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DEVELOPMENT
REPORT 1990
Published
for the United Nations
Development Programme
(UNDP)
Copyright 1990
by the United Nations Development Programme
1 UN Plaza, New York, New York, 10017, USA
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Foreword
iii
been the emergence of a close intellectual member governments of UNDP. The es-
network within the UN system which will sence of any such report must be its inde-
also be helpful for future reports. pendence and its intellectual integrity.
The Human Development Report 1990 I hope that this Report - and its annual
has been prepared by a team ofUNDP staff sequels - will make a significant contribu-
and eminent outside consultants under the tion to the development dialogue in the
overall guidance ofMahbub ul Haq, former 1990s and lead to a serious exploration of
Finance and Planning Minister ofPakistan, human development programming at the
in his capacity as SpecialAdviserto me. The country level. UNDP stands ready to assist
views expressed in this Report are those of this process both at the intellectual and op-
the team and not necessarily shared by erationallevels.
UNDP or its Governing Council or the
IV
Acknowledgements
The preparation ofthe Report would have Office of Project Services. Ian Steele as-
been impossible without the valuable con- sisted in editing the first draft of the
tributions that the authors received from Report.
a large number oforganisations and indi- The Report draws on the statistical
viduals. data bases established by the UN Statis-
Particular thanks are due to the agen- tical Office and Population Division, the
cies and offices of the United Nations World Bank, the IMF, and the OECD.
system, which provided generous assis- These have been complemented, and in
tance, sharing their accumulated experi- part updated, by selected statistical data
ence, studies and statistical data with the collected from government sources by
Report team. Their assistance made it UNDP country offices.
possible for the Report to be a genuine Many colleagues in the UNDP con-
UN systemwide initiative. Special men- tributed to the evolution of the Report
tion must be made of the collaboration of through comments and observations on
Habitat (United Nations Centre for earlier drafts. Thanks are due to G.
Human Settlements), in the preparation Arthur Brown, Denis Berm, Pierre-Claver
of chapter 5. The other contributing UN Damiba, Gary Davis, Luis Gomez-Echev-
system and affiliated organisations were erri, Trevor Gordon-Somers,Michael
FAO, IFAD, ILO, UN Statistical Office Gucovsky, Arthur Holcombe, Andrew J.
and Population Division, UNESCO, Joseph, Uner Kirdar, Sarah Papineau,
UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIDO, J ehan Raheem, Augusto Ramirez-
UNOV, UNRISD, UNSO, WFP, WHO, Ocampo, Elizabeth Reid, Sarah Timpson
and the World Bank. Furtherinputswere and Gustavo Toro.
received from various UNDP offices, in Secretarial and administrative sup-
particular UNDP's country offices, the port for the Report's preparation was pro-
Regional Bureaux, the Division for vided by Linda Grahek, Gwen Halsey,
Women in Development, the Division for Ida Simons, Odette Tin-Aung, Carol
Nongovernmental Organisations and the Joseph and Karin Svadlenak-Castro.
v
Abbreviations
vi
Contents
OVERVIEW 1
CHAPTER ONE
Defining and measuring human development 9
Defining human development 10
Measuring human development 11
CHAPTER TWO
Human development since 1960 17
Expanding human capabilities 19
Using human capabilities 26
Disparities and deprivation within nations 29
Reversibility of human development 33
De-formation of human development 36
CHAPTER THREE
Economic growth and human development 42
Typology of country experience 42
Sustained human development 44
Disrupted human development 51
Missed opportunities for human development 56
CHAPTER FOUR
Human development strategies for the 1990s 61
Policy measures for priority objectives 62
Appropriate strategies and sequencing 65
Policies for adjusting countries 65
Setting global targets for human development 67
National plans for human development 70
Financing human development 72
External environment for human development 78
Implementing human development strategies 81
Conclusions 83
vii
CHAPTER FIVE: A SPECIAL FOCUS
Urbanisation and human development 85
Urbanisation in the developing countries 85
Cities and human development 86
Failed attempts to turn the tide 88
Managing the cities - four issues for the 1990s 90
BOXES
1.1 Human development defined 10
1.2 What price human life 11
1.3 What national averages conceal 12
1.4 Constructing a human development index 13
1.5 Freedom and human development 16
2.1 Who the poor are 22
2.2 Balance sheet of human development 27
2.3 Women count - but are not counted 32
2.4 Adjustment with a human face in Zimbabwe 35
2.5 The AIDS epidemic 40
3.1 Botswana's drought relief 48
3.2 Food stamps miss the target in Sri Lanka 49
3.3 China's health care system 53
4.1 In defence of food subsidies 63
4.2 Rural banks in Ghana 64
4.3 Money shops in the Philippines 65
4.4 Different strategies for different contexts 66
4.5 Priority research agenda for human development 67
4.6 Singapore's Mediservice scheme 73
4.7 Sharing health costs in the Republic of Korea 73
4.8 Community financing in Senegal 74
4.9 The lingering debt crisis 79
4.10 Proposal for an international debt refinancing facility 80
4.11 The new global services economy 81
4.12 A cost-effective strategy for essential drugs 83
5.1 The urban explosion 85
5.2 Poor water supply and sanitation in larger cities 87
5.3 Urban property taxes in Brazil 92
5.4 Land sharing - not eviction - in Bangkok 93
5.5 Upgrading Jakarta's kampungs 93
5.6 Informal public transport in Mrica 94
5.7 Community-based sanitation in Karachi 94
5.8 Recycling urban waste in Shanghai 95
viii
TABLES
Text tables
1.1 GNP per capita and selected social indicators 9
2.1 Life expectancy, 1960-87 19
2.2 Infant mortality rate, 1960-88 20
2.3 Adult literacy rate, 1970-85 20
2.4 Access to safe water, 1975-86 23
2.5 Drugs seized worldwide 37
2.6 Changes in the size of households 39
3.1 Under-five mortality and basic indicators of human development 45
4.1 Rising military expenditure in the Third World 77
4.2 Military expenditure as percent of education and health expenditure 78
4.3 Soldiers or teachers 78
5.1 Projected increases in urban population in major world regions,
1985-2000 87
Annex tables
1 Child survival and immunisation targets for the year 2000 96
2 Child nutrition targets for the year 2000 98
3 Primary enrolment targets for the year 2000 99
4 Literacy targets for the year 2000 100
5 Safe water targets for the year 2000 102
FIGURES
1.1 GNP per capita and the HDI 14
1.2 Ranking of countries' GNP per capita and HDI 15
2.1 Disparities between developing and industrial countries 17
2.2 Life expectancy trends 19
2.3 Infant mortality trends 19
2.4 Adult literacy trends 21
2.5 GNP per capita trends 21
2.6 Absolute poverty by region 22
2.7 Nutrition trends 23
2.8 Access to health services 24
2.9 Access to safe water trends 24
2.10 North-South distribution of school enrolment 24
2.11 World population trend and North-South distribution 25
2.12 Wage employment and labour force outside agriculture 26
2.13 Rural-urban disparities 30
2.14 Female literacy and population growth 31
2.15 Female-male literacy disparities 32
2.16 Debt of developing countries 34
2.17 Refugees by region 39
3.1 Sustained human development: country profiles 46
3.2 Disrupted human development: country profiles 52
3.3 Missed opportunities for human development: country profiles 57
4.1 Declining investment rates 72
ix
4.2 Declining expenditure on health and education 72
4.3 Critical imbalances in social sectors 75
4.4 Military expenditure 76
4.5 National expenditure priorities: military 76
4.6 National expenditure priorities: social sectors 77
4.7 Reversing resource flows 79
5.1 The ten largest cities: 1960 and 2000 86
5.2 Urban population in informal settlements 88
x
Overview
This Report is about people - and about Starting with this perspective, human
how development enlarges their choices. It development is measured in this Report not
is about more than GNP growth, more than by the yardstick of income alone but by a
income and wealth and more than produc- more comprehensive index - called the
ing commodities and accumulating capital. human development index - reflecting life
A person's access to income may be one of expectancy, literacy and command over the
the choices, but it is not the sum total of resources to enjoy a decent standard of
human endeavour. living. At this stage, the index is an approxi-
Human development is a process of mation for capturing the many dimensions
enlarging people's choices. The most criti- ofhuman choices. It also carries some ofthe
cal of these wide-ranging choices are to live same shortcomings as income measures. Its
a long and healthy life, to be educated and national averages conceal regional and local
to have access to resources needed for a distribution. And a quantitative measure of
decent standard ofliving. Additional choices human freedom has yet to be designed.
include political freedom, guaranteed The index does, however, have the vir-
human rights and personal self-respect. tue of incorporating human choices other
Development enables people to have than income, and consequently is a move in
these choices. Noone can guarantee human the right direction. It also has the potential
happiness, and the choices people make are for refinement as more aspects of human
their own concern. But the process of choice and development are quantified. This
development should at least create a condu- Report lays out a concrete priority agenda
cive environment for people, individually for better data collection that will enable the
and collectively, to develop their full poten- human development index to be used in-
tial and to have a reasonable chance of creasingly as a more genuine measure of
. .
leading productive and creative lives in SOClOeconorruc progress.
accord with their needs and interests. The Report analyses the record ofhuman
Human development thus concerns development for the last three decades and
more than the formation ofhuman capabili- the experience of 14 countries in managing
ties, such as improved health or knowledge. economic growth and human development.
It also concerns the use of these capabilities, Several policy conclu sions from this experi-
be it for work, leisure or political and cul- ence underpin a detailed analysis ofhuman
tural activities. And if the scales of human development strategies during the 1990s.
development fail to balance the formation The Report ends with a special focus on the
and use ofhuman capabilities, much human problems of human development in an
potential will be frustrated. increasingly urban setting. The orientation
Human freedom is vital for human ofthe Report is practical, looking not just at
development. People must be free to exer- what is to be done - but also at how.
cise their choices in properly functioning The Report's central conclusions and
markets, and they must have a decisive policy messages are clear, and some oftheir
voice in shaping their political frameworks. salient features are summarised here.
OVERVIEW
1. The developing countries have in a fairly manageable period and at a mod-
made significant progress towards est cost - if national development efforts
human development in the last three and international assistance are properly
decades. directed.
But this prornising trend must be seen in
Life expectancy in the South rose from 46 its proper perspective. While North-South
years in 1960 to 62 years in 1987. The adult gaps have narrowed in basic human sur-
literacy rate increased from 43% to 60%. vival, they continue to widen in advanced
The under-five mortality rate was halved. knowledge and high technology.
