Hydraulics Level 3 PDF

2017-2018
Dr. Fuad Ahmad Musleh

University of Bahrain
2017-2018
CENG 321 Hydraulics Course Notes by Dr. Fuad Musleh
Definitions:
Fluids (Liquids and gases): a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when
subjected to shear stress [The fluid particles easily move and change their relative position
and continuously deform (flow) under the action of shear stress even with small forces].
Water resources engineering: is the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle (the
distribution and circulation of water linking the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans).
Surface runoff is an important factor of water resources, it is measured as the
difference between precipitation and abstractions, such as infiltration (which
replenishes groundwater flow), surface storage and evaporation.
Water resources applications: include the management of the urban water supply,
the design of urban storm-sewer systems, and flood forecasting.
Hydraulic engineering: It is as a sub-discipline of civil engineering concerned with the flow
and conveyance of fluids, principally water and sewage. It consists of the application of fluid
mechanics to water flowing in an isolated environment (pipe, pump) or in an open channel
(river, stream).
Civil engineers are concerned with open channel flow, which is governed by the
interdependent interaction between the water and the channel.
One feature of hydraulic systems in civil engineering is the extensive use of gravity
as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil
engineering is intimately related to the design of bridges, dams, channels, canals,
and levees, and to both sanitary and environmental engineering.
Hydraulic engineering includes the application of the principles of fluid mechanics
to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation,
measurement, and use of water.
The hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river,
the interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour
and deposition.
The hydraulic engineer develops conceptual designs for the various features which
interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for
highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water
facilities for thermal power plants.
Shear force: is the force component tangent to the surface. Average shear stress is the
shear force per unit area.
Fluid mechanics: the study of liquids and gases at rest (static) and in motion (dynamics)
[the science that deals with the action of forces on fluids].
Engineering applications: dams and reservoirs; water supply pipelines; groundwater
movement; runoff in parking lots; and pumps, filters, rivers, etc.
1
Fluids can be classified as ideal fluids and real fluids.
Ideal fluids: are those which are incompressible with zero viscosity and, shear stress is
always zero. Ideal fluid is hypothetical. The main difference between an ideal fluid and a
real fluid is that for ideal flow pressure is constant and for real flow pressure is decreasing
along the flowing fluid.
Real fluids: Fluids with viscosity. Example: Water, Milk, and Honey etc., real fluids are
classified as:
Newtonian and non-Newtonian: Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are Thixotrophic
substance (thixotrophic jelly paints), ideal plastic, Bingham plastic (sewage sludge),
pseudo plastic (clay, milk, cement), dilatant substance (quick sand) etc.
Hydraulic structure: is a structure submerged or partially submerged in any body of water,
which disrupts the natural flow of water.
They can be used to divert, disrupt or completely stop the flow. An example of a
hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of the river
in order to power turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any
body of water where there is a need for a change in the natural flow of water.
Hydraulic structures may also be used to measure the flow of water. When used to
measure the flow of water, hydraulic structures are defined as a class of specially
shaped, static devices over or through which water is directed in such a way that
under free-flow conditions at a specified location (point of measurement) a known
level to flow relationship exists. Hydraulic structures of this type can generally be
divided into two categories: flumes and weirs.
2
Chapter 1: Revision
1.1 Fundamental properties of water:
Mass density: mass of the substance per unit volume (kg/m3).
The density of a compressible fluid is easily changed with a pressure change. Air can
easily be compressed with consequent density change, whereas a very large pressure is
required to effect relatively small density change in water.
Water can be considered incompressible and can be assumed to have constant
density with constant pressure.
Air is a compressible fluid with a variable density as a function of pressure.
Examples: (@4 oC, 1 atm):
Water water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 Ton/m3 = 1kg/Lit =1 g/cm3.

Mercury Hg = 13,500 kg/m3
Air air = 1.22 kg/m3
In general, densities of liquids are almost constant under constant temperature even
with huge changes in pressure.
Sea water contains dissolved salts (more specific weight) sea water is 4% freshwater.
Water expands when freezes its density decreases and rises up in water.
more volume is needed for water in pipes frozen.
Maximum density of water occur at 4 oC less dense when heated.
Temperature (oC) Density (water , kg/m3) Specific Weight (, N/m3)

0o (ice) 917 8,996
0o (WATER) 999 9,800
4o 1000 maximum 9,810
20o 998 9,790
30o 996 9,771
60o 983 9,643
3
Specific weight : the force exerted by the earths gravity up on a unit volume of
substance (the weight of the fluid per unit volume). It has the units N/m3, and can be
given as:
weight / volume (mass g)/Volume g
water (@ 4 oC, 1 atm) =9810 N/m3.
water (@ 20 oC, 1 atm) =9790 N/m3.
Specific gravity: The ratio of the specific weight of any liquid at a given temperature to
that of water at 4 oC.
Example1.1: An aquarium holds 0.5 m3 of water. The weight of the aquarium is 5,090 N
when full and 200 N when empty. Determine the temperature of the water.
Solution:
The weight of the water in the aquarium is: Wwater=5,090 N-200 N = 4,890 N
The specific weight of the water is: = 4,890 N/(0.5 m3) = 9,780 N/m3
The temperature of the water can be obtained from the tables to be 25 oC.
1.2 Water Pressure and Pressure Forces

In general, fluids exert both normal and shearing forces on surfaces in contact with
them.
Only fluids with velocity gradient (Moving) produce shearing forces.
For fluids at rest, only normal forces exist, these normal forces in fluid are called
pressure forces.
At every point in a static fluid a certain pressure intensity exist, it can be defined as:
/ , (1.1)
Where F is the normal force acting over the area A.
Pressure will act within the static fluid equally in all directions.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure developed at surface of earth due to the force of
attraction between the atmosphere and the earth [weight of the column of air from the
surface of earth to the void].
Earths atmosphere: a thick layer (approximately 1500 km) of mixed gasses
surrounding the earth.
Each gas has a weight the total weight of the atmospheric column exerts pressure
on every surface in contact.
At sea level, under normal conditions, the atmospheric pressure is approximately
1.014105 N/m2 =101.4 k Pascal = 10.33 m-high 1 bar.
4
Water surfaces in contact with the atmosphere are subjected to atmospheric
pressure.
In the outer space at the void of gasses, the pressure is essentially zero; this pressure
is called absolute zero.
As we go deep in the atmosphere, the pressure will increase due to the weight of air.
The pressure measured relative to the void or any perfect vacuum is called absolute
pressure.
Gage pressure can be defined as the pressure measured relative to the
atmospheric pressure: Pgage Pabs - Patm.
Vapour pressure can be defined as the pressure exerted by the water vapour in the
atmosphere independently of other gases.
In still water (static), the pressure will increase as we go deep in the water.
1.2.1 The variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in a

fluid with a constant specific weight :
The Free surface of water: The horizontal surface of water on which the pressure
is constant everywhere, not in contact with an overlying vessel cover. It might be
subjected to atmospheric pressure (open vessel) or any other pressure (closed
vessel).
Pressure is added to the fluid as the depth increases because of its weight. The
increase of pressure per meter depth will be different than it was in the atmosphere
due to the big difference in the values of specific weights of water and air.
Consider a 1 m2 cross sectional area over a static fluid.
Note that the weight of the liquid for the 1-m2
surface area at a depth of 1 m is 9810 N. The
pressure due to this weight of the fluid at this
depth can be found to be: P=F/A= 9810 N/m2.
With the same analysis, the pressure at 2-m
depth is P=F/A= 29810 N/m2. In general:
the change in pressure due to the weight of the
fluid for any change in depth y is:
= (1.2)
It can be easily concluded that If one travels upward in the fluid (positive z direction),
the pressure decreases; and if one travels downward (negative z direction), the
pressure increases.
5
A very important equation for the variation of pressure for the case of static fluid
with uniform density can represented as:
(/ + = ) (1.3)
The left term of the previous equation is called piezometric head.

Z is shown on the following figure.
This equation implies that the piezometric head is constant
throughout an incompressible static fluid.
= 2 1 = (1 2 )

+ = + = . = + (1.4)
Pascal's Law:
Pressure added to a confined fluid acts equally in all directions for the fluid
itself.
Example1.2: The diameters of

cylindrical pistons A and B are 3 cm and 20
cm, respectively. The faces of the pistons
are at the same elevation, and the
intervening passages are filled with
incompressible hydraulic oil. A force P of
100 N is applied at the end of the lever, as
shown in the figure. What weight W can
the hydraulic jack support?
Solution:
Balancing the moments produced by P and F Hydraulic Jack
around the pin connection:
(100N)(100cm)=F(20cm)
Thus, F = 500 N
From Pascals law, the pressure PA applied at A is the same as that of PB applied at B. therefor,

= 2 2
, =
[(. 3 )/4] [(. 20 )/4]2
2
500
2
=
7.07 314 2
314 2
= 500 (7,07 2 ) = 2.22 104
6
Practice:
derive a formula for the variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in
water with a specific weight
Solution:
- Consider two arbitrary points A and B along an arbitrary
X-axis with an angle.
- Consider a control volume as shown having a cross
sectional area dA and a length L where the points A and
B lie at the ends of the control volume.
- Let the pressures at A and B be PA and PB.
- Because the prism is at rest, all forces acting on it must
be in equilibrium.
{ = + ( ) = 0 }
Note that L sin () = h (the vertical elevation difference between
the two points).
The above equation reduces to:
= Hydrostatic pressure on a prism
The difference in pressure between any two points in still
water is always the product of the specific weight of water
and the normal difference in elevation between the two
points.
If A & B are on the same elevation (h=0) PA = PB.
(for static fluid, the pressure is constant at the same level
Example1.3: The closed tank shown is at 20 oC. If

the pressure at point A is 98 kPa abs, what is the
absolute pressure at point B? what percent error
results from neglecting the specific weight of the air?
Solution:
PA + air hAC - water hDC - air hDB = PB

98+(0.0118)(5)-(9.790)(5-3)-(0.0118)(3)= PB =78.444 kPa.
Neglecting air: PB=98-(9.790)(5-3)=78.420 kPa
(78.44478.420)
Error = = 0.00031 = 0.031%
78.444
7
The negative pressure at B can be referred to as vacuum (less than atmospheric

pressure).
The pressure is always assumed to be gage pressure unless stated.
Example1.4: a gage pressure is measured to be vacuum of 23 kPa at a location where

the elevation is 3000m. Given that the Patmospheric at this elevation is 70.6 kPa. What is the
absolute pressure?
Solution:
= + = 70.6 + (23) = 47.6
1.2.2 Surfaces of equal pressure:

The hydrostatic pressure in a body of water varies with the vertical distance from the
free water surface. The points on a horizontal surface in a static body of liquid are subjected
to the same hydrostatic pressure (surface of equal pressure) given the following conditions:
1. The points should be at the same elevation (located on a horizontal surface).

