresshowed that there were a great many connections of the target wild +
animal(s)/lion. From these tendencies, we can see that the word wild stimulated the EFL
students'imageto mapthis word to somethingmasculine. This is the samephenomenafound
in the previousstudy. Additionally,in this study,the word wild stimulateda desolateimage.
Other featuresi.e.Phenomenaof synesthesiaamong the 6 adjectives

The target adjectives used in this study have sensory meanings. The phenomena of
synesthesiaof words which have sensory meanings are often discussedin metaphor study. It is
because metaphorical mappings occurs in different domains, in this case among sensory
domains. Here are some phenomena of synesthesia found in the answers. Synesthesia
phenomena were found more in the adjectives bright, weak and wild than in the rest. The
adjective bright co-occurred with visual and thermal senses(abundant answers, such as a bright
jewel or the bright sun), the weak with the auditory `voice' (4 answers: My/His voice is weak,
Mary's voice is weak animal, His singing voice is a weak puppy and ?The teacher is weak
voice[sic]), with `sound' (1 answer. The sound is weak voice) and `heartbeat' (Her heart beat is
weak), and with the gustatory sense `taste' (2 answers: weak tea or coffee). Concerning the
olfactory sense`smell', there was an answer combined with `nose', however, this answer (His
nose is a weak point) did not convey any olfactory metaphorical implication. There was
anotheranswer which might be included in an auditory image (His heart is weak glass),because
this answer seemed to tell of the fragility of his heart by using the word weak + glass
metaphorically. The sentence has the effect of stimulating our senseas if we had heard the
breaking soundof the glass.
The word wild co-occurredwith the auditoryimageof `music' (I answer.The CD's music
are wild atmosphere[sic)).Other combinationswith the auditoryimageswerefound between
dark (voice)andgrey(greysounds)(oncerespectively).
The adjectivesbright and high seemedless effective in stimulating the synesthesia
phenomenathan the adjectivesweak and wild However, interestinglyenough,the answers
such as `Your eyesarebright stones'
and `The man's face is grey stone'implied metaphorically
that the eyesandthe face were of a hard quality. In this sense,this visual meaningrelatedto
thetactilesense.
6.43. SUMMARY OF MC-XYT

Most of the phenomenain the answersweresimilar to thosein Study 3. From
the view of
the meanscores,the equality of variancesfor MC-XYT total and metaphoricalmean
scores
234
between Studies 3 and 4 did not show significant differences, however, the differences in the
mean scoresof MC-XYT literal between Studies 3 and 4 (2.62 and 2.74 respectively) seemedto
be problematic. However, by the additional investigation by SPSS, the effect size showed a
small effect (the partial eta squared was 01). This statistically indicates that there was no
.
meaningful difference between the two studies. In the metaphorical parts, the results of Studies
3 and 4 were quite similar. The mean scores (in the order from high to low) of the target
adjectivesin Study 3 and Study 4 were as follows.
Study3: bright 0.56;wild 0.40;high 0.28;dark 0.26;weak0.24;grey 0.22

Study4: bright 0.54;high 0.33;wild 0.32;dark 0.29; weak0.24;grey 0.22
The rank orderfrom high to low of the 4 itemsout of the 6 was the sameand the meanscores
werequite similar. The restof the items(high and wild) replaced its positionswith slight mean
scoredifferences. The adjectiveshigh and wild may have stimulateda varietyof Ll transferor
theymay havetriggereda varietyof semanticfields,asstatedearlier.
From the view of the content based analyses,the quality of answers did not show a great
difference, as describedfor the specific sections,for example, the images stimulated and/drawn
by the target adjectives were similar in Studies 3 and 4. To conclude the discovery in MC-
XYT, some phenomenafound in Study 4 are summarised below.
in Study4 canbe summarisedasfollows:

The phenomena
1) The adjectiveswhich tended to be connectedto visual images were bright, grey and high, of
which the adjective bright connoted positive images, such as the connection between the smile
and the bright sun; the adjective grey negative or pessimistic images, such as the connection
between the feeling and the grey sky; and the adjective high vertical images, for example, the
combination of high with examination or quality. The image schemasthat the EFL students
seemedto draw in their minds are illustrated in Figure 6-1.
Figure6-1 Visual sensoryimages

bright grey high
Ontological/Spatialisation
Visual sensory Vertical, horizontal images& metaphors
images emotionalexpressions
Orientational
metaphors
Miscellaneous metaphorical
expressions
235
2) The adjectivesusedto describedynamicor staticimageswere wil4 bright, dark, grey and
weak. The adjectivewild tendedto be to
connected human or human attributes/behavioursto
imply strength or violence and the adjective bright also tended to be connected to human or
human attributes,however, the word bright did convey a positive message.
The adjectivesdarb grey and weak tended to be combined with static images. The
dark
adjectives and grey tendedto link to images
spacious especiallywhen combinedwith the
the
sky and sea. The image that
schemas the EFL studentsseemedto draw in their mindsare
illustratedin Figures6-2 and6-3.
Figure6-2 Dynamicsensoryimages
wild bright
Dynamic sensory Vivid/optimistic/ Ontological/spatialisation

I
images violent mood metaphors
Miscellaneousmetaphorical
expressions
Figure6-3 Staticsensoryimages
weak dark grey
I Ontological/spatialisation
iL
metaphors
Static sensory Quiet/pessimistic
mood &
images horizontalimages
Miscellaneous
metaphoricalexpressions
236
ResearchQuestion 2) What aspectsof metaphorical competence do EFL students
displayin Testsof Metaphorical Competence?
The following sectionsaddressspecificfeaturesof the metaphoricalcompetencewith a

view to answering the question,
research using the quantitativetest resultsof the 3 groups
togetherwith thequalitativeinterviewresults(21 volunteerstudentsparticipated).
In brief, the literal performance of MC-RT and MC-FT showed higher mean scoresthan
those of the metaphorical counterparts,which repeated the results obtained in the previous
studies. As a whole, the EFL students' competence in the literal parts is higher than that in
the metaphorical counterparts. In order to focus on JapaneseEFL students' metaphorical
the
competence, metaphorical parts of the resultsfrom MC-RT and MC-PT are main focus of
discussionhereafter.
6.5-1. FEATURESOF METAPHORICALCOMPETENCEIN MC-RT AND MC-PT

Metaphorical competencein MC-RT
To view the featuresat a glance,the test results of the metaphorical parts were put in order
from high to low mean scoresin Table 6-44, from which we can see the tendency of the
competence in the JapaneseEFL students' interpretations.
Table 6-44 MC-RT metaphorical parts from high to low means

Labels MC-RTtestitems GroLp1 Grail 2 Gnxp 3
theta 2.31
LL+j
S A littlepotissoonhot 2.3
S(berdvTwk) Wakenotasleepirglon. 1.57 1.58 1.53
S Therottenapplevyuresitsneighbotux 1.39
to standin someone's
way 1.17
Fishstinksat thehead
Youcarnoteatyo rcakeandhaueyourcake. ---- - 0.82

S to holdone'sheadhigh 0.7
apain in dieneck 0.68 _.._....
_.._..........
_.........
_....
_...........
.._._........ _
to beoffone'shead 0.33
The label"P': idiomariclproverbialexpression;"I+": idiomatic/proverbial expressionwith a strong
contextualsupport in the passage;"S": expressionswhich sharesimilar meaningswith Japanese,
The test results indicate the following features:the passagewith strong contextual
support (to
let the cat out of the bag indicated with I +) and the first three
expressions which had
similarities in implication in English and Japanese(indicated with s) obtained
much higher
237
than
meanscores the lasttwo idioms
conventional (the items a pain in the neckand to be off
one's head).
The schemasemployed in the metaphorical interpretation

The methodsthe subjectsemployedin their interpretationscan be classifiedinto three
categories. These were discoveredthrough analysesof the quantitativeand qualitative
(a) knowledgeand application of Japaneseto their interpretation(NL schema,
results:
hereafter)and (b) utilisation of cue words in passagesand (c) employment of the
transfer
metaphorical/analogical (metaphorical hereafter).
schema,
The NL schemawas mostly employedin the items marked S in Table 6-44, while the
metaphoricalschema was mostly used in the other items, where the NL schemawas not
effective. Here are examplesof the items Wake not a sleepinglion (S) and to be off one's
head(I), which representativelyexplainhow the interpretationstook place. The analyses
explicated herewere confirmed in the interviewsafter the tests. In the caseof Wake not a
sleepinglion (S), their interpretations
overlapped with the similar Japanese ('Don't
expression
wakeup a sleeping child'). For the majority of the NL
students schemasseemedto serveas
a first aid for interpretation.
In the caseof to beoffone's head(I), none of the interviewees knew this idiom before this
test, therefore, the mean score was very low, but a few who answeredthis test item correctly
said that they interpretedthis expression by such a metaphorical analogy as from the meaning
of òff head. ' The words seemed to stimulate the image of `head' + òff' leading to
`blowing off the head,' which means that a person loses his/her reason or logical thinking.
This mapping was successfulto a great extent. Similar kinds of analogical methods were
applied to the other expressions,such as the items to standin swneone'sway (I), Youcruuwteat
your cakeand haveyour cake(I) and a pain in the neck(I).
Concerningthe utilisation of the cues in the passageswhich were intendedto infer

metaphorical it
interpretations, can be said from the analysesof the mean scoresand the
contentsof the that
answers the cuesin the first 6 passages seemedto be effectivelyutilised
(Thecuesin a passageandthe expectedinterpretations, i.e. the implications,aresummarised
in Table6-45). Surprisinglysuccessfulutilisation were the identificationsof metonymy:
the cat is a metonymyfor secret;pot and lion for heroines;apple for problemand rat and
fish for boss. However, the last 4 items with the low means in Table 6-44 were
problematic. The cuesnot fully utilised(i.e. the cuesin the 4 are highlightedin
passages)
in
red thetable.
238
Table6-45 Cuesin a passage interpretations
andexpected
items CuesCwads") in a passageand the implications eliciting
expressions event situation effects

let gossiping home *pr "shecan'tkeepsecret';
ngsentence: high
"cat -secret -our-disclosure; "bag"-contaiw
pot gossiping cafeteria? "hadn't seen'- year lapse;"18 yrs old now', "gorgeots - adulthood; high
Vor-metonymy for heroine;"hot -mature
`school
lion advice "offendedher-problem; "wake not', "sleepincr-avoid medium
for heroine
"lion"-metonymy
problem;
rotten gossiping !community "bad famil'ies"=source
of problem;`bad neputabon"-problem; medium
"rotterr=bad; ~ -metonymy for problem;
"ijures"-cause disgrace;"neighboLrs"-
stand campaign election campaign, "election =event; "rivar'" obstade; "stand in"" medium
obstruct;"W, "road to re-election";
Icompany "popUa.,
=gym
fish leakage "tijddled'-act of event, "giety cranes of the event; medium
"rat"=meton)RT1y for problem, I.e. boss; "system"-comparry,
"leak"-problematicaction;'boss"-dorreof problem
"fish"-metonymy for boss
cake world Whitehouse "PresidentGintort'-problem solver, "to end world hunger,etc."-to low
problem solve problems "confused"-ignorance;"cannot eat/have"-fall to

solveproblems;"cake"-meansto solveproblems
headhigh drowning sea `wave","drowned'-Problems
"incident", "saved'-solved low
& rescue problem "headh'^-, praise for bravery
pain home- school reacher, "cannot speak Erghstr, "not grasp the main ideas low
,
Work etc."problem; "pain"-probteT "neck"-receptacle of problem
off head birthday home or 'birthday',"pubcrawl","JohnWswant"-events bw

plan street "off head"-get thrik or losereason
In additionto the problemsof thewords in thepassages andthe interpretationof idiomaticJproverbial

expressions described earlier, anotherpossiblecause was that the cues did not seemto stimulate
understanding well in the last4 passages. It was found in the interpretations
superficial providedin
the
the answers: cake could not be identified as meansto solveproblems,or the phrase"headhigh"
was literally takenasthe headheld at the higherposition. It was fast
suspected that the latteranswer
may have been affectedby NL knowledge because
the phrase"head high" in Japanesesharesits
is
meanings being haughty(to hold one's headhigh)
implicationwith English:one of the Japanese
and the otherbeing proud of oneself so that the problem was which implication hadbeenappliedto
the meaning in the interpretation. However, it was found in the answersthat the problemwasnot in
the choiceof the implications but at a more superficiallevel. Most of the misunderstandingwas
caused by the confusionbetween a literal and metaphoricalmeaning. As for the other 2 items,only
a few answerscould identify the pain as a problem and even fewer answerscould identify thepub
crawl as "to drink at one pub after "
another. No subjectsconnectedthis meaningto "hashigozake
wo sure" in Japanese. The Phrase `Pub crawl" may be a culture specific expression These
in
elements the to
seemed
passages hinderthe interpretations.
239
Furthermore,the implicationsof the passagesmay havebeentoo subtleand may haveled to
confusionor superficial
understanding, as seenin the cakeand head high. Thesephenomena
possibly indicatesthat there are some passageswhere implication was so delicate that
interpretation
couldnot completely go into a depth.
metaphorical
The schemasand/or imageschemasin comprehension

The explanationsmadeby the intervieweesabout the measuresthey took in readingthe
passagesindicatedthat they connectedthe target expressionsto the similar counterpartsin
Japanese (i.e. NL knowledge)and/orlookedfor cue words in the passages. Their explanation
was that they first examinedquickly if the expressions
sharedan idea or meaningof the target
expressionin both the languagesand that if the expressionssharedsimilarity, they connected
themeachotherwith the helpof their pastexperience. In this procedure,they madeuseof the
knowledgeof theworld. This wasappliedto the interpretationof A little pot is soonhot, Wake
not a sleepinglion, The rotten apple injures its neighbours and Fish stinksat the head. They
also pointed out that there was a clue in the context itself. The story or the context of the
passageor the words in it their
assisted interpretation,
even though they did not have any
previousknowledgeaboutthe expressions. A contextualsupportis beneficialto a greatextent
and especiallyin the case of metaphoricalunderstanding. In conversations,we usually
explicatebefore or afterdeliveringa main message. In sum,they utilisedall of their cognitive
abilitiesin their interpretation.
Metaphorical competencein the MC-PT

Most of thephenomena in Study4 weresimilarto thosefound in Study3. Table6-46
summarisesthe of
scores the metaphorical
answersin the MC-PT from high to low meanscores.
Table6-46 The MC-PT metaphoricalpartsfrom high to low means

Labels MC-PTtest
items GroW1 Grail 2 Crap 3
Cage rrtic) Sly uclimbtheladder,,
wumustbeginatdiebottom. 1.69 1.45
C Thebird hasTownaway. 1.08
to keepone'sheaddown 0.69
__.._... ..._.. which
C to see way the catjumps 0.52
C/I Althoughthesunshines,leavenoty urcoxat homy - _.. _.

.......
...
0.338
to tlvnw outthebabywith thebathwater 0.15
_...
...................... .......
_............. ............
_.....
_.....
beans ...........
.............................
_. _...............
............
. _......
.......
_.._.....
. ...
...
...__..
. ..
..
_ .
..........
to spillthe 0.13 .............

with clearimage(s)ofmovementor situation;"P': conventionalidionkatidproverbial

The label"C': expression
expression.
A generalfeatureof metaphoricalcompetencein the productivetestwas that the items

which
240
conveyedclear images (e.
g. If you climb the ladder,you must begin at the bottomindicated
with C) and a clear movement (e.
g. The bird hasflown away indicated with C) obtained
highermeanscores. On the contrary,the imagesstimulatedby the itemsto seewhich way
thecatjumps (Cl!) andAlthoughthesunshines,leavenotyour coatat home(GI) seemedto
beweak,andtheanswersto the itemsto throw out thebabywith the bathwater(I) andto spill
the beans(I) were mostly unwritten. The reasonfor the low meanscoresof the last two
items is probablythe students'unfamiliarity with the idioms. This will also be further
discussed in the following section.
The schemasand/or imageschemasemployedin metaphorical use

It wasdiscoveredthatthe metaphoricalcompetencewasmore overtly exemplifiedin the
answersin the productive testthan in those in the receptivetest,becausethe subjectshad to
manipulate metaphorical expressions on their own. The following two examplesshowthe
of
characteristics the answerswritten by the two subjects:one with a high VLT meanscore
the
and other with low. Thetendenciesareexplainedusinga metaphoricaluseof thetarget
Ifyou
expression climb the ladder,
you mustbeginat the bottom.
Example1: StudentMN: over 80 % in VLT, 75 % in PolyT and 3 pointsin MGPT:

"Yesterday,I bakeda cakebut it tastedsobad."
wny?'
"Maybe,I skippedthefirststepthatI hadto do. It wasreallytroublesome.

