Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

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Applied Mathematical Modelling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apm

Transient ow in natural gas pipeline The effect of pipeline

thermal model
Maciej Chaczykowski *
Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Heating and Gas Systems Department, Nowowiejska 20, 00-653 Warszawa, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One-dimensional, nonisothermal gas ow model was solved to simulate the slow and fast
Received 5 March 2009 uid transients, such as those typically found in high-pressure gas transmission pipelines.
Received in revised form 3 July 2009 The results of the simulation were used to understand the effect of different pipeline ther-
Accepted 24 July 2009
mal models on the ow rate, pressure and temperature in the pipeline. It was found that
Available online 5 August 2009
simplied ow model with steady-state heat transfer term overestimates the amplitude
of the temperature uctuations in the pipeline. This result indicated that unsteady heat
Keywords:
transfer model with the effect of heat accumulation in the surroundings of the pipeline
Natural gas pipeline
Nonisothermal gas ow model
should be used to calculate the gas parameters at locations of interest within high-pressure
Heat transfer in gas pipeline gas transmission pipelines.
2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The simulation of natural gas transmission pipelines involves the numerical solution of a system of initial valued partial
differential equations representing mass, momentum and energy conservation laws for ow within a pipeline. In many pipe-
line simulations rapid changes in the solution are present due to the disturbances generated by the uctuations in demand as
well as the operation of system controlling devices such as valves, compressors and pressure regulators. As a result, noniso-
thermal gas ow models of hyperbolic type are used, to account for sharp changes in the gas pressure, temperature and ow
rate.
When analysing the thermodynamics of pipeline ow models there are two extreme cases: isothermal ow, and adiabatic
ow. In case of the isothermal process, it is assumed that the gas in the pipe has had sufcient time to reach thermal equi-
librium with constant-temperature surroundings of the pipeline. This implies innite heat capacity of the surroundings,
therefore the gas temperature is constant and equal with the temperature of the surroundings. Isothermal ow corresponds
to slow transient processes caused by the varying gas demands. Many related design problems could be solved using isother-
mal ow processes to make the computation simpler, because energy equation is replaced by the isothermal process equa-
tion. Examples of such research studies are given in the papers by Kiuchi [1], Ke and Ti [2], and, more recently, Herrn et al.
[3].
Adiabatic ow corresponds to rapid transients, where fast dynamic changes in state parameters occur, allowing no time
for heat transfer to take place between the gas in the pipe and the surroundings. Dynamic effects are important in case of
large uctuations of demands, and are extremely important when calculating the effects of rapid transient processes result-
ing from short term emergencies like a temporary reduction in supply due to equipment failure. The relatively slow effects of
heat conduction to the pipeline surroundings are neglected. Numerical simulation of fast transients in natural gas pipeline
following the rapid closure of downstream shut-off valves has been performed by Grayvenstein [4]. The solution of the

* Tel.: +48 22 234 50 57; fax: +48 22 825 29 92.

E-mail address: maciej.chaczykowski@is.pw.edu.pl

0307-904X/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.apm.2009.07.017
1052 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Nomenclature

A cross-section area of the pipe (m2)

B second virial coefcient (m3/mol)
C third virial coefcient (m6/mol2)
cp specic heat at constant pressure (J/(kgK))
cv specic heat at constant volume (J/(kgK))
D pipe diameter (mm)
f Darcy friction factor ()
g the net body force per unit mass (the acceleration of gravity) (m/s2)
h specic enthalpy (J/kg)
k heat transfer coefcient (W/(mK))
L pipeline length (m)
m heat transfer element mass (kg)
N number of pipeline discretisation sections ()
n number of discretisation sections of heat transfer area ()
p gas pressure (Pa)
q rate of heat transfer per unit time and unit mass of the gas (W/kg)
Q volumetric ow rate (m3/s)
R specic gas constant (J/(kgK))
Re Reynolds number ()
t time (s)
T gas temperature (K)
u specic internal energy (J/kg)
U overall heat transfer coefcient (W/m2 K)
v specic volume (m3/kg)
w ow velocity (m/s)
x spatial coordinate (m)
z compressibility factor ()
Z pipeline depth (m)

Greek symbols
a angle between the direction x and the horizontal
e roughness of inner pipe surface (m)
k thermal conductivity (W/(mK))
q density of the gas (kg/m3)