2. The points on the surface should be in the same liquid (same ).
3. The liquid containing the points must be connected.
8
Example1.4:
Points 1,2,3, and 4 have equal pressures and their horizontal surface is a surface of
equal pressure.
Points 5 and 6 are on the same horizontal plane but the pressures at them is
different (not connected liquid, different distance from surface).
The horizontal surface through points 7 and 8 that passes through the interface of
the two immiscible liquids is an equal pressure surface (connected liquid between 7
and 8 from downward at the same level).
Points 9 and 10 are not on an equal pressure surface (different liquids, the distance
from them to points7 and 8 are the same with different values of , given that
pressures at 7 and 8 are the same).
Note that: immiscible liquids do not mix under normal conditions).
Quiz:
Two meters of water is equivalent to how many millimetres of mercury?
(A) 422 mm (B) 375 mm (C) 231 mm (D) 147 mm
9
1.2.3 Manometers
A manometer is a pressuremeasurement device consists usually from a
bent tube in the form of U that contains a fluid of known specific gravity.
The difference in pressure at the two ends of the manometer is found by measuring
the difference in elevations of the liquid surfaces.
There are mainly two types of manometers:
1. An open manometer: has one end open to the atmospheric pressure and is
capable of measuring the gauge pressure in a vessel (Figure).
2. A differential manometer: has each end connected to a different pressure
tap. It is used to measure the pressure difference between two taps (Figure).
The liquid used in a manometer
is usually heavier than the fluids
to be measured. It must not mix
with the liquids.
The most frequently used
manometer liquids are mercury
(sp.gr. =13.6), water, alcohol
(sp. gr. =0.9).
The higher the pressure in Figure 1.1 Types of manometers: (a) open manometer
vessel A (Fig. 1.1(b)), the larger (b) differential manometer
the difference, h.
The equations of the two manometers above can be found using the following:
1. Open manometer:
+ = 0
= = (1.5)
2. Differential manometer:
+ ( ) =
= = ( ). (1.6)
Example1.5: Find the location of

the surface in the manometer.
Solution:
PA+ 10 cm water - h Liquid = 0
0+10 cmwater - h (3 water )= 0

h = 1/3 10 cm = 3.33 cm
10
Example1.6:
A mercury manometer (sp.gr. =13.6
is used to measure the pressure
difference in vessels A and B. As
shown in the figure 1.2 . Determine
the pressure difference in Pascals
(N/m2).
Solution:
Points 3 and 4 (P3 and P4) are on a
surface of equal pressure, the same
for points 1 and 2
P3 = P4 and PA = P1 = P2 .
Figure 1.2 Differential manometer
PA+w (27cm)-Hg. (15cm)-water
(135cm)=PB
P=PA-PB=w (135cm-27cm)+
Hg(15cm)
P=w [108+(13.6)(15)]cm=9790
N/m3 3.12m =30,500 pascal.
Example1.7:
Find the pressure in pipe A
Solution:
PA 1.3m(0.9w)+1.5m w -1.0m (13.6w)=0
PA= 13.27w = 13.279.81 kN/m3 =130.18 kPa
Example 1.8:
If the atmospheric pressure is 0.9 bar abs and a gage attached to a tank reads 390
mmHg vacuum. What is the absolute pressure within the tank?
Solution:
Patm = 0.9 bar 100 kPa/bar = 90 kPa, Pgage = [(13.6 m water/m Hg)][390 mm Hg
(1m/1000mm)] = 51.9 kPa vacuum=-51.0 kPa
Pabs = 90 +(-51.9) = 38.1 kPa
11
1.3 Viscosity:
It is simply a measure of a fluid resistance to flow.
A more specific definition, it is a measure of the fluid resistance to gradual
deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. Viscosity is a property of the fluid which
opposes the relative motion between the two surfaces of the fluid in a fluid that are moving
at different velocities. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which
compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near
its walls (no slip condition) ; therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between
the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to
keep the fluid moving. This stress required to keep the fluid motion is proportional to its
viscosity.
A fluid with a low viscosity flows easily.
A fluid with a high viscosity flows with difficulty.
requires larger force to move it.
more resistance to flow.
more power consumption due to frictional losses.
The ease with which a fluid [honey, water, oil,...] pours is an Indication of its
Viscosity.
Viscosity is important when we calculate the energy lost from a fluid as it flows in
a pipe.
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid.
Zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in super fluids.
Otherwise, all fluids have positive viscosity, and are technically said to be viscous
or viscid.
One of the most common instruments for measuring kinematic viscosity is the
glass capillary viscometer.
The viscosity of water and liquids increases as the temperature decreases:
warm oil pours more slowly than cold oil.
a greater force is required to stir cold oil.
In general, the effect of shear stress on a liquid is a continuous yield in angular
deformation in the direction of the shear. Fluid particles easily move and change their
relative position under the action of shear stress even with small values.
small values of shear stress fluid motion.
the magnitude of shear stress required to cause a specific flow
depends on the viscosity of the fluid.
shear stress, , is the force per unit area (N/m2).
for fluids (water, oil, ..): change of velocity along the depth.
12
1.3.1 Viscosity concept:
Assume a thin layer of fluid between two surfaces, one is stationary and the other
is moving.
Note that the fluid has the same velocity as the boundary.
Figure 1.3 Velocity distribution of the flow between a stationary and a moving plate
The fluid in contact with the lower surface has zero velocity (as is the velocity of
the boundary) while that in contact with the upper surface has the velocity V.
As the distance between the two surfaces is small, then the rate of change of
velocity with Y is linear.

Velocity gradient = (1.7)

Mathematically: shear stress in the fluid is directly proportional to velocity

gradients:

= (1.8)
is called dynamic (absolute) viscosity of the fluid (N.S/m2).
Many calculations in fluid mechanics involves the ratio of dynamic viscosity to

the density of the fluid (Kinematic viscosity):
= / (m2/s) (1.9)
13
1.3.2 Variation of fluid viscosity with temperature:
As the temperature of liquids is increased, its viscosity will decrease noticeably.
Gases behave differently from fluids in that the viscosity increases as the
temperature increases. Also the amount of change is generally smaller than that
for liquids.
An example of the variation of fluid viscosity with temperature: Engine oil is
generally difficult to pour when it is cold because its viscosity has increased.
A measure of how significant the viscosity of fluid changes with the temperature is
given by the viscosity index (VI). This is more important to lubricating oils and
hydraulic fluid in equipment that operate at wide extremes of temperatures.
{A fluid with a high viscosity index exhibits a small change in viscosity
with temperature}.
Adhesion and cohesion are water properties that affect every water molecule on
earth and also the interaction of water molecules with molecules of other
substances. Essentially, cohesion and adhesion are the "stickiness" that water
molecules have for each other and for other substances. The water drop is
composed of water molecules that like to stick together, an example of the
property of cohesion: The water drop is stuck to the end of the pine needles,
which is an example of the property of adhesion.
{Since cohesion is the predominant cause of viscosity in a liquid, this is
why viscosity decreases with temperature as cohesion does }.
For ordinary pressures viscosity is independent of pressure and depends upon
temperature only. For very great pressures, gases and most liquids shown erratic
variations of viscosity with pressure.
14
Tutorial. 1 (Review)
Q1. Define the following terms:

Water density:
Specific weight:
Specific gravity:
Viscosity:
Atmospheric pressure:
Absolute pressure:
Gage pressure:
Static pressure:
Equation for static pressure versus water depth:
Free surface of water:
Laminar flow:
Turbulent flow:
Reynolds number:
Pascals law:
Moody diagram:
Q2. A liquid when poured into a graduated cylinder is found to weigh 6.5 N when
occupying a volume of 310 ml (milliliters), determine its specific gravity, density, and
specific weight.
Q3. What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 m in the tank shown?
Q4. Oil with a specific gravity of 0.85 forms a layer 0.9 m deep in an open tank that is filled
with water. The total depth of water and oil is 3 m. what is the gage pressure at the
bottom of the tank?
15
Q5.
(a) A manometer connects
an oil pipeline and a
water pipe line as
shown. Determine the
difference in pressure
between the two
pipelines using the
readings on the
manometer. (Use
S.G.oil= 0.86 and S.G.Hg
=13.6)
(b) Water, Oil, and Salt water fill a tube as shown, determine the pressure at point 1
(Inside the closed tube).
16
Q7. Draw the pressure distribution over the inclined and normal plates
shown.
17
Q9. Determine the elevation difference, h, between the water levels of the two open
tanks shown.
Q10. Find the difference in pressure between pipes A and B in the figure shown.
18
Q11.A closed cylindrical tank

filled with water has a
hemispherical dome and is
connected to an inverted
piping system as shown,
the liquid in the top part of
the piping system has a
specific gravity of 0.8, and
the remaining parts of the
system are filled with
water. If the pressure gage
reading at A is 60 kPa,
determine:
a) The pressure in pipe B.
b) The pressure at pint C.
Q12. Consider the steady flow in a water

pipe joint shown in the diagram. The
areas are: A1=0.2 m2, A2=0.2m2, and
A3=0.15m2. In addition, fluid is lost out
of a hole at (4) estimated at a rate of
0.1 m3/s. The average speeds at section
(1) and (3) are V1=5m/s and V3=12m/s.
Respectively, find the velocity at section
(2).
19
Q13. A 0.3-m-diameter, 0.6-m-long cylinder floats in an open tank containing a liquid

having a specific weight . A U-tube manometer is connected to the tank as
shown in the figure. When the pressure is pipe A is 690 Pascal below
atmospheric pressure, the various fluid levels are as shown. Determine the
weight of the cylinder. Note that the top of the cylinder is flush with the fluid
surface.
20
Chapter 2: Dynamics of Fluid Flow

The study of fluid dynamics requires dealing with:
o The forces responsible for fluid motion (over ground flow, open channels,
pipes...), and
o the resulting acceleration. And,
o the energy changes involved (energy losses).
Figure 2.1 Energies within a moving fluid (a) Pipe flow (b) Channel flow
A fluid in motion experiences, in addition to gravity force, pressure forces, viscous

and turbulent shear resistances, boundary resistance and forces due to surface
tension and compressibility effects of the fluid. The presence of all these forces
makes the analysis very complicated.
A simplifying approach to the problem for some cases is made by assuming the fluid
to be ideal, i.e. non-viscous or frictionless and incompressible. Water has a relatively
low viscosity and is incompressible and is found to behave like an ideal fluid.
The governing equation is: The newton second law of motion.
= = . , (2.1)
Where ax is the total acceleration in the direction of motion, V is the volume of fluid,
Fx is the sum of all the forces in the direction of motion, and is the mass density of
the fluid.

