Grade 8 General Science Units of Matter

The basic unit of life the cell

Cells are basically similar, but extraordinarily diverse and versatile. The can be modified in various ways
to carry out specialized functions.

Cell Size: most cells are microscopic (measured in very small units. The largest cells are birds eggs, but
these are not typical as the yolk and egg white contain food reserves.

Cell structure

Cell membrane (plasma membrane)

separates cell contents from the external environment

allows the chemical composition of the cell to be very different from that outside of the
cell
serves as a selectively permeable membrane. The cells can therefore exchange materials
with the environment and can accumulate needed substances and energy stores.

Cytoplasm

gelatinous (jelly-like) substance with a high percentage of water; the part of the cell
outside the nucleus
contains organelles and inclusions (non-living matter e.g. glycogen, crystals, pigments)
the place where most of the cells reactions occur.

Organelles small structures that carry out specific functions. Some are found only in specific cells.

Nucleus

the most prominent organelle and acts as the control centre

usually spherical or oval
surrounded by a double membrane (called the nuclear envelope)which has pores at
intervals so that substances can pass in and out
contains the chromosomes genetic material made of DNA
the location of the NUCLEOLUS

Nucleolus (plural: nucleoli)

the place (site) where ribosomes are assembled
cell may have more than one.
 Ribosomes
small organelles, some are located free in the cytoplasm while others are attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum (see below)
the place where proteins are made (i.e. site of protein synthesis)

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

a system of interconnected membranes extending throughout the cell.

if ribosomes are attached, the ER is called rough ER.
Rough ER: ribosomes present on the surface; has channels for the transport of
materials; proteins made here are for use outside of the cell.
Smooth ER: has no ribosomes on its surface. It functions in the making of lipids (fats and
oils), steroids, and hormones. It also helps in breaking down complex sugars stored in
the liver, detoxification of drugs and poisons, makes poisons more soluble and so easier
to be flushed out of the body.

Golgi body [pronounced Gol-gee] (Golgi apparatus / Golgi complex)

o stacks of flattened membranes with small vesicles pinched off from the ends
o make or modify chemicals; package materials for export or storage in the cell (e.g.
receives proteins from rough ER and alters the proteins for other purposes)
o produces lysosomes and vesicles (a bubble-like membranous structure that stores
and transports cellular products, and digests metabolic wastes within the cell)

Lysosomes

sacs containing acidic proteins

can dissolve bacteria, old cells, organelles and materials that do not belong in the cell.

Mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria)

a rod- shaped structure with a double membrane (inner membrane is highly folded).
the site of aerobic respiration (where energy is released) and so is commonly referred to
as the cells powerhouse.

Vacuoles
storage areas
if these are present in animal cells, they are small. In plant cells, there is a large, centrally-
located, and contain cell sap.

Centrioles
-two rod-shaped structures, perpendicular to each other
- found only in animal cells; play a role in cell division

Chloroplast usually in plant cells only

contain chlorophyll (green pigment) which is required for photosynthesis

Which structures are present in plant cells only?

http://www.biologymad.com/resources/golgi.swf

http://www.biologymad.com/resources/animal_cell.swf

http://www.biologymad.com/resources/plant_cell.swf

www.sonefe.org/online...(Biyo-Tek)
Cell Specialisation
In unicellular (single-celled) organisms, one cell must perform all the functions of a living
organism. Multicellular organisms have cells that are modified to carry out one major function
so that the organism will function efficiently. The structure of the cell will vary depending on its
function (relationship between the structure and its function.

1. Root hair cell 2. Mesophyll (palisade; spongy) 3. Guard cells

4. Muscle cells (smooth, skeletal, cardiac) 5. Nerve cells (neurones)
6. Blood cells (red; white) 7. Sperm 8. Ovum (egg) 9. Bone
10. Fat 11. Ciliated

Root hair cell

Function: to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.

How the cell is adapted for its function:

i. The outer part of the cell wall is in the form of a long, tubular extension
(the root hair).
ii. The cell wall is thin so that the water can easily pass through.
iii. The vacuole is large.
iv. Chloroplasts are absent.

The root hair increases the surface area of the cell that is available for the uptake of
water and mineral salts.