"
"If youclimbtheladder,youmustbeginatthebottom. "
Example2: StudentKN: 59-50%in VLT, 45 % in PolyT and 1point in MC-PT:

I like Megumi. But sheisn't kind to me. My friend saidto me,"If you climb the
ladder,you mustbeginat the bottom.
in both examples,the situationsare clear, however,a story in the first examplewas well
organised. In this story he mentioneda causeof the failure and brought in the target
expression as a precept In other words, he madeuse of a storytelling schemawell. On
the other hand,the secondexamplelacked organisationand delineation. There was not
sufficientexplanation to link Megumi's unkindnessto the targetexpression. The
similar
tendencieswere also discoveredin the rest of the answers. These tendenciespossibly
suggest that those who had higher vocabulary (and polysemy ability) basically could
manipulate the language itself and it may haveaffectedthe metaphoricalusein the end.
241
Next, the following sectionssummarisewhat schemasor methods the subjects employed
in writing their answers. The representative methods employed by the subjects in the
productive test were as follows: firstly they tried to understand the meanings of the target
expressionsby translating from English into Japaneseand/or connecting its meaning to their
knowledge or past experience. Then they composeda passage. For example, in the items
If you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom (C) and The bird hasflown away (C),
they mapped climb the ladder to `begin something,' for instance, `start to learn a foreign
language' or `play the piano' and begin at the bottom to `begin from the initial stage.' This
suggests that this expression stimulated the image schema of UPWARD MOVEMENT
referring to progress.
In the caseof the bird hasflown away, the word bird was personifiedand/ormappedto
`something/someone leavingor goingaway' andit wasconnectedto `themovementof flying,'
as in the caseof à child's leavinghis/herparents'

nest' or `spendingmoney' which is similar
expression`Moneyflies away.'
to theJapanese
If they did not understandthe meanings,they abandonedtheir attemptsdue to the lack of
clues,or they wrote what they thought might be correct. We should note that the crucial
element here is, accordingto the interviewees' comments,lexical knowledge. Lexical
knowledgestimulatedimageschema,networkingbetweenwords andnetworkingfrom words
to imagesand vise versa. However,if they lackedthis, nothing happenedin their mind.
Thesephenomena werefound in thetargetsto spill the beans(I) andto throw out the babywith
the bathwater(I). Thesetwo were conventionalidiomatic expressions,both of which are
unfamiliar to Japanese EFL students.The few who could manipulate these idioms
metaphoricallyindicated
thattheyusedan analogyfrom the wordsspill and beansin the idiom
to spill the beans,andin the idiom to throw out the babywith the bathwater,they analogically
interpretedthe meaningfrom the combinationof baby,throw out and bathwater. Here,too,
theNL schemaandmetaphoricalschemawerealsoinvolved in answeringthe productivetest.
All in all, lexical knowledgeand activationof NL and metaphoricalschemasare crucial
elements for manipulationof metaphoricalexpressions. The positive correlation of the
subjects' lexical knowledge (measured by VLT and PolyT) with metaphoricalcompetence
(measuredby MC tests) was previously shown in Tables 6-9 to 6-11. Further details
the will
concerning correlations be discussed
in ResearchQuestion4.
The metaphoricalmanipulation, schemasand image schemas

The following few sectionsfocus on the metaphoricalmanipulationand image
schemas
found in the answersin eachitem in the productivetest. Tables6-17 to 6-20 in Research
Question1) are referredto hereafterin this and the following sections,but for
a matter of
242
Table
convenience, 6-47lists of
excerpts the columnsof Mapping in Tables6-17to 6-20.
Table6-47 Excerptsof Mappingfrom Tables6-17 to 6-20

items Study4 Metaphoricalpartsin ProductiveTest
ladder Ctv1 ping ladder-stagesof a isfYnent; bottom-start: dim action or efforts 75% (Table6-17)
bird Chapping bird=friendor fortune; fly away-lose47% (Table6-18)
spill Chapping spill=cisdose;beans--secret2% (Table6-18)
cat jump Chapping cat=human;whichway=selection21% (Table6-19)
headdown Chappingheaddown=theposttreof faihreor disappointment, humbleness
to showy orto avoiddrawing
baby attention 26% (Table6-19)
6Pa tial mapping:baby=importantthing or person;throw out=loseor abandon;batiw ater-unnecessary
sun thing/person11% (Table6-20)
UMalogais interpretationof the proverb 17% (Table6-20)
The item If you climb the ladder,you mustbegin at the bottom

Therewas75 % mappingin theanswers,asshownin Table 6-47. From the point of view
of metaphoricalschemas, the detailsareasfollows. The ladder in this targetexpressionseemed
the
to stimulate majority of the EFL students (55%) to map it to the schemaof progressor
progressschema in learninglanguagesor in playing sports,
with the bottom relatingto the basic,
and they interpretedthe whole expression to mean the basicsare important in learning school
subjectsor playing sports. Some students(8 %) also took this expression to mean that in
orderto go up to/bethe top, for in
example, orderto be a big staror to be successfulin business,
the basicsare important.Some others(12 %) took this expressionas an abstractprecept
meaning that the basics are important in life as a generalmoral principle. Thus the image
schemas seemed to be in
activated physical and implications.
psychological As statedearlier,
it canbe saidfrom theanswersthatthe imageschemathey conceivedin their mindsstimulated
by theprogressschemawasMOREIS UP,i. e. Orientationalmetaphor.
The item Thebird hasflown away

One of the main rhetoric used by the subjectswas personificationthrough metonymic
the
manipulation: bird was personifiedor mappedto the `he' or she,, lover, child, pet, luck,
chance,peace,effortsor money(47%). The combinationsof the wordJly away stimulatinga
departureschemawith the personificationby the word bird, whetherit is `he,, 'she' or other
made
personification, up Ontological `He
metaphor, (i. e. an importantperson)hasgoneaway.'
The item to spill the beans

We haveto gropefor someclue to the EFL students'generalmetaphoricalmanipulation
of this item from scantyanswers. The of a full mark answerof the item wasonly
percentage
2 %. In this answer,the word beanswas mappedto èverythingwhich took place in
a
quarrel' and the word spill to a phrase`come out.' This suggestedthe subject'sanswer
243
tended toward Ontological metaphor or the image schema of CONTAINER The rest of the
answers varied from `failure in lotto or examination', `departing from a girlfriend', to

`negligencein doing homework', etc. These answers can be also included in Ontological or
CONTAINERmetaphor. Interestingly, all theseanswers connoted negative meanings.
Theitemto seewhichwaythecatjumps
The representative manipulationof this expressionwas that the subjectstried to describe
the situationin which the decisionwas made on selectingfrom the two or severalchoices
(21%). The imageof cat stimulatedthem to imagine somethingor someonethat moved
swiftly (i.e. a cat schema),andthe wordjump stimulatedthe quick movementwhich linked to
a quick alternativechoice. The subjectsdid not clarify any judgmentaldecisionon which
choicewas betterbut their bewilderedmental state.There are many occasionsin their life
when it is hard to make alternativechoice. They describedsuch experiencesin daily life.
The answersmaybe classifiedinto the imageschemaof MCITION.
The item to keepone'sheaddown

Judging from the contentsof the answers,the subjectsused this expressionto describe their
for
experiences, example, the posture of revealing or showing disappointment or repentance,
the posture of showing respector salute or the posture of avoiding drawing attention (26%).
The image mappings seemedto take place in physical and psychological implications. The
physical state, i. e. a body schema, is mapped to the phychological state, and it led to the
implications conveying Orientational metaphor, especially EMOTION IS DOWN (24%).
The item to throw out the baby with the bathwater

As statedearlier,the quantityand quality of the answersin the item to throw out the baby
with the bathwaterin the two studies
were low. To manipulatethis idiom metaphorically,
we
haveto interweavethreetopicsandthreevehiclesin a passage: baby,bathwaterand throw out.
Most of the EFL students'answerscould only involve (a) partial use(s)of the threeelements,
for example,`the importantpersonor treasure'was mappedto the baby, or `to lose
or stop
something'to to throw out. The most difficult elementto manipulateseemedto be the useof
bathwater. In an interview,severalstudentssaidthey could not imaginewhat it could
mean
metaphorically. The only one answer (this subject'sVLT scorewas 103)attaineda full mark
was in Study 3, in which the threeelementswere successfullyinterwovenin a passage:`the
importantthings(i.e. treasure)in the subject'sroom' was mappedto the baby, `to sweep
away
theseimportantthingswith unnecessary things,i.e. bathwater,in her room' to to throw
out the
baby with the bathwater. She wrote about her experiencethat her
mother threw away her
244
important paper with some other wastesin her room when she cleaned her room. There were
such a small number of answers for this item, however, it can be said that this item stimulated
the schema of taking a bath, a bath schema, and involved the schema of disposal and that
thereforeinvolved a metaphorical schemaof displacement of objects. It can be categorisedin
MOTION,i. e. Ontological metaphor.
The item Although the sun shines,leavenot your coat at home

The mapping(17 %) indicatedthatthe studentsdelineatedtheir experiences,
suchasgiving
advice or warnings in preparing for examination,economicslump,and giving generaladvice
in daily life. The portionof the sun shines,i.e. the sun schema,arosethe imageof a favorable
condition,the word coat,i.e. a protectionschema,arosethe imageof a necessary thing and the
part of leavenot ... at homethe cautionto negligence(anotherprotectionschema). The
answers weredidactic andit may be in
categorised CONTAINER metaphor.
The following are the summariesof the schemasand image schemasused in the
manipulation.
items stimuli "schemas" / analogy HAGESCHEMAS/Metaphor
L dder(C) climb(action)+ ladder(metonymy) + 'ladder schema"leadingto MOREISUP
begin(action)+ bottom (metonymy) progress / movement
_ bird (metonymy) + fly away(action)
bitt! (C) personification / departire M0VEMENr/Ontobgicalmetaphor
snin(l) spill(action)+ beans(metonymy) (Not specified) /cbsdostre ccntainer/Ontologicaimetaphor
catjump (C/I) see(action)+ whichway (choice)+ "cat schema / M/
cat (metonymy)+ jump (action) choiceordeparture
down keep(state) + head(metonymy) + "body schema'/ emotion EMOTION
ISDOWN
(CA) down()
baby(I) avow out (action)+ baby(metonymy) + "schemasof baby, bath / MOTIOWOntologicay
metaphor
with + bath water (metonymy) treasue, mal
sun(CA) sunshines(protection) + leavenot (caution) + "schemasof sL#i,coat" / warmth/cont*n.
coat (protection) + home(location) prectim
6.5-2. SUMMARY FOR MC-RT AND MC-FT

As a whole, the target items which had clear images and/or which indicated
clear situations
were better manipulated metaphorically (i. e. the competence can be judged high or moderate),
for example, the benchmark If you climb the lackier, you must begin at the bottom
and the item
The bird has flown away, then followed by the items which shared the
similar meanings
between NL and English, for example, to keep one's head down and finally by the
conventional
idioms. The conventional idiomatic expressionswere poorly performed in both
receptive and
productive tests. In the case of conventional idioms, it is necessary to know the lexical,
semantic and cultural meanings.This may be a crucial point for EFL studentsto overcome
not
245
in but
manipulation
only metaphorical in general in
performance English.
To concludethe EFL students'metaphorical competenceexamined in the MC-RT and MC-
PT, it can be said that their metaphorical competence partly relates to the quality or
characteristics of the target items, mainly to their analogical reasoning and vocabulary
knowledge.
The tendencydiscoveredin the two studies indicates that EFL studentshad higher
for
metaphoricalcompetence the targetitems which conveyedthe similar ideasbetweentheir
nativeandtargetlanguages
in the receptivetestand for the targetitems which hadclearimages
and/orwhich indicated
movements or clearsituationsin the productivetest. On the otherhand,
their metaphoricalcompetencewas low in the conventionalidioms. It was found from the
answersthat conventionalidiomsconcernedtwo elements:one involved cultural elements,for
example, to be off one's headin the receptivetestand to throw out the baby with the bathwazer
to
and spill the beansin the productivetest;the other involved universalelements,for example,
to standin someone'sway and to hold headhigh in the receptivetest and to keepone's head
down in the productivetest. The lasttwo idiomsare universal,body-orientedor "the body in
the mind" typeof metaphoricalexpressions. They were understoodand manipulatedbetterin
thetests.
The studiesalsoindicatethat thosewho have strongervocabularyknowledgeshowedhigher
aswe will seemore in the resultsof researchQuestion4 (Table6-57).
metaphoricalcompetence,
Finally, the following lists show salient and non salient rank orders of the metaphorical
in
expressionsused this study. The saliencerefers to easeof understanding and manipulation in
the words and idioms and at the contextual levels, and the non-salience refers to the opposite
conditions.
MC-RT
Sahen A little pot is soonhot.
+ Wakenot a sleepinglion.
The rottenappleinjuresits neighbours.
to standin someone'sway
Fishstinksatthehead.
You cannoteatyour cakeandhaveit.
to hold one'sheadhigh
-a painin the neck
on-sahen to beoff one'shead
246
MC-PT
Sahen If you climb the ladder,you must beginat the bottom.
+ The bird hasflown away.
to keepone'sheaddown
to seewhich way the catjumps
Althoughthe sunshines,leavenot your coatat home.
- to throw out the babywith the bathwater
on-salien to spill thebeans
6.5-3. METAPHORICALCOMPETENCEIN MC-XYT

The overallfeaturesof MC-XYT in Study4 revealedthat the meansof the metaphoricalparts
of MC-XYT (1.93) were lower than thoseof the literal (2.74).
counterparts Theseresultswere
quite similar to thosein Study 3: the means of the metaphorical parts of MC-XYT (1.96) were
lower than thosein the literal counterparts(2.62). The following metaphoricityfeatureswere
found in the quantitativedataandqualitativeanalysisin the two studies:the answersto the target
which
adjectives have strongvisual, sensory and psychological meanings (i. e. bright and high)
and which stimulatedynamic images (i.e. wild) were better in quality than the other target
adjectives.
The rank order from high to low mean scores of the metaphorical manipulations of the 6
target adjectives (Max=1) in Study 4 was bright: 0.54, high: 0.33, wild: 0.32, dark 0.29, weak.
0.24 and grey. 0.22 and the rank order in Study 3 was bright: 0.56, wild: 0.40, high: 0.28, Clark
0.26, weak. 0.24 and grey. 0.22. These results probably indicate that familiar and stronger
sensory stimulus words stimulated the subjects' imagination better than unfamiliar and quieter
words, and that thesehigh performance words may elicit more powerful use than the other words.
6.5-4. SUMMARY FOR MC-XYT

MC-XYT is one of the easiestways to measuremetaphoricalcompetence. In the sentence
patternof `X is Y', figurativeness

playsan importantrole in metaphoricalmanipulationas stated
earlier. There were only 6 examined
adjectives in this study,but it can be concludedfrom the
resultsthat the visual and sensorymeaningsof the 3 adjectives (bright, high andwilds stimulated
expansionsfrom their sensoryand/orpsychologicalnuancesto metaphoricalexpressions,while
the answersof the remaining3 adjectivesshowedthat the characteristics
of the nuancesof each
word were to a degree
utilised in ways,
metaphorical even if thesewere not refined This also
indicatesthattheEFL studentsperformedtheir metaphoricalcompetencequite well in the strong
sensoryword bright, andfairly well in the familiar words high andwild, however,they revealeda
number
considerable of problems in sucha word as weak and in other sensorywords (e.g. LI
247
transferandconfusions). The following diagramshowsthe adjectivesin the order from low to
high
perfonmnce.
Low High
10
grey weak dark wild high bright
In addition, we must note that there may be some other elementsto acquire higher
metaphoricalcompetence,such as the knowledge of collocation or word combination,for
example,the word bright basically connectsbetter with the meaning of cheerfulnessor
collocatesmetaphoricallybetter with mental phenomena. This word tendencywas better
exemplifiedin the answers `Her heartis a bright sun' and `Her smile is a bright sun' than in the
`Her
answer faceis a bright flower.'
Finally but most importantly,EFL students'metaphoricalcompetencecorrelatesto their
vocabulary knowledge. Further details will be discussed in Research Question 4.
Metaphoricalcompetenceconcernsall of lexical, semanticand cultural elements. In a word,
competence
metaphorical involvesall of the cognitiveelements.
6.5-4. CONCLUSION
This study attemptsto make what is covert overt by measuring some aspectsof
competence
metaphorical in a non-nativelanguage. Metaphoricalexpressionsare understood
and used in a nativelanguagewithout much difficulty and probablyunconsciously,while those
in a non-nativelanguageare sometimesdifficult to understandand other times misunderstood.
Whenit comesto usingthem,it is evenmore difficult for non-nativespeakers.
The resultsof my studiesindicatethat someEFL studentswhose vocabularyknowledge
was strongercould cope with metaphoricalmanipulationunexpectedlywell, although there
were others who may have had difficulty in coping with it interestingly, those who
volunteeredto participatein the interviews seemedto be more interestedin metaphorical
expressions andtheir metaphoricalmanipulationwasmediumor higherthanthe others. 'Miere
are still somelimitationsin the presentstudy,the detailsof which will be discussedin Chapter7,
however, it has demonstratedcertain aspectsof EFL students' metaphoricalcompetence.
What assistsmetaphoricalcomprehension and use is mental lexicon, semanticconnectionsof
words, reasoning
analogical and generalknowledge. The subjectson whom the studies
were
conductedareyoung,therefore,asthey encounterwith more of theseexpressionsin the future,
they will nurturetheir ability and certainlyattainmore successfulmanipulationof metaphorical
expressions.
248
6.6. ANALYSIS AND DISCUTIION FOR RESEARCH QURESTION 3
ResearchQuestion3) Are the test items suitable as test items of metaphorical competence
for JapaneseEFL students?(Le.to scrutinisethe reliability and validity of MC-RT and
MC-PT)
6.6-1. THE RELIABILITYANALYSIS

The reliability of the testsof metaphorical competence(MC-RT and MC-PT)
The MC-RT and MC-PT of this study had a larger number of subjects than the previous
more than 50 subjectsfor each group, however, a problem may reside in the number
studieswith
of the test items: 10 in MC-RT and 7 in MC-PT. An appropriate method to determine reliability
in this study, as the test items were as such, is to assessinternal consistencyusing Cronbach alpha.
Cronbachalpha was computed for MC-RT and MC-PT with special attention paid to the results
the mean inter-item correlations due to the few test items. The Cronbach alpha coefficient
of
ideally be above . 7. According to SPSS survival manual (Pallant, 2002), Cronbach alpha
should
to the number of items in the scale. With short scales (e.g. scaleswith
values are quite sensitive
lessthan ten items) it is common to find quite low Cronbach values (e.g. 5). In the caseof a few
.
test items it may be more appropriate to report the mean inter-item correlation for the items.
Optimal mean inter-item correlation values range from .2 to .4 (quoted from Briggs and Cheek,
1986: 85). This advice was taken in analysis. The alpha values and the values of the mean
inter-item correlations in MC-RT are shown in the tables 6-48 to 6-50, followed by those of the
MC-PT in the tables 6-51 to 6-53. In the following tables, the abbreviation of the test items are
the same as the one employed in the previous sections, L stands for literal and M for
metaphorical.
Reliability Analysisof MC-RT

Tables6-48to 6-50 showthe reliability analysisof MC-RT.
249
Table6-48 ReliabilityAnalysisof MC-RT for Group 1
lGroup1 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS - SCALE (ALPHA): Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Con cted
Mean Variance Item- Squared Alpha
ifltem if Item Total Multiple ifltem
Deleted Deleted Correlation Correlation Deleted
LionL 9.8689 33.9825 4134 4553 7381

. . .
LionM 10.4754 32.2869 4721 3807 7276
. . .
FishL 11.0656 32.1956 4966 4785 7227
. . .
FishM 10.9672 31.5989 5406 4377 7141
. . .
Let L 10.0000 31.8333 5295 4007 7164
. . .
Let M 9.7377 33.0634 5013 4420 7227
. . .
Off L 10.5082 33.5208 3591 2067 7508
. . .
OffM 11.7213 37.8044 3226 1227 7518
. . .
ReliabiltyCoefficients 8 items
Alpha= 7566 Standardizeditem alpha- 7562

. .
Inter-item Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
Correlations .2794 0682 5594 4911 8.1997 0145

. . . .
250
rfoup2 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS SCALE (ALPHA): Rem-total Statistics
-
Scale Scale Coneceed
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Delet ed Correlati on Correlati on Deleted
LionL 104655 47.7619 5430 3302 8394

. . .
Lion M 11.1552 41.8878 7391 5586 8143
. . .
RottenL 112069 43.1494 6395 6356 8276
. . .
RottenM 112931 412985 7666 7019 8104

. . .
Pain L 10.5345 46.8497 5132 3230 8427
. . .
PaliM 12.0345 48.6304 5390 3367 8404
. . ,
Stand L 10.9310 46.2408 4922 3491 8461
. . .
StandM 11.5690 46.2145 5081 3109 8439
. . .
ReIab ity Ccefficierds 8 items
Alpha = 8515 S1andanizeditem alpha = 8510

. .
kAer-item Mean Minimum Maximum Range Max/Min Variance
Correlations 4166 2158 7647 5489 3.5437 0140