Primary health care was extended to 61% of
the population, and safe drinking water to 3. Averages of progress in human
55%. And despite the addition of 2 billion development conceal large disparities
people in developing countries, the rise in within developing countries - between
food production exceeded the rise in popu- urban and rural areas, between men
lation by about 20%. and women, between rich and poor.
N ever before have so many people seen
such significant improvement in their lives. Rural areas in the developing countries have
But this progress should not generate com- on the average half the access to health
placency. Removing the immense backlog services and safe drinking water that urban
ofhuman deprivation remains the challenge areas have, and only a quarter of the access
for the 1990s. There still are more than a to sanitation services.
billion people in absolute poverty, nearly Literacy rates for women are still only
900 million adults unable to read and write, two-thirds ofthose for men. And the mater-
1.75 billion without safe drinking water, nal mortality rate in the South is 12 times
around 100 million completely homeless, that in the North - the largest gap in any
some 800 million who go hungry every day, social indicator and a sad symbol of the
150 million children under five (one in deprived status of women in the Third
three) who are malnourished and 14 million World.
chil dren who die each year before their fifth High-income groups often preempt
birthday. In many countries in Africa and many ofthe benefits ofsocial services. Levels
Latin America, the 1980s have witnessed of health, education and nutrition among
stagnation or even reversal in human higher income groups far exceed those of
achievements. the poor in many countries. There is thus
considerable room for improvement to
2. North-South gaps in basic human ensure that the benefits of social expendi-
development have narrowed tures are more evenly distributed, flowing
considerably in the last three decades, to the very poor. The rationale for govern-
even while income gaps have widened. ment intervention greatly weakens if social
spending, rather than improving the distri-
In 1987 the average per capita income in the bution of income, makes it worse.
South was still only 6% of that in the North.
But its average life expectancy was 80% of 4. Fairly respectable levels ofhuman
the northern average and its average literacy development are possible even at fairly
rate 66%. modest levels ofincome.
Developing countries reduced their
average infant mortality from nearly 200 Life does not begin at $11,000, the average
deaths per 1,000 live births to about 80 in per capita income in the industrial world.
about four decades (1950-88), a feat that Sri Lanka managed a life expectancy of 71
took the industrial countries nearly a cen- years and an adult literacy rate of 87% with
tury to accomplish. This is clearly a message a per capita income of $400.
ofhope. The essential task of taking the de- By contrast, Brazil has a life expectancy
veloping world to an acceptable threshold ofonly 65 years, and its adult literacy rate is
ofhuman development can be accomplished 78% at a per capita income of $2,020. In
2 OVERVIEW
SaudiArabia, where the per capita income opment may not improve much, despite
is $6,200, life expectancy is only 64 years rapid GNP growth.
and the adult literacy rate is an estimated Even in the absence of satisfactory
55%. economic growth or a relatively even in-
What matters is how economic growth come distribution, countries can achieve
is managed and distributed for the benefit significant improvements in human devel-
of the people. The contrast is most vivid in opment through well-structured public ex-
rankings of developing countries by their penditures. For example, during the last
human development index and by their three decades, Sri Lanka experienced rela-
GNP per capita. Sri Lanka, Chile, Costa tively slow growth, rather equally distrib-
Rica, Jamaica, Tanzania and Thailand, uted, and Botswana and Malaysia had ade-
among others, do far better in human devel- quate growth, unequally distributed. Yet all
opment than in income, showing that they these countries have made impressive
have directed more of their economic re- achievements in their human development
sources towards human progress. Oman, levels because they have had well-struc-
Gabon, SaudiArabia, Algeria, Mauritania, tured social policies and expenditures.
Senegal, Cameroon and the United Arab Costa Rica and Chile, too, have demon-
Emirates, among others, do considerably strated that dramatic human progress can
worse, showing that they have not yet trans- be achieved - in a short time and even
lated their income into human progress. without rapid GNP growth.
The valuation given to similar human But distributive policies can compen-
development achievements is quite differ- sate for the effects of low GNP growth or
ent depending on whether they were ac- unequal income distribution only in the
complished in a democratic or an authori- short and medium run. These policy inter-
tarian framework. A simple quantitative ventions do not work indefinitely without
measure to reflect the many aspects ofhuman the nourishment thatwell-distributed growth
freedom - such as free elections, multi- provides. In the long run, economic growth
party political systems, an uncensored press, is crucial for deterrniningwhether countries
adherence to the rule oflaw, guarantees of can sustain progress in human development
free speech, personal security and so on- or whether initial progress is disrupted or
will be designed over time and incorporated reversed (as in Chile, Colombia, Jamaica,
in the human development index. Mean- Kenya and Zimbabwe).
while, the Report lists the top 15 countries
that have achieved relatively high levels of 6. Social subsidies are absolutely
human development within a reasonably necessary for poorer income groups.
democratic political and social framework:
Costa Rica, Uruguay, Trinidad and Tobago, The distribution of income is fairly uneven
Mexico, Venezuela, Jamaica, Colombia, in most of the Third World. Simply stated,
Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Turkey, economic growth seldom trickles down to
Tunisia, Mauritius, Botswana and Zim- the masses. Free market mechanisms may
babwe. be vitalfor allocative efficiency, but they do
not ensure distributive justice. That is why
5. The link between economic growth added policy actions are often necessary to
and human progress is not automatic. transfer income and other economic oppor-
tunities to the very poor.
GNP growth accompanied by reasonably Food and health subsidies serve that
equitable distribution ofincome is generally purpose - as long as they are properly
the most effective path to sustained human targetted to low-income beneficiaries and
development. The Republic ofKorea shows efficiently administered. They establish an
what is possible. But if the distribution of essential safety net in poor societies that
income is unequal and if social expendi- generally do not have the social security
tures are low (Pakistan and Nigeria) or schemes that are familiar in the industrial
distributed unevenly (Brazil), human devel- nations. Generally amounting to less than
0\1 R\IL\X 3
3% of GNP, these subsidies have not been on the military (5.5% of their combined
too costly. And when they are removed GNP) than on education and health
without an alternative safety net, the ensu- (5.3%). In many developing countries,
ing political and social disturbance has cost current military spending is sometimes two
far more than the subsidies themselves. or three times greater than spending on
Social subsidies will serve the interest of education and health. There are eight times
developing countries much better if more more soldiers than physicians in the Third
effort is devoted to designing them as effi- World.
cient tools of income redistribution, with- Governments can also do much to
out hurting the efficiency ofresource alloca- improve the efficiency of social spending by
tion. Such effort is far preferable to the creating a policy and budgetary framework
usual acrimonious debate supporting or that would achieve a more desirable mix
rejecting all subsidies arbitrarily and across between various social expenditures, par-
the board. ticularly by reallocating resources:
from curative medical facilities to pri-
7. Developing countries are not too mary health care programmes,
poor to pay for human development from highly trained doctors to para-
and take care of economic growth. medical personnel,
from urban to rural services,
The view that human development can be from general to vocational education,
promoted only at the expense of economic from subsidising tertiary education to
growth poses a false tradeoff. It misstates subsidising primary and secondary educa-
the purpose ofdevelopment and underesti- tion,
mates the returns on investment in health from expensive housing for the privi-
and education. These returns can be high, 1eged groups to sites and services projects
indeed. Private returns to primary educa- for the poor,
tion are as high as 43% inAfrica,31%in Asia from subsidies for vocal and powerful
and 32% in Latin America. Social returns groups to subsidies for inarticulate and
from female literacy are even higher - in weaker groups and
terms of reduced fertility, reduced infant from the formal sector to the informal
mortality, lower school dropout rates, im- sector and the programmes for the unem-
proved family nutrition and lower popula- ployed and the underemployed.
tion growth. Such a restructuring ofbudget priorities
Most budgets can, moreover, accom- will require tremendous political courage.
modate additional spending on human But the alternatives are limited, and the
development by reorienting national priori- payoffs can be enormous.
ties. In many instances, more than half the
spending is swallowed by the military, debt 8. The human costs of adjustment are
repayments, inefficient parastatals, unnec- often a matter of choice, not of
essary government controls and mistargetted compulsion.
social subsidies. Since other resource pos-
sibilities remain limited, restructuring bud- Since there is considerable room for reallo-
get priorities to balance economic and cating expenditures within existing bud-
social spending should move to the top of gets, the human costs of adjustment are
the policy agenda for development in the often a matter of choice, not compulsion.
1990s. When there is a sudden squeeze on re-
Special attention should go to reducing sources, it is for policymakers to decide
military spending in the Third World - it whether budgetary cuts will fall on military
has risen three times as fast as that in the spending, parastatals and social subsidies
industrial nations in the last 30 years, and is for the privileged groups - or on essential
now approaching $200 billion a year. De- health, education and well-targetted food
veloping countries as a group spend more subsidies. The evidence ofthe 1980s shows
4 OVERVIEW
that some countries (such as Indonesia and 10. Some developing countries,
Zimbabwe) protected their human devel- especially in Africa, need external
opment programmes during the process of assistance a lot more than others.
adjustment by reorienting their budgets.
Yet in some countries where education and The least developed countries, particularly
health expenditures were cut, military ex- those south of the Sahara, suffer the great-
penditures actually rose. Obviously, the est human deprivation. Mrica has the low-
poverty oftheir economies was no barrier to est life expectancy of all the developing
the affluence of their armies. regions, the highest infant mortality rates
External donors can help protect hu- and the lowest literacy rates. Its average per
man development by providing additional capita income fell by a quarter in the 1980s.
resources to ease the pain of adjustment There is thus a growing trend towards a
and by agreeing with developing countries concentration of poverty in Mrica. Be-
on new and benign conditions for adjust- tween 1979 and 1985 the number ofMrican
ment assistance - conditions that would people below the poverty line increased by
make it clear that external assistance will be almost two-thirds, compared with an aver-
reduced if a country insists on spending age increase ofone-fifth in the entire devel-
more on its army than on its people. They oping world. That number is projected to
could stress the right of the recipient coun- rise rapidly in the next few years - from
try - indeed its obligation - not to cut around 250 million in 1985 to more than
social expenditures and subsidies that bene- 400 million by the end of the century.
fit poorer income groups and other vulner- In any concerted international effort to
able segments of the population. And they improve human development in the Third
could specify that human development World, priority must go to Mrica. The
programmes should be the last, not the first, concept of short-term adjustment is inap-
to be reduced in an adjustment period after propriate there. Required, instead, is long-
all other options have been explored and term development restructuring. Also re-
exhausted. quired is a perspective of at least 25 years for
Mrica to strengthen its human potential, its
9. A favourable external environment national institutions and the momentum of
is vital to support human development its growth. The international community
strategies in the 1990s. should earmark an overwhelming share of
its concessional resources for Mrica and
The outlook is not good. The net transfer of display the understanding and patience
resources to the developing countries has needed to rebuild Mrican economies and
been reversed - from a positive flow of societies in an orderly and graduated way.