Subscripts
amb ambience
i iteration index
j spatial coordinate discretisation section index
m molar
n normal conditions
Note ow rate Qn is shown in normal conditions of 273.15 K, 101.325 kPa

adiabatic gas ow model with constant compressibility factor was presented and an implicit predictorcorrector method for
numerical integration was used. Similar problem was investigated by Gato and Henriques [5]. They simulated the adiabatic
gas ow with the ideal gas model using RungeKutta discontinuous Galerkin method.
In more specic case of adiabatic ow, when friction effects are negligible, assumption of the isentropic ow would be
possible. This condition, however, is not usually valid in natural gas transmission problems, since the order of magnitude
of the friction term in momentum equation is signicant and the presence of friction causes that the adiabatic ow in pipes
is not isentropic.
Transient nonisothermal modelling of different pipeline operating conditions is widely used, especially when testing var-
ious control strategies proposed for the gas transmission system. The pipeline system consists of a sequence of pipes and
compressor stations. Compressor stations account for the increase of the gas temperature arising from the conversion of a
part of the work into heat during polytropic compression. The discharge temperature of the compressor is a function of suc-
tion temperature and compressor ratio and can be calculated based on isentropic efciency. Heating of the gas is an unde-
sired side effect of the compression. For higher discharge temperature, the mean specic volume of the gas in the pipeline is
greater, resulting in the increase of the gas velocity and the pressure drop in the pipeline. Therefore, the temperature of the
gas at the outlet node of the compressor station strongly affects the capacity of a transmission system. For higher suction
 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1053

temperature, the specic volume of the gas during compression is greater and the power necessary to compress the gas is
also greater. Compressor power and gas ow rate are key parameters for calculating fuel consumption of the compressor
driver. Furthermore, operational cost of running of the compressor is usually assumed to be equal to the cost of the fuel con-
sumed by the driver. Consequently, the temperature of the gas at the inlet node of the compressor has a signicant effect on
the operational cost of running of the compressors. Line-pack and leak detection calculations are another examples of the
studies requiring more accurate description of the thermodynamics of pipeline ow which includes the changes of the
gas temperature.
Solution of the nonisothermal ow model requires certain type of pipeline thermal model, as a component of the ow
model responsible for heat ow in the gas and through the pipeline walls. Depending on the form of heat transfer term, there
are two models for obtaining the amount of heat exchanged by the gas with its surrounding environment: (i) steady-state,
and (ii) unsteady heat transfer. Taking the accuracy and the complexity of the real gas effects description, some models de-
scribed can be categorized, in essence, into three types: (i) ideal or semi-ideal gas models, (ii) models with constant com-
pressibility factor, and (iii) models with compressibility factor and its derivatives as a function of pressure and temperature.
Several research efforts were focused on different nonisothermal pipeline ow models. The transient gas ow model with
the steady-state heat transfer and the ideal gas model was solved using the method of characteristics by Issa and Spalding
[6]. Winterbone and Pearson [7] compared the ideal gas model solved by the method of characteristics with the semi-ideal
gas model (enthalpy and internal energy as a polynomial functions of temperature and the equation of state for an ideal gas)
solved by the two-step LaxWendroff method. The effect of considering specic heat capacities as a functions of temperature
was clearly seen in the temperature proles.
Tenties et al. [8] solved the nonisothermal gas ow model with the steady-state heat transfer term and constant com-
pressibility factor in the energy equation using adaptive method of lines. The velocity wave propagation as a result of fast
transients created by the sudden closure of the valve at the downstream end of the pipe was considered.
In the paper [9] comparison of isothermal and nonisothermal pipeline gas ow models has been presented. Nonisother-
mal model contained a simplied form of the energy equation with constant compressibility factor, and the steady-state heat
transfer model. It has been shown that there exists a signicant difference in the pressure prole along the pipeline between
isothermal and nonisothermal ow processes.
Oke et al. [10] analysed transient outow model resulting from pipeline rupture. Numerical simulation based on the
method of characteristics with the steady-state heat transfer across the pipeline wall has been performed. The thermody-
namic description of the model included real gas effects. The property relationships, like speed of sound, ratio of specic
heats and the specic heat capacity at constant pressure were calculated using PengRobinson equation of state.
Recently, nonisothermal transient ow of gas in natural gas pipeline was analysed by Abbaspour and Chapman [11]. The
compressibility factor as a function of pressure and temperature and the steady-state heat ow between the gas in the pipe
and the surroundings was assumed.
The objective of this study is to simulate nonisothermal, one-dimensional compressible ow through a gas pipeline with a
more detailed pipeline thermal model by considering unsteady heat transfer term in the energy equation. The effect of heat
accumulation in the ground surrounding the pipeline will be presented and discussed. Method of lines is used to solve the
nonlinear differential equations. Therefore, the contribution of every single term in the energy equation will be easily
presented.

2. Mathematical formulation

2.1. Transient pipeline gas ow model

The equations expressing mass, momentum and energy conservation laws and describing one-dimensional compressible
ow within a gas pipeline can be expressed as follows:

oq oqw
0; 1
ot ox  
oqw o p qw2 f qwjwj
  qg sin a; 2
ot ox 2D
     
o w2 o w2
u q h qw qq  qwg sin a: 3
ot 2 ox 2
The momentum equation in the above gas ow model contains inertia term oqotw. Gas ow models containing inertia term
are partial differential equations of hyperbolic type and can be used if rapid transients occur in the pipeline. The form of the
friction term  f q2D wjwj
in momentum equation is most frequently used in America and Europe, but in the UK the form used is
2f 0 qwjwj 0