. . . . .
251
Groap3 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS - SCALE (ALPHA): Item-total Statistics
Scale Scale Cor eded
Mean Variance item- Scpiared Alpha
if Item if Item Total Mit e if Item
Deleted Delet edC orrelation Correlation D el et ed
9.6833 20.8980 A176 3529 6182

LionL .
Lion M 10.3000 21.7051 2763 3193 6616

.
Pot L 9.0167 26.3218 1140 1830 6766

. . .
PatM 9.5333 22.5921 2798 1163 6549

. .
Cake L 11.1333 23.5073 2691 3927 6546
. . .
Cake M 11.0167 20.0506 5256 A264 M84

.
Head up L 11.0167 21.1014 4296 3707 6153

. .
HeadupM 11.1333 21.1684 5458 5292 5924

. . .
RefabW Cats 8 items
Alpfes= 6652 Star rdzed item akaia= 6580

. .
kltff-item Mean Mininwn Maximum Range Max/Mn Variance
Co relations 1939 -.2245 5551 7797 -2.4722 0345

. . . .
The alphavaluesof Groups1 and2 (Tables6-48 and 6-49) were of .7566and.8515(higherthan

the reliability threshold value of 7), while that of Group 3 (Table 6-50) was 6652 (lessthan 7).
. . .
One of theproblemsmay haveresidedin the testitem of the literal part of the item a little pot is
hot in Group 3, with an àlpha if item deleted' of 6766, which was slightly higher than the
soon .
final `reliabilitycoefficientalpha'(.6652). The `correcteditem-totalcorrelation'was 1140.The
.
indicates that it measured something different to the scale as a whole. Therefore, the
result
answers in this item were checked qualitatively. The following feature was found in the
most of the students gave correct answers to this item, therefore it receivedthe highest
answers:
(2.82) of all the items.
meanscore
In orderto look at the resultsfrom anotheraspect,the meaninter-itemcorrelationsfor the 3
were checked. The values of the `mean inter-item' for Groups 1,2 and 3
groups
2794, 4166 and 1939 respectively. The values of Groups 1 and 3 in
were . . . were the
optimal range for the inter-itemcorrelattionof (the value 1939,
recommended .2 was . therefore,
lower, but nearly.2) to. 4, while that of Group 2 was slightly higher 0166). Taking the
slightly
the figures were not particularlyhigh, but
resultsas a whole, reliability acceptablefor sucha short
test.
252
Reliability Analysisof MC-PT
Tables6-51to 6-53showthereliability analysisof MC-PT.
Table6-51 ReliabilityAnalysisof MC-PT for Group 1

JGrap1 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS - SCALE (ALPHA): Iterr1-totalStatistics
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variance Item Squared Attu
if item if Item Total Multiple if item
Deleted Deleted Correlati on Correlati on Deleted
LADDERL 5.1967 142273 4806 A901 6885

. .
LADDERM 5.3607 124011 7213 6169 6048

. . .
BIRDL 5.3115 12.3847 6776 6726 6186
. . .
BIRDM 5.9672 14.3989 4994 5730 6820

. . .
SPILLL 6.4918 16.3874 3219 3818 7312

. . .
SPILLM 6.9180 20.1432 A043 3366 7720
. .
RekabirbyCoefficierft 6 items
Alpha= 7301 Standarcizeditem aha= 6864

. .
Inter-item Mean Mirimum Maxinxan Range Max/Min Variance
Correlations 2673 -. 1353 7366 8718 -5.4453 0827

. . . .
Table6-52 ReliabilityAnalysisof MC-PT for Group 2

L2 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS - SCALE (ALPHA): Itern-tote) Statistic I
Scale Scale Corrected
Mean Variarxe Item- Squared Atha
if Item if Item Total Multiple if Item
Deleted Deleted Corr elation Correlati on Deleted
Ladder L 5.3621 212175 5760 4020 7849

. . .
LadderM 5.5862 20.9486 5474 3632 7913

. . .
Cat L 5.6207 19.3975 6210 4498 7751
. . .
Cat M 6.6034 23.1909 5063 2756 7998
.
HeaddownL 6.(W) 18.8070 6990 5825 7551

. . .
Head down M 6.4310 22.0039 5158 A438 7973
. .
RedabitYCoefficients 6 items
Alplt3= 141 Standardized

itemalpha= 8134
.
Niter-item Mean Miniiman Maxiau Range Max/Min Variance
Correlations 4208 2566 6317 3751 2.4616 0114
. . . . .
253
Table6-53 ReliabilityAnalysisof MC-PT for Group3
jGroup3 RELIABILITY (ALPHA): Item-total Statistics
ANALYSIS - SCALE
Scale Scale Co eched
if Item if Item Total P/dt le if Item
Deleted Deleted C on Correlation Deleted
LadderL 3.4667 9.5751 4360 2890 5760

. .
LackierM 3.5500 8.1161 6496 A459 A651

.
Baby l. 4.5333 13.4056 A701 A335 6927

.
BabyM 4.8500 14.5703 -. 8 X0605 6860

.
Sui L 3.9833 8.7624 5930 A537 4991
. .
Sun M 4,6167 11.3929 4621 3930 5780

. . .
Reiabib, Coeff elms 6 itens
Alpha= .6434 Standarrizeditem

adia= 5777
.
biter-item Mean Minimum Maxieim Range Max/Min Variance
Con,elations 1856 -.0966 5847 6812 -6.0541 0574

. . . .
The alphavaluesof GroupsI and2 in the MC-PT (Tables6-51 and 6-52) were. 7301and. 8141
while that of Group 3 (Table 6-53) was 6434. There seems to be no major
respectively, .
the surfacewith the alpha values in Groups 1 and 2, however,the values for the
problemson
àlphaif item deleted'
and `correcteditem-totalcorrelation'in the metaphoricalpartof the item to
spill the beans in Group 1 did identify a weak item: the result of the àlpha if item deleted'
was . 7720 (more than the final `reliability coefficients alpha' value of 7301) and that of the
.
`correlateditem-totalcorrelation'in this metaphoricaluse of to spill the beanswas .0043 (less
than . 3). Therefore, the item to spill the beans was the least reliable item in the battery and
would be deleted if the test were reused further. A further weakness seemed to reside in the item
to throw out the baby with the bathwater in Group 3. The àlpha values if item deleted' of the item
to throw out the baby with the bathwater in the literal and metaphoricalusewere .6927 and.6860
more than the final `reliability coefficients alpha' of 6434. The values of the
respectively, .
`corrected item-total correlation' for the literal and metaphoricalwere also quite low: the literal
to throw out the baby with the bathwater had a value of 0701 and the
useof . metaphorical useof
to throw out the baby with the bathwatcr a value of -. 0228 (i. e. far below 3).
.
As a next step,the valuesof the `meancorrecteditem-totalcorrelation' in the 3 groupswere
the value in Group 1 was 2673, that in Group 2 was 4208 and that in Group 3
examined: . .
was. 1856. These values showed the same tendency in the item to throw out the baby with the
bathwaterin Group3 asmentionedbefore.
From the abovevalues,it can be said that most of the test items, excluding the highly
254
conventionalidioms, suchasto spill the beansor to throw out the babywith the bathwatcr,
were
reliable. Highly idioms
conventional shouldbe inspected attentivelyas test items, for
especially
productivetest.
6.6-2. THE VALIDITYANALYSIS

Sincetherewas no pastresearchsimilarto this studyand therewere limited test itemsin the
MC tests,the validity analysisis made quantitativelyand qualitatively. The most important
analysiswas to discoverwhether or not MC testscould serveas intended. The testsaimed to
measuremetaphoricalcomprehension and manipulation. Did the testsfulfill theseaims? To
answer this question,the testsand the test resultsare looked at quantitativelyand qualitatively
firstly. Secondlythe feedbackfrom the subjectsand then EFL teachers'opinionsof MC tests
areanalysed.
Quantitative and qualitative examinationsof MC tests

Most of the resultsrevealedby the executionsof the testsare asI anticipated. The aims of
investigatingmetaphoricalcomprehensionin MC-RT were fulfilled by obtainingthe following
results. The test items with clear meaningsand/or with strong contextualsupportsdisplayed
higher mean scores,i.e. were well understood. The test items with conventionalidiomatic
showed
expressions lower mean i.
scores, e. were lesswell understood(seeTable 6-44 in Chapter
6). TheLI applicationhadambivalenteffects. Thesewere all expectedresults,
The aims of the investigationof metaphoricaluse were also fulfilled by obtaining the
following resultsin MC-PT and MC-XYT. In MC-PT, the expressionswith clear images
showed higher mean i.
scores, e. they were manipulatedeasily, while the highly conventional
idioms showedvery low mean scores,i.e. they involved problems in use (seeTable 646 in
Chapter6). Thesewere expectedresults. The MC-PT also provided evidenceof Japanese
EFL students'semanticfieldsandtheir operationsof mapping. This was more thanI expected.
The MC-XYT servedas the metaphoricaltest and at the sametime it revealedthe lexical,
semanticand image schemas of the JapaneseEFL students. I had not imagineduntil the final
stage that I would be able to achievesuch prominent resultsas statedin 6.4-3 SUMMARY,
Chapter6. The adjectiveswith sensorymeaningsstimulatedvisual,temporaland spatialimages
by their specificmeanings. It wasalsomore than I expectedanda greatdiscovery. I Io
tver,
the studiescontainlimitations. If there were more test items in the studies,they would have
beenbetter.
Although therewere somestatisticalproblemssuch as thosementioned

above,most of the
subjectstreatedthe items as items
metaphorical exceptfor certainidiomatic expressions. The
255
qualitative analyses show that the items were representative samples of metaphorical language
and these items (although few) can be used to measure metaphorical knowledge.
As for the componentsof the test items for metaphoricalcompetence,it dependsupon the
aimsof the for
tests, example,what aspectsof metaphoricalcompetenceare to be measured. If
a test attemptsto simply measuremetaphoricalrecognition,a receptivetype (MC-RT) may be
appropriate. If it attemptsto measure only identification or distinctions between literal and
metaphoricalexpressions, a contrastivetest may be appropriate. If it attemptsto measurea
genuinelymetaphorical it
production, must have productivetest items (MC-PT). The purpose
of my study is to developa comprehensive test of metaphorical competence,therefore,it has

three kinds, each of which consistedof literal and metaphoricalparts and included lexical,
and
semantic of
aspects
cultural the language.
Feedbackfrom the subjects

I askedstudentsto participatein my questionnairefor the tests. There were 13 volunteers.
I askedthemthefollowing questions.
(1) Are thetestshardto answer?
(2) Which is easierto answer,MC-RT or MC-PT?
(3) Which is moreinteresting,comprehension
of metaphoricalexpressions
or useof them?
(4) Havetheyeverthoughtof literal andmetaphoricalexpressions?
The importantimplicationfrom the first questionwasthat the difficulty or easedepended

upon whether or not they knew the meaningsof the targetsor words in the passages. I also
asked why they could answer even if they did not have a previous knowledge about the
expressions. Majority of the students said that they inferred the meaningsfrom the words
surroundingthe target or the contextsor they could infer the intention of a messageintuitively.
The testswerenot difficult in general.
To the secondandthird questions,the majority (77%) of them answeredthat it was easierto
answer readingcomprehension and half (46%) of them answeredit was more interestingto use
metaphorically. The reasonfor the former was that they were usedto reading
the expressions
comprehension in high school English lessons,especiallyin English lessonswhich weighed
comprehension for entrance examinations. The reasonfor the latterwasthat they could usetheir
own ideasand makeup their own storiesand gainedmore satisfactionwhen they could express
what they wanted to say. They said that the most interesting part of the manipulation of
metaphoricalexpressions in
was seeing how well they could employtransfersof the meaningand
where to placethe transfersin a story. Thesecommentsimply that someEFL studentsenjoyed
usingmetaphoricalexpressions.
256
Answersto the final questionrevealedthat onethird of them (38%) had neverlearntaboutor
thoughtaboutsuch differences in English but
lessons, half (46%) of them had in lessons.
Japanese
Evaluation by Japanese EFL teachers

I askedtwo experienced JapaneseEFL teachers(a seniormale and a middle agedfemale)to
evaluateMC testson the following points:

(1) Are the aimsof the teststo measurethe comprehension
and useof metaphoricalexpressions
fu filled in thetests?
(2) Are thetestsmeaningful?
(3) How do testtakersfeel?
With regardto (1), the evaluationsof both teacherswerepositivein respectof the purposeand
usabilityof MC tests. They assuredme that it could measuremetaphoricalcompetence. The

in
target expressionsembedded the passagescan measuremetaphoricalcomprehensionin a
broadersenseand the target items in MC-PT and MC-XYT can measuremetaphoricaluse.
However,theypointedout thattheremight be someproblemswith idioms.
Both of them mentioned that vocabulary knowledge may relate to understanding and use of
linguistic competence,and it may also be the case for metaphorical competence. One of the
teachersadded that linguistic ability and background knowledge aid recognition and production
in another language. My studies attempted to investigate a relationship between vocabulary
knowledge and metaphorical competence. This supports my study in investigation of their
relationship. However, there was an important suggestion provided by one of the teachers.
The suggestionwas that there might be some problematic passages. This overlaps with my
analysis stated in the earlier part of this chapter. Among MC-RT passages,the literal and
metaphorical parts of the passages embedded with to count heads and You cannot eat your cake
have your cake may not be sufficiently clear for those who do not have a rich vocabulary,
and
wide knowledge or intuitive analogical ability.
The commentson idiomsfrom oneof theteacherswas that idiomsareproblemsfor non
NSs but at the sametime if we have a wide awarenessof idioms, we appreciatethe language
better.
As for (2), bothteachersmentionedthat MC testsand thesekinds of investigationsin
languageeducationwere the first in this field. In Japan,this meansit is a pioneeringstudy.
'This study goesbeyond past research,for example,relationshipbetweenthe vocabularyand
reading.
Finally, regarding(3), there is no problem in general,however,the instructionsin the tests
may be too specialfor generallanguage learnersandthe levelsof the testsseemto be high,
257
6.6-3. CONCLUSION
Most of the test items seem to work reasonablywell. However, there were several
idioms
problematic and/or for
expressions EFL students. The items,such as to spill the beans,
to throw out the baby with the bathwater,and a pain in the neck seemedto causeproblemsas
illustratedin the sectionsfor ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION of 6.4 and 6.5. Another
characteristicof theseexpressionsis that they are idiomatic

conventional expressions,
which may
have causeddifficulty in interpretationand use. The answerswritten on the paperswere
checkedand the interviews carried out In fact, a considerable
number of the papershad no
writtenanswer and the intervieweescommented on these items,statingthat they did not know the
meanings of the expressions, and therefore, most of them had abandoned inferring or
manipulating the expressions. It is probable that highly conventional idiomatic expressions
unfamiliar to EFL studentsare problematic. To avoid this problem, I suggestthat the ideal
components of the test itemsshouldincludea wider range of linguistic levelsand contentquality

in the targetexpressions. Levels shouldrange from easy comprehensionlevels and/or easy
inferencelevelsto mediumand higher levels,becausethe test items would not serveper se if
all of themeaningsof idioms/expressions.
testeesdo not understand
The analysessofar answerthetestof suitabilityof the testitemsfor Japanese
EFL studentsto
a degree. Although the target items in the testswere not numerous,the levels of the items
ranged from easy to difficult and there were a variety of items in the tests. In this sensethe
quality, contents and levels of the testitems seemed to be satisfactory. The main problem is that
a truly reliabletest would require more items,and this would causeproblemsin administration,
since the test would require too long for practical administration. From the applied linguistic
point of view, quantitativedata, i.e. more test items, is however,
necessary; from the metaphor
researchview, qualitativedata, i.e. detailedspecific data is necessary. As is often the case,

faces
research the dilemma of how to keep the balancebetween thesetwo requirements,
258
Research Question 4) Is there any relationship between Japanese EFL students'
metaphorical competence and other linguistic competence, for example, vocabulary size
and polysemy ability?
The following sectionsaddressResearchQuestion4, followed by a brief conclusionand

implicationsfor EFL education.
6.7-1. CORRELATIONS
Correlations among the tests
Speatman'swasusedto discoverthe correlationsbetweenthe testswith a view to investigating
JapaneseEFL students' metaphorical competence. Here Spearman's rho (rank-order-
coefficients
correlation) were usedbecausethe datawas non-normaldata. Accordingto Philips
(1988, p.65), the Spearmanrank-difference(rho) procedureplacesall subjectsin order from
smallestto largeston the basisof their scoreson X (i.e. one then
variable), it ascertainshow nearly
theirY scores(i.e. anothervariable)approximatethatorder. Tables6-54 to 6-56 showthe results
of Spearman's rho for the metaphorical partsof MC-RT, MC-FT and MC-XYT (all excludingthe
literal parts)togetherwith VLT and PolyT for the 3 groups. The overall featuresare: all of the
correlations among MC-RT, MC-PT, MC-XYT, VLT and PolyT showed positive; and the
VLT
between
correlations andPolyT were high.
Table6-54 Correlationin Group 1(N=57)

Test / Max MC-RT/12 MC-PT/9 MC-XYT/6 VLT/120 PoIyT/20
MGRf/12 1.000 328* 439** 483** 584**

. . . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 013 001 000 000
. . . .
MC-PT/9 1.000 289* 388** 421 **
. . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 029 003 001
. . .
MC-XYT/6 1.000 410** 478**
. .
. .
VLT/120 1.000 735**
.
Sig.(2-tailed) 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
Sig.(2-tailed)
Theasten s in thetables6-54to 6-56:*: Cont,lationis significantatthe.05 levelQ-Uloft
': Cocielationis signific t lthe 01 kvel (2-U'Wu
259
Test / Max MC-RT/12 MC-PT/9 MC-XYT/6 VLT/1 20 PoIyT/20
MC-RT/12 1.000 556** 355** 726** 745**

. . . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 000 007 000 000
. . . .
MC-PT/9 1.000 427** 600** 729**
. . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 001 000 000
. . .
MC-XYT/6 1.000 382** 326*
. .
. .
VLT/120 1.000 691**
.
Sig.(2-tailed) 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
Sig.(2-tai)ed)

Test/ Max MC-RT/12 MC-FT/9 MC-XYT/6 VITA 20 PolyT/20
MC-RT/12 1.000 370** 094 421 ** 417*

. . . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 004 477 001 001
. . . .
MC-PT/9 1.000 284* 275* 307*
. . .
Sig.(2-tailed) 029 035 018
. . .
MC-XYT/6 1.000 516** 449**
. .
. .
VLT/120 1.000 860**
.
Sig.(2-tailed) 000
.
PolyT/20 1.000
Sig.(2-tailed)
The correlationcoefficients of Speannan'srho observedamong MC-RT, MC-PT, MC-