= = ( + ), (2.2)

21

{Algebraic sum of all forces per unit volume}, where, , is the local acceleration

and , is the convective acceleration.

= ( + + + + + ) (2.3)
Where, is the pressure force, is the gravity force, is the viscosity forces,
is the turbulence force, is the compressibility force, and is the surface
tension force.
If pressure force and gravity force are present (other forces are insignificant):
+ = Eulers Equation (2.4)
If pressure force, gravity and viscous forces are there (other forces are
insignificant):
+ + = Navier-stokes Equation (2.5)
If pressure force, gravity, viscous, and turbulent forces are there (other forces
are insignificant):
+ + + = Reynolds Equation. (2.6)
2.1 Eulers Equation:

The Euler's equation for steady flow of an ideal fluid along a streamline is a relation
between the velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid.
It is based on the Newton's Second Law of Motion.
The integration of the equation gives Bernoulli's equation in the form of energy per
unit weight of the flowing fluid.
It is based on the following assumptions:
1. The fluid is non-viscous (i.e., the frictional losses are zero).
2. The fluid is homogeneous and incompressible (i.e., mass density of the fluid is
constant).
3. The flow is continuous, steady and along the streamline. The velocity of the flow
is uniform over the section.
4. No energy or force (except gravity and pressure forces) is involved in the flow.
22
Assume that we have:
1. A moving fluid (pressurized, open channel,..).
2. Equate the sum of all the forces acting on a fluid element to its (mass
acceleration).
3. Consider a cylindrical element in an arbitrary direction S, with a cross sectional
area dA in a flowing fluid (isolated).
4. The element is oriented at an angle with the horizontal plane (x, y).
5. The surrounding fluid is replaced by pressure forces.
6. Viscous forces are assumed to be zero.
7. The element is accelerated in the S direction.
Applying Newtons second law in the S direction:
= + = (2.7)
Let,
dA = Cross-sectional area of the fluid
element.
s = Length of the fluid element.
= Weight of the fluid element.
P = Pressure on the element at A.
+ = Pressure on the element
at B
v = velocity of the fluid element.

Figure 2.2 Forces in a cylindrical element of a moving fluid
- The mass of the fluid element is : =

- The net force due to pressure in S direction is:

= ( + ) = (2.7)

- Any pressure forces acting on the side of the cylindrical element will not contribute
to a force in S direction.
- The force due to gravity is the component of weight in the S direction:
= = sin , (2.8)
23

Note that( = ).

- From the previous

= (2.9)

Divide by:

= , (2.10)

(Differential equation for acceleration in S direction).

- Let , Then:

( + ) = (2.11)

Euler equation for motion, for incompressible flow with constant specific gravity
The acceleration is related to the change in peizometric pressure with distance.

For static body of water, Eulers equation reduces to hydrostatic equation (no
viscous stress, no motion a = 0).
2.2 Bernoullis Equation:

Integrating Eulers equation [ ( + ) = ]along a path line for steady flow

of incompressible fluid will give the Bernoullis equation.
Let at replaces aS (direction along the path line).

( + ) = (2.12)

For steady flow, local acceleration is zero ( = 0, pathline streamline)

2
( + ) = = ( ) (2.13)
2

+ + = (2.14)

This proves the Bernoullis equation.
24
Assumptions for Bernoulli equation:
1) Incompressible fluid (constant density).
2) Ideal fluid (inviscid), viscosity and the energy losses are neglected.
3) No pumps or turbines within the system.
4) Steady flow.
5) No heat transfer.
Bernoulli Equation: The total energy per unit of weight of fluid at station1 equals
the total energy per unit weight at station 2

+ + = + + (2.15)

2
Energy Grade Line, EGL= ( + + ): the line connecting the total energy at
2
each point within the hydraulic system is horizontal (constant total energy).
2
The values of the terms of energy ( + + ) can change such that the total
2
value will be constant.

Hydraulic Grade Line, HGL= ( + ): sum of elevation and pressure energies,

water level or the elevation which water can rise to.
2
Velocity head ( ) increases as the diameter decreases to keep continuity
2
equation valid (v1 A1=v2A2).
For constant diameter, as the elevation Z increases (flow up), the pressure
decreases.
Bernoullis equation is based on the conservation of energy. It represent the total

energy of a hydraulic system given as the sum of the three different forms of energy
(potential, kinematic, and flow energies), assuming no energy is added to the hydraulic
system as work or heat then the total energy of the fluid is conserved. It can be
summarized as:
The total energy carried by a given mass of incompressible fluid as it flows

steadily through a hydraulic system remains constant unless energy is added or
removed from the fluid. The values of the three different forms of energy can change
keeping the total value of energy constant.
25
Pressure head + Elevation head +Velocity head = constant

Figure 2.3 Different component of energy equation
Applying Bernoulli equation, it can be assumed that a unit of weight of fluid is flowing
in a hydraulic system carrying three forms of energy:

i. Potential energy(

): due to the elevation Z of the unit weight relative to some
reference line. (Work is needed to lift the fluid unit weight a distance Z, it can go down
this distance using this energy).

ii. Kinetic energy(

): due to the velocity of the fluid unit V.

iii. Flow energy(
): due to its pressure, ( ) is the elevation that the fluid can raise
to.
In real flow systems there is friction in the pipe and elsewhere. This produces heat
that is absorbed by the liquid causing a rise in the internal energy and hence the
temperature. In fact the temperature rise will be very small except in extreme cases
because it takes a lot of energy to raise the temperature. If the pipe is long, the energy
might be lost as heat transfer to the surrounding. Since the equation did not include
internal energy, the balance is lost and we need to add an extra term to the right side of the
equation to maintain the balance. This term is the head lost to friction hL.
26
Quiz
Figure 2.4 Quiz
Find Q1, Q2, and Q3 assuming inviscid flow (neglect the resistance).
What is the effect of doubling the area of the exit pipe on the velocity and discharge for the
three pipes?
27
Example2.1:
Water flows through a pipe reducer as shown in
the figure. The static pressure at (1) and (2) are
measured by the inverted U-tube manometer
containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than
one. Determine the manometer reading, h.
Solution:
Assuming steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow Bernoulli equation can be used:
1 1
1 + 12 + 1 = 2 + 22 + 2
2 2
Also, continuity equation can be used

between (1) and (2) for incompressible fluid:
= 1 1 = 2 2 .
The previous equations can be combined:
Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.1

= ( ) + [ ( ) ] (2.16)

The value of ( ) can be measured by the manometer and can be determined by

using the hydrostatic pressure difference equation:
( ) + () + = (2.17)
Or
= ( ) + ( ) (2.18)

( ) = [ ( ) ] (2.19)

Or

( )
= ( ) () (2.20)

28
Example 2.2:
Water at 60 oF is siphoned from a large tank
through a constant hose as shown.
Determine the maximum height of the hill,
H, over which the water can be siphoned
without the occurring of cavitation. The end
of the siphon is 5 ft. below the bottom of the
tank. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 Pisa.
Solution:
Assuming steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow Bernoulli equation can be used:
Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.2

[ + + = + + ] Or [ / + + = / + + ]

(2.21)
Let the tank bottom to be the reference, then Z1 = 15ft, Z2 = H, and Z3 = -5ft.
Also, V1=0 (Large tank), P1=0 (open tank), P3=0 (free jet), and from the continuity
equation A2V2 = A1V1. Also it can be said that V2 = V3 (the hose is constant diameter).
Applying Bernoulli between (1) and (3):
1 2
0 + 0 + 15 = 0 + 5
2 3

3 = 2(1 2 ) = (2 32 2 [15 (5)]) = 35.9 (2.22)

Applying Bernoulli between (1) and (2) will give the pressure P2 at the top of the hill:
1 1 1 1
2 = 1 + 12 + 1 22 2 = 0 + 0 + (1 2 ) 22 = (1 2 ) 22 (2.23)
2 2 2 2
The vapor pressure of water at 60 oF is 0.256 Pisa. Hence, for incipient cavitation the
lowest pressure in the system will be P = 0.256 Pisa. This lowest pressure will occur at
the top of the hill. Thus: 2 = 0.256 14.7 = 14.4 (gage). So H can be found
from the last equation:
1
2 = (1 2 ) 22
2
2 1
(14.4 /2 ) (144 2 ) = (62.4 3 ) (15 ) (1.94 / 3 )(35.9/)2
2

= 28.2 .
29
2.2 The Energy Equation:

Developed by modifying Bernoulli equation to include the effects of energy transfer
devices (pumps, turbines), and the loss of energy due to friction in pipes.
o HP = energy added to a unit of weight of fluid as it flows through a pump (pump
head).
o HT = energy removed from a unit of weight of fluid as it flows through turbine
or hydraulic motor (turbine head).
o HL =energy loss due to frictional effects from a unit weight of fluid as it flows
through Pipes, fittings, and valves (head loss).
Figure 2.6 Components of energy equation of motion
The total energy carried by a unit weight of fluid at station (1) plus the energy
added to the fluid by a pump minus the energy removed due to friction minus the energy
removed by a turbine equal the total energy carried by this unit weight at station (2).
1 12 2 22
+ 1 + + = + 2 + (2.24)
2 2
Solution of pipe flow problems requires the application of two principles, the law of
conservation of mass (continuity equation) and the law of conservation of energy
(Bernoullis or energy equation).
2.2.1 Minor and major losses:

It is often necessary to determine the head loss, HL, which occurs in a pipe flow so
that the energy equation can be used in the analysis of pipe flow problems. The overall
head loss for the pipe system consists of:
30
2.2.1.1 The head loss due to viscous effects in the straight pipes
termed the major loss and denoted HL-major.
Friction loss in a pipe is a complex function of (i) the system geometry, (ii)
the fluid properties and (iii) the flow rate in the system.
Practical observations showed that the head loss is roughly proportional to
the square of the flow rate in most engineering flows (fully developed,
turbulent pipe flow). This observation leads to the Darcy-Weisbach
equation for head loss due to friction (the derivation is shown next
chapter):
2
= (2.25)
2
This formula defines the friction factor, f. The friction factor is insensitive
to moderate changes in the flow and might be considered constant for
fully turbulent flow.