$42.6 billion in 1981 to a negative flow of
$32.5 billion in 1988. Primary commodity 11. Technical cooperation must be
prices have reached their lowest level since restructured if it is to help build human
the Great Depression of the 1930s. The capabilities and national capacities in
foreign debts ofdeveloping countries, more the developing countries.
than $1.3 trillion, now require nearly $200
billion a year in debt servicing alone. The record is not reassuring. In many devel-
In the 1990s the rich nations must start oping countries the amount of technical
transferring resources to the poor nations assistance flowing each year into the salaries
once again. For this to happen, there must and travel of foreign experts exceeds by far
be a satisfactory solution to the lingering the national civil service budget. Unem-
debt crisis - with debts written down dras- ployment of trained personnel and a na-
tically, and a debt refinancing facility cre- tional civil service demoralised by low salary
ated, within the existing structures of the levels often exist side by side with large
IMF and the World Bank, to foster an numbers of foreign, high-priced experts
orderly resolution of the debt problem. and consultants. In some countries, there
OVERVIEW 5
continues to be an acute lack of trained 13. A significant reduction in
national personnel. Technical assistance to population growth rates is absolutely
Mrica amounts to $4 billion a year - as essential for visible improvements in
much as $7 a person. Butinstitution-build- human development levels.
ing and the expansion ofhuman capabilities
has been grossly inadequate in most of the The number of people in developing coun-
region. tries - having increased from 2 billion in
More successful technical cooperation 1960 to an estimated 4 billionin 1990 - will
in the 1990s requires that programmes focus probably reach 5 billion in 2000. The de-
more on human development issues. This cline in the population growth rate - from
will broaden the basis for more effective 2.3% a year during 1960-88 to an estimated
national capacity-building - through the 2.0% during 1988-2000 -is insufficient to
exchange of experience, the transfer of make a dent in the overall demographic
competence and expertise and the fuller picture. More vigorous efforts are required
mobilisation and use of national develop- to reduce population growth in the develop-
ment capacities. Emphasis must be placed ing world, above all in Mrica and South
on improving the availability of relevant Asia. There is an urgent need to strengthen
social indicators and on assisting develop- programmes offamily planning, female lit-
ing countries in formulating their own hu- eracy' fertility reduction and maternal and
man development plans. The yardstick for child health care.
measuring the success and impact of techni- The world's demographic balance is
cal assistance programmes must be the speed shifting fast. The share of the developing
with which they phase themselves out. countries in world population is expected to
grow from 69% in 1960 to 84% by 2025, and
12. A participatory approach- that ofthe industrial nations to shrink from
including the involvement ofNGOs- 31% to 16%. Even more telling, 87% of all
is crucial to any strategy for successful new births are in the Third World, and only
human development. 13% in the industrial nations.
If the developing world's new genera-
Many overplanned, overregulated econo- tions cannot improve their conditions
mies are now embracing greater market through liberal access to international assis-
competition. Increasingly, the role of the tance, capital markets and the opportuni-
state is being redefined: it should provide ties for trade, the compulsion to migrate in
an enabling policy environment for efficient search of better economic opportunities
production and equitable distribution, but will be overwhelming- a sobering thought
it should not intervene unnecessarily in the for the 1990s, one that spotlights the urgent
workings of the market mechanism. need for a better global distribution of
The movement of nongovernmental development opportunities.
organisations (N GOs) and other self-help
organisations has gained considerable 14. The very rapid population growth
momentum and proven its effectiveness in in the developing world is becoming
enabling people to help themselves. NGOs concentrated in cities.
are generally small, flexible and cost-effec-
tive, and most of them aim at building self- Between 1950 and 1987 the number of
reliant development. They recognise that urban dwellers in developing countries more
when people set their own goals, develop than quadrupled, from 285 million to one
their own approaches and take their own and a quarter billion. Their number is likely
decisions, human creativity and local prob- to increase to nearly 2 billion by 2000, when
lem-solving skills are released, and the re- eight of the 10 largest mega-cities (each
sulting development is more likely to be with 13 million people or more) will be in
self-sustaining. A comprehensive policy for the Third World. This process of urbanisa-
the participation of N Gas is essential for tion seems to be inevitable, as various at-
any viable strategy ofhuman development. tempts to discourage urban migration have
6 OVERVIEW
for the most part failed. erty often causes deforestation, desertifica-
The urban challenge for planners and tion' salination, poor sanitation and pol-
policymakers in developing countries dur- luted and unsafe water. And this environ-
ing the 1990s will be to identify and imple- mental damage reinforces poverty. Many
ment innovative programmes to deal with choices that degrade the environment are
four critical issues. made in the developing countries because
Decentralising power and resources ofthe imperative ofimmediate survival, not
from the central government to municipal- because of a lack of concern for the future.
ities. Any plans of action for environmental im-
Mobilising municipal revenue from local provement must therefore include program-
sources with the active participation of pri- mes to reduce poverty in the developing
vate and community organisations. world.
Emphasising "enabling" strategies for If environmental problems are seen in
shelter and infrastructure, including assis- the above perspective, it will help ensure
tance targeted to weaker groups. that global ecological security is viewed as a
Improving the urban environment, unifying link, not a divisive issue, between
especially for the vast majority of urban the North and the South. Further, the
poor in slums and squatter settlements. additional costs of environmental protec-
The effectiveness of government re- tion must come largely from the rich nations
sponses to these issues will largely deter- since they are responsible for a major part of
mine human development in the urban environmental degradation. With 20% of
setting. the world's population, they emit more than
half the greenhouse gases that warm our
15. Sustainable development planet. It is mainly the willingness of the
strategies should meet the needs of the rich nations to change their environmental
present generation without policies, to transfer environmentally sound
compromising the ability offuture technologies and to provide additional re-
generations to meet their needs. sources that can ensure the protection of
our global commons.
On this, the consensus is growing. But the
concept ofsustainable development is much These, then, are the main policy conclusions
broader than the protection of natural re- and policy messages of this first Human
sources and the physical environment. Mer Development Report. Far from answering all
all, it is people, not trees, whose future questions in this first effort, the findings and
choices have to be protected. Sustainable conclusions often point to issues requiring
development therefore must also include deeper analysis and more meticulous re-
the protection of future economic growth search: What are the essential elements of
and future human development. Any form strategies for planning, managing, and fi-
ofdebt - financial debt, the debt ofhuman nancing human development? What are
neglect or the debt ofenvironmental degra- the requirements of a practical framework
dation - is like borrowing from the next for participatory development? What is a
generations. Sustainable development conducive external environment for human
should aim at limiting all these debts. development? These and related questions
Poverty is one of the greatest threats to will set the agenda for future Human Devel-
the environment. In poor countries, pov- opment Reports.
OVER\IE\X' 7
CHAJYfERl
People are the real wealth of a nation. The Aristotle argued for seeing "the differ-
basic objective of development is to create ence between a good political arrangement
an enabling environment for people to en- and a bad one" in terms of its successes and
joy long, healthy and creative lives. This failures in facilitating people's ability to lead
may appear to be a simple truth. But it is "flourishing lives". Human beings as the
often forgotten in the immediate concern real end of all activities was a recurring
with the accumulation ofcommodities and theme in the writings of most of the early
financial wealth. philosophers. Emmanuel Kant observed:
Technical considerations of the means "So act as to treat humanity, whether in
to achieve human development - and the their own person or in that of any other, in
use of statistical aggregates to measure every case as an end withal, never as means
national income and its growth - have at only."
times obscured the fact that the primary The same motivating concern can be
objective of development is to benefit found in the writings of the early leaders of
people. There are two reasons for this. quantification in economics - William
First, national income figures, useful though Petty, Gregory King, Fran<;:ois Quesnay,
they are for many purposes, do not reveal Antoine Lavoisier andJoseph Lagrange, the
the composition ofincome or the real bene- grandparents of GNP and GDP. It is also
ficiaries. Second, people often value achieve- clear in the writings of the leading political
ments that do not show up at all, or not economists - Adam Smith, David Ricardo,
immediately, in higher measured income or Robert Malthus, Karl Marx andJohn Stuart
growth figures: better nutrition and health Mill.
services, greater access to knowledge, more But excessive preoccupation with GNP
secure livelihoods, better working condi- growth and national income accounts has
tions, security against crime and physical obscured that powerful perspective, sup-
violence, satisfyingleisure hours, and a sense planting a focus on ends by an obsession
of participating in the economic, cultural with merely the means.
and political activities oftheir communities. Recent development experience has
Ofcourse, people also want higher incomes once again underlined the need for paying
as one of their options. But income is not
the sum total of human life.
TABLE 1.1
This way oflooking at human develop- GNP per capita and selected social indicators
ment is not really new. The idea that social Infant
GNP per Life Adult mortality
arrangements must be judged by the extent capita expectancy literacy (per 1,000
to which they promote "human good" goes Country (US$) (years) (%) live births)
back at least to Aristotle. He also warned Modest GNP per capita with high human development
against judging societies merely by such Sri Lanka 400 71 87 32
Jamaica 940 74 82 18
things as income and wealth that are sought Costa Rica 1,610 75 93 18
not for themselves but desired as means to
High GNP per capita with modest human development
other objectives. "Wealth is evidently not Brazil 2,020 65 78 62
the good we are seeking, for it is merely Oman 5,810 57 30 40
Saudi Arabia 6,200 64 55 70
useful and for the sake of something else."
20
0.9
18
0.8
16
Human
development
index
0.7
14
0.6 12
10
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
2
The chart shows two separate distributions of countries. The upper curve represents their
ranking according to the human development index while the lower curve shows their
ranking according to GNP per capita. The two curves reveal that the disparity among
countries is much greater in income than in human development. There is no automatic link
between the level of per capita income in a country and the level of its human development.