XYT, VLT andPolyr of the 3 groupscan be summarisedasfollows.
Overallresults:
1.All of thecorrelationsamongMC-RT, MC-FT, MC-XYT, VLT and PoI)TI'werepositive.
2. The correlationsbetweenVLT andPolyT werethe largestof all the tests:
(r- 860**, pc.01) in G3; (r--. 735**, pc01) in G 1; (r= 691**, p<.O1)inG2.
. .
Specificresults:
All of thefollowing showedpositivecorrelationresults.
3. The correlationof MC-RT to VLT: largein G2 (r= 726**, p<01); mediumin G1
.
(r= 483**, p<.01) andG3 (r 421**, pc01)in G3.
. .
4. The correlationof MC-RT to PolyT: largein G2 (r= 745**, p<.01) and G 1(r= 584**, 01),
. . p<.
andmediumin G3 (r= .417**, p<.0l).
of MC-PTto VLT: largein G2 (r= .600**, p<0 I), mediumin G1
5.Thecorrelation
(r- 388**, p<.01) andsmallin G3 (r= 275*, p<05).
. .
6. The correlationof MC-PT to Polyr: largein G2 (r--. 729**, p.01),
mediumin G1
(r--. 421**, p<01) andG3 (r- 3(Y7*,p<.05).
.
260
7. The correlation of MC-XYT to VLT: large in G3 (r= .516**, p<01), and medium in G1
(r- 410**, pc01) and G2 (r- 382**, p<01).
. .
8.The correlationof MC-XYT to Pol)TT:all mediumin G 1(r= .478* *, p<01), G3
(r--..449**, pc01) andG2 (r--. 326*, p<05).
9. The correlationof MC-RT to MC-XYT: mediumin G1 (r .439**, p<01) andG2
(r--. 355**, p<.05) andvery smallin G3 (r--. 094*, pc5).
10.The correlationof MC-PT to MC-XYT: mediumin G2 (r--. 427**, p<01), andsmall in G1
(r--.289*, pc05) andG3 (r--. 284*, p<.05).
11.The correlationof MC-RT to MC-PT: largein G2 (r= 356**, p<01), and mediumin G3
(r--. 370**, p<01) andG1 (r= .328**, p<.05).
As for the relationshipof MC-RT to VLT or to Pol)ll', G2 showeda significantly strong

correlationin MC-RT to VLT and to Pol}1Tand the other groups gave medium correlations.
Concerningthe correlationof MC-PT to Pol}T, G2 also showeda significantlystrongcorrelation.
Most of theotherresultsgavemediumcorrelations.
With regard to the relationship of MC-XYT to VLT or to P0I)1I', the result of one group (G3)
indicated a slightly stronger relationship to VLT, whereas the others had medium correlations.
Two results of the relationship of MC-RT to MC-XYT reported medium correlations, while the
result of G3 was problematic. It is probably because MC-RT measured interpretation, whereas

MC-XYT was concernedwith production ability. One result showed that the correlation between
MC-RT and MC-PT was large, and two others had medium correlations. It can be concluded
from these summaries that vocabulary and polysemy are strongly related to metaphorical
competence,which can be contributory factors to metaphorical competence. Details concerning
vocabulary knowledge will be delineated in the following sections. It can be also said from the
correlations of MC RT to MC-PT that the subjects who could interpret metaphorical expressions
well could use metaphorical expressions best of all. Interpretation and use may go hand in hand
with eachother.
6.7-2. VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

Vocabulary sizeand metaphorical competence
Sincethe subjectsweredividedinto 3 groupsin this study,the distributionof the wanetestitems
to the whole populationwas checked first. The distributionratio of 33% would be ideal. VLT
was used as an index throughout this study. It was used for the scrutinyof the distributionof the
test items,too. In this and the following scrutiny,the 10% blocks of VLT population,that is, 8
blocks,i.e. over90% (over 108points)scorein VLT, 89-80%(107-96points),and so on, were used
asan axis. The resultof the distributionwasthat sevenout of the eight blockswere very nearthe
261
expected 33/33/33% distribution, but one did not. It was the block belonged to the block 50
% (i. e. 60 - 71 points) in the VLT. In this block, the highest and lowest ratios of the
-59
distribution were 48 %, 28% and 24 %. The 24 % of the subjects in this block answeredthe tests
designatedto Group 1(see the earlier section of the test items in 3 groups), 28 % answeredthose of
Group 2 and 48% Group 3. This was the only flaw found in the distribution of the tests of the
population.
Second,as to discoveringthe EFL students'metaphoricalcompetencewhich may relateto

vocabulary knowledge, the ratios of the correct (or appropriate)answersto the distribution
populationof the 10 percentblock of VLT were calculated. In this methodthe 10% blocks of
VLT populationwere usedas an axis. Table 6-57 shows the data in percentageof correct(or
answers.
appropriate) VLT in the secondcolumn in the sametableshowsraw scores.
Table6-57 The correct(or appropriate)answerratiosof every 10 % block VLT population

(N=172)
VLT points:VLT rawpoints N (% in the PolyT MC
converted (Max- whole) RT+PT RL RM PL PM XYL+M XYL XYM
to % 120p)
over 90% over 108 10(5.8%) 77.5 64.1 83.0 63.3 58.9 45.5 47.5 55 40
------- I
-------------------------- --------------
39(22.7%) -------
71.6 57.5 74.8 61.1 ----- ------ -- ------ ------
89-80% 107-96 50.7 36.4 47 56.5 37.7
51.8 67.9 50.0 --------- --------- --------------
79-70% 95-84 46(26.7%) 59.6 49.8 34.4 47 54 40
----- 7U. 71.
69-6096 83-72 26(l 5.1%) 47.5 42.0 54.5 - 44.0 28.7 40.1 41.3 38.8
------ I- -----------"; ------- ---"--- }
59-50% 71-60 25(14.5%) 34.4 30.5 37.0: 29.0 34.7: 19.6 25.3 31.7 19
-------------- ------- --------- t 1 ;
------- -- -------------- 12(6.9%) 36.3 22.2 ------ ------ ------
37.5 19.4 16.7 -------- ---"----- .............
49-40% 59-48 11.1 23.6 30.5 16.7
--------------- -------------- ------ ------ ------ '
--"---- ------
--
12(6.9%) -------
23.4 ---------
21.8 34.8 ; 13.9 ; 32.4 -19.1 --... t.
39-30% 47-36 4.7 -. -
1 ". 27.8 ; 10.55
; r
----- -"-------"- ---"-----
2(l. 2%)
25.0 F" -:
25.0 ; 12.5 ;00 :-
below29 below35 10.7 25 20.8: 25
L
exeeptfor thesooondcdumn of VLT rawpoints.
Thefiguresin thetableareshownin pennbge of conedanswers,
As a whole,theanswersto the literal partsof the testsof metaphoricalcompetenceaccumulated

higherscoresthanthoseof the metaphoricalcounterpartsin both the receptiveand productivetests,
as is shown in Table 6-57. In the MC-RT (indicatedas RT + PT, RL and RM in Table 6-57),
thosewho scored70 % or higher in VLT (2000-3000levels) attainedmore than 50 % correct
answers;those with the scores
of 60-69 % in the VLT attainedmore than 40%; thoseof 50-59 %
more than approximately 30 %; thosebelow 59% lessthan the others. As to the productivepants
of MC-FT (indicatedas RT +PT, PL andPM in Table 6-57), the overallattainmentwas lower than
thatof thereceptive. As statedearlier,EFL students'writing or productionin Englishinvolvesnot
only metaphorical competence but also other linguistic skills, such as grammar,syntaxand other
elements, and these
therefore, tests resultedin lower scoresthan the receptivetests. However,
262
those who scored70% or higher in the VLT achieved more than 50% correct answersor obtained
adequateratings in most of the tests. These results possibly suggestthat 70% knowledge of words
in the 2000-3000 frequency levels in the VLT is a prerequisite for developing metaphorical ability
in English. Those subjects who had 60% or less of the vocabulary might have the potential to
develop their ability to understandand use metaphorical expressionswith the assistanceof teachers
or by other means. However, those who were short of vocabulary would need to broaden their
vocabulary range.
MC-XYT and vocabulary size

MC-XYT was distributedto all the subjectsand it concernedwriting performancein the
patternof 'X is wi adjectiveY'.
sentence
The columns of XY L+M (Literal and Metaphorical), XY L (Literal) and XY M
(Metaphorical)of Table 6-57 indicate similar phenomenato the other results: the literal
performanceachieved higher the
scores, metaphorical lower. Greatervocabularycompetence
seemed to enablebettermanipulationof both the literal and metaphoricalusein this test,too. It

that
seems the subjects
whoseVLT scorewas more than 60 % could distinguishthe literal from
the metaphoricalrathermoreeasily.
Vocabulary size,polysemyability and metaphorical competence

The subjects' attainment in VLT and Pol)TFalso indicate that those who scored more than
80 % in the VLT obtained more than 70 % in Poll' and that those who attained 70 % in the VLT
attained more or less than 60 % in PolyT. There was a gap between those at the 70% level in
VLT and those below that level. If these results are viewed together with the correlations
between the vocabulary and metaphorical competence,as shown in Tables 6-54 to 6-56, it may
be inferred that vocabulary knowledge (including polysemy ability) can greatly assist
6.7-3. CONCLUSIONAND IMPLICATIONS FOR EFL EDUCATION

Low (1988: 138) suggestsmetaphorawarenesslessonsand teachinginventory metaphors
and conventional metaphors to improve metaphoricalunderstandingand use. In teachingthe
use of inventory he
metaphors, emphasisesthe systematicityof metaphors. In the caseof
conventional metaphors, he suggeststwo traditional approaches:memorising individual
expressions and the `Polysemy method,' providing an example of learning the meaningsof
`foot' in the targetlanguage(ibid.). His suggestions for teachingthe systematicity
of metaphor
and the `Polysemy method' are noteworthybecausein an EFL situationlearnersmay not
ever
encounter all of the idiomatic expressionsnor evenencountermetaphoricalimplications
made
263
by suchidiomaticexpressions.
As shown in the correlationsof VLT and PolyT to MC-RT, MC-PT and MC-XYT,
vocabulary knowledge can provide an aid to comprehensionand use of metaphorical
expressions.A broadervocabularyexpandsinto richer semanticfields, which may stimulateor
activatemappingitems betweendifferent domainsin metaphoricalmanipulation.If lessonsin
metaphoruse and/ormetaphoricity awarenessare provided for learners,

the learners'deeper
appreciationof the language

and contextwill be and
enhanced it will nurtureholistic language
competence.
only on somelexical andsemanticaspectsof
The studiescarriedout sofar haveconcentrated
EST.students'metaphoricalcompetence. Most languagelearningalso involvesculturalaspects.
Further study is thereforenecessaryto investigateall aspectsof metaphoricalcompetence.
However, the studiesin this researchat least indicate that further study in this regard is
warmnted.
264
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
The overall results of the tests executed in Study 3 (Chapter 5) and Study 4 (Chapter 6)
indicate that the students' larger vocabulary knowledge (breadth, i. e. size, and depth i. e.
polysemy), the richness of their semantic fields and the wider networking of words and/or
expressions of deeper appreciation were all related to better understanding and use of
metaphorical expressions. This chapter addressesthe implications of those results in an
EFL situation. It will then discussthe limitations of the research. The chapter concludes
with some suggestionsfor enhancing metaphorical knowledge in EFL lessons.
7.1. VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

Vocabulary knowledgeand metaphorical competence
Vocabulary knowledge is focussed on as one of the linguistic competences in this thesis.
It was used as an index in the studies. We have discovered that all of the correlations
between the subjects' vocabulary ability (vocabulary breadth and depth) and metaphorical
competence examined in the tests of metaphorical competence are positive (see Tables 6-54
to 6-56 in Chapter 6). As discussed in the first two sections of 6.7 in Chapter 6, the
correlations of vocabulary and polysemy to metaphorical competence were strong and the
correlations between MC-RT and MC-PT were of medium strength. It can be said from
these results that those who had a wider vocabulary and who could interpret metaphorical
expressions successfully may have exercised their ability to understand and use metaphorical
expressions. We have also discovered that those who scored 70% or over in the VLT
and
60% or over in the Pol}iT accumulated higher mean scores in the metaphorical tests.
Further investigations are necessary,for example, for the test items, the test formats and/or
the number of subjects, however, the present studies indicate that the measurements used in
the studies may serve as components of the tests.
The following sections address the reasons why vocabulary ability serves as one
of the
main factorsfor metaphoricalcomprehensionand manipulation.
Knowledge of words as an initiator and stimulus for metaphorical comprehension

We havediscoveredin Chapters5 and 6 that in comprehendingmetaphorical
meanings
in passages,EFL studentsemployed (a) knowledge and application of Japaneseto their
interpretation(i.e. NL schema)as basic or background knowledge, (b) utilisation
of cue
words in passagesand (c) metaphorical/analogicalSchemas. Vocabulary knowledge
concernsall of thesethreeutilisations. In their applicationof NL schemasand utilisation
of
265
to
cue words enable understanding, they must first of all know the meanings of words in test
items or passages. Once the meaning of the input is understood, it stimulates or activates
their metaphorical/analogical expansion. Vocabulary serves as an initiator, and vocabulary

knowledge extends the meanings of input to polysemy ability, which also works as a
stimulus or an activator to expand meanings and link the networks of meanings. In this
I
sense emphasise that vocabulary is one of the main factors in comprehension, although this
is applicable to all of understanding whether it concerns literal or metaphorical expressions.
In understandingthe metaphor Love (target) is a battle (source), the source battle

stimulatesour cognition. We graspits meaningfrom some options of the word battle, and
for
search a specific meaning by connecting severalmeanings of `battle' to `love.' If the
stimulusfrom the word or the network from the word to other words (usually in the same
field)
semantic is weak or lacking, the width and depthof the word doesnot expand. In this
semantic
sense, fields relateto the comprehensionof metaphoricalexpressions.
We will briefly look at an examplefrom the testitem Wakenot a sleepinglion in MC-RT
from the point of view of vocabularyand comprehensionthen the rest of the items,followed
by schemaoperations.
Shehadhada lot on her mind lately. Especiallyat home,and schoolonly madethings
worse. He knew he had offendedher but desperately

neededto speakto her. I lis
friendadvisedhim saying"Wake not a sleepinglion."
There are somewords which may hinder EFL students'understanding(the shadedwords).

The frequencylevel of thesewords was checkedin the JAGET 4000 Basic Words(1993)
(JACET 4000, hereafter)where the frequency is classified in 5 ranks. There is no
comparison
statistical betweenVLT and JACET 4000 but my scrutiny of the inclusive ratio
of the VLT words in JACET 4000 revealedthat the inclusive ratio of the VLT 2000 word
level in JACET4000 is 97.5%; theVLT 3000 word level in it is 77.5%; the VLT 2000-3000
word levels in it is 87.5%. It can be estimatedfrom theseratiosthat the inclusive ratiosare
relatively high. Hence it can be usedas a contrastiveindex. The word `worse' is ranked
at the 3'dlevel; thoseof `lately,
' òffend' and `desperate'
at the 5' level (no inclusion of an
adverb `desperately') (JACET 4000). The frequenciesof thesewords are medium or low.
The above passageincluded these problematic words for the EFL students,though it
accumulated high mean scores. One of the probable reasonsfor this, discoveredin the
interview, was the format of the tests. A paired literal passagemay have provided some
aid for understandingof the counterpart(i.e. metaphorical)passage. Another reasonwas
the subjects'cognitive device, i.e. how well the mental lexicon worked and how wide and
266
deep its extended networks are. The following is my interpretation from the students'
answers in the tests with their comments in the interview after the tests. They connected
the meanings of the `mind' + `worse' to `something wrong happens,' and they could
expand the meaning of òffend' to àngry' if they knew a partial meaning of this word as in
sports jargon. Most of the interviewees said that they did not know the exact meaning of
`desperate'but inferred the meaning from the situation in this story. On the contrary, those
whose vocabulary ability was low abandonedtheir attempts.

As a whole, the interpretationsof the passagescomposedof familiar words and the
passages including sufficient support,
contextual for example, to let the cat out of the bag, A
little pot is soonhot, Wakenot a sleepinglion, The rotten apple injures its neighboursand to
stand in someone'sway and Fish stinks at the head, EFL students' interpretationswere
successful. On the other hand, You cannot eat your cake and have it, to hold one's head
high and a pain in the neck were problematic for EFL students. In these passages,the cues
may not have been sufficiently strong. The least understood was to be off one's head.
The words themselves belong to the V level in JACET 4000. They appear in many
authorised textbooks used in middle schools. As stated in the previous two chapters, this
idiom is a highly conventional, culture-bound idiomatic expression. The high mean score,
i. e. the high interpretation rate in the literal passage (1.54) indicates that the literal part
seems to be understood well, on the contrary, the mean score in the metaphorical passage
was the lowest (0.33). This indicates there is a particular problem in this expression.
Misunderstandings found in the answers were `being surprised,' ùnthinkable' or èrasing a
memory or something from his mind. ' These answers possibly imply that the
subjects
interpreted 'off' s `taking away' and `head' as `mind, ' i. e. a container. As far
as
metaphorical mappings from one word onto the other word were concerned, their
interpretations were completed. This process makes interpretation (whether it is literal or
metaphorical) possible. We must note here again that there is a possibility of failure in
correct interpretation of highly conventional idioms.
It can be concludedthat vocabularyand polysemy ability seemto provide an aid for
understanding words and expressions at the initial comprehension stage and at the same
time it seemsto provide an aid to stretchingtheir tentaclesto reachout and expandsemantic
networks which may connect or expand the initial stimuli to other potential meanings.
This operationis similar to that of the transmissionof information in neural networks in the
brain which is illustrated by neurologists, when they explain the mechanisms of
transmissionof neuralactivationamongthe partsof the brain. I have modified one of the
neurological network illustrations (Fraser, 1998) to adjust it to my interpretation
of the
network of words and semantic/polysemous expansionto other words, as shown below.
267
My modifications added to Fraser (1998) are indicated in the dotted boxes with arrows in
Figures 7-1 and 7-2.
Figure 7-1 The network of words and semantic/polysemous expansion to other words
(adaptedfrom Fraser, 1998)
.....................................
Figure 7-2
("Schematic of biological neuron," Fraser, 1998)
Figure 7-2 Transmitter-receiver devices (adapted from Fraser, 1998)
The synapse
- --
InpuVwrd comes in
----------------
Terminal b, itt, _)n
("The synapse," Fraser, 1998)
Modifying the original statement made by Fraser (ibid. ) by adding my interpretation of
of comprehension lindicated by square bracketsI results in the following

an operation
description of comprehension (original wording in parentheses):
"Ia word or mental lexicons (a neuron's dendritic tree) is connected to a

thousand neighbouring I wordsI (neurons). Each IwordI (neuron) is a
268
[receptacleor receiver](cell) that uses[mental ] (biochemical) reactions to
receive, processand transmit information. When one of [the words is
stimulated] (neurons fires), a positive or negative charge is received by one of

the [words or mental lexicon] (dendrites). The strengths of all the received
chargesare added together through the processesof spatial and temporal
summation. The aggregated input is then passedto [a word or a semantic/
polysemous field] (the soma, i. e. cell body)" (see Figure 7-1). "Their primary
function is to perform the continuous maintenance required to keep the stimulus

to [words] (neuron) functional. The part of [the word or the semantic/polysemous
field] (the soma) that concerns itself is the axon hillock. If the aggregate input is
greaterthan the axon hillock's threshold value, then the stimuli to [the word I (the
neuron) fires, and an output signal is transmitted through the [network] (axon).
Information or stimulus is transmitted across [transmitter-receiver devices]
(synapses,i.e. a small gapor a synapticgap),whereeach[transmitteror receiver
(terminalbutton)is connectedto other [words] (neurons)"(seeFigure 7-2).
In addition, neurologists observed from nerve gas effects that once a neuron fires, it keeps on
triggering all the neurons in the vicinity. Matsuzaki, Kasai, et at. (2004) who investigate
memory and learning in rat experiments discovered that dendritic spines were enlarged by
input stimuli. This possibly means that the transmitter-receiver devices were activated by the
input stimuli. They report that this process may occur in human brains.
An applicationof the operationshownin Figure7-2 to that in the receivingand transmitting
of the in
expressions the item `Wakenot a sleepinglion' can be illustratedasshownin Figure7-3.
Figure 7-3 The operation of input, reception and transmission
mind,worse;school;
heoffendedher,
wakenot,sleepinglion I Stimulus/cuewonis in a passage
Inoudslimulusreaches
+ - +t lbsibvc timmn Aon Daum
Mind, worse-'problem
I- Mentallexicons/image
schcmaswork
offend-'angerproblem
wake not-leave it as it is
a sleeping lion-she
269
Positivetransmissionsmay naturally or unconsciously occur in one's native language.
In the caseof non-native languages,weakmental lexicons, small semantic fields or a lack of

ability may prevent an appropriateexecution of interpretation or manipulation,
polysemous
i.e. positive transmission. Metaphoricalcomprehension may be easier if there are some
dendritesto function as a hook as
or connector, is illustrated as neuro-transmitters in Figure
7-2, leading to smooth mapping between words, expressionsor metaphorical concepts.