= ( = , , ) (2.26)

Reynolds Number is the well-known fundamental dimensionless number

in viscous flow. Velocity times Length Scale divided by Kinematic Viscosity.
Relative Roughness relates the height of a typical roughness element to
the scale of the flow, represented by the pipe diameter, D.
Pipe Cross-section is important, as deviations from circular cross-section
will cause secondary flows that increase the pressure drop. Non-circular
pipes and ducts are generally treated by using the hydraulic diameter, in
place of the diameter and treating the pipe as if it were round.
4 ()
= = 4 (2.27)
()
For laminar flow, the head loss is proportional to velocity rather than
velocity squared, thus the friction factor is inversely proportional to
velocity.
= 64/ (circular pipes) (2.28)

= , 48 96 (non-circular pipes) (2.29)

31
For turbulent flow, Colebrook (1939) found an implicit correlation for the
friction factor in round pipes (Chapter 3).
The familiar Moody Diagram is a log-log plot of the Colebrook correlation
on axes of friction factor and Reynolds number, combined with the f=64/Re
result from laminar flow.
Calculating Head Loss for a Known Flow:
From Q and piping determine Reynolds Number, relative roughness and

thus the friction factor. Substitute into the Darcy-Weisbach equation to
obtain head loss for the given flow. Substitute into the Energy equation to
find the necessary elevation or pump head.
Calculating Flow for a Known Head:
Obtain the allowable head loss from the Bernoulli equation, then start by
guessing a friction factor. (0.02 is a good guess if you have nothing better.)
Calculate the velocity from the Darcy-Weisbach equation. From this
velocity and the piping characteristics, calculate Reynolds Number, relative
roughness and thus friction factor. Repeat the calculation with the new
friction factor until sufficient convergence is obtained. = . (more
details will be introduced later in chapters 3 and 5)
2.2.1.2 The head loss in various pipe components termed the minor
loss and denoted HL-minor.
The head loss designations of major and minor do not necessarily
reflect the relative importance of each type of loss. For a pipe system that
contains many components and a relatively short length of pipe, the minor loss
may actually be larger than the major loss.
For any type of system there are additional so-called minor losses due to:
1. Exit from a pipe into a tank: = 2 /2
2. Entry to a pipe from a tank: = 0.5 2 /2
3. Sudden expansion: = (1 2 )2 /2
2
4. Sudden contraction: = 0.5 /2
5. Bends, elbows, tees, and other fittings.
6. Valves, open or partially closed.
7. Gradual expansion and contraction.
These components interrupt the smooth flow of the fluid and cause
additional losses because of the flow separation and mixing they induce. In a
32
typical system with long pipes, these losses are minor compared to the total head
loss in the pipes (the major losses) and are called minor losses. The losses may not
be so minor; for example, a partially closed valve can cause a greater pressure
drop than a very long pipe. The losses are commonly measured experimentally
and correlated with the pipe flow parameter. The data especially for valve are
somewhat dependent on the particular manufacturers design.
Figure 2.7 Components of minor losses within a hydraulic system
Figure 2.8 Fittings that causes minor losses within a pipe networks.
Quiz:
The fluid in the pipe is water and h = 10 cm of mercury.
The velocity V is nearest:
(A) 7 m/s (B) 8 m/s (C) 5 m/s (D) 4 m/s
33
Practice
Study the following figures for hydraulic piping systems and relate each loss in energy to
the its expected reason as minor or major:
34
Tutorial 2
Q1. Assuming inviscid flow,
Find the velocity of water at points (2) and (3).
If there is no flow at (3), explain why? And find the elevation where the
water will stop.
Q2.Water flows from a garden hose nozzle

with a velocity of 15 m/s. What is the
maximum height that it can reach
above the nozzle?
35
Q3. For the siphon shown,

a) Calculate the volume flow rate of oil
from the tank and the pressures at
points A, B, C, and D.
b) Repeat part (a) assuming the
friction factor within the pipe is
f=0.025.
The lengths of pipes are:
A-B 4.0 m
B-C 3.5 m
C-D 11.0 m
D-Outlet 1.0 m
Q4. Water flows steadily through the pipe shown such that the pressures at
sections (1) and (2) are 300 kPa and 100 k Pa, respectively. Determine the
diameter of the pipe at section (2), D2, if the velocity at section (1) is 20 m/s
and viscous effects are negligible.
Q5. Water flows from a large tank through a large pipe that splits into two smaller pipes as
shown. If viscous effects are not considered, determine:
a) The total flow rate (Q) from the tank, and
b) The pressure at point (1).
36
Q6. Water is pumped between the two tanks shown. The energy line is as indicated.
a) Is the fluid being pumped from A to B or from B to A? Explain!!!
b) Which pipe has larger diameter given that both are made of the same material: A to
pump or B to Pump? Explain!
Q7. Water flows from a tank and through the pipe shown. The flow rate is 1.5 m3/s when
the valve is adjusted to produce the water level in the piezometer tube as indicated.
Find the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor value f in the pipe without using the Moody
diagram (consider the minor losses). What do you expect the pipe material to be?
37
Q8. What is the pressure in tank A, given that the flow rate between the two tanks through
the two pipes shown is 0.2 m3/s, (the diameters and lengths of the pipes are as
shown). Neglect the minor losses and assume the major losses with the pipe to be:
HL=0.05 (L/D) V2/(2g)
38
Chapter 3: Description and classification of fluid motion:

The classification of flow can be due to {viscous effects, compressibility effects,
laminar or turbulent flow, internal and external flow,...}.
Viscous and inviscid flows:
It depends on Reynolds number. If Re is large, the viscous effects will be negligible while if it
is small, viscous effects will be dominant.
Laminar and turbulent flows:

A laminar flow is one in which the fluid particles move in smooth layers.
A turbulent flow is one in which the fluid particles rapidly mix as they move a long due to
random three dimensional fluctuations (more discussion will be given).
Figure 3.1Laminar and turbulent flow within pipe
Compressible and incompressible flows:

Incompressible flow: it is the flow in which variations in density are negligible (liquids).
Compressible flow: density variations within a flow are significant not negligible (gases).
39
Ideal and real fluids flow:

Ideal flow (does not exist): has no viscosity, incompressible, with no friction between the
molecules. Particles move in parallel lines with equal velocities.
Real fluid flow: the effects of viscosity are introduced (a shear or tangential stresses between
neighbouring fluid particles when they move at different velocities creating friction is
introduced). Velocity is zero at the wall.
Figure 3.2 Flow profiles for real and ideal fluid flows
Steady and unsteady flows:

Steady flow: the flow properties does not change with time, thus all the properties of the
flow at every point remains constant with respect time.
Unsteady flow: the flow properties at a point change with respect to time.
Internal and external flows:
Internal flows: flows are completely bounded by solid surfaces.
External flows: flows over bodies immersed in an unbounded fluid.
Pressure flow and gravity flow:
Pressure flow occurs under pressure.
Gravity flow is the flow with free surface (gravity is the primary moving force).
Uniform and varied flows:
Uniform flow: The cross section (shape and area) through which the flow occurs remains
constant at every point within the flow (the same depth, velocity at every section).
Varied flow: the velocity or depth is not constant at every section, for open channel it can
be said that the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow
technically may be either steady or unsteady. It can be further classified as either rapidly or
gradually varied.
40
Gradually varied flow and rapidly varied flow:
Varied flow or non-uniform flow occurs when depth or velocity change over a distance, like
in a constriction or over a riffle. Gradually varied flow occurs when the change is small, and
rapidly varied flow occurs when the change is large, for example a wave, waterfall, or the
rapid transition from a stream channel into the inlet of a culvert.
Figure 3.3 Flow profiles for uniform and varied fluid flows
3.1 Laminar and turbulent flow:

3.1.1 Reynolds experiment: (1880s):
Reynolds injected a dye into the centre of a glass tube and observed the flow, he
found that:
At low velocity: the dye flow as a straight line.
As the velocity keep increasing: the dye starts to expand until it was completely
mixed with water (random flow, eddies).
Figure 3.4 Reynolds experiment apparatus and results
41
- Reynolds found that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow in a pipe depends on
the velocity (V), diameter (D), and the viscosity ().
- Reynolds suggested an index number ,(Reynolds number), dimensionless:

= = (3.1)

Where, : fluid density, : dynamic viscosity, : kinematic viscosity.
- By experiments:
For a flow in a circular pipe, the critical number of Re is 2000, where the flow
starts to change into turbulent flow.
The transition from laminar to turbulent does not happen at Re =2000 exactly
but varies from 2000 to 4000.
Different values were suggested for Reynolds index where the flow can be
considered to be turbulent. For example, Clayton T. Crow guidelines for Re :
Re 2000 Laminar flow

2000 Re 3000 Unpredictable
Re 3000 Turbulent flow
3.1.2 Laminar flow:

Is a well-ordered state of flow in which adjacent fluid layers move smoothly with
respect to each other.
- For pipe flow, laminar flow would have a smooth, parabolic velocity distribution.
- The fluid appears to move by sliding of laminations of infinitesimal thickness over
adjacent layers.
- Viscosity plays a significant role.
- In one dimensional laminar flow, the shear stress is related to the velocity

gradient by the relation: = .