Asia
Malaysia 0.800
Sri Lanka 0.789
Thailand 0.783
The developing countries have made sig- This progress must be put in perspec-
nificant progress towards human develop- tive, however.
ment in the last three decades. They in- First, tremendous human deprivation
creased life expectancy at birth from 46 remains. There still are nearly 900 million
years in 1960 to 62 years in 1987. They adults in the developing world who cannot
halved the mortality rates for children under read or write, 1.5 billion people without
five and immunised two-thirds of all one- access to primary health care, 1.75 billion
year-olds against major childhood diseases. people without safe water, around 100 mil-
The developing countries also made pri- lion completely homeless, some 800 million
mary health care accessible to 61% of their people who still go hungry every day and
people and safe water to 55% (80% in urban more than a billion who survive in absolute
areas). In addition, they increased the per poverty.
capita calorie supply by about 20% between Children and women suffer the most.
1965 and 1985. Some 40 million newborns still are not
Their progress in education was equally properly immunised. Fourteen million chil-
impressive. Adult literacy rates rose from dren under the age of five die each year and
43%in 1970 to 60% in 1985 -male literacy 150 million are malnourished. The mater-
from 53% to 71% and female literacy from
33% to 50%. The South's primary educa-
FIGURE 2.1
tional output in 1985 was almost six times
Disparities between developing and industrial countries
greater than that in 1950, its secondary South average as a percentage of North average
educational output more than 18 times o 20 40 60 80 100
greater. The results were 1.4 billion literate
people in the South in 1985, compared with GNP
per capita
nearly a billion in the North.
North-South gaps in human develop-
Maternal
ment narrowed considerably during this mortality
period even while income gaps tended to
widen. The South's average per capita Under-five
income in 1987 was still only 6% of the mortality
North's, but its average life expectancy was
80% and its average literacy rate 66% of the Female
literacy
North's. The North-South gap in life ex-
pectancy narrowed from 23 years in 1960 to
Adult
12 years in 1987, and the literacy gap from literacy
54 percentage points in 1970 to less than 40
percentage points in 1985. The developing School
countries also reduced their average infant enrolment
mortality from 200 deaths per 1,000 live
births to 79 between 1950 and 1985, a feat Life
expectancy
that took nearly a century in the industrial
countries.
people's access to food and such social modest incomes. Sri Lanka ($400 per cap-
50
services as water, education and primary ita) enjoys a life expectancy of 70 years, as Least
health care. high as that in the Republic of Korea developed
($2,690), Venezuela ($3,230) and the
Lzfe expectancy United Arab Emirates ($15,830). Rapid 1960 1975 1987
advances in health and nutrition made these
Life expectancy in the developing countries exceptional gains possible.
has risen on the average by nearly a third Until the mid-1970s the average life
since 1960, from 46 years to 62 years. But expectancy in low-income countries was
this average masks important interregional increasing three times faster than that
and intercountry differences. Africa's aver- in the middle- and high-income countries,
age life expectancy is only 51 years, ranging but since then the increase has been only
from 42 years in Ethiopia and Sierra Leone slightly faster. As a result, the life expec-
to 69 years in Mauritius. Asia's average life tancy gap between least developed coun-
expectancy is 64 years, reflecting the rise in tries and the developing countries as a
China's life expectancy from 47 years to 70 whole has widened from seven years to 12
years in three decades. Latin America's years.
TABLE 2.1
Life expectancy, 1960-87
Annual rate FIGURE 2.3
of reduction Life expecta ncy Infant mortality trends
in shortfall (%) (years)
1960-87 1987 a
.-
Fastest progress
Hong Kong 4.99
Highest life expectancy
Hong Kong 76
-~-~~~-:In::d'ustrial
Costa Rica 4.55 Costa Rica 75 50
China 4.33 Jamaica 74
United Arab Emirates 4.06 Singapore 73
Jamaica 4.00 Kuwait 73 100 Developing
Kuwait 3.93 Panama 72
Chile 3.70 Chile 72
Malaysia 3.48 Uruguay 71 150 Least
Korea, Rep. 3.43 United Arab Emirates 71 developed
Panama 3.38 Sri Lanka 71
200
Slowest progress, among countries with a life Lowest life expectancy 1960 1988
expectancy of less than 60 years Sierra Leone 42
Ethiopia 0.52 Ethiopia 42
Paraguay 0.78 Afghanistan 42
Rwanda 0.79 Guinea 43
Kampuchea, Dem. 0.80 Mali 45
Afghanistan 0.81 Angola 45
Sierra Leone 0.84 Niger 45
Burundi 0.85 Somalia 46
Guinea 0.88 Central African Rep. 46
Central African Rep. 0.90 Chad 46
Mali 0.91
1960 1987
South 2.33 South 46 62
North 2.22
North 69 74
South as % of North 67 84
TABLE 2.3
Adult literacy rate, 1970-85
Annual rate Adult
of reduction literacy rate
in shortfall (%) (%)
1970-85 1985
Fastest progress Highest literacy rate
Iraq 11.26 Chile 98
Chile 10.74 Trinidad and Tobago 96
Mexico 6.29 Argentina 96
Thailand 5.48 Uruguay 95
Jordan 4.86 Costa Rica 93
Botswana 4.70 Korea, Rep. 93
Trinidad and Tobago 4.52 Thailand 91
Zambia 4.48 Mexico 90
Peru 4.41 Panama 89
Venezuela 4.27 Iraq 89
have adult literacy rates above 90%, compa- Saharan Africa's per capita income grew by
rable to the rates in many industrial nations. only 1.6% a year between 1965 and 1980, 1,000
Developing
Despite such successes, some of the most but it has since been declining by 2.4% a
500
populous countries, such as India, Bangla- year. Latin America, because of persistent Least
developed
desh, and Pakistan, have been extremely debt problems, moved sharply from 3.8%
100
slow in reducing widespread illiteracy. annual growth in per capita income in 1965- 1976 1987
Sub-Saharan Africa has witnessed espe- 80 to an annual decline of 0.7% in the
cially fast progress in adult literacy, but since 1980s.
it started from a very low point, its average For human development, the distribu-
literacy rate of 48% in 1985 was still far tion of GNP is as important as the growth of
below the average of 60% for the develop- GNP. One measure of the distribution of
ing world. Low-income Kenya made spec- income is the Gini coefficient, which cap-
100~elOPing
access that they have to basic goods and Estimates of world hunger vary. Ac-
services. cording to the World Food Council, more
Food. There has been a general global than half a billion people were hungry in the
Least
improvement in food production and calo- mid-1980s. The World Bank, in a study of 80 developed
rie supplies. The daily supply of calories in 87 developing countries with 2.1 billion 1964-66 1984-86
the developing world improved from 90% people, put the number of undernourished
of total requirements in 1965 to 107% in people - whose diet does not provide them
1985. Confirming this evidence, food pro- with enough calories for an active working
duction data show a roughly 20% increase in life - at 730 million in 1980. The figure is
average calorie supplies per person between growing constantly, with as many as eight
1965 and 1985. million people said to have joined the ranks
Countries having the most urgent need of the hungry each year during the first half
for food show the slowest progress. For the of the 1980s. Hungertoday may be stunting
poorest countries, the daily per capita calo- the lives of as many as 800 million people in
rie supply increased only from 87% of the the Third World.
TABLE 2.4
Access to safe water, 1975-86
Annual rate Percentage
of reduction with access
in shortfall (%) to safe water
1975-86 1986
Fastest progress Most access
Saudi Arabia 20.22 Mauritius 100
Chile 13.61 Singapore 100
Colombia 12.78 Trinidad and Tobago 98
Malaysia 12.09 Saudi Arabia 97
Jamaica 10.76 Jamaica 96
Trinidad and Tobago 10.76 Jordan 96
Costa Rica 9.80 Chile 94
Iraq 8.37 Lebanon 93
Burkina Faso 7.19 Colombia 92
Thailand 6.45 Costa Rica 91
Life expectancy
Average life expectancy in the South increased by a Average life expectancy in the South is still 12 years
third during 1960-87 and is now 80% of the North's shorter than that in the North.
average.
Education
The South now has more than five times as many There still are about 100 million children of primary-
students in primary education as the North, 480 mil- school age in the South not attending school.
lion compared with 105 million.
The South has 1.4 billion literate people, compared Nearly 900 million adults in the South are illiterate.
with nearly one billion in the North.
Literacy rates in the South increased from 43% in Literacy rates are still only 41 % in South Asia and 48%
1970 to 60% in 1985. in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Income
Average per capita income in developing countries More than a billion people still live in absolute poverty.
increased by nearly 3% a year between 1965 and Per capita income in the 1980s declined by 2.4% a year
1980. in Sub-Saharan Africa and 0.7%a year in Latin America.
Health
More than 60% of the population of the developing 1.5 billion people are still deprived of primary health
countries has access to health services today. care.
More than 2 billion people now have access to safe, 1.75 billion people still have no access to a safe source
potable water. of water.
Children's health
Child (under five) mortality rates were halved be- 14 million children still die each year before reaching
tween 1960 and 1988. their fifth birthday.
The coverage ofchild immunisation increased sharply Nearly 3 million children die each year from immunis-
during the 1980s, from 30% to 70%, saving an esti- able diseases.
mated 1.5 million lives annually.
Sanitation
1.3 billion people have access to adequate sanitary Nearly 3 billion people still live without adequate
facilities. sanitation.
Women
School enrolment rates for girls have been increased The female literacy rate in the developing countries is
more than twice as fast as those for boys. still only two-thirds that of males.
The South's maternal mortality rate is 12 times that of
the North's.
Refugees and displaced persons The traditional extended family has in many
parts of the world been replaced by the
Much human potential goes to waste be- nuclear family - typically two parents and
cause of forced migration - people com- their children. Accompanying the decline
pelled to abandon their homes and their of the extended family has been the break-
assets because of political turmoil, military down of the social security net and the
conflicts or ethnic strife. For such reasons, support it provided to its members. In many
1980 1988
12 to 14 million people had registered as countries, especially developing countries,
refugees at the end of the 1980s. the replacement systems - nurseries, health Africa
The world has always known massive and unemployment insurance, and other 4.6
population movements. The Second World social services - have not yet emerged.