D
where f = f/4 is Fanning friction factor, dened as the ratio of the pipeline wall shearing stress to the dynamic head of
the stream. The complete derivation of the so-called conservative form of the above equations with pressure, velocity, and
temperature as the dependent variables and the compressibility factor as a function of pressure and temperature is given in
the review article by Thorley and Tiley [12]. Gas velocity measurement data, however, are not readily available in the gas
industry, since volumetric ow rate at normal conditions or mass ow rate are of primary interest for custody transfer.
1054 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Therefore the continuity, momentum, and energy equations should be rewritten in terms of the mass ow rate, as presented
in the paper by Abbaspour and Chapman [11]. Similar approach has been adopted in this study and the equivalent form of
the set of nonlinear partial differential equations with pressure, volumetric ow rate at normal conditions, and temperature
takes the form:
"   #   1    1
op 1 1 oz 1 1 oz oT qn zRT 1 1 oz oQ n
   ; 4
ot T z oT p p z op T ot pA p z op T ox
     
oQ n q Q zRT oQ n 1 1 oz op qn Q n zRT op
 n n Qn  
ot pA ox p z op T ot pA ox
"   # 
1 1 oz oT qn Q n zRT oT A op fzRT qn Q n jQ n j
 Qn   ; 5
T z oT p ot pA ox qn ox 2DAp
"   #
oT q Q zRT oT RT qn Q n zRT 1 1 oz
 n n  zT
ot pA ox cv pA T z oT q
     "   # )  3
1 oQ n 1 1 oz op 1 1 oz oT f zRT qn jQ n j q
   : 6
Q n ox p z op T ox T z oT p ox 2cv D Ap cv

The development of the above set of equations is given in the Appendix. Partial derivatives of pressure, ow rate and tem-
perature with respect to time are on the left-hand side of the continuity, momentum and energy equations, respectively, so
that the form of the resulting set of equations was suitable for the method of lines.
Eq. (6) represents the energy conservation law for unit mass of gas in the control volume within a pipeline. The last term
in Eq. (6) represents the heat transfer from the gas to the pipeline surroundings which has a signicant effect on the gas
parameters obtained from the solution of the above model. Possible inuence of the simplication of this component of
the model is discussed in the case studies presented in this paper.
For the closure of the system of Eqs. (4)(6) equation of state is used because the compressibility factor and its derivatives
with respect to pressure and temperature appear in the basic equations. The terms with compressibility factor derivatives
are usually relatively small, therefore most studies assume either a simple form of the equation of state or constant com-
pressibility factor to reduce computational time.

2.2. Real gas model

In this study GERG-88 method (Groupe Europen de Recherches Gazires, 1988) was used to calculate compressibility
factor according to ISO 12213-3:1997 (natural gas calculation of compression factor part 3: calculation using physical
properties). Current standards in the natural gas industry call for the compressibility factor to be predicted with the uncer-
tainty within 0.1% in the range of conditions in which the custody transfer operations take place, i.e. T = 1060 C and
p 6 12 MPa. GERG-88 is an example of the specic methods devised to meet the accuracy requirements of the custody
transfer in the gas industry. It was developed by a group of European gas companies and is widely used to calculate the

Fig. 1. Comparison of compressibility factor values.

 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1055

compressibility factor of natural gases. Fig. 1 illustrates the results of comparison of the compressibility factor values from
GERG-88 with the results obtained from the improved HallYarborough correlation for StandingKatz chart presented by
Hall and Iglesias-Silva [13]. The calculations were carried out for the natural gas as a 9-component mixture with a molar
composition of CH4  98.3455%, C2H6  0.6104%, C3H8  0.1572%, iC4H10  0.0299%, n-C4H10  0.0253%, iC5H12 
0.0055%, nC5H12  0.0040%, N2  0.0303% and CO2  0.7918%. The gas composition is representative for the transmission
system examined in the case studies following. The range of pressure and temperature conditions is characteristic for natural
gas industry (i.e. 0.125 MPa, 2090 degrC, which corresponds to the reduced pressure and temperature ranges 0.025.5
and 1.31.9, respectively.)
The differences result from (i) different accuracy (and complexity) of the methods, and (ii) the discrepancies associated
with different sets of empirical data used to determine the tting correlations. The modied HallYarborough equation of
state is based on the theory of corresponding states and ts the data of 890 points from the StandingKatz chart within
an absolute average deviation (AAD) of 0.24%. GERG-88 method uses virial equation of state based upon statisticalmechan-
ical theory. The equation was developed based on experimental data of 4473 points with an overall AAD of 0.039%. The
uncertainty in the prediction of the compressibility factor for the natural gases is 0.1% (for the temperature range 263
338 K) at pressures up to 10 MPa and 0,2% between 10 and 12 MPa.
In GERG-88 method, natural gas is treated as a ve-component mixture consisting of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen and the sum of the hydrocarbons, dened as an equivalent hydrocarbon gas. The molar heating value of the
gas mixture with the equivalent hydrocarbon gas is equal to the heating value of the natural gas. In this way, only four input
parameters (mole fractions of two components, caloric value and relative density) can produce sufcient information to
characterise the gas composition, which can be particularly useful in case the complete compositional analysis of the natural
gas is unavailable.
GERG-88 equation of state is in the form of the virial expansion truncated at the third virial coefcient:

Z 1 Bqm C q2m ; 7
3
where qm molar density of the gas, mol/m .
It is convenient to rewrite Eq. (7) as a series in powers of pressure instead of molar density. An equivelent form used for
calculation of the derivatives of compressibility factor is

Z 1 B0 p C 0 p2 : 8
The new virial coefcients in terms of B, C are
B
B0 ; 9
RT
C  B2
C0 : 10
RT 2
Therefore the equations for the rst derivatives of the compressibility factor with respect to density, temperature and
pressure are
 
oz p dB p2 dC
; 11
oT q zRT dT zRT 2 dT
     
oz p dB B p2 dC dB 2p2

 2
 2B 2 3 B2  C ; 12
oT p RT dT T RT dT dT R T

  2
oz B 2 CB
p: 13
op T RT RT 2
The constants, gas parameters and mixing rules for the calculation of virial coefcients in Eq. (7) are available in ISO
12213-3:1997

2.3. Heat transfer model

In the energy equation, the heat transfer term q represents the amount of heat exchanged between unit mass of gas and
the surroundings per unit time. Application of Fouriers law to calculate the overall heat transfer between the gas and the
ground, for a discretisation section of a pipeline, yields:
qqAdx kT  T amb dx; 14
where k is a heat transfer coefcient and Tamb is the ambient temperature at the same horizontal level as pipe axis, but at a
sufcient lateral distance from the pipe. Therefore
k
qq  T  T amb : 15
A
1056 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

There exists an analytical steady-state solution for k for a cylinder near a half-plane, which corresponds to the geometry
of a buried pipeline. Nevertheless, it is a common practice to calculate k as for a concentric cylindrical layer, with the distance
between the outer boundary and the pipe equal to the burying depth of the pipe. The ambient temperature is xed and equal
to the ground temperature at the same horizontal level as the pipe axis, and at a sufcient lateral distance from the pipe. Eq.
(15) can be rewritten in the form:

4U
qq  T  T amb : 16
D
The expression k/(pD), denoted as U (W/m2 K) is an overall heat transfer coefcient at the reference pipeline radius D. The
overall heat transfer resistance 1/U is equal to the sum of the resistances of the two individual mechanisms by which heat is
exchanged by the gas with pipeline surroundings: convection from the gas to the inner pipe wall and conduction in the pipe
wall and in the ground. It can be shown that conduction is the only important mechanism during turbulent gas ow. Hence,
it is sufcient to consider the heat transfer within the pipe wall and the ground only [14,15]. Detailed description of this
model with typical performance of insulated pipes can be found in [16]. This method is frequently employed in pipeline sim-
ulations and industrial design. Barletta et al. [17] compared this model with 2D heat transfer between offshore pipeline
(completely buried in a seabed) and the surrounding environment in a steady-periodic regime. Their investigation showed
that for burying depth above 1 m the approximate method underestimates the amplitude of the uctuations of thermal
power and predicts a wrong phase of these oscillations.
Accurate description of heat transfer phenomena in gas pipelines require 2D or even 3D congurations, however the heat
transfer along the axial and circumferential directions of the pipeline can be neglected. Usually in engineering practice, mod-
els describing the heat transfer to the surroundings in gas pipelines are one-dimensional, due to the lack of accurate data
describing the geometry of the ground near the pipeline and the ground properties (temperatures and thermal conductiv-
ities) that are changing along the pipeline. Various methods are used for estimation of the heat transfer term in the energy
equation, most of which assume modication of steady-state heat ow expression and constant thermal resistance of the
surrounding ground.
Some practical aspects of different techniques for ground thermal modelling in oil and gas pipeline simulations were dis-
cussed by Modisette [15]. The author concluded that the fully transient solution of the energy equation and the unsteady
ground thermal model should be used in pipeline simulation applications.
In this work, the process of heat transfer from the gas to the surrounding environment is considered as unsteady, so that
the description of heat ow could take into consideration the effect of heat capacity of the surroundings of a pipeline. Using
the element method, one-dimensional axial-symmetric heat exchange process can be expressed by the following set of equa-
tions, representing thermal balances of the elements coaxial cylindrical layers:

k0
qq  T  T 1 ;
A
m1 cp1 oT 1
k0 T  T 1  k1 T 1  T 2 ;
dx ot
m2 cp2 oT 2 17
k1 T 1  T 2  k2 T 2  T 3 ;
dx ot
..
.
mn cpn oT n
kn1 T n1  T n  kn T n  T amb ;
dx ot
where n is the number of discretisation sections of heat transfer area (equal to number of elements), mi is element mass
(i = 1, . . . n), cpi is the specic heat of element i, micpi is the element heat capacity, dx is the discretisation section of a
pipeline, Ti is the element temperature and ki is the heat transfer coefcient between elements (i1) and i (k0 denotes heat
transfer coefcient between the gas and the rst element). In case of one-dimensional approach, the process of heat
transfer may be modelled by a minimum two cylindrical layers as heat capacitors. Assuming substantially different heat
capacity of the layers so that their time constants were different, the near and the remote surrounding of the pipeline
would respond to temperature changes quickly and slowly, respectively. It has been assumed for the purpose of heat
transfer area discretisation in this study, that every element has the same thermal resistivity. Thus, the temperature
difference between consecutive ground sections (element surfaces) are equal in steady-state, and the initial condition
can be accurately modelled.
The heat transfer model presented in this study is essentially valid for onshore pipelines. Offshore pipelines, depending on
the geometrical position of the pipe with respect to the seabed, can be categorized as (i) partly or completely buried in a sea
bed (conguration created by a trenching or ploughing process), (ii) laying on the sea bed or completely exposed to the sea-
water (a situation which occurs when the pipeline bridges a seabed valley). In case of a buried offshore pipeline, the cong-
uration corresponds to the onshore pipeline. The heat transfer occurs by heat conduction and the effect of heat accumulation
is important. This is different for offshore pipelines exposed to the seawater where the heat is transferred by convection. In
such cases the natural or combined natural and forced convection is present.
 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1057

3. Numerical formulation using the method of lines

Method of lines (MOL) was used for the numerical solution of the system of nonlinear partial differential Eqs. (4)(6).
MOL proceeds with two separate steps:

 Spatial derivatives approximation. In this study nite-difference technique with second-order central-difference interpo-
lation for all internal points was used.
 Time integration of the resulting ordinary differential equations (ODE). In this work, the implicit multistep Gears method
was used [18].

The system (4)(6) is converted to the following ODE system:

"   #
oT qn Q nj zRT j RT j qn Q nj zRT j 1 1 oz
 DX T j  zT j
ot pj A cv pj A T j z oT q
 "   # "   # )
1 1 1 oz 1 1 oz
 DX Q nj   DX pj DX T j
Q nj pj z op T T j z oT p
!3
f zRT j qn jQ nj j q
; j 0; 1; . . . ; N; 18
2cv D Apj cv
"   #"   #1 "   #1
op 1 1 oz 1 1 oz oT qn zRT j 1 1 oz
   DX Q nj ; j 0; 1; . . . ; N; 19
ot T j z oT p pj z op T ot pj A pj z op T
"   # !
oQ n qn Q n zRT j 1 1 oz op qn Q n zRT j
 DX Q nj Q nj   DX pj
ot pj A pj z op T ot pj A
"   # !
1 1 oz oT qn Q n zRT j oT A fzRT j qn Q nj jQ nj j
 Q nj  DX pj  ; j 0; 1; . . . ; N: 20
T j z oT p ot pj A ox qn 2DApj
oT opj oQ nj
where j is the spatial coordinate discretisation section index and DX T j oxj ; DX pj ox
; DX Q nj ox
. The three-point dif-
ferentiation formula for spatial derivative of pressure is given below as an example
2 3
dpx0 2 32 px 3
dx 3 4 1 0    0 0
6 7
dpx1 6 px 7
6 7 6 1 0 1 0 ... 07
6 dx 7 6 76
6
1 7
7
6 . 7 1 6 .. .. .. .. .. 76 .. 7  
DX p 6 7
6 .. 7 2Dx 6 . 6 . . . ... 7
. 76 . 7 O Dx2 : 21
6 7 6 76 7
6 dpxN1 7
4 dx 5
4 0    0 1 0 1 56 7
4 pxN1 5
dpxN 0  0 1 4 3 pxN
dx

Above approximation is second-order correct, i.e. the truncation error is proportional to Dx2. Apart from boundary points,
the derivative of p(x) approximated at point xj is based on function values at grid points xj1, and xj+1.
The implicit multistep Gears method was used for the time integration, because the system of Eqs. (18)(20) (discrete in
space and continuous in time) require the solver which is appropriate for stiff systems of ODEs. The integrator works with a
variable stepsize procedure, and controls both the global error (the error that propagates from previous steps) and the local
error (introduced at the current step). Detailed discussion of the variable stepsize integrators recommended for the simula-
tion of gas transmission networks can be found in the paper by Chua and Dew [19].

4. Results

Two tests were carried out to present the inuence of the unsteady heat transfer model on the pipeline hydraulics. Before
going over to analysis of unsteady heat transfer conditions, the simple case of steady-state heat transfer conditions will be
considered.

4.1. Solution comparison with the Abbaspour and Chapman result

Abbaspour and Chapman [11] solved nonisothermal transient pipeline gas ow model assuming the compressibility fac-
tor as a function of pressure and temperature and incorporating steady-state heat transfer model into the energy equation. In
order to compare the method of solution described in this study with the results presented by Abbaspour and Chapman [11],
steady-state heat transfer model described with the Eq. (16) was used with the constant values of the overall heat transfer
coefcient and the ground temperature.
1058 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

The comparison was carried out for the system described by Kiuchi [1], which is characterized by a section of a pipeline
system of L = 5 km length and D = 0,5 m internal diameter, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The following specications of the pipeline
were considered: number of discretisation sections: 49, ground temperature Tamb = 25 C, overall heat transfer coefcient
U = 2.84 W/(m2 K). The boundary conditions were
p0; t 5:0 MPa;
T0; t f1 t; 22
Q n L; t f2 t:

Fig. 2. Pipeline information.