3.1.3 Turbulent flow:

Is unsteady flow characterized by intense cross-stream mixing, like the flow in the
wake of a ship.
- The eddies observed in the wake cause intense mixing.
- Irregular motion of a large number of particles during a very brief time interval.
- Fluctuations in velocity at all points of the flow field. These fluctuations arises
because the fluid moves as many, small, discrete particles eddies lost line each
other.
42
- Almost, a uniform velocity distribution occurs a cross the pipe for turbulent flow
because of the high-velocity fluid at the pipe centre is transported by turbulent
eddies a cross the pipe to the low velocity region near the wall.
In General:
- Laminar pipe flows are associated with low velocities and turbulent flow with
high velocities.
- Laminar flows can occur in small tubes.
- Turbulent flows are the most common.
- Laminar flow occur in circular pipes when fluid flows in orderly laminae (large
number of thin walled concentric tubes, the outer tube adheres to the pipe wall
while the tube next to it moves with a very slight velocity, where the velocity of
each successive tube increases gradually to reach the maximum velocity near the
centre of the pipe.
- The velocity distribution of laminar flow takes the form of a paraboloid of
revolution with mean velocity equal to one-half of the maximum centre velocity.
- In turbulent flow: the turbulent motion causes the slower water particles
adjacent to the pipe wall to mix continuously with high speed particles in the
mid-stream.
The low speed particles near the pipe wall will be accelerated because of
momentum transfer.
The velocity distribution in turbulent flow takes the general form of
logarithmic curve in revolution.
Turbulent mixing activities increase with Reynolds number, {velocity
become flatter as Re increases}.
- Water loses energy as it flows through a pipe.
The major portion of energy loss is caused by:
i. Friction against the pipe walls.
ii. Viscous dissipation. In a viscous fluid flow the viscosity of the fluid
will take energy from the motion of the fluid (kinetic energy) and
transform it into internal energy of the fluid. That means heating
up the fluid. This process is partially irreversible and is referred to
as dissipation, or viscous dissipation. For a turbulent flow,
dissipation includes both dissipation of turbulent motions (energy)
and mean flow motion. However, the turbulent dissipation is
usually completely dominating.
Wall friction on moving water depends on the roughness of the wall
material and the velocity gradient at the wall.
Turbulent flow has a higher wall velocity gradient (higher frictionless).
43
Figure 3.5 Velocity profiles of laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes
Example 3.1:
Rainwater runoff from a parking lot flows through a 90-cm-diameter pipe, completely filling
it. Would you expect the flow to be laminar or turbulent? Support your answer with
appropriate calculations.
Solution:

= , If Re 4000 the flow is turbulent.

4000(1106 )
The corresponding velocity is: = = = 0.0044 = 4.44
0.9
Most likely the velocity will be more than that and the flow will be turbulent flow
Quiz:
The pitot and piezometric probes read the total

and static pressures as shown. Calculate the
velocity V.
44
3.2 Developing flow and fully developed flow for pipes:
When a fluid is entering a pipe at a uniform velocity, or after passing through
components as bends, valves, pumps, turbines or similar, the fluid particles in the layer in
contact with the surface of the pipe come to a complete stop due to the no-slip condition.
Due to viscosity of the fluid, this layer in contact with the pipe surface, resists the motion
of adjacent layers and slows them down gradually. For the conservation of mass to hold
true the velocity of middle layers of the fluid in the pipe increases (since the layers of fluid
near the pipe surface have reduced velocities). This develops a velocity gradient across the
cross section of the pipe. A fluid needs some length to develop the constant velocity profile.
Boundary layers keep on growing till they meet after some distance downstream from the
entrance region. After this distance velocity profile doesn't change, flow is said to be fully
developed.
As can be seen in the figure:
assuming a fluid with a

uniform velocity entering a
pipe from a reservoir, the
downstream profile will
reach parabolic distribution
after a distance. The flow
profile is then unchanged
In developing flow, the wall

shear stress is changing.
In fully developed flow, the
wall shear stress is
constant.
Figure 3.5 Developing flow and fully developed flow in pipes
The region of changing velocity profile is the developing flow.

Downstream, after the profile is unchanged, the flow is called fully developed flow.
The distance required for the flow to develop to become fully developed is called
entrance length (Le), it depends on the shear on the pipe wall. The entry length refers
to that portion of pipe until the velocity profile is fully developed.
The value of the entrance length can be found by the following relations:

= 0.05 < 2000 ( ), (3.2)

= 50 > 3000 ( ) (3.3)

45
Example 3.2:
Consider fluid flowing in a round tube of length 1 m and diameter of 5mm. Classify the flow
as laminar or turbulent and calculate the entrance length for:
(a) air (50 oC) with a speed of 12 m/s, and
(b) water (15 oC) with a mass flow rate of = 8 g/s.
The pipe is connected to a reservoir with a smooth and tapered entrance.
Solution:
Air @ (50 oC), will have =1.7910-5 m2/s.
Water @(15 oC), will have = 1.1410-3 N.s/m2.
a) Air

(12 ) (0.005)
= = = 3350 ()
5 2
1.79 10

Since Re 3000, the flow is turbulent.

Le = 50 D = 50 (0.005 m) = 0.25 m.
b) Water
4 4(0.008 /)
= = = 1787 ()
(0.005)(1.14 1.14 103 . /2 )
Since Re 2000, the flow is laminar.

Le=0.05 Re D =0.05 (1787) (0.005m) =0.477m.
(/) 4
[: = = = = ]
2
4
46
3.3 Stress distribution in pipe flow: (laminar and turbulent flow)
Required: to derive the equation for the shear-stress distribution on a plane oriented
normal to streamlines for laminar and turbulent flows in circular pipes.
- Consider the flow of a Newtonian fluid in a round tube that is inclined at an angle
with horizontal.
- Assume that the flow is fully developed, steady and laminar.
- A control volume is assumed (cylindrical) of length s and radius r.
Figure 3.6 The forces in a cylindrical control volume within the flow of a round tube.
- The momentum equation in the s-direction is applied.

- The momentum efflux is zero (fully developed) same velocity profile at inlet and
outlet.
- The momentum accumulation is zero (steady state).
Fs = Fpressure + Fweight + Fshear = 0.

[ + ] sin (2) = 0

Let: W = A s, sin () = Z/s , and divide by A s, we will get:
(+ )
= [ ] (3.4)

Which is the relation of the shear stress distribution on a plane inserted normal to
the direction of flow of pipe.
Shear stress is varying linearly with the radius of the pipe r.
Shear stress is zero at the centre line and maximum at the wall of the pipe.
47
Figure 3.7 Shear stress distributions over normal area to the flow in a round pipe
For a fully developed flow in a pipe (laminar or turbulent), the shear stress distribution
on an area that is normal to the stream line of the flow is linear starting from zero at the
centre and increase in the direction of the pipe wall.
(+) ()
= 2 [ ] = 2 [ ] , ( = + ) (3.5)

(Laminar and turbulent).
Quiz :
Hint:
48
3.4 Velocity profile for laminar flow in a round tube:
Recall:
Laminar flow is a flow regime in which fluid motion is smooth and occurs in
layers, and the mixing occurs in layers by molecular diffusion (much slower than
turbulent mixing), Re 2000.
Laminar flow is important for flow in small conduits called micro channels, for
lubrication flow, and other flows in which viscous forces are dominant.
Laminar flow in round tubes is called Poiseuille flow or Hagen-Poiseulle flow.
3.4.1 Finding a formula for the velocity profile in a laminar flow:

o Start by relating stress to rate of strain for laminar flow:

= , Y is the distance from pipe wall. (3.6)

o Let Y = ro r (ro: pipe radius, r : radial coordinate). Note that = 1

o Use the chain rule:

= = = (3.7)

(+ )
o Using = [ ]
2
2 (+ )
( ) ( ) = [ ] (3.9)

To have the lift side a function of r and the right side function of s, then both sides
are equal to a constant.
(+ )
[ = = ] , where h is the change in peizometric head

2
( ++ ) over a length L.
2

= ( ) [ ] , integrate:
2
2
= ( )[ ] + (3.10)
4
Apply the no slip condition {V=0 at the wall of the pipe, or V(ro)=0}.
49
2
0 = ( )[ ] +
4
The equation for velocity profile in a pipe for laminar flow:

() = (

) (

) = (

) ((+)

) (3.11)
The maximum velocity occurs at r = 0 :

= = ( ) [ ] (3.12)

Using equations (3.11) and (3.12), It can be concluded that :

() = ( ( ) ) (3.13)

This indicates that the velocity profile for laminar flow in a pipe is parabolic.
3.4.2 Finding the discharge and the mean velocity for laminar flow in a
round tube:
2 2
= = 0 (4

) (

)(2) (3.14)
2
2 2 4
= ( ) ( ) ( ) | = ( ) ( ) (3.15)
4 2 8
The mean velocity for laminar flow in a round tube:

= = ( ) ( ) = (3.16)

50
3.5 Head loss and friction factor (f) for laminar flow:
o Assume fully developed flow in the pipe
o Apply energy equation between section (1) and (2)
Figure 3.8 Flow in round pipe of constant diameter
1 / + 1 = 2 / + 2 + (constant velocity) (3.17)
o Using the equation for mean velocity:

2 2 2 ( 2 +2 )( 1 +1 )
= ( )( ) = ( )( ) = (32 ) [

] (3.18)
8 32
51
Compare with [1 / + 1 = 2 / + 2 + ]

32
= (3.19)
2
{Laminar, fully developed, steady, Newtonian flow}.
The head loss for laminar flow varies linearly with velocity, it is influenced by
viscosity, pipe length, specific weight of the fluid, and pipe diameter squared.
52
3.6 Pipe head loss (Darcy-Weisbach equation):
Darcy-Weisbach equation is used to find the head loss in a straight run of a pipe.
The total head loss = pipe head loss + components head loss
Fully developed flow in Losses through devices

conduits, caused by shear (valves, bends, tees,...)
stress that act on flowing
fluid (major head loss) (Minor head loss)
3.6.1 Derivation of Darcy-Weisbach equation:

Assume fully developed and steady flow in a round tube of constant diameter.
Select a cylindrical control volume with a diameter D and length L.
Apply the momentum equation to the control volume:
(Steady, fully developed, V1=V2)
Figure 3.9 Force diagram of a fluid in a round tube
= + + = 0 (3.19)
2 2
(1 2 ) ( ) ( ) [( ) ] () = 0 (3.20)
4 4
() = / (3.21)
(1 + 1 ) (2 + 2 ) = (4 )/ (3.22)
(1 / + 1 ) (2 / + 2 ) = (4 )/() (3.23)
53
Consider the Energy equation with constant velocity:
(1 / + 1 ) = (2 / + 2 ) + (3.24)
Combine (3.23) and (3.24), replace by
2
4 4 4 2
= = ( 2 ) (

2
) = ( 2 ) () 2 (3.25)
2 2
2
Given that o is related to
2
Let
4
= = (3.26)
2 /2

= (3.27)

The well know Darcy-Weisbach equation
For fully developed incompressible, and steady flow, laminar or turbulent, the
head loss, or pressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe depends on
the friction factor, pipe length, diameter, mean velocity squared.
3.6.2 Special case: (laminar flow):

32
Recall: = (laminar flow)
2
Compare the previous equation with Darcy-Weisbach equation:
32 2
= =
2 2

32 2 64
= = = 64/ (3.28)
2 2
This is the equation of the friction factor for laminar flow.
54
3.7 Power required to maintain a flow:
The power is the rate of doing work.
For horizontal pipe (Z is constant):
.
=

=

= (3.29)

P=( ) ( ) = ( 1 2 ) (3.30)

For inclined pipe (general equation) , peizometric pressures are used instead of pressure:
= (1 2 ) (3.31)
55
3.8 Moody Chart
The Moody chart (Moody diagram) is a non-dimensional graph relates the Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor f, Reynolds number Re, and relative roughness (e/D) for fully
developed flow in a circular pipe. This basic chart plots DarcyWeisbach friction factor f
against Reynolds number for a variety of relative roughness and flow regimes.
The relative roughness being the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to
the pipe diameter (e/D).
Moody chart is the most famous and useful figure in fluid mechanics.
It is accurate to 15 percent for design calculations.
It can be used for circular and noncircular pipe flows and open-channel flows.
Roughness was simulated by gluing uniform sand grains onto the inner walls of the
pipes. The pressure drops and the flow rates were measured and the friction factor f was
correlated versus Reynolds number.
Moody chart is used to solve for pressure drop, P (Pa), head loss, hf (m), and flow rate
through pipes.
2
Head loss can be calculated using the DarcyWeisbach equation: =
2
The Moody chart can be divided into two regimes of flow: laminar and turbulent.
For the laminar flow regime, the DarcyWeisbach friction factor was determined
analytically by Poiseuille. In this regime roughness has no discernible effect.
For the turbulent flow regime, the relationship between the friction factor and the
Reynolds number is more complex and is governed by the Colebrook equation which
is implicit:
1 2.51
= 2( + ) (3.32)
3.7
56
57
58
59
Figure 3.10 Moody diagram
60
The following characteristics are observed from analysing the Moody diagram:
1. For laminar flow, Re < 2000, f = 64/Re, which is independent of relative roughness (e/D
or /D).
2. Turbulent flow is strongly affected by
roughness. For very large Reynolds
numbers (to the right of the dashed line), f
is a function of relative roughness (e/D or
/D) only, which is independent of the
Reynolds number. For such flows,
commonly termed completely turbulent
(fully rough flow), along the wall pipe, the
laminar sub layer is so thin that the
surface roughness completely dominates
the character of the flow near the wall
(sub layer totally broken up and friction
independent of Reynolds number). The
roughness curves are nearly horizontal in
this fully rough regime. Figure 3.11 Viscous sublayer compared to roughness
3. The gap in the figure for which no values of f are given, 2000 < Re < 4000, is a result of
the fact that the flow in this transition range may be laminar or turbulent (or an
unsteady mix of both) depending on the specific circumstances involved. There are no
reliable friction factors in this range.
4. Even for smooth pipes the friction factor is not zero. That is, there is a head loss in any
pipe, no matter how smooth the surface is made. This is a result of the no-slip boundary
condition that requires any fluid to stick to any solid surface it flows over. There is
always some microscopic surface roughness that produces the no-slip behaviour (and
thus f 0) on the molecular level, even when the roughness is considerably less than the
viscous sub layer thickness. Such pipes are called hydraulically smooth ( f = function of
(Re,e/D)).
5. Colebrook (in 1939) combined all data for transition and turbulent flow in smooth as
well as rough pipes into the following relation known as Colebrook equation:
1 2.51
= 2( + )
3.7
In 1944, Lewis Ferry Moody plotted the DarcyWeisbach friction factor into what is now
known as the Moody chart.
6. For smooth pipes (turbulent flow: 4000Re105 ),Blassius experimentally developed the
0.316
following formula: = 0.25

61
1 2 12 22
Considering the energy equation: + 1 2 + =
2 2
For horizontal, constant diameter pipe:
1 2
Z=0, and V1=V2 = = 2 1 =

Also the Darcy-Weisbach equation for laminar flow:

32
= = = 4 /(8)
2
These results confirm that for a laminar horizontal pipe flow rate, the flow rate is:
i. Directly proportional to the pressure drop.
ii. Inversely proportional to the viscosity.
iii. Inversely proportional to the pipe length.
iv. Proportional to the pipe diameter to the fourth power, (strong relation).
For inclined constant diameter pipe, the value of P will be:
= 2 1 = + (1 2 )
More concern is needed to the change in elevation. Cases can be seen were the pressure
could be zero, positive or negative for the the same flow losses depending on the change in
elevation.
Example 3.3:
If the diameter of a pipe is doubled, what effect does this have on the flow rate for a
given head loss? Consider (a) Laminar flow; (b) turbulent flow.
Solution:

32
(a) Laminar flow: = = ,
2 2
V=K1D2 ; Q=AV=D2/4 (KD2)=K2D4
Thus doubling the diameter will increase the flow by a factor of 24=16.
2
(b) Turbulent flow, = ,
2
2
i) assume fully turbulent (constant f), = 2 ; = 3 1/2 and Q=AV=K3D5/2

Thus doubling the diameter will increase the flow rate by a factor of 22/5 = 5.66
for turbulent flow with complete turbulence.
0.316
ii) For smooth pipe with Re100,000, Blasius equation can be used ( = 0.25

5
=()0.25);
2 7/4
= = 6 ; thus Q=AV=K8D19/7
2 5/4
Which means that doubling the diameter will increase the flow rate by a factor
of 219/7=6.56 for turbulent flow in smooth pipes.
62
Example 3.4:
Oil (Sp. Gr. =0.94) with a viscosity of 0.0096 N.S/m2 flows in a 90-mm-diameter welded-
steel pipe (e=0.046mm) at a discharge of 7.2 L/s. What is the friction head loss per meter of
pipe?
Solution:
V=Q/A=Q/(D2/4)= 4(0.0072)/( 0.0902)=1.132 m/s
Re=0.09(1.132) (1000.94)/0.0096=9974; e/D=0.046/90=0.000511.
0.032 1.1322
From Moody Diagram, f = 0.032 = = 0.0232 /
0.09 2(9.81)
Example 3.5:
Crude oil (Sp. Gr. =0.855) at 50oC (= 3.810-6 m2/s), flows at 300 L/s through a 450-mm-
diameter pipe (e=0.054 mm) 1500 m long. Find the power loss within the flow.
Solution:
V=0.3/( 0.2252)= 1.886 m/s ; Re=VD/ =0.45 (1.886)/(3.810-6)= 2.23105 ; e/D=0.054/450
2 1500 1.8862
= 0.00012; from Moody Diagram , f=0.0163 ; = = 0.0163 = 9.85
2 0.45 2(9.81)
Power loss = Q hf = (0.8859807)0.30(9.85)/1000=25.7 kW.
Example 3.6
A fluid flows through a smooth horizontal 2m long tube of 2 mm diameter with an
average velocity of 2.1 m/s. Determine the head loss and the pressure drop if the fluid
is (a) air, (b) water, (c) mercury. Use the information in the following table.
Solution:
1 12 2 22
+ 1 + = + 2 + +
2 2
2
where, = , Z1=Z2, and V1=V2
2
2
2 (2.1 )

Thus, = ( ) = 225
0.002 2
And P=P1 P2 = hL
63

(2.1 )(0.002) 4.2103

Also, = = =

Fluid (m2/s) Re Flow type f hL (m) (N/m3) P (N/m2)
(a)Air 1.4610-5 287 Laminar 64/Re=0.223 50.2 12.0 602
(b)Water 1.1210-6 3750 turbulent 0.0404 9.09 9800 8.91104
(c) Hg 1.1510-7 36500 turbulent 0.0220 4.95 133000 6.58105
Example 3.7:
A viscous fluid flows in a 0.10-m diameter pipe such that its velocity measured 0.012 m
away from the pipe wall is 0.8 m/s. If the flow is laminar, determine the centreline velocity
and the flow rate.
Solution:
2
() = (1 ( ) ), where D=0.1m.