War and its aftermath displaced nearly 15 The uneasy transition has often been marked
million people, including Germans, Hun- by considerable hardship, especially for the
garians, Poles, Czechs and Russians. The children, the elderly and the disabled.
partitioning of the Indian subcontinent in Now, the nuclear family is itself break-
1947 uprooted more than 14 million people. ing up in many countries and being replaced
More than a million Palestinians are dis- by single-person households and single- North America
placed. Periodic wars and crises in various parent households. In the United Kingdom 1.4
parts of Africa have also displaced millions nuclear families of two parents with chil-
- for example, Nigeria expelled a million dren accounted for only a quarter of the
people in 1983. households in 1988. In the United States
Latin America
The refugee problem grew tremendously couples with children dropped from 44% of
1.2
during the 1980s. Some 14 million people all households in 1960 to 29% in 1980, while
were displaced in 1988, compared with an one-person households rose from 13% to
estimated 8 million at the start of the dec- 23% and single-parent households from 4%
ade. The Mghan war displaced about 5 to 8%. If the trend continues, only three of Europe
million people, a third of the Mghan popu- five young American families will be headed
lation. About 300,000 Somalis have fled to by a married couple in 2000. Trends are
Ethiopia. Other growing groups of refugees similar in other developed countries. The
include ethnic Turks from Bulgaria and incidence of divorce has also been high in
Vietnamese boat people. And in Central the North, and it appears to be on the rise in
America, 160,000 Salvadorans are scattered the South.
throughout South America (120,000 in Poor women, in both North and South,
Mexico), many Guatemalans are in Mexico are hurt most by these trends. Because
and the United States, and many Nicara-
guans are in Honduras, Mexico and the
TABLE 2.6
United States. Changes in the size of households in selected developed countries
In addition to international refugees are (percentage of total households)
Economic growth is essential for human effective means of sustained human devel-
development, but to exploit fully the oppor- opment. The Republic of Korea is a stun-
tunities for improved well-being that growth ning example of growth with equity. Sec-
offers, it needs to be properly managed. ond, countries can make significant im-
Some developing countries have been very provements in human development over
successful in managing their growth to long periods - even in the absence of good
improve the human condition, others less growth or good distribution - through
so. There is no automatic link between well-structured social expenditures by gov-
economic growth and human progress. One ernments (Botswana, Malaysia and Sri
of the most pertinent policy issues concerns Lanka). Third, well-structured government
the exact process through which growth social expenditures can also generate fairly
translates, or fails to translate, into human dramatic improvements in a relatively short
development under different development period. This is true not only for countries
conditions. starting from a low level ofhuman develop-
ment but also for those that already have
Typology ofcountry experience moderate human development (Chile and
Costa Rica). Fourth, to maintain human
The human development experience in development during recessions and natural
various countries during the last three dec- disasters, targetted interventions may be
ades reveals three broad categories of per- necessary (Botswana, Chile, Zimbabwe and
formance. First are countries that sus- the Republic of Korea in 1979-80). Fifth,
tained their success in human development, growth is crucial for sustaining progress in
sometimes achieved very rapidly, sometimes human development in the long run, other-
more gradually. Second are countries that wise human progress may be disrupted
had their initial success slow down signifi- (Chile, Colombia, Jamaica, Kenya and
cantly or sometimes even reverse. Third are Zimbabwe). Sixth, despite rapid periods of
countries that had good economic growth GNP growth, human development may not
but did not translate it into human develop- improve significantly if the distribution of
ment. From these country experiences income is bad and ifsocial expenditures are
emerges the following typology: low (Nigeria and Pakistan) or appropriated
Sustained human development, as in by those who are better off (Brazil). Finally,
Botswana, Costa Rica, the Republic ofKorea, while some countries show considerable
Malaysia and Sri Lanka. progress in certain aspects ofhuman devel-
Dz"sruptedhuman development, as in Chile, opment (particularly in education, health
China, Colombia, Jamaica, Kenya and and nutrition), this should not be inter-
Zimbabwe. preted as broad human progress in all fields,
Missed opportunitiesfor human develop- especially when we focus on the question of
ment, as in Brazil, Nigeria and Pakistan. democratic freedoms.
The analysis ofthese country cases leads The main policy conclusion is that eco-
to several important conclusions. First, nomic growth, ifit is to enrich human devel-
growth accompanied by an equitable distri- opment, requires effective policy manage-
bution of income appears to be the most ment. Conversely, ifhuman development is
TABLE 3.1
Under-five mortality and other basic indicators of human development
Under-five Adult literacy (%) Calorie supply
mortality rate Life expectancy as % of
(per 1,000 live births) (years) Female Male req uirements
HDI
Country 1987 1960 1975 1988 1960 1975 1987 1970 1985 1970 1985 1965 1985
Sustained human development
Korea, Rep. 0.903 120 55 33 54 64 70 81 91 94 96 96 122
Malaysia 0.800 106 54 32 54 64 70 48 66 71 81 101 121
Botswana 0.646 174 126 92 46 52 59 44 69 37 73 88 96
Sri Lanka 0.789 113 73 43 62 66 71 69 83 85 91 100 110
Costa Rica 0.916 121 50 22 62 69 75 87 93 88 94 104 124
Disrupted human development
China 0.716 202 71 43 47 65 70 56 82 86 111
Chile 0.931 142 66 26 57 65 72 88 97 90 97 108 106
Jamaica 0.824 88 40 22 63 68 74 97 96 100 116
Colombia 0.801 148 93 68 55 61 65 76 88 79 82 94 110
Kenya 0.481 208 152 113 45 52 59 19 49 44 70 98 92
Zimbabwe 0.576 182 144 113 45 53 59 47 67 63 81 87 89
Missed opportunities
Brazil 0.784 160 116 85 55 61 65 63 76 69 79 100 111
Nigeria 0.322 318 230 174 40 46 51 14 31 35 54 95 90
Pakistan 0.423 277 213 166 43 50 58 11 19 30 40 76 97
8 --
----------- ------- ...... ... _-
control. Many macroeconomic reforms in
both internal and external markets were
__ -.KOR--- ----
6 ------ carried out in an economy that had gradu-
ally returned to more extensive controls in
4
2
.:::::::::::::.;:~
....... -z::::::: -
the 1970s after the substantial reforms of
the 1960s.
.......................... In social expenditures, the coverage of
o population by health insurance was increased
Botswana - - - - BOT'---' from a tenth in 1978, a year after its initia-
Costa Rica cos ....
-2 tion, to almost a third by 1981 and to almost
Korea. Rep.----- KOR -----
Malaysia - _ MAL _ _ a half by 1985. In addition, a medical
-4
Sri Lanka - - SRI - - assistance programme for the lowest in-
1960-70 1970-80 1980-87 come groups was introduced in 1979.
Members of poor families (depending on
Under-five mortality rate their income and ability to work) were en-
titled to free or subsidised medical care,
350
especially maternal and child care.
In addition, the public works pro-
300
grammes to provide employment to the
250 poor during crisis periods were temporarily
increased during the recession. These pro-
200 grammes provided an estimated 9.4 million
150
------------ -- ...... man-days of employment in 1980 alone.
Direct income transfers were made to those
100
~
KOR
............
cos
--'BOT __
-- ... --- _ who were unable to work and take advan-
MAL -_ --. tage ofthese employment opportunities due
~.. SRI ~ _
to infirmity or old age. Moreover, the Live-
50
....... -;;.:.::~:::::.:.:.:::: . lihood Protection Programme, initiated in
o 1961, was expanded to benefit an estimated
1960 65 70 75 80 85 87 2 million people in 1981, through grants of
cereals and through cash for fuel and tuition
Social sector public expenditure, percentage of GDP expenses.
As a consequence of these effective
24 meso interventions, the human develop-
ment levels continued to improve even
20 during the difficult years of 1980 and 1981,
though at a temporarily slower rate. Mean-
16 while, the major changes introduced in
.. cos . macroeconomic policies restored price sta-
12
... ..... bility quickly. While the 1980s have not
... ' ... -.. ..... ,----
--- ........ _,"" ,.
w ........;::::.:: SRI been easy years, the Korean economy has
8
'----- ,-,
performed extremely well, promoting the
human development of its citizens.
BOT " "
4 ~ ---.KOR------' ,------------- One important lesson from this experi-
-------- ence is that countries with a generally im-
o pressive growth but a less impressive in-
1975 1980 1985 come distribution may require well-struc-
tured meso interventions, particularly
.
-.-. Chinese health system recovers a high pro-
portion of its costs: hospitals typically re-
100
---______
'.....::::~ .....
-..:::.-:,:.......... COL--. _ cover about three-quarters of their operat-
---JAM .. __ - - ......==. ing costs through user fees and drug sales.
---------------~~~~:::~~~;;~~~.;~~~
50
To put this in perspective, the costs per
o hospital admission average $36 for rural
1960 65 70 75 80 85 87 people, even though the annual rural in-
come per capita is less than $100 in many
Social sector public expenditure. percentage of GDP regions. The costs are about twice as high
($75) for urban residents, but most of them
24 are still covered by compulsory, state-sub-
sidised health insurance.
20 The network of barefoot doctors appar-
ently has been another casualty of the re-
16 forms, with rural health care coverage de-
clining, county hospitals and rural clinics in
12 financial distress, and private medical prac-
tice emerging again.
8 ..-..............- China's new "household responsibility
system" reintroduced the concept of eco-
4 nomic incentives for individual productiv-
ity. But the larger role for private and coop-
o erative enterprises, the growth ofpiece work,
1975 1980 1985 and the establishment of liberalised enter-
prise zones - all part of the post-I978
............ _.... --
BRA ............ - - ..... , .....
There are two important reasons for .............
.....
such poor human development in Brazil.
One is the extreme inequality of income
4
2
._:;:J....... -....
- -~PAK
.------
.--.------~ ............
.--",
.."".,.", .. , ..........
...---
......_
"'.'
......
ECONOMIC lrRO\\'11 I Il 59
ments on education and health does not nationwide immunisation programme was
challenge the overall conclusion: Pakistan financed by postponing the construction of
spends too little of its GNP on social devel- an expensive urban hospital. Education
opment. spending was tripled in the last four years.