Fig. 3. Change of temperature at x = 0 for case study 1 (f1(t)).

Fig. 4. Change of ow rate at x = L for case study 1 (f2(t)).

 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1059

Fig. 5. Flow rate at x = 0: (a) this study, (b) study in [11].

The inlet pressure is maintained at 5 MPa and the functions f1(t) and f2(t) are depicted in Figs. 3 and 4, respectively. Darcy
friction factor was calculated using ColebrookWhite equation [20]:
!
1 e 2:51
p 2:0 log p
; 23
f 3:7D Re f

where e is the absolute roughness of the inner surface of the pipe and Re is Reynolds number.
Iterative calculations of friction factor values were carried out for every discretisation section of the pipeline using New-
tons method. The starting value was chosen based on the assumption that the ow was in fully rough turbulent zone.
Fig. 5 compares the results from the current study to those obtained by Abbaspour and Chapman. Both methods give
numerical solutions that oscillate after valve closure which is a reection of the physically existing ow oscillations. The
solution obtained in this study clearly lags behind the solution of Abbaspour and Chapman for the instance of valve opening.
We predict that different nite-difference scheme used in our method might be a possible reason, because Abbaspour and
Chapman used the j + 1 and j-th points for spatial derivatives and dependent variables approximations, while in this study
centered differences are used and only for spatial derivatives.

4.2. Impact of unsteady heat transfer condition: case study 1

For case study 1, the valve opening and closure scenario discussed above is used to test the accuracy of the solution in
case of fast transient occurring in the pipeline. Calculation results are presented in Fig. 6. It was found that during the valve
opening, the steady-state heat transfer model causes signicant ow change followed by wakes in the ow (Fig. 6b) until it
reaches a steady-state condition. While the ow rate obtained from the model with unsteady heat transfer term gradually
increases before the ow reaches the steady-state condition. This effect can be explained by heat accumulation in the
ground, resulting in smaller temperature gradients in the gas. The ow rate is less affected by the temperature changes,
which have a signicant effect on the density of the gas.
In case of valve closure (Fig. 6c) the heat accumulation affected the ow rate during ow uctuations. The mean value of
the ow rate obtained from the solution with unsteady heat transfer more slowly approaches stable ow rate value, however
the decrease of the amplitude of ow uctuations is faster. The initial amplitude of ow oscillations is the same, but the sta-
ble value of the ow rate is faster reached in case of the unsteady heat transfer. The effect can be explained by the response of
the ground temperature to the gas temperature changes which is not present in case of steady-state heat transfer model,
where the ground temperature was constant. Similar effect was demonstrated by Abbaspour and Chapman [11] when com-
paring isothermal and nonisothermal pipeline gas ow models. Isothermal model immediately approached the steady-state
conditions, while nonisothermal solutions gradually approached steady-state values, because the ow rate was affected by
the changes of density, which is a function of temperature. The results of case study 1. suggest that unsteady heat transfer
model can signicantly improve the accuracies of ow rate proles over time.

4.3. Impact of unsteady heat transfer condition: case study 2

For case study 2, transmission pipeline with some larger capacities was used to explore the inuence of thermal behav-
iour of the pipeline surroundings on the operating conditions over a longer and more realistic period of time. The calcula-
tions were carried out for the YamalEurope pipeline, concretely the 363 km pipe section between Kondratki and
1060 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Fig. 6(a). Flow rate at x = 0 (overall operating conditions).

Fig. 6(b). Flow rate at x = 0 (valve opening conditions).

Wloclawek compressor stations on Polish territory. This is a typical onshore gas transmission system with a maximum oper-
ating pressure 8.4 MPa. The distance between the compressor stations is L = 363 km and the pipe diameter D = 1383.6 mm.
The average roughness of the pipe e = 0.0015 mm. The properties of the pipe wall are listed in Table 1. The gas composition
input data for GERG-88 method are Hs = 39.8433 MJ/m3, molar composition of H2  0.000% and CO2  0.792%, density
qn = 0.7347 kg/m3. Ground properties: temperature Tamb = 3.1 C, soil thermal conductivity k = 1.0 W/m K, density
q = 1640 kg/m3, specic heat at constant pressure cp = 1530 (J/kg K), pipe depth Z = 1.5 m. It is clear that in order to explore
different operating conditions of the pipeline, the use of different possible soil types with different moisture content would
be necessary. Ground properties like temperature and thermal conductivity are quantities which are difcult to predict,
therefore the tuning of model parameters is often necessary.
The boundary conditions are

p0; t 8:4 MPa;

T0; t 296:65 K; 24
Q n L; t f3 t:
where f3(t) is depicted in Fig. 7 with a time interval t 2 [0, 10] days. The varying demand prole is arbitrarily selected and the
changes of the demand are relatively frequent in order to test the ability of the simplied models to account for transient
 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1061

Fig. 6(c). Flow rate at x = 0 (valve closure conditions).