The value of r is: = (0.1/2) 0.012 = 0.038.
(0.038 2
Thus, 0.8 / = (1 ( ) ) Vc=1.89 m/s.
0.1/2
2 2( 3
3
= = 0.1 0.5 1.89) = 7.42 10
4 4
Example 3.8:
Oil (Sp. Gr.=0.9 , =510-1 N.s/m2) flows steadily in a 3-cm pipe. The pipe is vertical, and
the pressure at an elevation of 100 m is 200 kPa. If the pressure at an elevation of 85 m is
250 kPa, is the flow direction up or down? What is the velocity at the centre of the pipe
and at 6 mm from the centre, assuming that the flow is laminar?
Solution:
The flow will be always from the highest
energy (P/+Z+V2/2g) to the lowest energy.
In case of horizontal constant-diameter
pipe, the flow will be from the highest
pressure to the lowest pressure.
The direction of Z will be always upward
Z.
The direction of the flow (s or X), where we
measure L, is at the same line of the pipe
and at the direction from the highest
energy to the lowest energy (flow
direction) Figure
For normal pipe, the equation for velocity
64
and pressure profile for laminar flow can
be given as the following:
2 2 (+) 2 2
() = ( ) ( ) = ( ) ( + )
4 4

For the case of flow upward (s): both Z and s have the same direction ( = 1)

2 2 2 2
() = (4

) ( + ) = (4

) ( + )

For the case of flow downward (s): Z and s have the opposite direction ( = 1)

2 2 2 2
() = (4

) ( + ) = (4

) ( )

The direction of the flow:
100 200103
+ 100 = + 100 = 122.65 energy at 100 m elevation
8830
85 250103
+ 85 = + 85 = 113.31 energy at 85 m elevation
8830
The flow is downward

0.03 2
2 2 1 ( ) 250103 200103
2
= = ( ) = ( 8830) = 0.618 /
4 15 4(5101 ) 15
Example 3.9:
Oil (Sp. Gr. =0.85) with kinematic viscosity of 610-4 m2/s flows in a 15 cm pipe at a rate of
0.02 m3/s.
1. What is the head loss per 100 m length of pipe?
2. Find the centre and the average velocity of the flow.
3. Find the wall shear stress.
4. Plot the velocity and the shear profiles.
Solution:
(1).V=Q/A=(0.02 m3/s)/( (0.15m)2/4)= 1.13 m/s
Re=VD/ =(1.13 m/s)(0.15m)/(610-4 m2/s)=283 2000 flow is laminar
32 32 32(6104 )1001.13
= = = = 9.83
2 2 9.810.152
2 64 2 64 100 1.132
Or, = = = = 9.83
2 2 283 0.15 2
(2).The average velocity: V=Q/A=(0.02 m3/s)/( (0.15m)2/4)= 1.13 m/s

The center velocity : Vcenter= 2 V =2 1.13 = 2.26 m/s.
65
0.15
(+) () 2 9.83
(3). = [
2
] = [
2
]= [(0.85 9810) ] = 30.74
2 100
2
(4) () = (1 ( ) )

Example 3.10:
A fluid flows through a horizontal 0.25-cm diameter pipe. when the Reynolds number is
1500, the headloss over a 6-m length of the pipe is 192 cm. Determine the fluid velocity.
Solution:
2 64 2 64 6 2
= = = = 1.92 , (Laminar flow) V=0.606 m/s
2 2 1500 0.0025 2
Example 3.11:
For laminar flow in a circular pipe, find the velocities at 0.1r, 0.3r, 0.5r, 0.7r, and 0.9r
relative to the center velocity. Plot the velocity profile.
Solution:
Given that the velocity at any diameter of the pipe for laminar flow can be given as:
2 () 2
() = (1 ( ) ) , or = (1 ( ) )

which can be used to find the relative velocity at any radius of the pipe section:
66
Example 3.12:
An oil with a viscosity of =0.4 N.s/m2 and density =900 kg/m3 flows in a pipe of
diameter D=0.020 m.
(a) What pressure drop, P1 P2, is needed to produce a flowrate of Q = 2.010-5 m3/s
for horizontal pipe with x1=0 and x2=10m.
(b) How steep a hill, , must the pipe be on if the oil is to flow through the pipe at the
same rate in part (a), but with P1=P2
(c) If P1=200kPa, what is the pressure at section x3=5m, where x is measured along the
pipe.
Solution:
(a) If the Reynolds number is less than 2000 the flow is laminar.
V=Q/A=(210-5 m3/s)/((0.022 m2)/4)=0.0637 m/s
Re=VD/=2.87 2000 the flow is laminar. And the following equation for

32 128
laminar flow can be used: = =
2 4
The pipe is horizontal, then Z1=Z2. Also, V1=V2 (constant diameter),then the energy
equation can be given as:
1 2 22 12 2
+ 1 2 = + + , or ( 1 = )
2 2
128
(1 2 ) = =
4
1280.4102105
So, = 1 2 = = 20,400 = 20.4
(0.02)4 2
67
(b) We have the pipe on a hill of angle such that the pressure drop, P=0, given
that he flow does not change. The approach requires that the value of hL does not
change. the only way to achieve that is to have the change in elevation replace
the pressure drop:
1 2 22 12
+ 1 2 = + , or (1 2 = ) (1 2 ) = =
2 2
128 (1 2 ) 128 128(0.4)(2105 )
or = = sin = = = 0.230
4 4 (900)(9.81)(0.02)4

= 13.34
(c) The approach of part (b) requires that the pressure is constant
P1=P2 = 200 kPa.
68
Tutorial 3
Q1. Oil having specific gravity 0.89 and =0.085 poise flows through a horizontal pipe
of 1.5 cm diameter and 230 cm length. Compute the pressure drop, pressure and
energy gradients in order to maintain a flow of 150 cm3/s.
Q2. It is required to transport 55 L/s of an oil, sp. gr.0.82 and =2.1 N.s/m2, to a
distance of 1 km. Permissible energy gradient= 0.04. Determine the size of the
pipe and power required to maintain the flow.
Q3. In a flow through an 8 cm-diameter horizontal pipe with glycerine, =1400 kg/m3
and =7.9 Poise, the shear stress at the wall was found to be 300 N/m2.
Determine pressure and energy gradients, mean velocity of flow and Reynolds
number. Also plot the shear stress and velocity distribution diagrams.
Q4. Oil (=0.191 N. S / m2, =927.7 kg/m3) flows through an inclined 7.5 cm-diameter
pipe. Find the slope of the pipe that will cause the pressure to be constant along
the pipe's entire length.
Q5. An Oil (=810-3N.s/m2, sp. gr. =0.88) is flowing through a round tube as shown.
Assuming laminar flow, determine:
a) Direction of flow.
b) Loss of head between 1 and 2.
c) Average velocity of flow
d) Reynolds number.
e) Maximum velocity.
f) Maximum shear stress.
g) Power required to maintain the flow
h) Check that the flow is laminar flow
69
Q6. A fluid of specific gravity 0.96 flows steadily in a long

vertical pipe with an average velocity of 15 cm/s. if the pressure
is constant throughout the fluid, then find:
a) The maximum velocity within the flow profile.
b) The viscosity of the fluid.
c) The Reynolds no. of the flow.
d) The shear stress on the pipe wall.
Solution of Tutorial 3:
(1) Fluid { Oil, S.Gr.=0.89 , =0.085 poise= (0.085/10) N.S/m2 }
3
150
= = 84.9 = 0.85 /
2
4 (1.5)
(0.89 1000) 0.85 0.015
= = = 1335 ( )
0.0085
2 64 2 64 2.3 (0.85)2
= = = = 0.27
2 2 1335 0.015 2
1 12 2 22
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2
1 2
= , (1 = 2 1 = 2 )

1 2 = = 0.27 (0.89 9810 3 ) = 2357.343 2

= . /
2.36 /2
= =
2.3
2 1 0.27
= =
2.3
(2) Fluid { Oil, S.Gr.=0.82 , =2.1 N.S/m2 }
Required: D , Power
55 103 0.07
= = = 2
2
4
70
32
=
2
0.07 1 1
0.04 = 32 2.1 2 2
0.82 9810
= .
0.07
0.821000[ ]0.34
(0.34)2
Check , = = = 9.5 ()
2.1
= ( ) = (. )(. )( )
= .
(3) Fluid { Glycerine , =1400 kg/m3, =7.9 poise }

D = 8 cm, =300 N/m2
Required: pressure and energy gradient, average velocity, Re, and velocity
diagrams.
( + )
=
2
300 0.04 ( + )
=
2 2
Given that the pipe is horizontal , then Z=0.0

= 15000 2
.
1 15000 /3
= = = 1.092 /
9.81 1400 /3
2
= , =
32
(0.08)2
= (1400 9.81)(1.092) = 3.796 /
7.9
32
10
1400 3.796 0.08
= = = 538.3 ()
0.79
( + )
= = [15000] = [7500]
2 2
2 2
() = (1 [ ] ) = (2 3.796) (1 [ ] )
0.04
71
72
(4)
927.7 1.92 0.075
= = = 699.4 ()
0.191
Applying energy equation between (1) and (2):
1 12 2 22 32
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2 2
1 2
= , V1=V2

1 2 32
, =
2
0.0085 3 /
= = = 1.92 /
(0.075)2
4
1 2 32 32 0.191 1.92
sin() = = = = 0.229
2 927.7 9.81 (0.075)2
= 13.2
3.2105 /2 5.3105 /2
(5) a) 1 = 3
+ 5 = 42.06 , 2 = + 0 = 61.39
0.889810 / 0.889810 /3
Flow is taking place from (2) to (1) in the direction of decreasing head.
b)
2 2
+ + = + + +
2 2
Where, U: upstream, d: downstream.

( + ) ( + ) =

= (61.39) (42.06) = 19.33

32 2 (0.889810)(19.33)(0.0016)2
c) = = = = 0.236 /
2 32 32 (8103 )(5/ sin(45 ))
(0.881000)(0.236)(0.0016)
d) = = = 41.536 ( )
8103
73
0.0016 2
2 ( ) 42.0661.3
2
e) = = = (0.88 9810) =0.47 m/s
4 4(8103 ) 5/ sin(45 )
or = = 2 = 2 0.236 = 0.47 /
f)
0.0016
(+) ( )
2
= = = = (0.88
2 2
42.0661.3
9810) = 11.3 N/m2
5/ sin(45 )

g) = (0.88 9810 3) (61.39 42.06) [0.236 (0.0016)2 ] = 0.316 .
4
(2 2 ) (2 2 ) (+)
(6) () = =
4 4
2 (+)
= = ( = 0) =
4
(=0) 2
= /2 = = [ + ]
2 8
For constant pressure, and down word flow:
2
= [0 + (1)]
8
2
=
8
a) = 2 = 30 /
0.025 2
2 ( )
b) = 0.15 / = 2
(0.96 9810) =1.226 N.s/m2
8 8
0.9610000.150.025
c) = = = 2.94
1.226
0.0125
d) = () = (0.96 9810) = 58.86 /2
2 2
74
Quiz
Answer Sheet
The flow in pipes will always take place in the direction of decreasing

energy ( + + ) (decreasing pressure for the case of horizontal pipe).