Mesophyll cells

found in the leaf between the upper and lower epidermis.

the palisade cells are in the upper region and the spongy cells are in the lower
region.
Palisade mesophyll cells - the main site of photosynthesis
o cylindrical cells; closely-packed (little air-space between them)
o have numerous chloroplasts
 Spongy mesophyll cells

o irregular-shaped cells with air spaces between them

o have less chloroplasts than those of the palisade layer

Guard cells

sausage-shaped cells located in the epidermis of the leaf

usually more numerous in the lower epidermis than the upper epidermis
determine the size of the stoma (pore / opening in surface of leaf).
the only epidermal cells with chloroplasts
When the guard cells are turgid, the stoma is open, and when the guard cells are
flaccid, the stoma is closed.

Muscle cells

three types: skeletal (striated; voluntary), smooth (involuntary; unstriated), cardiac

Function: to cause movement when they contract (results in a decrease in the cells
length)

Adaptations: i. long, thin ii. many mitochondria in the cytoplasm

Skeletal muscle cells Smooth muscle cells Cardiac muscle cells

Long, cylindrical found in the found only in the

cells that are attached to walls of hollow heart
bones and so cause organs e.g.
movement of the digestive tract short, branching,
skeleton cylindrical cells
help to maintain are small and
posture; produce heat spindle-shaped cause heart to
have more than contract and pump
one nucleus per cell blood (involuntary
action)
 Nerve cells (neurones)

Function: transmission of impulses (carry messages around the body)

o some are very long
o each has many cytoplasmic extensions

White blood cells

.
Function: fight disease (defends body against pathogens)

Each has a nucleus and they are less numerous than the red blood cells.

Red blood cells

Function: to carry oxygen around the body.

The red blood cells are very small and numerous (about five million per mm 3)

Adaptations:
i. biconcave shape increases the surface area for absorption
ii. thin, flexible cell membrane (rapid diffusion and enables cell to pass through small
blood vessels)
iii. the cytoplasm contains haemoglobin, a red pigment with which oxygen readily
combines.
iv. mature red blood cells have no nucleus and many other organelles are also missing.
This allows the cells to have more haemoglobin and so carry more oxygen.
 The sex cells (gametes)

Sperm

Function: to carry genetic information and fertilise the female sex cell.

Adaptations:
i. They have a tail which moves by energy generated by many
mitochondria and propels the cell. The head of the cell contains an
acrosome, which is a specialised lysosome that releases enzymes so that the
sperm can penetrate the ovum coat of the egg.
ii. Sperm cells are also very small and thin, which aids their movement.

The ovum (egg)

Function: to be fertilised by the sperm.

Bone cells

Found in bone tissue

Responsible for the make-up of the skeleton
Maintain and monitor the protein and mineral content of the matrix, and aid in
repair of damaged bone.
 Ciliated cells

Lining (epithelial) cells with cilia (hair-like structures) on its outer surface.
Found in the air passages and the oviducts (Fallopian tubes)
They are (i) specialised for sweeping mucus with trapped foreign materials
up into the throat and, (ii) move the egg or zygote towards the uterus.
They do this due to the flicking motion of the cilia.

Fat cells (in adipose tissue)

Function: store fat

The fat fills the cell and so pushes the nucleus and other organelles to the
edges of the cell.
Animal tissues (based on humans)

Name of tissue Structure Main function

Epithelial (lining) Sheets of cells To line tubes, spaces,

and form skin.
Connective Tough, flexible fibres To bind other tissues
together
Blood, dentine, fat,
skeletal

Nervous Network of cells with To carry and transmit

long, cable-like threads messages
Muscle Bundles of elongated Movement
cells

Plant tissues (based on flowering plants)

Name of tissue
Dermal Tissue - covers the Epidermal cells secrete a
outside of a waxy substance called
plant in a single cuticle, which coats,
layer of cells waterproofs, and
called the protects the above-
epidermis ground parts of plants.
Cuticle helps prevent
water loss, abrasions,
infections, and damage
from toxins.

Ground Tissue - makes up much Ground tissue in

of the interior of stems provides
a plant and support and may
carries out basic store food or
metabolic water. Ground
functions tissues in roots
may also store
food.

Vascular Tissue - runs through Xylem:

the ground a. transport of
tissue inside a water and
plant. mineral salts
- consists of xylem and b. support of parts
phloem which are of the plant
packaged together in
bundles. Phloem: translocation of
manufactured food from
leaves to other parts of
plant.