Moreover, a large part of the limited And a special tax was levied on all imports to
social expenditures goes to lower-priority finance additional spending on education.
activities. Of the public current expendi- Pakistan's overall experience shows that
tures on education, 24% was for tertiary inadequate social spending and poorly struc-
education in 1985, compared with 7% in Sri tured meso policies can prevent a low-in-
Lanka in 1986, and only 40% was for pri- come country from improving the human
mary education. There appears to be a condition even if there is rapid economic
similar bias towards lower-priority activities growth with a relatively moderate distribu-
in health spending, but some recent policy tion of income.
changes are steps in the right direction. A
The 1990s are shaping up as the decade for poverty is likely to increase from more than
human development, for rarely has there 1 billion to around 1.5 billion by the end of
been such a consensus on the real objectives the century. The sharpest increase is ex-
of development strategies. The UN Com- pected inMrica, from around 270 million to
mittee for Development Planning sum- some 400 million. A central objective of
marises this emerging consensus best: "In future development strategies must be to
the 1990s people should be placed firmly in reduce the number of people in poverty in
the centre ofdevelopment. The most com- each country by the year 2000.
pelling reason for doing so is that the pro- There is also a growing consensus that
cess of economic development is coming the objective of safeguarding the natural
increasingly to be understood as a process environment must be integrated with future
of expanding the capabilities of people." development strategies, recognising that
Any development strategy for the 1990s environmental problems ofdeveloped coun-
will combine a number ofobjectives: among tries differ from those of developing coun-
them, accelerating economic growth, re- tries. In developing countries, poverty of-
ducing absolute poverty and preventing ten causes environmental damage - defor-
further deterioration in the physical envi- estation, soil erosion, desertification and
ronment. The departure from earlier devel- water pollution - and environmental
opment strategies lies in clustering all these damage reinforces poverty. Thus, the envi-
objectives around the central goal ofenlarg- ronmental priorities of developing coun-
ing human choices. tries often concern natural resources, espe-
The economic slide in the Third World ciallywater and land.
in the 1980s, particularly inMrica and Latin In the developed countries, by contrast,
America, must be reversed in the 1990s- affluence may cause different environmental
and the accelerating economic growth must problems - waste, carbon dioxide emis-
be used to advance the cause of human sions, acid rain. Thus, their concerns are
development. Average per capita income often with air pollution, which has reached
growth in the two worst affected regions alarming global proportions.
actually declined in the 1980s. Higher lev- Any well-conceived development strat-
els of investment and sensible economic egy must respect the differing perceptions
management are needed to increase annual of developing and developed nations on
growth rates to between 2% to 3% in the environmental issues and reflect the differ-
1990s. ent stages of their development. In addi-
Besides expanding human capabilities tion, the development process should meet
and creating a conducive environment for the needs of the present generation without
their optimum use, development strategies compromising the options offuture genera-
must attend to people who live in absolute tions. However, the concept ofsustainable
poverty and need special government sup- development is much broader than the
port to reach an acceptable threshold of protection of natural resources and the
human development. On current projec- physical environment. It includes the pro-
tions, the number of people in absolute tection of human lives in the future. Mter
Category I
Low income Improve growth and distribution Botswana
Uneven income distribution Increase share of social spending Kenya
Low human development Target social subsidies and programmes Zimbabwe
Category II
Low income Improve growth China
Moderate income distribution Maintain distribution
Low human development Increase share of social spending
Across-the-board meso interventions
Category III
Low income Improve growth Republic of Korea
Moderate income distribution Maintain distribution Sri Lanka
Moderate human development Increase share of social spending
Across-the-board meso interventions
Category IV
Middle income Maintain growth Malaysia
Uneven income distribution Improve distribution
Low and moderate human development Increase share of social spending
Target social subsidies and programmes
Category V
Middle income Maintain growth and distribution Chile
Moderate income distribution Increase share of social spending Colombia
Moderate human development Across-the-board meso interventions Costa Rica
Jamaica
6
- be possible to attain the region's goals for
human development unless the general
availability of resources increases dramati-
..-
..- cally in Latin America. This issue of limited
4 - - resources is intimately linked with a satis-
~ factory resolution of the debt crisis.
- """" Social expenditures in many countries
2
- -~ have to compete with other urgent claims
on generally scarce budgetary resources,
1990s. The total military expenditure of the Costa Rica (GNPp.e. $1,610) 1 75 years
Military 0 193%
Third World is estimated at almost $200
billion. If past trends continue, it would Venezuela (GNP p.e. $3,230) 1 70 years
increase between $15 billion and $20 billion Military 17% I 187%
every year during the 1990s. Any reduction
Jamaica (GNP p.e. $940) 174 years
in past trends would thus release consider- Military 18% 182%
able resources for social programmes.
The emerging detente between the Botswana (GNP p.e. $1,050) 159 VI ars
Military 19% 171%
superpowers demands a candid reassess-
ment of past military spending and an open Developing countries average: 60% Adult literacy rate
62 years - Life expectancy
dialogue about future options. If human
I
...........
Burkina Faso
I I
the push from the rural areas have acceler-
Mexico City,
Mexico , ated urbanisation. In addition, govern-
ments implicidy favoured urban develop-
Bombay, I I ment through their preferential treatment
India
of cities for industrial development, for
Karachi, I I I pricing policies, for infrastructure invest-
Pakistan ments, for social services and for food and
Abidjan, I I other subsidies.
Cote d'ivoire
Integrated rural development was in-
Bangkok,
Thailand .~ II tended to raise agricultural productivity and
persuade people to remain on the farm. But
such projects were overly complex and
16 Central African Rep. 308 223 1.1 9.7 2089 17 33 11.12 9.34 1999
17 Nepal 297 197 1.5 8.6 2059 13 71 30.31 2.75 1989
18 Senegal 313 136 2.9 5.5 2011 57 4.60
19 Ethiopia 294 259 0.5 10.9 2100 + 8 18 14.42 14.70 2001
20 Zaire 251 138 2.1 5.7 2020 23 46 11.16 6.36 1995
31 Yemen, PDR 378 197 2.3 8.6 2033 6 37 31.47 8.28 1992
32 Cote d'ivoire 264 142 2.2 5.9 2020 44 37 -2.66 8.40
33 Congo 241 114 2.6 4.6 2009 56 76 4.69 2.25 1994
34 Namibia 262 176 1.4 7.7 2053
35 Tanzania, United Rep. 248 176 1.2 7.7 2064 65 86 4.34 1.21 1992
96 ANNEX
Under-five mortality target of 70
per 1,000 live births by 2000 (or a reduction
of 50% if the rate in 1980 was less than 140) Immunisation target of 100%
Annual Year Annual Year
Under-five reduction reaching growth reaching
mortality Average rate target Percentage of Average rate target
rate annual needed to using one year olds annual needed to using
(per 1,000) reduction reach past immunised growth reach ast
rate target reduction rate (%) target ch
re uction
1960 1988 1960-88 by 2000 rate 1981 1987-8 1981-88 by 2000 rate
50 Myanmar 229 95 31 4.0 2004 10 24 14.23 12.19 1999
51 Honduras 232 107 2.7 3.5 2004 40 76 10.54 2.19 1991
52 Zimbabwe 182 113 1.7 4.5 2020 49 81 7.85 1.75 1991
53 Lesotho 208 136 1.5 5.5 2032 60 81 4.68 1.73 1993
54 Indonesia 235 119 24 44 2010 55 71 389 2.84 1997
ANNEX 97
ANNEX TABLE 2
Child nutrition targets for the year 2000
Eliminate severe child malnutrition
and reduce moderate child malnutrition by half
Annual
red uction rate
Child malnutrition needed to
(percentage of under-fives underweight) reach target
Reference by 2000
year Moderate Severe Total (%)
Low human development
1 Niger 1985 34.4 15.0 49.4 6.8
2 Mali 1987 21.6 9.4 31.0 7.8
4 Sierra Leone 1978 20.8 2.4 23.2 3.6
8 Mauritania 1981 23.1 7.9 31.0 5.1
11 Burundi 1987 27.9 10.4 38.3 7.5
14 Malawi 1981 17.9 6.0 23.9 5.1
17 Nepal 1975 62.5 7.1 69.6 3.2
18 Senegal 1986 16.1 5.5 21.6 6.8
19 Ethiopia 1982 27.8 10.3 38.1 5.5
20 Zaire 1975 19.8 8.6 28.4 4.1
21 Rwanda 1976 21.4 6.4 27.8 3.9
23 Bangladesh 1986 51.2 9.2 60.4 5.9
25 Yemen Arab Rep. 1979 54.9 6.3 61.2 3.7
26 Liberia 1976 16.0 4.3 20.3 3.8