Table 1
Properties of pipe wall.

Pipe wall structure Thickness (mm) k (W/m K) q (kg/m3) cp (J/kg K)

Internal coating 0.5 0.52 1800 1050
Steel L480 MB (X 70) 19.22 45.3 7830 500
External coating (polyethylene) 3.0 0.4 940 1900

Fig. 7. Change of ow rate at x = L for case study 2 (f3(t)).

conditions in the pipeline. Calculation results are presented in the Figs. 812. During steady operation of the pipeline the
transient thermal model reduces to steady-state model and the simplied thermal model (with steady-state heat transfer)
produces identical results. Important discrepancies with respect to temperature and the amount of transferred heat may oc-
cur under transient conditions. The inuence is particularly noticeable in Fig. 10. where the unsteady heat transfer model
produces smaller amplitude of the temperature uctuations and the changes are less spread in time due to the response
of the ground temperature resulting from heat accumulation. Steady-state heat transfer term is also responsible for damping
down the changes of the amount of heat transferred to the ground (Fig. 11).
1062 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Fig. 8. Comparison of ow rate at x = 0 in case study 2.

Fig. 9. Comparison of pressure at x = L in case study 2.

Fig. 10. Comparison of temperature at x = L in case study 2.

 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1063

Fig. 11. Total amount of heat exchanged by the pipeline in case study 2.

Fig. 12. Comparison of line-pack calculation results in case study 2.

Figs. 8 and 9 shows that while for pressure and ow rate the results obtained from steady-state heat transfer model with
constant compressibility factor can be considered as acceptable, the temperature values from this model are overestimated
(Fig. 10). The comparison reveals that the models differed more strongly in the amount of heat transferred to the surround-
ings and the line-pack calculations (Figs. 11 and 12, respectively).

4.4. Effects of energy equation simplications

The simplied pipeline ow models can be obtained by neglecting some terms in the momentum and energy equations as
a result of estimation of the magnitude of particular terms for typical values of the variables involved in the process. Our
objective is to call attention on energy equation and quantify the inuence of pipeline thermal model represented in the heat
transfer term with an eye to other energy ows within a gas pipeline system. The term on the left-hand side of Eq. (6) is the
rate of change of temperature per unit time due to the changes of internal energy. The rst term on the right-hand side
represents the change of the temperature of the gas along the pipeline due to convection. More specically it accounts
for changes of the internal energy of the gas resulting from the fact that the gas owing in the control volume and the
gas owing out of the control volume have different temperatures. The next term represents the changes of the gas
temperature as a result of kinetic and potential energy changes, as well as real gas effects, being a consequence of internal
1064 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Fig. 13. Order of magnitude of energy equation terms in case study 2.

energy (and enthalpy) dependence on pressure. This term includes the work done against attractive forces between gas
molecules during expansion (JouleThomson effect when the processes are isenthalpic), which in the range of pressure
and temperature values typical for gas transmission systems causes the gas to cool. The third term on the right-hand side
of Eq. (6) represents heating of the gas from friction, since during the gas ow the viscous shear work is irreversibly con-
verted into heat. The consequent gas temperature rise is accompanied by heat conduction through the uid and through
the pipe wall tending to limit the temperature rise. The term representing frictional heating in Eq. (6) results from the sub-
stitution of mass and momentum equations. Eq. (3) does not include frictional heating term since the frictional heating with-
in the bulk of the uid is implicit in the enthalpy term. The last term in Eq. (6) represents the effect of heat transfer from the
gas to the pipeline surroundings through the pipe walls.
In order to estimate the possible consequences of cancellation of the above components in the energy equation,
nonisothermal conditions in the gas transmission pipeline described in case study 2. were considered. Given the values for
the variables at these conditions, the calculation of the magnitude for the terms in the energy equation was carried
out. The results are presented in Fig. 13 as a changes of mean value of the terms calculated for all discretisation sections
of the pipeline. The average values of the constituent terms of the energy equation have the same order of magnitude.
Therefore every component of the equation has a comparable inuence on the changes of the temperature in the pipeline.
Averages of convection and frictional heating terms have positive values, causing the gas to warm, while heat transfer
and expansion decrease the temperature of the gas. Average values of the term indicated as JouleThomson effect
have the largest spread, because this term accounts for changes of the temperature due to compression/expansion, as
well as changes of the kinetic energy. This is particularly visible during the decrease of gas demand, when gas
compression and part of the kinetic energy transformed into heat by work against friction are causing the gas tempera-
ture to rise. Some simplied models used in engineering practice assume presence of only convection and heat transfer
terms in the energy equation and cancelling out JouleThomson term and frictional heating term. Different proles over
time of the average values of these terms suggest signicant inaccuracies of such approximations under transient
conditions.