Thus, polysemyor associationwith target words functions as a transmitter and a receiver.
If polysemy ability is weak or an association of a word with other words fails,
comprehension may also fail.
Knowledge of words and image schemasin metaphorical manipulation

From the results of the MC-PT, it can be said that manipulation of metaphorical
image schemas, semantic fields and mapping/networking. However,
expressionsconcerns
basically, vocabulary plays an initial key role in the case of EFL students. Nothing
more
emerge unless expressions were understood lexically, nor would they work as stimuli.
would
This was discovered in the interviews. Where there was something to stimulate subjects'
whether it was a meaning of the word or an image drawn from that specific word,
cognition,
they seemed to make an effort to use expressions metaphorically. A successful example
from the item If you climb the ladder, you must begin at the bottom.
was summarised
Figure 7-4 illustrates the operation of input, reception and transmission discovered in its
answers.
Figure7-4 The operationof input, reception& transmission
climb the ladder

begin at the bottom Targd words clbnb+ laddcs;begin+ bottom
InmUstimulusmachos
++++i -1 P+osive
transmission
occurs
*Ontological promotion,success
MentallexiconsJtmage
sc:tumaswork
movement in learning
+
*Spatialimages, theimportanceof
etc, basics,etc.
270
Another successfulexample was the item to see which way the cat jumps. All the
words in this expressionare familiar to EFL studentsand this made it easierfor them to
composea passage. The `cat' schema was evident in their passagesalong with the
mappings from `which way' to '
`selection. Those from `cat' to `personification' and
`jump' to `movement'werealsoprominent.
However, there were some problematic expressions. One of them was the test item to
spill the beans. The problems may reside in the words and the meaning of the idiom. As
for the word level in JACET 4000 (ibid. ), the rank of the word `bean' is the 4thlevel. The
word `spill' is not included in JACET 40000but included in the later edition of JACET 8000
(2003), which has similar categories of classification as the former but not precisely the
same. In it, the word is ranked at the 3'' level.This may inform us of the word `spill'
belonging to the medium level. We must note here that a more crucial problem is its
meaning as an idiom, i. e. the quality of a culture-bound idiom. As stated earlier in the
section 6.5-1 in Chapter 6, a very small number of answers employed successful image
schemas which enabled good mapping. The process the subjects followed in their
composition seemed to be as follows: inferring the meaning from both or either of the
words `spill' and/or `beans, ' even though they did not correctly understand the whole
idiomatic meaning, they attempted to infer its idiomatic meaning, setting up a schema of
`spreading beans' in the literal answer. This schema then linked to image schemassuch as
the departure of someone or something in the metaphorical answer. Although most of the
answers did not show a correct interpretation of the idiom, the subjects' answers did employ
image schemas of CONTAINER and/or Ontological metaphor. The employment of the
image schema CONTAINERwas found in the answer, for example, `water splashing out of
the faucet,' and the employment of Ontological metaphor appeared in the answers, for
example, `departure from a friend, ' `water splashing out of the faucet, ' `failure in
an
entrance examination or study', and `telling the truth in a quarrel' (an appropriate answer)
and `crashing the beans' (least appropriate). A similar process of image creation (though
appropriate answers were few) was found in the item to throw out the baby with the
bathwater.
In summary, with regard to metaphorical manipulation as a whole, metonymic
manipulation seemed easier for EFL students to employ. As for metaphorical
manipulation, bodily schemas and certain image schemas, such as MOTION and
MOVEMENTseemedeasierto employ. These results may have been affected partly by
the author's selectionof the test items, however,the purposeof the MC-PT are fulfilled in
the sensethat the testwas intendedto investigatethis aspectof metaphoricalmanipulation.
271
The metaphoricalmanipulationin MC-XYT also concernsthe knowledgeof words, the
semantic fields of the words and their networking. The following section briefly
summarisesthe tendencieswhich the EFL studentsshowedin the test and then reviewsthe
semanticfields and networksdiscoveredin the answerswith a view to establishingwhy rich
semanticfields assistmetaphoricalmanipulation.
First let me summarisethe aspectsof the answersfor the 6 target words in MC-XYT.
The mean scoresof the answersin the metaphoricalparts were as follows. The mean
scoresare listedin order of high to low meanscores:
Study3 Chapter5: bright 0.56; wild 0.40; high 0.28; dark 0.26; weak 0.24; grey 0.22
Study4 Chapter6: bright 0.54; high 0.33; wild 0.32; dark 0.29; weak 0.24; grey 0.22
The successful metaphorical use of the adjective bright by the EFL students (top rank)
was in the sensory meaning of this adjective, for example, her eyes are bright jewels or my
friend is a bright person.
The overlapping of the uses by the EFL students with those of
NSs in the COBUILD top 40 collocations are similar to a great degree. The 2ndhighest
rank in Study 3 and the 3'd in Study 4 was the adjective high.
The ontological physical
meaning of high maps onto Ontological metaphor represented by MORE IS UP, where a
mental and abstract implication is expressed. This word was used to mean a vertical
position, for example, the high standard of an examination, high tension, high quality, high
level, and so forth. The EFL students' use of this word was similar to the COBUILD top
40 collocations collected from NSs.
The metaphoricaluseof the wild (ranked3'din Study 3 and 4t' in Study 4) showedthat
the EFL students'semanticweb stretchedto a variety of words, so there were a variety of
expressions. The meaning of the adjective wild seemed to transmit and stimulate a
dynamicimage. The analogyfrom the image of wild animal seemedto influence the use
of wild. The similarity of the EFL students' answers with the COBUILD top 40
collocations implies universal human cognition in the useof this word.
As for the adjective dark, the successfulmetaphorical use of dark retains its
core
meaning, i. e. the meaning of a limited degree of brightnesswhich seemsto stimulate our
sensory organ to map from visual cognition to a mental/psychological implication,
pessimistic,unfathomable states
of mind. There was not much similarity betweenthe EFL
answers
students' and the COBUILD top 40 collocationswhich include, for example,mind,
character, personality, mood, atmosphere,future, surroundings and relationship. This
phenomenaindicatessomecharacteristicsof JapaneseEFL students'useof the word.
272
Another word that overlappedless betweenthe EFL studentsand NSs use was the
adjective weak (2'' rank from the bottom). As described in the earlier chapters,this
adjectivetendedto be usedfrom Ll transfer. This may causecommunicationproblemsin
discourse.
In the final word grey rankedlowest, with zero answerratios being the most common.
The EFL studentsusedthis adjectiveto describeheart,feeling, mind and ways of thinking
in the two studies. The overlappingusesby the EFL studentsand NSs in the COBUILD
corpus top 40 collocationsare only for `hair' and '
`hairs. This word also indicatesthat
theremay be problemsin discourse.
Figure7-5 illustratesthe operationof input, receptionand transmissionof the adjective
bright, representingall the other adjectives.
Figure7-5 The operationof input, receptionand transmissionof the adjectivebright
1
bright
-4 Tard worts brietet
4,,
.4 InwUstbmius reaches
++++ Positiveti nsnissionoasis
eyes, light, sun, sunshine,sunlight,

fl Mentallexicons
jewels, stars, student, ideas, etc. work
7.2. IMPLICATIONS/SUGGESTIONS FOR AN EFL SITUATION (SPECIFlCAU Y

FORJAPANESEEFL EDUCATION)
There is only limited researchon metaphor,the metaphoricalconceptand its application
in an EFL situation in Japan. To improve this situation, this section advocatesthe
importanceof enhancingmetaphoricalcompetencein an EFL situation.
Is metaphorical competencenecessaryfor EFL students to have?

The importance of metaphorical competence, or figurative competence in a broader
sense,will be addressedwith regard to the implications from several English lessons. One
of the first two cases was from reading comprehension classes taught by myself and the
other was from composition classes:one taught by Omori (presented at JACET, 2004) and
the otherby myself.

Learnersencounterfigurative expressionsin reading comprehension. The following
273
excerptis from an English textbook(Taniguchi, 2001: 11-2,adoptedfrom Louis Forsdale,
1981). In the excerptcited below, the underlinedwords indicate metonymic expressions
andthe shadedwordsmetaphoricalexpressions.
Every person is an island, isolated from all others in his or her self, forever
physically *i separatedafter the umbilical cord is cut. The anxiety, the

loneliness of the isolation moves us to create bridges between our islands. We
extend our ham, fingers touching; we span the distance with our eyes. We
speak; we smile. *2Through such strivings, we construct transitory bridge

,
pathways of signals, that carry delicate frei ht of meaning. In fair weather the
bridges hold, in foul weather they collapse. We work a lifetime keeping the
bridges open between our personal islands. The tolling bell signals the death of
an island, the collapse of a bodge,, *4punctuating the eternal state of isolation that
we endure, seeking always to alleviate.
The messageof the above passagewas grasped with the aid of metonymic expressions, for
example, the words like ìsland' and `bridge, ' and/or the clause ìn fair weather the bridges
hold, ' etc.However, difficulty resided in the expressions marked with the asterisked
numbers 1 to 4. There are some unfamiliar words in the passage,for example, ùmbilical'
in the asterisk 1.I supplied its meaning in Japanese, which ensured some students
comprehended the meaning of `the umbilical cord, ' but not all of those who comprehended
it understood its full implication. It maybe that they lacked a schema for child-birth or a
mapping of it onto the target domain. The most crucial misunderstanding occurred with
the asterisk 3 `the tolling bell. ' These two words are not too difficult to understand.
However,therewas somemisinterpretation. The imagethat almost all studentshad was of
a sceneof a churchbell ringing in a wedding ceremony. Their schemafor 'the bell + toll'
was far from the original intention. At this stage they did not pay attention to the
combination of `The tolling bell' with `signalsthe death of an island.... ' If the scenein
their mindswerea sceneof a weddingceremony,the endswould not meet. This may be a
result of their cultural experience. The confusionhere may be due to linguistic and socio-
cultural competence. It can be said that linguistic, schematicand cultural factors involve
the understandingof this expression. Other misunderstandingswere causedby unfamiliar
words in the expressions,such as ùmbilical, ' `striving' and/or `punctuating.'
After readingthis passage,I askedthe studentsif they had ever thought of `hiyuteki
hyogen' (figurative expressions)in English. Only a few answeredpositively, but most of
them answerednegatively. In addition, nowadaysthereare fewer authorisedtextbooksfor
274
`kokugo' (mothertongue)which includea variety of expressions,suchas learning`hiyuteki
hyogen.' Japanesepeople may lose an opportunity to teach/learn the beauty of the
language.
Still a further exampleof readingcomprehensionis from anotherEnglish lessonwhere I
the
used same textbook. In the describing
passage the characteristics
of Japanese
schools,
there is a passagestartingwith the following sentences:"You must adjust.... This is the
legendimprintedin every school-book,the invisible messageon every blackboard. Our
schoolshave become vast factoriesfor the manufactureof rmo" (Taniguchi, 2001: 16).
Somestudentsin a classactually thought that schoolsproduce mechanicalrobots. They
did not think of it figuratively. Incredible as this seemsit actually occurred. There are
numerous similar cases. In some cases, these kinds of misunderstanding may lead to
serious problems. These examples suggest the necessity of dealing with figurative or
metaphorical in
expressions languagelessons.
The following examples are from two composition classes:one is a lesson using
metonymic expressionsgiven by me and the other a lesson using metaphor by Omori
(2004).
To reduce such monotony in students' composition as described in the anger
expressions in Chapter 1 and to make their composition more interesting and expressive, I
used two approaches:one using similes and the other using metaphorical expressions. The
uses of similes seemed to be easier for the EFL students to manipulate. The latter was
similar to the lessons given by Omori (ibid. ), where she used several conceptual metaphors
to improve her students' compositions, providing the ideas of conceptual metaphor with its
metaphorical expressions. The impression of her lessons as well as mine of the similar
lessons was that after learners had learned conceptual metaphors, their compositions
became more expressive using metaphorical expressions, and their expressions provided
clearer images. Although these experiments were limited, it suggested that such lessons
strengthen or enliven students' communicability. Taking advantage of conceptual
metaphor in language lessons, Boers's (2001) small scale experiments on a contributory
effect of the association of figurative idioms with a concrete image on vocabulary retention
is noteworthy, and at the same time, Omori's (2004) and my experiments in composition
classesalso imply the importance of figurative, metaphorical lessons.

More importantly, I discoveredin the interview with the volunteer studentsthat they
were interestedin learning figurative (metaphorical) language and the functions and
expressiveways of using the language. Most of the intervieweessaid that they
enjoyed
the lessonsabout metaphoricalexpressionsand the conceptsbehind them. They stated
275
that the metaphoricalideas could be applied to the comprehensionand production of
languageuse. Some who did not participatein the interview claimed that metaphorical
manipulation was difficult, becausethey were not accustomedto doing it. Thus, I can
concludethat it is meaningful to enhancemetaphoricalcompetence in EFL situationsand at
the same time to provide opportunitiesfor pleasureand appreciation of the language.
Their awarenessof expressions may then go beyondthe for
classroom, example,figurative
languagerealisationsof the languagesin commercials.
Littlemore (presentedat ResearchingAnd Applying Metaphor, RAAM V, 2003)
suggested the importanceof figurative thought as "the ability to create and understand
metaphorical and metonymic relations between ideas." Based upon her experienceof
teaching ESL, she maintains figurative or metaphorical knowledge is one of the
communicativelanguage
abilities.
Theseexamplessuggestthat we might pay more attentionto the linguistic and cognitive
aspectsof metaphoricalexpression.
For metaphorical recognition, linguistic competence is essential. By linguistic
competence what one hears or reads is recognised as untruth, i. e. something expressed

beyond literal meaning, and by pragmatic competence one reinterprets what one have heard
or read, i. e. true meaning. To recognise metaphorical meaning, one needs to activate one's
schemas, image schemas and mapping in addition to drawing upon linguistic ability.
7.3. RETROSPECTIVE VIEWS ON THE STUDIES AND LIMITATIONS OF TIIE

PRESENT RESEARCH
Problems at an initial stageand the results
A major problem in the initial stagesof the researchwas lack of past researchin EFL
contexts, unlike that in ESL. It is probably becausein ESL situations, exposure to

metaphoricalexpressions occurs more often than in EFL, hence,the necessityfor research.
Researchon metaphorinvolves many disciplines,for example, linguistics and cognitive
linguistics to investigatethe functions of cognition and history of language; applied
linguisticsto study languagescientifically; psychology,psycholinguisticsand neurology to
investigatethe human mind; anthropologyto investigatethe relationshipbetweenhumans
and culture and regions,to namejust a few. It was overwhelming at first. Therefore, I
limited the area of my study to applied linguistics and its closely related fields. This
limitation narrowedmy research,and at the sametime, it mademe focus on specific aspects
of metaphorical studyin an EFL context,i. e. linguistic, semanticand to someextentcultural
aspects of EFL students'understandingand useof metaphoricalexpressions.
A further problem was to adopt an appropriate measurement for
metaphorical
276
competence. After several experimental testings, I finally settled on the present format,
although it was not perfect. Since the number of subjects was limited, the allocation of the
subjects had to take place by dividing them into groups. The participation of about 50
subjects in the final study provided me with a reasonable amount of statistical data. The
contents of the tests were also a problem. In EFL situations, linguistic ability is usually
classified into the receptive and the productive though the productive does not mean
genuine creativity in use of metaphor. The test types followed this convention.
Metaphorical expressions are often used in a context, therefore, target metaphorical
expressions were embedded in passagesin the receptive type test. The underlying idea
was that a contextual support might provide schemas. The preceding passages with
contextual supports were used as specimensfor the productive type. Both types consisted
of literal and metaphorical parts to make examinees aware of the differences. On the other
hand, the MC-XYT made use of the idea of conceptual metaphor. The selection of target
words was concentrated on the words of sensory meanings. My assumption was that the
EFL students' vocabulary knowledge might strongly correlate with linguistic ability. The
present studies aimed to demonstrate this in relation to metaphorical competence.

Therefore, the studies concentrated on the relationship between these two abilities.
The most important result in the studies was that I could prove the relationship of EFL
students' metaphorical competence to vocabulary knowledge, among which size and

polysemy were two major factors. What I am anxious about is the effect of cultural
elements upon metaphorical competence. The cultural elements have ambivalent effects.
positive if they are appropriately utilised and negative if they are misused. When using
metaphorical expressions in non-native languages, a lack of awareness of correct usage,
especially of idioms may lead to misleading utterances. To avoid this risk we can use
metaphorical expressionsin context. The context supports the meaning.

An interestingincidentalfinding in the studieswas the answer to when and how the
term `metaphor'was first usedin Japan. It was interestingto find that the time coincided
with the time (in the Meiji Era) when more occidental ideas were imported to Japan by
literary figuresthroughthe deviceof rhetoric.
Limitations of the present researchand implications for the future

There were several limitations in the present studies. The major limitations were the
number of test items and subjects. I knew that the availability of subjects was limited,
therefore, certain measuresof allocation of subjects had to be taken, such as dividing them
into certain groups. The participation of about 50 subjects in the final
study provided me
with fair amount of statistical data, but more subjects would have allowed a better
research
277
design.
Future researchshould have more test items and subjects. To execute this kind of test,
MC-XYT with more items can be recommended. This type of test takes the pattern of
conceptual metaphors and can investigate schemas and image schemas specific to Japanese
who learn English.