27 Togo 1977 17.6 7.7 25.3 4.5
29 Haiti 1978 33.0 4.4 37.4 3.6
30 Ghana 1988 21.4 5.7 27.1 7.4
31 Yemen, PDR 1983 232 2.6 25.8 4.6
32 Cote d'ivoire 1986 10.2 2.2 12.4 6.1
33 Congo 1987 16.4 7.2 23.6 7.8
35 Tanzania 1988 42.0 6.0 48.0 6.7
36 Pakistan 1987 38.6 12.9 51.5 7.3
37 India 1982 34.8 6.1 40.9 4.6
38 Madagascar 1984 24.5 8.3 32.8 6.0
39 Papua New Guinea 1984 33.8 0.9 34.7 4.4
41 Cameroon 1978 14.2 3.1 17.3 4.0
44 Morocco 1987 12.1 3.6 15.7 7.1
Medium human development
45 Egypt 1978 15.1 1.5 16.6 3.5
46 Lao PDR 1984 27.8 8.9 36.7 5.9
49 Bolivia 1981 13.5 1.0 14.5 3.9
50 Myanmar 1985 31.7 6.3 38.0 5.7
51 Honduras 1987 16.6 4.0 20.6 6.8
52 Zimbabwe 1988 10.2 1.3 11.5 6.6
54 Indonesia 1987 50.0 1.3 51.3 5.4
55 Guatemala 1987 25.1 8.4 33.5 7.3
56 Viet Nam 1986 39.0 12.5 51.5 6.7
58 Botswana 1987 13.3 1.7 15.0 6.1
60 Tunisia 1975 16.4 4.8 21.2 3.7
61 Iran, Islamic Rep. 1980 32.3 10.8 43.1 48
63 Dominican Rep. 1986 9.8 2.7 12.5 6.5
65 Philippines 1982 29.6 3.0 32.6 4.3
71 Nicaragua 1982 9.6 0.9 10.5 4.3
74 Peru 1984 11.1 2.3 13.4 5.4
75 Ecuador 1987 15.8 0.7 16.5 5.5
78 Thailand 1987 21.5 4.3 25.8 6.5
80 Brazil 1986 9.9 2.8 12.7 6.5
81 Mauritius 1985 17.9 6.0 23.9 6.4
83 Sri Lanka 1987 29.5 8.6 38.1 7.0
High human development
86 Colombia 1986 9.9 2.0 11.9 6.1
87 Jamaica 1978 7.5 1.8 9.3 4.0
88 Kuwait 1984 5.0 1.4 6.4 5.7
89 Venezuela 1982 8.5 1.7 10.2 4.8
93 Panama 1980 12.3 3.4 15.7 4.6
94 Trinidad and Tobago 1987 6.5 0.4 6.9 5.6
96 Singapore 1972 11.1 3.1 14.2 3.3
103 Costa Rica 1982 4.8 1.2 6.0 4.9
107 Chile 1986 2.0 0.5 2.5 6.5
98 ANNEX
ANNEX TABLE 3
Primary enrolment targets for the year 2000
Net primary school enrolment target of 100%
Net primary
school Average Annual Year
enrolment annual growth rate reaching
ratio growth rate needed to target
(%) reach target using past
1980 1986-88 1980-87 by 2000 growth rate
Low human development
2 Mali 20 19 -1.11 13.86
3 Burkina Faso 15 27 8.76 1060 2003
5 Chad 38 7.84
6 Guinea 23 11.97
7 Somalia 20 15 -4.49 16.01
10 Benin 50 5.48
11 Burundi 21 42 10.22 7.00 1997
13 Mozambique 36 45 3.24 6.33 2013
14 Malawi 43 49 1.73 5.72 2030
16 Central African Rep. 57 49 -2.14 5.64
17 Nepal 56 4.63
18 Senegal 37 50 4.40 5.48 2004
19 Ethiopia 27 10.60
21 Rwanda 59 64 1.17 3.49 2026
23 Bangladesh 56 4.63
27 Togo 73 2.45
28 Uganda 41 720
29 Haiti 37 44 2.34 6.61 2024
35 Tanzania, United Rep. 68 51 -4.16 5.40
44 Morocco 62 57 -1.19 4.42
Medium human development
48 Oman 50 80 6.94 1.73 1991
49 Bolivia 77 83 1.08 1.44 2005
52 Zimbabwe 100
54 Indonesia 88 98 1.55 0.16 1989
57 Algeria 81 89 1.35 0.90 1996
58 Botswana 76 89 2.28 0.90 1993
59 EI Salvador 62 3.81
60 Tunisia 83 95 1.87 0.44 1991
61 Iran, Islamic Rep. 94 0.52
62 Syrian Arab Rep. 91 97 092 0.23 1991
63 Dominican Rep. 79 1.83
64 Saudi Arabia 50 56 1.63 4.56 2023
65 Philippines 94 94 0.00 0.48
66 China 95 0.40
71 Nicaragua 74 77 0.48 2.08 2044
73 Jordan 93 88 -0.79 0.99
76 Iraq 100 87 -2.05 1.12
77 United Arab Emirates 73 89 2.79 0.94 1992
79 Paraguay 87 85 -0.33 1.26
81 Mauritius 94 0.48
83 Sri Lanka 100
High human development
86 Colombia 73 2.45
88 Kuwait 84 79 -0.87 1.83
92 Cuba 98 95 -0.52 0.44
93 Panama 90 0.86
94 Trinidad and Tobago 88 88 -0.08 1.03
96 Singapore 99 100 0.14
97 Korea, Rep. 99 100 0.07
103 Costa Rica 89 85 -0.65 1.26
108 Hong Kong 95 95 0.00 0.40
ANNEX 99
ANNEX TABLE 4
Literacy targets for the year 2000
Halving the estimated 1990 illiteracy rate Female illiteracy no higher than male
Adult Annual Year Female Annual Year
illiteracy Average reduction reaching illiteracy Average reduction reaching
rate annual rate needed target rate annual rate needed target
(%) reduction to reach using past (%) reduction to reach using past
rate (%) target reduction rate (%) target reduction
1970 1985 1970-85 by 2000 rate 1970 1985 1970-85 by 2000 rate
Low human development
1 Niger 96 86 0.73 4.75 2080 98 91 0.49 5.11 2100 +
2 Mali 93 83 0.73 4.75 2080 96 89 0.50 5.21 2100 +
3 Burkina Faso 92 86 0.42 4.65 2100 + 97 94 0.21 5.18 2100 +
4 Sierra Leone 87 70 1.41 4.97 2034 92 79 1.01 5.70 2072
5 Chad 89 74 1.20 4.90 2043 98 89 0.64 6.04 2100 +
6 Guinea 86 71 1.24 4.91 2041 93 83 0.76 5.86 2100 +
7 Somalia 97 88 0.67 4.73 2089 99 94 0.34 5.17 2100 +
9 Afghanistan 93 76 1.30 4.93 2038 98 92 0.42 6.14 2100 +
10 Benin 85 73 0.94 4.82 2059 92 84 0.60 5.67 2100 +
11 Burundi 81 65 1.38 4.96 2035 90 73 1.39 5.66 2048
100 ANNEX
Halving the estimated 1990 illiteracy rate Female illiteracy no higher than male
Adult Annual Year Female Annual Year
illiteracy Average reduction reaching illiteracy Average reduction reaching
rate annual rate needed target rate annual rate needed target
(%) reduction to reach using past (%) reduction to reach using past
rate (%) target reduction rate (%) target reduction
1970 1985 1970-85 by 2000 rate 1970 1985 1970-85 by 2000 rate
62 Syrian Arab Rep. 60 40 2.67 5.37 2011 80 57 2.23 7.58 2038
63 Dominican Rep. 33 22 2.67 5.37 2011 35 23 2.76 565 2017
64 Saudi Arabia 92 98 69 2.31
65 Philippines 18 14 1.48 4.99 2032 19 15 1.56 5.42 2039
67 Libyan Arab Jam. 64 34 4.08 5.83 2002 87 50 3.63 8.22 2020
69 Lebanon 32 22 2.29 5.25 2015 42 31 2.00 7.33 2042
70 Mongolia 20 26 13 4.52
71 Nicaragua 43 12 8.09 7.16 1994 43
72 Turkey 49 26 3.99 5.80 2003 66 38 3.61 8.08 2020
73 Jordan 54 25 4.86 6.09 1999 71 37 4.25 8.43 2016
74 Peru 30 15 4.41 5.94 2001 40 22 3.91 8.31 2018
75 Ecuador 29 17 3.39 5.61 2006 32 20 3.08 6.62 2018
76 Iraq 66 11 11.26 8.24 1991 82 13 11.55 9.26 1997
78 Thailand 21 9 5.48 6.29 1998 28 12 5.49 8.07 2008
79 Paraguay 20 12 3.33 5.59 2006 25 15 3.35 6.96 2017
80 Brazil 34 22 2.72 5.39 2011 37 24 2.84 5.80 2017
81 Mauritius 32 17 4.16 5.86 2002 41 23 3.78 7.76 2017
83 Sri Lanka 23 13 3.72 5.71 2004 31 17 3.93 7.37 2014
High human development
85 Malaysia 41 26 2.91 5.45 2009 52 34 2.79 7.13 2025
86 Colombia 23 24 12 4.52
88 Kuwait 47 30 2.88 5.44 2009 58 37 2.95 6.75 2021
89 Venezuela 25 13 4.27 5.89 2001 29 15 4.30 6.79 2009
91 Mexico 27 10 6.29 6.56 1996 31 12 6.13 7.69 2004
92 Cuba 14 4 7.79 7.06 1994 13 4 7.56 7.06 1999
93 Panama 19 11 3.58 5.67 2005 19 12 3.02 6.21 2017
94 Trinidad and Tobago 8 4 4.52 5.98 2000 11 5 5.12 7.37 2007
96 Singapore 27 14 4.11 5.84 2002 45 21 4.95 8.30 2011
97 Korea, Rep. 13 19 9 4.86
99 Argentina 7 4 2.91 5.45 2009 8 4 4.52 4.71 2001
102 Uruguay 7 5 2.22 5.23 2016 7
103 Costa Rica 13 7 4.26 5.89 2001 13 7 4.04 6.35 2009
107 Chile 11 2 10.74 8.07 1992 12 3 8.83 10.52 2004
108 Hong Kong 23 12 4.13 5.85 2002 36 19 4.17 8.58 2017
ANNEX 101
ANNEX TABLE 5
Safe water targets for the year 2000
100% access to safe water
Percentage of Annual growth Year
people with access Avera~e annual rate needed reaching target
growt rate (%) to reach target uSing past
1975 1985-87 1975-86 by 2000 growth rate
Low human development
1 Niger 27 47 5.17 5.54 2001
2 Mali 17 13.49
3 Burkina Faso 25 67 9.38 2.90 1991
4 Sierra Leone 25 10.41
5 Chad 26
6 Guinea 14 19 2.82 12.59 2046
7 Somalia 38 34 -1.01 8.01
9 Afghanistan 9 21 8.01 11.79 2007
10 Benin 34 52 3.94 4.78 2003
11 Burundi 26 10.10
13 Mozambique 16 13.99
14 Malawi 56 4.23
15 Sudan 21 11.79
17 Nepal 8 29 12.42 9.24 1997
18 Senegal 53 4.64
19 Ethiopia 8 16 6.50 13.99 2016
20 Zaire 19 33 5.15 8.24 2009
21 Rwanda 68 50 -2.76 5.08
22 Angola 30 8.98
23 Bangladesh 56 46 -1.77 5.70
24 Nigeria 46 5.70
25 Yemen Arab Rep. 42 6.39
26 Liberia 55 4.36
27 Togo 16 55 11.88 4.36 1992
28 Uganda 35 20 -4.96 12.18
29 Haiti 12 38 11.05 7.16 1996
30 Ghana 35 56 4.37 4.23 2000
31 Yemen, PDR 54 4.50
32 Cote d'ivoire 19 12.59
33 Congo 38 21 -5.25 11.79
35 Tanzania, United Rep. 39 56 3.34 4.23 2004
36 Pakistan 25 44 5.27 6.04 2002
37 India 31 57 5.69 4.10 1997
38 Madagascar 25 32 2.27 8.48 2037
39 Papua New Guinea 20 27 2.77 9.80 2034
40 Kampuchea, Dem. 3 28.46
41 Cameroon 33 8.24
42 Kenya 17 30 530 8.98 2010
43 Zambia 42 59 3.14 3.84 2004
44 Morocco 60 3.72
Medium human development
45 Egypt 73 2.27
46 Lao PDR 21 11.79
47 Gabon 92 0.60
48 Oman 53 4.64
49 Bolivia 34 44 2.37 6.04 2022
50 Myanmar 17 27 4.30 9.80 2018
51 Honduras 41 50 1.82 5.08 2025
53 Lesotho 17 36 7.06 7.57 2001
54 Indonesia 11 38 11.93 7.16 1995
55 Guatemala 39 38 -0.24 7.16
56 Viet Nam 46 5.70
57 Algeria 77 68 -1.12 2.79
58 Botswana 54 4.50
59 EI Salvador 53 52 -0.17 4.78
60 Tunisia 68 2.79
61 Iran, Islamic Rep. 51 76 3.69 1.98 1994
62 Syrian Arab Rep. 76 1.98
63 Dominican Rep. 55 63 1.24 3.36 2024
64 Saudi Arabia 64 97 3.85 0.22 1987
65 Philippines 40 52 2.41 4.78 2014
102 ANNEX
100% access to safe water
Percentage of Annual growth Year
people with access Avera~e annual rate needed reaching target
growt rate (%) to reach target using past
1975 1985-87 1975-86 by 2000 growth rate
ANNEX 103
Technical notes
(HDI) = (l - 1) (3)
J J
The sources for the text tables and figures, unless WHO 1988b; 1989c, 1989d and 198ge; World
otherwise noted here, are the same as the sources Bank 1983, 1986a and 1986b; World Commission
for the human development indicators in the ap- on Environment and Development 1987; World
pendix. These sources are listed at the end of the Food Council 1987; and Zvekic and Mattie 1987.