5. Conclusions

The objective in this paper was to focus on pipeline thermal model as a part of the transient nonisothermal gas ow mod-
el. The simulations of two gas transmission pipelines were used to understand the effect of simplied steady-state thermal
model on the overall pipeline ow model accuracy. Tests have shown that unsteady heat transfer model hinders the gas tem-
perature changes by considering the heat resident in the surroundings of the pipeline. The accuracy of the solution can be
signicantly improved in comparison with the model containing steady-state heat transfer term.
This paper also discusses the contributing factors to the gas temperature changes during the ow within the natural gas
pipeline. The temperature changes result from the balanced effects of (i) potential and kinetic energy changes and Joule
Thomson effect, (ii) friction, and (iii) heat transfer to/from the surroundings of the pipeline. In engineering practice simplied
energy equation forms are often used in the gas ow analysis. However, in order to accurately predict the ow parameters, it
is important to include the unsteady pipeline thermal model and the real gas effects in the description of the thermodynam-
ics of pipeline ow.
 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1065

Appendix. Derivation of the Eqs. (4)(6) (with pressure, ow rate at normal conditions, and temperature as the
dependent variables)

The basic equations representing the conservation laws are (Eqs. (1)(3) repeated):
oq oqw
0; A1
ot ox
 
oqw o p qw2 f qwjwj
  qg sin a; A2
ot ox 2D
     
o w2 o w2
u q h qw qq  qwg sin a: A3
ot 2 ox 2

Continuity equation

Eq. (A1) can be rewritten in the form:

1 dq ow
0: A4
q dt ox
The logarithmic form of the equation of state:

ln q ln p  ln z  ln R  ln T: A5

Differentiating with respect to time:

1 dq 1 dp 1 dz 1 dT
  : A6
q dt p dt z dt T dt
For a given gas composition, the compressibility factor z = z(p,T), thus:
   
oz oz
dz dp dT: A7
op T oT p

Eq. (A6) and Eq. (A7) become:

    "   #
1 dq 1 1 oz dp 1 1 oz dT
  : A8
q dt p z op T dt T z oT p dt

The velocity in terms of pressure, temperature, and volumetric ow rate at normal conditions:
qn Q n zRT
w : A9
pA
Therefore

ln w ln qn ln Q n ln z ln R ln T  ln p  ln A: A10

Differentiation with respect to spatial coordinate yields:

    "   #
1 ow 1 oQ n 1 1 oz op 1 1 oz oT
  : A11
w ox Q n ox p z op T ox T z oT p ox

Finally, Eq. (A12) is obtained by substituting Eqs. (A8) and (A11) into Eq. (A4) and using Eq. (A9):
    "   #
1 1 oz op 1 1 oz oT qn zRT oQ n
  0: A12
p z op T ot T z oT p ot pA ox

Momentum equation

Eq. (A2) can be rewritten in the form:

dw 1 op fwjwj
g sin a 0: A13
dt q ox 2D
1066 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067

Differentiating Eq. (A10) with respect to time we obtain:

    "   #
1 dw 1 dQ n 1 1 oz dp 1 1 oz dT
  : A14
w dt Q n dt p z op T dt T z oT p dt

Combining this with Eq. (A13) results in

      "   # 
oQ n qn Q n zRT oQ n 1 1 oz op qn Q n zRT op 1 1 oz oT qn Q n zRT oT
 Qn   Qn
ot pA ox p z op T ot pA ox T z oT p ot pA ox
A op fzRT qn Q n jQ n j
0: A15
qn ox 2DAp

Energy equation

Eq. (A3) can be rewritten in the form:

    
d w2 op w2 ow
h q  h q qq  qwg sin a: A16
dt 2 ot 2 ox
Eq. (A16) can be converted using Eq. (A1) to the following form:
dh dw op
q qw  qq  qwg sin a: A17
dt dt ot
Eq. (A13) can be rewritten in the following form:
dw op f qw3
qw w   qwg sin a: A18
dt ox 2D
Combining this with Eq. (A17) gives:
dh op f qw3 op
q w   qwg sin a  qq  qwg sin a: A19
dt ox 2D ot
The inclination term is cancelled out in the above equation and we obtain the following derivation:
dh dp f qw3
q   qq: A20
dt dt 2D
But the enthalpy:
 
p
dh du d : A21
q
Therefore
du p dq f qw3
q   qq: A22
dt q dt 2D
By using the thermodynamic identity:
   
op
du cv dT T  p dv : A23
oT v

We obtain:
 
dT op 1 dq f qw3
qcv T  qq: A24
dt oT q q dt 2D

Substituting Eq. (A4) into Eq. (A24) we have:

 
dT op ow f qw3
qcv T  qq: A25
dt oT q ox 2D

From the equation of state:

  "   #
op oZ
qR z T : A26
oT q oT q
 M. Chaczykowski / Applied Mathematical Modelling 34 (2010) 10511067 1067

Substituting Eq. (A26) and Eq. (A11) into the Eq. (A25) and rearranging we obtain:
"   #      "   # )
oT qn Q n zRT oT RT qn Q n zRT 1 1 oz 1 oQ n 1 1 oz op 1 1 oz oT
zT   
ot pA ox cv pA T z oT q Q n ox p z op T ox T z oT p ox
 3
f zRT qn jQ n j q
  0: A27
2cv D Ap cv

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