Due to the scarcity of the number of test items, the cultural aspectsof metaphorical
competencecould not be fully examined. This should be investigatedin future research.

Sincethe format of MC-RT and MC-FT consistedof contrastivepairingsin the present
a
studies, possibleexperimentin the future could focus on metaphoricalexpressionsalone
so that genuinemetaphorical competence could be investigated. We must also consider
the practicability and feasibility of such a test. It was estimatedthat writing a passage
embeddinga target expressiontook up too much of the subjectsavailable time, which
the
meant experimental testscould not include a sufficient numberof the test items. in this
too,
sense, future may
research include only metaphoricalcomponents.
7.4. SUGGESTIONSFOR ENHANCING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

The importance of enhancing metaphorical competence in a broader sense was stated
earlier. This section proposes some suggestions to enhance learners' metaphorical

competence. As stated repeatedly, metaphorical competence involves linguistic, semantic
and cultural aspectsof language use. One of my proposals concerns the enhancement of
vocabulary, polysemy and schemasand another concerns that of semantic, image schemas
and mapping.
Vocabulary, polysemyand schemas

From the perspectiveof semanticfields relationshipto metaphoricalnetwork, teaching
vocabularyin semanticorganisation(in contrastto thematicorganisation)may be effective.
Lindstromberg(1985: 241) proposesschemasfor ordering the teaching and learning of
vocabulary. For example,in teachingthe word `move,
' the words `run' and `fly' can be
taughtat the sametime. In this way learners'vocabularymay be enriched.
Carter(1998:215) alludesto a semanticgrid for componentsof words and collocations
of words, although he cautions that there may be a problem in the natural order of
acquisition for this grid approach. However, it can be usedto enlargelearners'vocabulary
if the agendais well planned. As for vocabularyand metaphorteaching,Carter (ibid. :219)
supports the teaching of metaphor sets for learners' vocabulary enlargement through
associative bonding. This meansthat the lexical items in a metaphor set, for example,
ARGUMENTIS WAR, can be taught in terms of associatebonding. The examples the
of
278
linguistic realisations of this conceptual metaphor provided by Carter (ibid. ) are `his
criticisms were on target' and `he attacked his argument using a subtle strategy.' The
reasons for the use of on target, attack and strategy can be clarified by explaining the
source-targetrelations.
Another perspective of Carter's (ibid.: 163) concerns polysemy and collocations. His
caution on polysemy is the distinction between polysemy and homonyms. His view on
polysemy and collocation citing Moon's (1984) 10 examples of the collocation to light is
that meanings are highly context-dependent. The meaning gradations change depending
upon the contexts. In my present studies, I could not examine collocations, however, I
have noticed that the manipulations of the target 6 adjectives in XYT involved this aspect of
the language use. McCarthy (2001: 13) also places an importance on collocations in
language teaching/learning, indicating that what is problematic for non-native speakers is
some collocations with language-specific features. The higher one's linguistic ability may
become, the better one's collocation ability may be, and the quicker and stronger the
mapping may be performed.
Semantic,image schemas,network and mapping

Aitchison (1987: 195) views finding a word in one's mental lexicon as following a path
through a complex network. Some of the paths are wide enough to accessthe target, while
others are too narrow. If it is easy to reach the target, the link or connection from that word
to other words may be quick and strong. On the contrary, if it is hard to get to the target,
the link or connection may be slow or weak or nothing may be found. Networks in one's
neural systems,which require more investigation, are said to be interwoven in complicated
ways as if they were spiders' webs. links stretch around the neighbours
and build up
neighbourhood links. Networks may form topological maps of the space of input data, by
which one infers the meaning(s) of a specific input.
In comprehendinginput, i.e. what is said or heard, we consciously or unconsciously

utilise schemas. If we are short of or lack them, input processingmay be affectedand an
effective inferencemay not be evoked. In sucha case,we may not be able to make useof
our knowledge of the world stored in our mind and body (Bransford, Barclay & Franks,
1972)
In summary,in an EFL situation, the most important element is students' linguistic

i.
competence, e. mentallexicons. The enhancementof vocabularyknowledge is therefore
a priority. Secondly it is important to provide lessonsfor raising awarenessof and
dealing with metaphoricalexpressionsand/or metaphor mechanisms. The
teaching of
279
conceptualmetaphor and its mechanismsis a handy resource. It may be possibleto teach
metaphoricalrelations between the source and the target domains using a conceptual
metaphor like LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Teaching individual metaphorical expressions
suggestedby Low (1998) is a further option.
280
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Notes
1. the original poem:
o) 3jjA r i1l < tffiQ) MULEJA<Z R756 (T7 i 5)

2. Waley chose `Murasaki' as its title of the chapter, but I prefer `Young
Murasaki', because is
the story about the growth of a young girl into a beautiful court
lady)
3. & 4. The original description:
y L ,-- Pjti 09L- 1 b) Her hair, thick and wavy, stood out fanwise about her
head. She was very flushed and her lips were trembling. (translated by Arthur
Waley, 1955)
V) W) ( Ib ? 1001-1008?) At the
.
Court of an Emperor (he lived it matters not when) there was among the many
gentlewomenof the Wardrobe and Chamber one, who though she was not of very high
rank was favoured far beyond all the rest; (translated by Waley, 1955)
....
6. Lakoff & Johnson (1981); Lakoff (1987) explain the systematicity of metaphors.
Their contribution to metaphor study is the categorisation and conceptualisation of
metaphors. Here is one of the examples (ANGER IS WAR) to explain how our
conceptof argument is structured by the two elements, anger and war.
The essenceof metaphor is understanding and experiencing one kind of

thing in terms of another. Arguments and wars are different kinds of
things-verbal discourse and armed conflict-and the actions performed
are different kinds of actions. But ARGUMENT is partially structured,
understood, performed, and talked about in terms of WAR(Lakoff and
Johnson,1981: 5).
In the metaphor ARGUMENTIS WAR, we associatethe words `war' (and àrgument')

through imagination with other words and concepts. Conceptual networks expand.
The conceptualnetwork of war or battle (partially at least) characterisesthe concept of
an argument and connects it to the expression. Lakoff and Johnson state that
metaphorical expressions in everyday language give us insight into the metaphorical
nature of the concepts that structure our everyday activities. They give another
example of the metaphorical concept TIME IS MONEY: You're wasting my time. As
you waste money, so do you time. In this metaphor, time is meant to be a valuable
290
commodity and money is also valuable and its resources are limited. This way the
conceptualisationof time is connectedto that of money and we understandits meaning.
They also statethat our concept is deeply rooted in our experience.
7. The only first three stanzas are quoted from the poem here, preserving in this
quotation the following referencesto her indications for the italics and the bold letters:
a word in italics, e.g. fish, indicates that the word belongs to the semantic field of
fishing and that one in bold, e.g. enamoured, indicates that the word is used
metaphorically to describe the word from the topic field of courtship (Kittay, 1987:
264).
The Bait
Come live with me and be my love
And we will some new pleasure prove
Of golden sandsand crystal brooks,
With silken lines, and silver hooks.
There will the river whispering run

Warm'd by thy eyesmore than the sun
And there the enamour'dfish will stay
Begging themselves they may betray.
When thou wilt swim in that live bath

eachfish, which every channel hatte,
Will amorously to thee swim,
Gladder to catch thee, than thou him.
She interpretsthe courtship as mockingly spoken of in terms of the extended

metaphor
of fishing, and the metaphor develops by playing out the relations betwccn the
elementsin the vehicle field.
She points out that one of the characteristicsof the semantic field
of fishing in this
poem has syntagmaticrelations. A syntagmatic field of fishing would have to include
the verb `to fish'; an AGENT, such as `fisherman'; the PATIENT,or that to
which the
action of fishing applies, the `fish'; and the INSTRUMENT,or means by which the
fishing is accomplished,the `hook', `line', `bait', The first three elements, the
etc.
verb, the AGENT, and the PATIENT,are essential to structuring the
semantic field of
fishing. She also adds MANNER (adverbs in
the poem) and LOCATIVE (a location
291
where fishing takes place) and shows a figure in which the above elements and the
words in the poem are listed (ibid.: 263-75). When we read a poem, our mind works
to interpret it literally and metaphorically. In the quoted and unquoted stanzas,we
find some words, for example, fish or fishing, used literally in some cases and
metaphorically in others. The term of the enamoured fish is figurative, and in her
interpretation of the line, `Begging themselves they may betray,' she states that the
`fish' is a vehicle for `lovers,' and the terms ènamoured' and `begging themselves
they betray' is a literal talk about these lovers. Thus she shows that there is a shift
from the literal meaning to the figurative.
In addition to the syntagmatic elements classified under VERB, MANNER, AGENT,
PATIENT, INSTRUMENT and LOCATIVE, she also refers to a paradigmatic element.
She illustrates it as the paradigmatic relations of the semantic field of fishing (ibid.:
274): the movement in the poem from an idyllic fishing scene in the first three stanzas
to the nasty struggle of the last two stanzas. We could apply these syntagmatic and
paradigmatic relations in metaphor or metaphorical expressions to our interpretations
of metaphor.
8. The eight principles (Searle, 1994: 104-8) are as follows:
Principle 1: Things which are P are by definition R. If the metaphor works in the
utterance Sam is a giant, it can be taken to mean "Sam is big." In this case, the
giants are by definition big. This is an example of the salient defining characteristics
of P.
Principle 2: Things which are P are contingently R. If the metaphor works in the
utteranceSam is it be
a pig, can taken to mean "Sam is filthy, " etc. In this case, the
R
property or attribute should be a salient or well known property or attribute of P.
The principles I and 2 can be expressedby using "like, " for example, Sam is like a
giant and Sam is like a pig. In that case, they belong to similes.
Principle 3: Things which are P are often said or believed to be R, however, both
speakerand hearer may know R is false of P. The utterance Richard Is a gorilla can
be interpreted as "Richard is mean, nasty, etc."
Principle 4: Things which are P are not R, nor are they like It, nor arc they believed
to be R, but we perceive a connection based upon our sensibility or we associateP
with R. The utteranceSally is a block of ice or ]am in a black mood can be taken to
mean "Sally is unemotional" or "I am angry and depressed."
Principle 5: P things are not like R things, and are not believed to be like R things,
but the condition of being P is like the condition of R. The utterance, for
example,
You have become an aristocrat, spoken to someone who has
received a huge
292
promotion can metaphorically be taken to be the statusof becoming an aristocrat.
Principle 6: P and R are the sameor similar in meaning but usually P is restricted in
its application and doesnot literally apply to S. The word àddled' literally used for
in
eggscan usedmetaphorically the utterance That Parliament was addled.
be
Principle 7: Application from Principle 1 through 6 to simple casessuch as ones not
of the form "S is P" but relational metaphorsand metaphorsof other syntactical forms
(e.g. verbs and predicate adjectives). The examples are Sam devours books or The
ship ploughs the sea. The noun phrases"The ship" and "the sea" are literal, while
ploughs is a metaphor. The principle which works here is an inference from "S P-
relation S"' to "S R-relation S', " where P-relations are by definition R-relations.
Principle 8: In metonymy and synecdoche,"S is P" means"S is R." The P and R in
thesecasesare associatedby such relations as the part-whole, the container-contained
or the clothing and wearer relation.
9. Regarding `salience, ' the following
studies by Giora, Peleg and Fein (2001) and
Giora (2002; 2003) are noteworthy. "Salience is not an either-or notion but it
...
admits degrees" (Giora, 2003: 15). The graded salience hypothesis (Giora, Peleg and
Fein, 2001) examined processing in the comprehension of literal and non-literal words
and phrases, and found that highly salient meanings are processed during the initial
stages of figurative language comprehension. Giora (2002; 2003) claims that in the
graded salience hypothesis, salient meanings are processed initially, regardless of either
literality or contextual fit. Context may affect comprehension immediately, but it is
ineffective in blocking (contextually incompatible) salient meanings, since it does
not
interact with lexical processes but runs in parallel. Giora (2002: 490-491) further
indicates that "to be salient, meanings of words,
phrases, or sentences (e. g.
conventional interpretations of idioms or proverbs) have to be coded in the mental
lexicon and, in addition, enjoy prominence due to their conventionality, frequency,
familiarity, or prototypicality. Meanings not coded in the mental lexicon
... are
nonsalient. Coded meanings that are less familiar or less frequent are less-salient. "
The examples provided are bank and surf. The meaning of the ìnstitution'
of a bank
is more salient and that of `riverside' is less salient for the people in the
urban societies;
the nonliteral meaning of surf is salient and the literal meaning is less
salient for
Internet enthusiasts. The graded salience hypothesis also postulates that
aptness in
metaphors compensates for low salience (ibid. -495). It posits that salience involves
initial processing in comprehension. Gibbs (2001: 319) praises the
graded salience
hypothesis "as a hybrid view of figurative language processing in that it
provides more
flexibility in accounting for people quickly or
slowly interpreting figurative language."
293
PAGE/PAGES
EXCLUDED
UNDER
INSTRUCTION
FROM
UNIVERSITY
4-1 WAT
WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
BioData
*Age (circle):under20,21-25,26-30,31-35,36-40,41-45,46-50,51-55,56-60,
over61
*Sex (circle):Male,Female
In eachitem,therearefour wordslistedafterthereset wcrc1. Threewordsout of four arestronglylinked to

the target
word andto the otherthreewords but a fourth oneis not. Put a crosson the onethatis not linked
to eitherthetargetword or the otherthreewords.
Example:
The targetword: gtte: 1( ) mourn 2( )cry 3(X) smile 4( ) weep
1.absab: 1( )alcohol 2( )diet 3( )heat 4( )wad

2. angw. 1( )fury 2( )mistalte 3( )rage 4( )violence
3. hake: 1( biscuits 2( ) bread 3( cake 4( ) oven
4. black: 1( )cat 2( )dress 3( )tie 4( )white
S.break 1( dose 2( crack 3( destroy4( smash
6. burden: 1( ease 2( )load 3( stress 4( worry
7. ca1m: 1( )exciting 2( )Peaceful 3( quiet 4( relaxed
8. amte: 1( ) design 2( ) dictionary 3( ) mood 4( ))package
story
9. dd1iv 1( )baby 2( )man 3( )speech 4(
: 1(
10_distanci direction 2( )journey 3( )length 4( )miles
11.hugs: 1( enormous 2( ) gigantic 3( ) massive 4( minute
12_imagine1( dcemm 2( speak 3( ) suppose 4( Oink
13.lnud: 1( drum 2( music 3( ) novel 4( voice
14.mad: 1( )wry 2( )crazy 3( )dangerous 4( )hot
15.m: 1( ) bad 2( happy 3( hard 4( ) good
16.rigid: 1( f 2< hard 3( square 4( stiff
17.sharp: 1( knife 2( Pencil 3( ) razor 4( ruler
18.smith: 1( marble 2( sandpaper 3( )silk 4( ) skin
19.sue: 1( anguish 2< grief 3( pain 4( rejoice
20. sue: 1( )bell 2( iron 3( grass 4( )hammer
295
42
Specific figures (Figures 4-5 to 4-14) and the syntagmatic and paradigmatic featuresof the 10 target items
Barren and Empty (Figures 4-5 and 4-6)

The outstandingfeature of the native speakers'answersto the adjective barren was that they were more in
the paradigmatic field (similarity, synonym, and features) (83%) and that the image of barren was desert
(21%). The synonyms empty (17%) and infertile (8%) then follow. The percentagewas as high as21 % if
childbearing and women were included in the category of infertile. The native speakerscollocated the word
barren to landscapeand land and they associatedit with wasteland (17% in total). Therefore their image of
barren was mostly spatial, a void in the vast, limitless expansion of the space. On the other hand, the
adjective empty in the synonymous answers was 42% in the native speakers' in
responses, which nothing,
void, hollow and bare were outstanding (33%). The answer which collocated to glass was not negligible
(13%). The similar collocation was with house, space and stomach (13% respectively). The antonym
answerfull wasl3%. Contrary to barren, the image of the adjective empty creatednothingnessin the limited
space,and it was anticipatedto be filled with something, for example, glass (i. e. container) to be filled with
wine.
In the Japaneseanswers to the adjective barren the outstanding feature was that there were 30%
,
Figure 4-5: barren: syn/par

(outer ring: NS; inner ring: J)
Qs
PC
11Ps Figure 4-6: empty: syn/par

Qpp (outer ring: NS; inner ring: J)
pa
D pf
Os
PC
Q Ps
Opp
pa
o Pf
unanswered. It seemed to be because the adjective barren is low frequency vocabulary to the ESIJEFLI
learners. The answers diverged, but they indicated that the image of this adjective created
a vast field or
land in their mind, which was the same as the native speakers'. Concerning the adjective
empty, there were
296
more nouns in the Japaneseanswers,one of which was synonymous nothing (30%), and the other of which
collocated to emery, for example, empty+room, +hole and +bottle (30%). Therefore their answers also
indicated that the adjective empty was nothingness,but nothingnessin the limited space.
Hot and Vivid (Figures 4-7 and 4-8)

The word class ratio of nouns and adjectives in the native speakers' answers to hot and vivid was
approximately 50% each, while there were more nouns in hot in the Japaneseanswers(80%). In the Japanese
answers, there was a high ratio of syntagmatic answers (70%), such as hot+water, hot+summer and
lint+weather, and no antonyms, while in the native speakers'answersthere was an antonym, cold (25%) and
the synonyms, warm and humid (13% in total). Both the native speakersand the Japaneseassociatedthis
adjective with weather, or something warm or hot to eat (hot curry: 8%) or drink. The word hot also had
associations with fire and the source of the heat (the sun) (13%) in the native speakers.Therefore the
adjective hot either stimulated more sensory and physical feelings than the other stimuli, or it triggered
temperaturerelatedassociations.
The native speakers'answersto the adjective vivid were quite different from those of the Japanese. In
the caseof native speakersthere were more answers in nouns, which collocated to imagination (33%), and
there were the synonymous clear (17%) and colourful (8%, the allusion to colour(s) is 17% in total). On
the other hand, there was no imagination in the Japaneseanswers, but dream polled 30% (3 Japanese)and
4% (1 native speaker). The allusion to colour(s) in Japanesewas 30%. Both the native speakers and
Japaneseconceived strong, clear, bright and lively images from the adjective vivid. It can be said that this
adjective vivid was associatedwith the visual images. Additionally, strong associationswith colours was
also noticeable. The adjectiveshot and vivid elicited more dynamic imagesfrom the respondents.
Figure 4-7: hot: syn/par

es
pc -- -
Q ps
Figure 4-8: vivid: syn/par
Qpp
(outer ring: NS; inner rinQ: J)
pa
pf
s
PC
Qps
Q pp
pa
pf
297
Poor and Pure (Figures 4-9 and 410)
The adjective poor attracted synonymous adjectives, which varied from person to person in the native
speakers (for example, homeless, bereft and skint. 25%). The image of homeless(ness) (17%) for the native
speakerswas greaterthan any other images. The collocations to a human or the features of the poverty, such
as people, lad, bastard and beggar came next (25%). The antonym rich was also notable (13%) in the
native speakers'answers. On the other hand, in the answers given by the Japanese,the syntagmatic answers
occupied half of the answers,there was no homeless,but there was something in collocations which could be
interpreted as similar images, such as people, woman and girl. In the case of girl, they probably hear the
expression "Poor Girl" in their daily conversations.
Figure 4-9: poor: syn/par