appendix. References for the boxes are as follows: Box
Chapter 1 draws from the following: Buhrnann 2.1, Leonard and contributors 1989. Box 2.4,
and others 1988, pp. 130-31; Griffin and Knight Davies and Saunders 1988. Box 2.5, Reid 1988.
1989; Haq 1988; Sen 1981a and 1985; United References for the figures are as follows: Fig.
Nations 1986d and 1989d; UNDP 1988a; USAID 2.6,1101987, p. 17. Fig. 2.17, Bramwell 1988.
1989; and World Bank 1989. The references for References for the tables are as follows: Table
box 1.4 are: Buhrnann and others 1988; United 2.5, United Nations 198ge, p. 74. Table 2.6,
Nations 1986d; USAID 1989; and World Bank Roussel 1986, p. 933.
1989. Chapter 3 draws from the following: Fei,
Chapter 2 draws from the following: African Ranis and Kuo 1979; Fields 1989; Halstead, Walsh
DevelopmentBank, UNDP and World Bank 1990; and Warren 1985; IMP various years; and World
Alexandratos 1988; Berg 1981 and 1987; Cohen Bank 1989.
1989; ECLAC and Centro Latino Americano de References for the country case studies are:
Demografia 1988; FAO 1986 and various years; Adelman and Robinson 1978; Alailima 1984; Ban-
Fields 1989; Fordham Institute for Innovation in nister 1987; Boyd 1988; Brundenius 1981, pp.
Social Policy 1989; !FAD 1989; 110 1988 and 1083-96; Chen 1988; Davies and Saunders 1988;
various years; Patel 1989; Pinstrup-Andersen 1988; Departamento Nacional de Planeaci6n and others
Sen 1981b; Serageldin 1989; UNCTAD 1988; 1989; Dreze and Sen forthcoming; Edirisinghe
UNDP 1988b and 1988c; UNICEF 1989b and 1987; FEDESAROLLO 1989; Government of
1989c; United Nations 1987 and 1988a; U.S. House Colombia 1988; ILO 1972; Jamison and others
of Representatives 1989; WHO 1989a and 1989b; 1984; Meerman 1979; Quinn and others 1988;
World Bank 1986c; and Zuckerman 1988. Raczynski 1988; Rosero-Bixby 1985; Sahota 1980;
Additional sources for the sections include: Stewart 1985; Sul and Williamson 1988; UNICEF,
Albanez and others 1989; Athreya 1984; Barcellos Colombo 1988; World Bank 1987, 1988a and
and others 1986; Berry 1980; Bramwell 1988; Brown 1988b.
and others 1989; Carlson and Wardlaw 1990; Caton References for the boxes are as follows: Box
1990; Cernea 1985 and 1988; Chambers 1989; 3.1, Stewart 1988. Box 3.2, Edirisinghe 1987, p.9;
Chen, Huq and D'Souza 1981; Commonwealth and UNICEF, Colombo 1988. Box 3.3, Jamison
Secretariat 1989; Cornia, Jolly and Stewart 1987; 1985; World Bank 1987; and Chen 1988.
Cotic 1988; Das Gupta 1987; Davies and Saunders Chapter 4 draws from the following: African
1988; Drabek 1987;FAO 1988; Fei, Ranis andKuo Development Bank, UNDP and World Bank 1990;
1979; Findlay and Zvekic 1988; Ghai 1989; Ghai Alderman and Gertler 1989; Anderson 1987; Berg
and de Alcantara 1989; ILO 1987 and various 1987; Chambers 1985; Demery and Addison 1987;
years; Jacobson 1988; Jamal and Weeks 1988; Gertler and Glewwe 1989; Gertler and van der
Jamison and Lau 1983; Leonard and contributors Gaag 1988; Jolly 1989; Kanbur 1988; Nelson and
1989; Mouly 1989; Nadelmann 1989; Newman contributors 1989; Patel 1989; Pinstrup-Andersen
1989; Potter 1978; Preble 1989; Psacharopoulos 1988; Roth 1987; Stelcner, Arriagada and Moock
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Selected definitions
Birth rate (crude) The annual number of Earnings per employee Earnings in con-
births per 1,000 population. stant prices derived by deflating nominal earn-
Births attended The percentage of births ings per employee by the country's consumer
attended by physicians, nurses, midwives, price index.
trained primary health care workers or trained Educated unemployed as a percentage of
traditional birth attendants. total unemployed The number ofprofessional,
Budget surplus or deficit Current capital technical and reiated workers (International
revenue and grants received, less total expen- Standard Classification of Occupatiohs
diture and lending minus repayments. (ISCO) major group 0/1) and administrative
Calorie supply See Daily calorie supply. and managerial workers (lSCO major group
Child malnutrition See Underweight. 0/2) reported as unemployed as a proportion
Childmortality See Under-five mortality. of the totai number ofworkers reported as un-
Contraceptive prevalence rate The per- employed. The number of persons unem-
centage ofmarried women ofchildbearing age ployed includes those without work and those
who are using, or whose husbands are using, currently available for work as well as those
any form of contraception: that is, modern or seeking work.
traditional methods. Education expenditures Expenditures on
Daily calorie requirement per capita The the provision, management, inspection and
average number of calories needed to sustain support ofpreprimary, primary and secondary
a person at normal levels of activity and health, schools; universities and colleges; vocational,
taking into account the distribution by age, technical and other training institutions; and
sex, body weight and environmental tempera- general administration and subsidiary serv-
ture. ices.
Daily calorie supply per capita The calo- Employees Regular employees, working
rie equivalent of the net food supplies in a proprietors, active business partners, and
country, divided by the population, per day. unpaid family workers, but excluding home-
Death rate (crude) The annual number workers.
of deaths per 1,000 population. Enrolment ratios (gross and net) The gross
Debt service The sum of repayments of enrolment ratio is the number enrolled in a
principle (amortisation) and payments ofinter- level of education, whether or not they belong
est made in foreign currencies, goods or serv- in the relevant age group for that level, ex-
ices on external, public, publicly guaranteed pressed as a percentage of the population in
and private nonguaranteed debt. the relevant age group for that level. The net
Dependency ratio The ratio of the popu- enrolment ratio is the number enrolled in a
lation defined as dependent, under 15 and level of education who belong in the relevant
over 64 years, to the working-age population, age group, expressed as a percentage of the
aged 15-64. population in that age group.
Domestic savings (gross) The gross do- Expenditures
mestic product less government and private See Government expenditures.
consumption. Exports ofgoods and services The value of
Dropout rate The proportion of the chil- all goods and nonfactor services provided to
dren entering the first grade of primary school the rest of the world, including merchandise,
who do not successfully complete that level in freight, insurance, travel and other nonfactor
due course. servIces.
Sub-Saharan Africa Middle East and North Africa Asia and Oceania
Data for the topics in italics have been taken from college and university enrolment. Scientists and
more than one major source. technicians. Teachers. Television.
Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United United Nations Fund for Population Activities
Nations (FAO) (UNFPA)
Arable land. Calorie supply. Deforestation. Food Contraceptive prevalence.
imports. Food production. Fuelwood. Land area.
Livestock. United Nations Industrial Development Organi-
zation (UNIDO)
Habitat Earnings
Persons per habitable room
United Nations Population Division
Institute for Resource Development Birth and death rates. Dependency ratio. Fertility.
Breastfeeding. Child malnutrition. Infant and under-five mortality. Life expectancy.
Population: total, urban, and rural. Population
International Centre for Urban Studies density.
City population density.
United Nations Statistical Office
International Labour Organisation (110) Exports and imports. GDP. Infant mortality. Per-
Labour force. Unemployment. sons per habitable room. Real GDP per capita. Real
GDP per capita expenditures. Terms of trade.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Total population.
Budget surplus/deficit. Inflation. International
reserves. Military, health andeducation expenditures. United States Agency for International Devel-
State and local expenditures on social services. opment (USAID)
Real GDP per capita.
Interparliamentary Union
Women in parliament. World Bank
Debt service and interest payments. Domestic sav-
Luxembourg Income Study Database (LIS)
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Real GDP per capita poverty line.
hold income. Military, health and education expendi-
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and tures. Population below poverty line. State and local
Development (OECD) expenditures on social services.
Debt service and interest payments. ODA, received
World Fertility Survey
and given.
Breastfeeding.
United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)
World Food Programme (WFP)
Breastjeeding. Child malnutrition. Immunisation.
Food aid.
Under-five mortality.