Ds
pc
Q ps
Q PP
pa
13pf
Figure 4-10: pure: syn/par

Ds
PC
O ps
Opp
pa
13 pf
The connection to money also appearedin the answersof the both parties (8% in the
native speakers; 10% in
298
the Japanese). Their imagination and semantic field expand to the state of poverty and to that which is
symbolised by money. Thus, the image of poor was to some extent associated with financial and materialistic
poverty by both the native speakersand the Japanese.
Both the native speakers'and the Japaneseanswers given to pure shared a similar ratio in nouns and
adjectives. There were the syntagmatic answers pure+water (17%) and more synonymous answers
(totalled 76%), such as virgin and virginal (17%, if the answers virtue and chaste were included in this
category, the answerswould rise to 25%), clear, untainted, unmixed (21 %) and innocent, innocence (13%) in
the native speakersthan in the Japanese (30%). In the Japanese answers, there is no mention of virgin,
though there was innocent and unmixed (20%). The collocation to water (pure+water) in the Japanese
10%. It is obvious that people are anxious about their health, judging from the answer
answers was only
(pure+water). There was no antonym given by the Japanese,however, there was an answer evil given by a
native speaker (4%). The answer white, which belongs either to the syntagmatic or to the paradigmatic was
given by the native speakers 17 % and the Japanese 10% respectively. The word pure appearsto create an
angelic image for both native speakers and Japanese. They both associated it with pure person(s) or pure
thing(s), and with the colour white. These two adjectives seem to create static images in the respondents'
mind, compared to the animated images createdby the adjectives hot and vivid.
Defend and Digest (Figures 4-11 and 4-12)
Figure 4-1 1: defend: syn/par

Os
pc _-
Q ps
ppp Figure 4-12: digest: syn/par
pa
D pf
Qs
PC
Q ps
Q pp
pa
Pf
The syntagmaticanswersto defend by the native speakerswere defend+crimjnal (17%)

and +eastle(4%).
299
The paradigmatic(synonymous) answerswere protect (17%), fight (8%) and guard, support and uphold (4%
The syntagmaticanswersby the Japanese
are defend+self (10%), the syntagmatic/paradigmatic
respectively).
were border (10%) andfence (10%). The synonymous answersgiven by the Japanesewere protect (10%)
and sports related reactions, such as football, offence and offend: 10% respectively. This tendency was
strongly influenced by broadcasting in Japan. They often hear or read the English words in sports
journalism There was no such sportsrelated reaction in the native speakers'answers. Their answerswere
more strongly related to jurisdiction, such as court, courtroom, justice and lawyer, which indicated that the
native speakers'semantic fields were more closely connected to the protection of human rights and the
guaranteeof justice. The antonym attack was given by both a native speakerand a Japanese. Thus, the
semantic field and image of the verb defend was significantly different between the native speakers of
English and the Japanese.
The native speakers'answerto the verb digest tended towards digest+food (syntagmatic: 4 %). The total
answersof synonyms were 58%. There was a collocational digest+information (4%) and digest+biscuits
(4%). In the paradigmatic (synonymous) answers, there were the verbs: eat (8%), absorb (8%) and
swallow, break down (4% respectively).
The attributes/featurerelated answers given by the native speakerswere understand (8%) and stomach
(8%). The sameanswersgiven by the Japaneserespondents,such as stomach (20%) and understand (10%).
The paradigmatic (synonymous) answer eat scored 20% and the collocational biscuits formed 10% of the
Japaneseanswers.There was not a single collocation to information in the Japaneseanswers. In general,
both the native speakersand the Japaneserecognised the verb digest as eat and understand. As a whole,
both native speakersand Japaneseseem to sharethe similar semantic field in their associationswith the verb
digest, however, it seemedthat their associationswith the verb defend differ.
DiscussionandHeat (Figures4-13 and4-14)

In the word discussion,there were more paradigmatic(synonymous)answersgiven by the native
such
speakers, as debate(25%) and argument(17%). The word debate two
shares word (noun
classes and
verb). The answersgiven by the nativespeakersrangedfrom the synonymtalk (17%), conversation(8%),
communication(4%) to that
attributes went with debate,
suchas group and meeting(4% respectively). It
was surprisingthat debate was not among the Japanese
answers. Insteadthere was argue (10%) and
such
attributes, as class(20%), meetingandseminar(10% respectively).
The uniqueJapanese answerswerehaveandof. The former was meantto collocatewith have+andthe
latterwith +of. As a whole,the nativespeakers'
answerswere richerin content This could arisefrom the
fact thattheJapanesearenot accustomed to debatingor discussing.
The nounheart stimulatedmore reactionto nounsin the nativespeakersand the Japanese,
and more to
(the
the paradigmatic nativespeakers: 54%; the Japanese:90%). The answerscan be classifiedinto heart
(related)disease,the function of the heartand the heartas relatedto emotion. There were someanswers
relatingto the hierarchical
system (middle, 4%
centre: respectively)but only in the nativespeakers'responses.
The answersgiven by the nativespeakerswere disease21% (attack 17% and bypass4%), function 21%
300
(beat 13%, life and blood 4% respectively), emotion 52% (love 38%, break 8%, soul and emotions 4%
respectively) and system8% (the middle of the physical position and the centre of psychological importance
4% respectively). In the Japaneseanswers,the emotion came first (70%, including feeling, mind, love 20 %
respectively, and break 10%). There was an answer disease, but no specific name of a diseasewas given
and there was no answer relating to a hierarchical system. One Japaneseansweredorgan (10%) relating to
the function of a heart.
__- I
Figure 4-1 3: discussion: syn/par

Os
pc Figure 4-14: heart: syn/Par

El Ps (outer ring: NS; inner ring: J)
Opp
pa Os
Dpf PC
Q Ps
Q pp
pa
13pf
301
4-3
PolysemyTest
F fSOp
v p V. (1L 20DCTp Op6: I b ra 6 Eo)j, R "v)6t #1'z4ra0)
.
defend (v)
1) They defendedtheir goal with great skill.
2)'1he lawyer Is defending his client'sright In the court. (I : client= k)
slit (v)
1) When I am hungry, my stomachseemsto g food quickly.
2) It took me sometime to digQatthe news that I had heard from my friend.
disctLsslon(n)
1) 'Their fission turned Into a violent argument.
2) Last night I read a whole part of her discussion in her thesis. (It : thesis= M
emote (a)
1) Sheset the half emnty glasson the table.

2) To him, her words were empty of meaning.
1) The man with cancerand hea trproblemsis recovering well.

2) The prime minister has long been at the heart of power. (j : prime minister- IM)
hot (a)
1) Guestsmay choosefrom 10 o dishes, 10 cold dishes,saladand desserts.
2) The bill is a bQtconsumer issue. ManyAmerieans have to pay more in
gasolineconsumption. (L : issue=1A';.. R M)
Q (a)
1) This bottle contains ur water.
2) The band played the music in a sweet, high and ure pitch.
Q2
1) The family is very poor now that the father has no work.
2) They were sellingoff poor quality vegetablesat a cheapprice.
yAjd (a)
1) Shebought a vivid pink T-shirt in Hawaii.
2) We used to have va' reports from the journalists In Kuwait at the time of the
Gulf War. (I : the Gulf War=1)
1) A rren battlefieldwas littered with clothes,bags, guns and helmets.

(It : battlefield=*,M)
2) The studentswere left feeling unsatisfiedafter an hour-long barren lecture.
302
4-4
MC-RT
(1) A little pot is soonhot.
a) The headchef and assistant were in the kitchenwith the boss'sdaughter. Shewas only five yearsold.
Shewantedto be a chef when shewas older. Shewas aboutto graba pot from the cooker,whenthe chef
exclaimed,"A little not is soonhot"
b) Harry hadn'tseenhis mate,Frank'ssisterKerry in years. He hadbeenawayat university. The lasttime
he sawher shewasa spoilt,cheeky14yearsold. Shewas 18yearsold now. Harry thoughtKerry looked
gorgeousnow. Frankrealisedthis andsmilingly nudgedHarry andsaid,"A little pot is soonhot!"
(2) Therottenappleinjuresits neighbours.

a) Sally and Tom had a beautiful garden. At the bottom of the garden there was an apple tree. On Sunday
afternoon they picked all the applesand put them in the box. However, a rotten apple had beenput in by
mistake and it turned all the othersbad When Sally realised this, she said "The rotten =le ' Its
11
..
nei-
.
b) Somervilleusedto be sucha nice area," saidAnne.

"Yes," agreedCheryl,"but oncea few badfamiliesstartedto move in the areagot a reallybadreputation."
'The problemis thatthe rottenappleinjuresits neighbours,
" repliedAnne.
(3) a pain in theneck

a) I had just bought anew sweater but the collar was very tight. So much so that it was giving me sucha
in in theneck. My whole neckwasbntised.
b) Oneof our teacherscannoteverspeakEnglish,sothat,aswe don'tgraspany of the main ideas,gettingthe
essay done is sucha Mn in the neck,since we have no notes.
(4) to be off one'shead

a) Dave and Graham are gardeners, and werediscussing
headgear. Graham said,"I don'twant to wear a hat
to the gardenpartythis year."
"But I wore it lastyear,andit's a tradition. We'vebeenwearingthat hat for almostthirty years."
"I'll makesomeoneelsewear it this year. It's itchy." "Well, aslong asit canbe off my head."
b) Bob andJameswerediscussingJohnny'sBirthdayplans.
"So, we'll do a pub crawl then How many pubsaretherein London?' saidBob.
"Too manyto count," repliedJames.
"Oh well, themainthing Johnnywantsfor his Birthdayis to be off his headit
(5) to countheads
a) At the Sarah
meeting, hadto fix the catering. Shelost the files of RSVPs. Sl
Shedidn't know how many
people werecoming. She was struck. Alanjoked andtold her to "countheads."
303
*A noteis providedfor RSVP
b) SamandJameswere discussingtheir love lives. Both had endedtheir respectiverelationships. They
were feeling quite down. They noticed some good-lookinggirls on the side table. The girls winked at
them and beckonedthem over. Sam cheeredup and told Jamesto "count heads"in their lives at the
moment.
(6) to holdone'sheadhigh
a) Sally lovedto watchall the horses go down her street. They looked so majesticand but
elegant shecould
not work out why. When she told her friend shesaid "It is the way they hold their headup high." Sally
agreed.
b) Everyonewas talking aboutan incidentthat had happeneddown at the sea. A suddenwavehad appeared
andnearlydrowned a boy. However, luckily a man hadjumped in andsavedhim. "Well," saidGloria, "that
man canhold his headup high.
"
(7) to let thecat out of thebag

a) "Mr. Brown'sfed up with the cat killing his birds. He sayshe'sgoing to put it in a sackanddrown it,,, she
said.
"How awful!" Joanreplied. "Whenhe'snot looking you'll haveto let the cat out of the bag."
b) "I told Janeeverything." Mickey said.
"I told you shecan'tkeepa secret.
" Ruth said,"Shealwaysletsthe catout of the bag."
(8) to stand in someone'sway
a) Sophie was at the station, in a hurry On that way the station was extremely busy. There
to catch a train.
were too many people about and every time she changed direction she bumped into people standing in her
yam, so as a result she was delayed and consequentlymissed the train.
b) The mayorwaspreparinghis campaignspeechfor the forthcomingelection. He was runningagainsthis
rival Mr. Thompson who stood in his way on the roadto reelectionbecause
he wasbecomingmore popular
by the secondsinceproposingto cleanup the city.
(9) Wake not a sleeping lion.
a) In the zoo the warden explainedhow aggravatedand violent the animals get when provoked. He
addressed the visitors"Wake not a sleepinglion".
b) Shehadhada lot on her mind lately. Especiallyat home,andschoolonly madethingsworse. He knew
he had offendedher but desperatelyneededto speakto her. His friend advisedhim saying"Wake
not a
"
(10) Fish stinksat thehead.

a) Laura,Sally and Peggywerepreparinga meal.
304
"Is the fish still alrightto eatfor dinner?"
"Smell it to see."
"If you smelltheheadit is the bestway."
"Fish beginsto stinkat thehead"
b) The four men stoodhuddledtogethertalking quietly.
"
"Thereis a rat in the systemsomewhere.
"
"Privateinformationis beingleakedto othercompanies.
"I don't tust the bossmyself. He may not be involved, but he is a part of the problem"
"Fish beginsto stink at the head."
(11) You cannot eat your cake and have your cake.
a) Johnny and his motherwere organizinghis birthday patty. They were in the supermarket,
and Johnny
pointedto a large chocolatecake.
"There'llbe enoughfor me andall my friends," he said.
"You can'thaveany cake,Johnny," saidhis motherreproachfully.
"Why not?" criedJohnnyindignantly.
"You cannot eat your cake and have your cake," she said.
b) PresidentClinton was talking to his aides,and askedif they could end world hunger,poverty and war
beforetheNew Year.
"Of coursenot, Mr. President," said one aide, surprisedby the question.
"Why ever not?" askedClinton, confused.
"You cannoteatyour cakeandhaveyour cake."
5-1
MC-RT testitems1-11:
R- 1 to let thecat out of thebag [I +] = (7) in Appendix4-2
R-2 A little pot is soonhot. (S] = (1) in Appendix4-2
R-3 Fish beginsto stinkat thehead.[S/I] = (10) in Appendix4-2
R-4 to standin someone'sway [I] = (8) in Appendix4-2
R-5 to be offone's head[I] = (4) in Appendix4-2
R-6 a pain in theneck[I] = (3) in Appendix4-2
R-7 Therottenappleinjuresits neighbours.[S] = (2) in Appendix4-2
R-8 to hold one'sheadhigh [S] = (6) in Appendix4-2
R-9 to countheads[S/I] = (5) in Appendix4-2
R-10 Wakenot a sleepinglion. [S] = (9) in Appendix4-2
R-11You cannoteatcakeandhaveyour cake.[I] _ (11) in Appendix4-2
305
5-2 The answersin MC-XYT-M which were written in the requiredformat s (noun)+ be-verb+
The target adjective bright

a) Hereyes
ambright
jewels. b) I ler eyesarebrightb&&
c)Your smiileisabrightsun. d) Lucy'ssmileisbrightsin
e)Ills ch ackr isbrightsun. f) Hersmileisbrightstar.
g) WaltDisneyisa brightflm h) Stephen

isabrightman.
1)Yourbrodxxisabrightmm j) My friendisabrightperson.
k) Theteams isabrightperson. of sdioolarebrightpeoplc

Theteachers
m) My t CherisbrightEnglishfeather. n) Theboy isa brightstudent
o) ?Dog isa brightanimal p)Wilds dressisbrightjewelry.
q)?Hisheadisbrightlight r)?Af exmon isabrightsky.
s) ?Hcr smile is bright floor.
The target adjectivedark

a)My hart isa darksdom b) My mind isa darkhole.
c) My feelingisdadssea d) Miki's feelingisdarksky.
e)Hereyesarelikethebottomofd uk sea t) Your eyesarelikea darksky.
g) My life is darkstairs. h) ?Theprisonis in adadchell.
i) ?Herhaircolorisdankwoods. j) ?Hereye'scolorisdarkocean.
k) 7the s nein examisdarkone. 1)My brodx:r isdarkdraetr
m) ?Theactionishisdarksi& n)?My bmihcxisa darkman.
The target adjectivegrey

a)'Ihe skywasgreya.u in. b) My hemmt
isgreysky.
c) ?My favorioe
coloris gey color. d) ?Themouseisgreycolor.
The target adjectivehigh

a)Herguadis sohighwall. b) Thisexaminlion is ahighwall
c) ?My eyesarehighquality.(4 answers) d) His heightishighbuilding.
e) I ler skill playingthepianoishigh level. t)?My intelligence

ishigh level
g) 7Ilie is
examination high level h) ?Thistestishighrevel
i) 7Today'stestishighrevel j) ?IIisjoke ishigh level
k) ? Your houseishighclass. 1)?The trtmanisahigh cost
m) ?My is
test highscom n) ?My gtanditherwasin highplace.
My fiend's hairishighcolor. P)?Lucy'sprideis highnosewhosepinokio.

o)?
306
The target adjectivewreak
a)TheLady
wasaweaklittlechild b) John'sfeetaceweaksticks.
c)?My headisaweakstom d)?My than isaweakdog.
e)?l itsboneisweaktee.
f)? Panicntisaweakbaby.(Fahrartis amisspelling. It shouldbethepatient)
g) ?Hexheartisweakmind. h)?Thepointis aweakman.
1)Thevoicewasaveryweakvoice. j) My weakpointisto swimin thesm
k) I [isweakpointisbeingshy. [) ?My weakpointis shy.
m) Mathismy weakpoint n) Hisweakpointisgidhn&
o) My weakpointisleg& p) my weakpointis my eyes.
q) Hisweakpointisnillax r) My weakpointis leftsi&
s)?Shojiisa weakpaper.
The target adjectivewild

a)Thewind isawild wind. b) Thewayof hiseatingisa wild animal.
c) Ben'sattitudeiswild animaaL d) Hisbehavingatthepattywasawild animal
e) I [isactionisawild animal. t) his charwer iswild hunter.
g) 71be iswild anirraL h)?Fiereyesarelike

wild animal
i) ?Hisfaceiswild animal. j)Tarrun isawild man.
k) My boyfiicndisawild man. I) ?Iherhairstyleiswild shape.
m) ?My life iswild evening.
5-3 The individualanswersin the NexusandJunctionfeatures

Table5-14 The subiectsusedin the sentence
ratternof `X is bright v'
Subjects Answers(numbersof answers) Total %
Nouns Human-S Friend
(2),giii(I), Disney(1) 4
Non-human-Seft fiane(4),?chwtcr(3)eyes(3)? carocx(1) 21 58
,?grade(I 19Whnigue(1I head(1),dress(1)
Pronouns Human-S PemnalProms suchasheor she,etc (18) 18 42
Tables- Sl he nounconnectedto theadjectivebright

bright + noun (human) man(13),pfxson(6),cants (4),gui (4),woman(2) 33 67
childit, txherl , yl Sq
,_pwp . (2),light
noun(non-human) Sun/ ine/s.mlight(3),jeweWjewe1y (2). . - . 33
j 16
star(1),brain(11idea(1),image(1), (1),
world 1 7hair 3 ?mood 1 nali 1
307
patternof `X is darkY'
Table 5-16 The subjectsusedin the sentence
Answers(numberof answers) tTotai %
Subs
Nouns Human-S
Non-Human-S heat (7), face(5 feeling(31eyes(31 mind (21 life (21 hairhair 38 61
"
colour(31 ahnosplcre(1), fjt=(I prison(1), sky (1), skin(1),
':.hole (1), story (1), ?personality(1), ?dtaractr (1), ?reladionship
1 ?moult 1 ?surroundings1 ?sore 1
Human-5 1Personal suchasheor sly etc.(24)
pronouns, 24 39
pronouns
Non-human
Table 5-17 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivedark

FAnswers(number ;Total %
Adjective of answers)
IGihi(3),man(2),person(2),figure(1) 81 22
dark + noun (human)
noun (non-human) side(5 ?chart (4), mood (4),sea/ocean(3), sky (2), point(1128; 78
past(1), stone(1), hole (1), hell (1), stairs(1), dress(1), doll (1),
jwoods 1 ?result 1
patternof `X is greyY'
Table 5-18 The subiectsusedin the sentence
Subjects Answers(numberof answers) :Total %
Human-S =6 16
Nouns
Non-human-S :heart(5 feeling(31 mind (31 world (31 answer(21 weather(2), all. 31 84
;things (1), hair (1), Pace(1), idea (1), what she said (1), way of`
thinking(1), decision(1),judge (1), ahnosphe e (1), tm h (11 brain;
1 blem 1 ?c raut r1
pronouns Human-S
Non-human
Table5-19 Thenounsconnectedto the adjectivegrey

Adjective Answers(mxnberof answers) ;Total %
noun (human) wo (1) 1 tt

grey+
noun (non-human) Mood (4feeling(1), spirit(1), life (1), answer(1) 8 89
L-e* rled: har (1), sky (1), Paint(1),T." (1)
Table5-20 The nounsconnectedto the adjectivehigh

Nouns Human-S Everybody(Il rt(1),king (1),Torn (1) 4 7
Non-human-S !n (6),feeling(2),mood(1),ability(1),intelligence
(i), joke (1),1 25 43
jskill of piano(1), blood pi ne (1), tempa-mne(1), penenlge of
: alcohol (1), price (1), exarnin1ion(2), TOEFL score(1), test (1)J
ard 1 wall 1 king 1 es 1
pronouns Human-S I,Y014
he,She,. 28 50
Non-human
Table 5-21 The nounsconnectedto the adiectivehigh
Adjective Answers(numberof answers) :Total %
high+ noun (human) llmy(I), =2 4
noun (non-human) win (8), level (61 quality (6), scores(3), wall (4), Place(2),, 46 96
position(1), class(1), knowledge(1), education(1), pursue (1),=
coior(1), e(1), co (1), time(1), ball (1), heel(11nose(1), u d
1 ?maker1 schools34
308
patternof `X is weakY'
Subjects Nuns rofanswers Tots %
Human-S pady(11 P tm 26
Nouns
Non-human-S body (3), mind/mental(2), wind (2), ooffie (2), imagination(1), 19 54
sight(1),eyes(1),divacr (1),
`?hid 2I ,gs fret t bone 1 7sho'i 1
Human-S heft efc 14 40
pronouns
Non-human
Table5-23 Thenounsconnectedto theadjectiveweak

djective Numberof answers '":
Total %
(1).boy (1),child (1),baby(1), 4 10

veak + noun (human)
Points(23),mind (1), will (1), voice(2), dog (3), cat(1), ant(111 38 90
noun (non--human)
Isticks(21 stone(21t+oe(21
patternof `X is wild Y'

Subs Numberof answers ITotal %
,
Nouns Human-S iMa(3), Tw m(1) a 6
Non-human-S 1Behavior(41char r (3),action(21wayof eating(1), Gfeslyle (2), 19 30

way of hairstyle(2), Africa (1), temperof the lion (1), face (1l
':,fihion 1"1
Human-S He(35) te(3),I(1), you(1), 40 63
pronouns
Non-human
*The gamein thisanswerdoesnot referto the `game'in cardgamesnor to the`wild card' in a

al sense.
mctaphoric
Table5-25 Thenounsconnectedto the adjectivewild
Adjective Hinher of armes Total %
noun (human) (nn (8 boy (2),pemn (21guy (1),?hunt (1), 15 41

wild +
noun (non-human) artirrd (11),lion (2),monkey(2),rat (11wind (2), 1 22 59
hair(1),ch. ctr(l), foor*(1) 1
appetite(1),clodhes(1),
6-1 bright
(i) the implications of cleverness/intelligence
1) Youreyesarebrightstones.
2-1)My uncle is bright man. 2-2) Tom is a bright man.
3-1) My Englishteacherisa brightperson.3-2)His fatheris a brightperson.

3-3) My uncleis a brightperson. 3-4)The manis a brightperson 3-5) Oneof my friendswhosenameSameis bright person. 3-6) Ken is a
brightperson. 3-7)Johnis a brightperson.41)The girl is brightstudent
4-2) His studentsare bright students. 4-3) The personis a bright student 44) Akiko is a bright student
4-5) Tom is a bright student
5-1) Thestudentis brightboy. 5-2)Tom is a brightboy. 5-3) Katestudyingabroadin Americais a brightgirl. 5-4)Tom's sisteris bright
6) Themanhasbrightburin. 7-1)Thedogsarebrightanimals 7-2) 7f hedog is brightanimal.
g) The children arebright monkey. 9) The dishwasheris a bright housewife. 10) Mike is a bright robot
309
(ii) the implicationsof warmth, livelinessor full of life
11-1) Her smile is the bright sun.(2 answers)11-2) Her smile is a bright sun. 11-3) Her smile is bright sun.
12-1) Her mind is bright sun. 12-2) Her mind is a bright sun. 12-3) My mind is a bright sun.
13-1) Her heartis a bright sun. 13-2) His harct[sic] (Le. heart)is bright sun.
of yourteacheris a brightsun.
14)Thecharacter 15)Audorey[sic] (i.e.Audrey)Hepburnis brightsun.
16)Thesmileis brightstar. 17)A[sic] beautifulgirlsarebrightstar.
18)Thechampionis a brightGod. 19)Herfaceis a brightflower.
20)Thewoman's checkisbrightorange. 21)Thegirl isa brightangel.

(iii) the implications of full of light, shining or bright colour
22) The staris a bright jewlies [sic] (i.e.jewel). 23) The moon li ght is a bright parl [sic] (i.e. pearl).
2x1-1)?His headis a bright electricball. 24-2) ?I'hat man's headis a bright ball.
25)?Hcrhairisbrightforeigner.
(iv) miscellaneous
arebrightthings.
26) ` the boy's knowledges 27) ?His thinkingis brightthinking.
28) ?Soccerplayeris brightthinking. 29) 7Theway is a brightchoice.
6-2 dark
(i) the implication of something without light or the colour tending toward black or something concrete is
black
1) ? Themountainis dark trees. 2) Her diamond is dark stone. 3) 7rhe color of your umbrella is dark sky.
4) ?Every night aredark world. (17hisanswercan be in anotherclassification)
5) Her hair is dark cwiain. 6) ?Asian peopleare dark eyes. 7) 7 he personis a dark student
8) Tom is a dark boy. 9) ?The boy is dark faice[sic](i.e. face).
(ii) the implication of being gloomy somethingabstract or psychological

10) Her heartis a dark room. 11)Today my heartis dark sea 12)The boy's heartis a dark sky.
13) His mind is dark sea. 14) My life is dark sky. 15)The life without money is dark ocean.
16) His future is dark sky. 17)The road is a dark snake. 18)A night at New York Cty is a dark forests.
19) The exam is dark forest. 20) ?life's looser is dark face. 21) 7fhe lost worker is a dark face.
22) ?His sonisa darkcharacter.

(iii) the implication of being gloomy, secret, hidden or ambiguous in concrete and abstract meanings
23)Theperson hasadarkpart 24)Theperson isadarkworld. 25)?Herpersonality
isadarkcolor.
26)The personwho will try to comit[sic](Le.
commit)a suicidehasdarkfeeling.
27) ?His faceis a darkfeeling. 28) ?John'sfaceisa verydarkexpression.
iv) the implication of having evil, sinister or threatening quality

29) Her characteris dark cloud. 30) Monster is a dark night. 31) ? Thathome is a dark zone.
v) the implication of secretor hidden ability

32) The winning personis a dark horse. 33) ?His running is dark horse.
34) ? TheDarth Vader who is characterof "Star Wars" is the dark mauer.
310
vi) Miscellaneous
35) ?Tom'sfriendis darkstomach-LI transfer 36) ?My impressionof him washisdarkexpression.
37)'.4 thinkyou ideaisdarkpurposes. 38) ?Your thinkingisa darkrack
39) ?Tireboy is verydarkmidnight'ssky. 40) 7Todayis a darkholl[sic](Le.holeor hall).
6-3 grey
(i) theallusionto a mixtureof blackand white
1) ?Thestoneis a greysky.
(ii) the implication of being gloomy or dull without light

2-1) My heartis a greysky. 2-2)My heartis greysky.2-3) ?My heartis grayof night'ssky.
3) His heartis grayheart 4) My feelingis a graysky. 5) My heartis greywater.
6) His fatheris greyghost 7) The personis a greycloud.
8) ?Her eyesare grey croud[sic](i.e. cloud, provably). 9) The man's face is grey stone.
10) His life is grey days. 11) 71be rainy day is a gray sean[sic](ii.
e. scene,probably).
12-1)?Rainyweatheraregreysky. 12-2)Today'sweatheris a greysky.

13-1)Todayisa greysky. 13-2)Todayis greyday.(2 answers)
14) The rain is gray water.
15-1)Thisofficeisa greyahnosphere. 15-2My houseis greyatmosphere.

(iii) the implication of ambiguity
16-1)The problem is a grey zone. 16-2)The problem goesinto grey zone.
17) The theory of evolution is a grey area. 18) ?Japanese'sopinion is grey cloud
19) ?His life is gray history. 20) ?This problem's answeris grey scale.
(iv) miscellaneous
21)Themanisa greywall. 22)?Thenafeisa greykiller. 23)?My fatherisgreyhair.L
6-4 high
(i) the implication of height of concretethings
1-1)Ken is a high wall. 1-2)?A life is a high walls. 1-3)?His purposeis high wall.
2-1)Thetall manis a hightree. 2-2) Hie heightis high tree.
2-3)Thebuildingis highmountain.(3 answers) 2-4) His heightis high mountain.
2-5) NBA playeris high mountain. 2-6)The manis a high Fujiyama. 2-7) 7ncc treeis high mountainFuji. 2-8) 7Thctall boy is high
mountain. 2-9) ?Histall is highmountain.

2-10)Thetreein theforestisahightower.
(ii) theimplicationof high standard/rank,
skillfulnessandof importancein an abstractsense
3) The computer is a high quality.
is highlevel. 3-2)The boy'sabilityis high level.

3-1)Theexamination
3-3) The exam is a high har lle[sic] (i.e. hurdle). 3-4) The life style of Japanis a high
standard.
41) Climbing mountain hashigh risk. 4-2) His illness is ?the high
risk.
311
5) My bossis a high position. 6) The shirt is high price.
7-1) The color is high color. 7-2) ?The girl is high fashion.
8-1) The soccerteam is a high giant 8-2) Your jump is a high bird.
9) Thisclockishighbuilding. 10)?Richpeople
islikehighqualityfood.
(iii) the implication of moral goodnessor character
11)A highopinionisgoodthing.L? 12)Histhoughtisahighopinion. 13)Themanbelongs
tohighsociety.
(iv) the implication of high feeling, similar to drug effect
14)His tensionis hightension-L1 t ansfer 15)My emotionis high sky.-L1 transfer
16)?Air ishighpressure. 17)?Thepartywashigh mood.
(v) miscellaneous
18) ?Jery's mother is high nose.Ll transfer? 19)?Theanimalsarehighfly.
6-5 weak
1) the implication of physical weakness/ the implication of mental weaknessor fragility in personality
1-1)Thepersonisa weakcat. 1-2)Aki isa weakkitty. 2) Hisheartisweakglass.
3) This man is weak body. 4) ?A baby's legsare weak sopha[sic](i.e. sofa?).
5) His feeling is a weak heart 6) Your mind is weak animals[sic] (i.e..animal's).
7) Mary's voice is weak animal. 8) His characteris weak bind 9) Her singing voice is a weak puppy.
10)The power is a weak aunt[sicl (i.e. ant?) 11) ? The teacheris weak voice.
12) ? My grandmotheris weak heart.LM
() the implication of lower skill or ability

13)Themanhasa weakpoint. 14)My frienddescribes
my weakpoint.
15-1)My weakpointis sports. 15-2)Englishis my weakpoint
15-3) Mathematicsis her weak point Ll transfer 15-4) Smoking is my weak poinLL1 transfer
15-5)Headis a weakpoint Ll transfer 15-6) His noseis a weak pointLI transfer
15-7) Stomachis his weak point Ll transfer
16)?Mike's brotheris weakhead.Ll transfer 17)71hemanis a weakknowledgein thissubject.
18)?Theperson'sabilityis weaklevel.
(iii) the implication of lack of effectiveness

19) The problem is a weak economy.
iv) the implication of watery liquid

20) ?Thedrink isweaktaste. 21) ?Thecoffeeis a weaktaste.
v) miscellaneous
22) Japaneseareweak bugs. 23) My petisa weakdog.L?M? 24) ?Her eyeis weakcat.
25) Your heartis a weak worm 26) My heartis weakbaby.
6-6 wild
(i) the implication of violence, uncontrollability of behaviour and/or feeling,
or lack of thoughtfulness
312
1) Today is a wild windy day.
2-1) The wind is a wild animal. 2-2) Men area wild animal. (2 answers) 2-3) The man is a wild animal.
2-4) The boy is wild animal. 2-5) His act is wild animal. 2-6) Mike's life is a wild animal.
2-7) Peoplewho eatwith handsis wild animals. 2-8) ?The boy gottenangry is wild monkey.
baseballpitcher)
2-10) Irabuis a wild pitcher.(Irabuis a professional
2-11)My sonis a wild boy. 2-12)Georgeis wild person.
3-1)Thepersonisa wild character. 3-2)?Theboy is wild clactor[sic].(i.e.character)

3-3)Thepersonis wild car ctor[sic].(i.e.character)
4) His mind isa wild rock. 5) My bossis a wild lion. 6) Herfaceisa wild lion.
7) The seais a wild lion. 8) Takeshi is wild lion. (Takeshi is a popular Japanesetv personality)
9-1) His characteris like wild monkey. 9-2) Our life in the forest is a wild monkey.
10) Mike Tyson is a wild horse.
(ii) the implication of violence or lack of thoughtfulness/ the implication of excitement or eagerness
11)Yourlifeisawildfife. 12)Theman'spolicyiswildliving. 13)Herclothes arewildstyle.
14)?I'hedailyis wild skin. 15)?His spiritis wild grass.
16) 7Fheman haswild atmosphia[sic](i.e. atmosphere). 17) 7The CD's music are wild atmosphere.
18) ?His fusionstyle is a wild close.(i.e. His fashion is a wild clothes)
(iii) the implication of being not tame or cultivated

19)The land is a wild world.
iv) miscellaneous
20) ?Shiro is wild dog. (Shiro is a common dog's namemeaning white. The colour of the dog is probably white) LM
21-1) Lion is wild animal.L 21-2) The lions are wild animals.L 21-3) The horse is a wild horse.L
447,
RSITY t
1.,
313

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Azuma, Masumi (2004) Metaphorical competence in an

EFL context: the mental lexicon and metaphorical

Access from the University of Nottingham repository:

Copyright and reuse:

For more information, please contact eprints@nottingham.ac.uk

- the mental lexicon and metaphorical competence

Thesis submitted to the University of Nottingham

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Ethos - Thesis for digitisation

Please exclude the following =__'': _-_; pages:

professionalstudiesassessingmetaphoricalcompetenceare highlighted,which inform the

As for the salienceand opacity of metaphoricalexpressions,the degreeof clarity of

expressionswas an important element. For example,the expressionswith imageseasy

I would like to sincerelythankProfessorRonaldCarterfor his guidancein settingupona

suitablecoursefor my researchin the School of English Studiesat the University of

native-speaker data of Chapters3 and 4.

and I appreciatethe support of my colleaguesand family.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 4

PART I: HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF METAPHOR 5

2.1 OVERVIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE

Part II: METAPHOR IN CONTEMPORARY THEORIESNIEWS 22

2.1. CONTEMPORARY VIEWS 22

Part III: METAPHOR IN EDUCATION 49

2.1. METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE 49

CHAPTER 3 STUDY 1: PREPARING THE STUDY INSTRUMENTS FOR

3.1. OVERVIEW OF THE 4 STUDIES 83

CHAPTER 4 STUDY 2: PILOT TESTING OF METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE

CHAPTER 5 STUDY 3: ASSESSING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:

5.1. THE PURPOSEOF STUDY 3 121

CHAPTER 6 STUDY 4: ASSESSING METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE:

6.1. THE PURPOSEOF STUDY 4 189

6.5. ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION FOR RESEARCH QUESTION 2 237

7.1. VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE AND METAPHORICAL COMPETENCE 265

This researchaims to study metaphorresearchin applied linguistics, especiallyin an

cognitive psychology, and it attempts to investigate mechanisms in the process of

What will be exploredand investigatedin this thesisis follows. Chapter2 consists

studied in linguistics, semantics, psychology, anthropology and other fields. In Japan, we

metaphorical understanding and use will be focussed upon.

Chapters3 and 4 will delineatethe developmentof preparatory

Chapter 2 consists of three parts, presenting reviews of studies of metaphor from a

Part 1 describesthe characteristicsof Japaneselanguageand `hiyu' as a brief overview

2.1. OVERVIEW OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE

Keio Daigaku "Keio University" is abbreviated to Kei-dai, using the original

Syntactically, Japaneseis an agglutinative language, in which `joshi' (a post positional

Watashi-wa/ kino / igirisu-ni / kimashita. (f44jft Eif ) X-3L t)

Another characteristicof the Japaneselanguageis

2.1-3. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

a. like a lion leap

As is statedin TheArts of Rhetoric, metaphorsare more powerful than similes becausethey

2.1-4. METAPHOR AND 'HIYU'

b. a poem in Man-yo-shu as an example of a metaphoricalexpression:

d-1. the gentlewomenof the Wardrobe (ko-i, hp, )

2.1-5. JAPANESE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

as well. In English, too, metaphorsare used in words, sentences,and at thought levels.

c. metaphor:the following poem describesthe bitternessof the world

2.1-6. JAPANESE 'HIYU'

2.1-7. `CHOKU-YU'AND `IN-YU'

2.2. METAPHOR IN RHETORIC

2.2-1. TRADITIONAL VIEW

2.2-2. APPEARANCE OF THE TERM `METAPHOR' IN JAPANESE

2.2-3. CONTEMPORARY METAPHOR STUDY

2.3. METAPHOR IN THE OCCIDENTAL WORLD

2.3-1. TRADITIONAL VIEW

Metaphor is the application of a noun which