To convert the dynamic viscosity from poise into N.s/m2, divide by 10.
{ = 1 Pascal. Second = kg/(m.s)= N.s/m2 = 10 poise }.
Power required to maintain a flow:
= (1 2 ) (Horizontal pipe)
= (1 2 ) (Inclined pipe)
1 12 2 22
Energy equation: + 1 + = + 2 + +
2 2

+ (1 2 ) = = (constant diameter)

1 2 = [(2 1 ) + ] {To find the pressure drop}.
The following equations were derived for the case of circular pipes for the
case of laminar flow.

() = (

) (

) = (

) ((+)

) = (

) ( + )
2
() = (1 ( ) )

, = ( = ) = ( ) [ ] = (

) ((+)

) = ( ) ( + )

4
= ( ) ( )
8
2
The mean velocity: = = ( )( ) =
8 2

= = ; {Laminar, fully developed, steady, Newtonian flow}.

(+) () P Z
= 2 [ ] = 2 [ ] = 2 ( + ) , {laminar and turbulent}.
L L
75
Quiz
Answer Sheet
76
Quiz
Q. The 6-cm diameter pipe shown contains glycerin, = 1420 kg/m3 and =7.8 Poise, flowing at
a flow rate of 6 m3/h.
- Verify that the flow is laminar.
- For the pressure measurements shown, is the flow up or down?
- What is the total head gradient for these pressures?
- Draw the shear and velocity profiles.
r (cm) 0 1 2 3
V (m/s)
77
3.9 Types of Fluid Flow Problems:
In the design and analysis of piping systems that involve the use of the Moody chart,
we usually encounter three types of problems (figure 3.12):
1. Determining the energy head loss (pressure drop) when the the pipe length and
diameter are given for a specified flow rate ( or velocity).
Use the energy equation.

Find the velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor and solve directly the energy
equation to find the energy loss or pressure difference.
2. Determining the flow rate when the the pipe length and diameter are given for a
specified head loss or pressure drop.
The energy equation is used.

Substituting the known values in the energy equation will result in two unknowns (f,
and Q).
Solving the equation requires assuming value for f, substituting this value in the
energy equation to find Q or V.
Reynolds number is found using the previous value of V, then using Moody diagram
anew value of f is found.
The new value of f is compared with the previous assumed value. If the difference
between both values is insignificant then we stop and consider the value of Q to be
correct, otherwise we use the new value of f in the energy equation to find Q or V.
the same process is repeated until successive values of f are not significantly
different.
3. Determining the pipe diameter when the pipe length and flow rate are given for a
specified pressure drop.
The previous procedure is applied but the unknowns will be the friction factor f and
the diameter.
78
Figure 3.12 Energy equations for different types of fluid flow
79
Example 3.13:
Oil with =900 kg/m3 and =0.00001 m2/s flows at Q=0.2 m3/s through 500 m of 20-cm
diameter cast iron pipe. Determine the head and the pressure drop if the pipe slopes down
at 10o in the flow direction.
Solution: (Type 1 problem to find hf or P)
= / = 0.2/ ( 0.22 /4) = 6.4 /

= / = 6.4 0.2/0.00001 = 128000
= 0.26 /200 = 0.0013
500 6.42
= 0.0225 = 0.0225 = 117
0.2 2
1 2 = [(2 1 ) + ]
= (500 sin(10 ) + ) = 900 9.81 (87 + 117) = 265 103 Pascal
Example 3.14:
When gasoline with a kinematic viscosity of 510-7 m2/s flows in a 200-mm-diameter
smooth pipe the friction head loss is 0.43 m per 100 m. Find the flow rate.
Solution: (Type 2 problem to find Q)
For smooth pipe ( = 0)
= 0.43 = (100/0.2) 2 /[2(9.81)]
= 0.1299 / 1/2
= / = 0.2 / (5107 ) = 400000
let the initial assumption: = 0.02 ; = 0.918/ ; = 3.67105 = 0.014
(Moody diagram)
The following table represents subsequent trials:
Try f V m/s Re New f
5
0.02 0.918 3.6710 0.014 Try again
0.014 1.101 4.4105 0.0134 Try again
0.0134 1.12 4.48105 0.0134 accepted
= (/4)(0.2)2 (1.12) = 0.0352 3 / = 35.2 /
80
Example 3.15:
A steel pipe (e=0.065 mm) 4200 m long is to
convey oil (=5.210-5 m2/s) at 300 L/s from a
reservoir with surface elevation 247 m to one
with surface elevation 156 m. What pipe size is
required?
Solution: (Type 3 problem to find D)
2
0.3
( 2)

4200
= 247 156 = 91 = 4
5 = 0.343
2
Try f Dm V m/s e/D Re New f

0.030 0.400 2.382 0.00016 1.83104 0.027 Try again
0.027 0.392 2.484 0.00017 1.87104 0.027 accepted
D = 0.392 m
Example 3.16:
Determine the pressure drop per 300-m length of new 0.20-m diameter horizontal cast iron pipe
when the average velocity is 1.7 m/s.
Solution: (Type 1 problem to find hL or P),
Use =1.1210-6 m2/s, = 999 /3
1 12 2 22 2
+ + 1 = + + 2 +
2 2 2
Given :1 = 2 = = 1.7 /; = 300 ; = 0.2

1 2 = (1 2 ) + 2 = 2 (Horizontal pipe, Z1=Z2)
2 2
/ = 0.2610 3/0.2 = 1.3103 , = / = 1.70.2/(1.12106 ) = 3.04105
= 0.022
Thus = 0.022 (300/0.2) (999/2)(1.7)2 = 4.76104 /2
81
Tutorial 4.
Q1. Water at 20o C, having =110-6 m2/s, flows through a smooth plastic pipe of
16 cm diameter maintaining an average velocity of 2.8 m/s. What is the head
loss per meter of length of pipe?
Q2. Water flows through a 17 cm diameter steel riveted pipe, k = 0.3 mm.
Determine the discharge if there is a loss of 2.8 m in a km length. What power
will be needed to maintain the flow? ( = 110-6 m2/s).
Q3. What size of steel pipe, k = 0.3 mm, should be used to carry 550 L/s of
kerosene, = 210-6 m2/s, with an energy loss of 2.1 m per km.
Solution of tutorial 4:
Q1. Given:
=110-6 m2/s (water)
Pipe: {smooth plastic pipe , D = 16 cm}
Flow:{V = 2.8 m/s}

Required: = ?

Solution:
2.8 0.16
= = = 448000 Turbulent flow
106
Moody chart {smooth plastic pipe f = 0.0133}
.
= = . = .
.
Q2. Given:
=110-6 m2/s (water)
Pipe: {k = 0.3 mm , D = 17 cm}
2.8
Flow: {Q =? m/s, = }, Power = ?
1000
Required: Q, Power
Solution:
0.3
= = 0.00176
170
1 2 2.8 1 2
= = = 9.34 103 = 2
2 1000 0.17 2
82
1st iteration:
Let f = 0.026
0.599 0.17
V = 0.599 m/s = = 6
= 101890.96 f = 0.0244
10
2nd iteration:
f = 0.0244
V = 0.62 m/s = 105394 f = 0.0243 V = 0.62 m/s , then

= = . (. ) = . /

.
= = . = .

Q3. Given:
=210-6 m2/s (water)
Pipe: {k = 0.3mm , D = ? cm}
2.1
Flow:{Q = 550 l/s , = }
1
Required: pipe diameter
Solution:
0.55 3 / 0.7
= = 2 = (1)
4 2
0.3
= (2)

(0.7 2 ) 3.5105

= = = (3)
2106
2
=
2
2.1 0.7 2 1
= ( 2)
1000 2

= 0.084 (4)
5
1st iteration:
Let f = 0.020
D = 0.75 m (from equation (4))
3.5105 0.03
= = 466666.7 , with = = 0.0004
0.75 0.75
f = 0.017 (need another iteration).
83
Chapter 4: Elements of Boundary Layer Theory

4.1 Introduction:
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid to flow under stress, internal
friction or resistance. It is related to the fluid friction.
Water is thin means having lower viscosity.
Honey is thick means having a high viscosity.
All real fluids have resistance to stress and therefor are viscous. Theoretically, a fluid
with no resistance to shear is known as ideal fluid or in viscid fluid.
In any flow, layers move at different velocities and the fluids viscosity arises from the
shear stress between the layers that oppose any applied force.
Laminar shear of fluid between two plates:

Friction between the
fluid and the moving
boundary causes the
fluid to shear
A = area of the plate.

Figure 4.1 Velocity profile of the flow between moving and stationary plate
Pipe flow case, Laminar Shear:

Real Fluid,
Non-constant gradient:(result of
geometry)
((variable shear over vertical

direction))
Figure 4.2 Velocity profile-Pipe case
In case of real fluids, the fluid particles will adhere to the boundary (uboundary =0) even
for small viscosity fluids No-Slip Condition.
84

Farther away from the boundary / wall there is a velocity gradient ( ) which causes

the fluid to exert tangential stress
As we go farther away from the
boundary, the retardation due to the
presence of viscosity is negligible.
Figure 4.3 Boundary layer thickness

For high velocity flows, the retardation of velocity due to viscosity is limited to a thin
layer near the boundary which is known as the boundary Layer.
4.2 Boundary Layer:
Boundary layer is an important concept and refers to the layer of fluid closest to the
surface of a solid past which the fluid flows where the effects of viscosity are significant. It
has a lower rate of flow than the bulk of the fluid because of its adhesion to the solid.
Consider a thin flat plate held horizontal (zero slope), that is parallel to a flow in a uniform
stream of velocity U known as a free stream velocity or potential velocity, Figure 4.4.
Boundary Layer can be defined as:
The region adjacent to a surface over which the velocity changes from the free
stream velocity to zero at the surface.
The development and growth of the boundary layer occurs because of the no-slip
condition at the surface where the fluid velocity must be zero (no-slip condition: the
fluid velocity at all fluidsolid boundaries is equal to that of the solid boundary. Particles close to a
surface do not move along with a flow when adhesion is stronger than cohesion. At the fluid-solid
interface, the force of attraction between the fluid particles and solid particles (Adhesive forces) is
greater than that between the fluid particles (Cohesive forces). This force imbalance brings down
the fluid velocity to zero).
The most powerful consequence of the no-slip condition is the appearance of strong
velocity gradients near the wall. This region is often very thin, and it is then called a
boundary layer
Within the boundary layer, adjacent layers of fluid are in relative motion (velocity
gradient), and because all fluids have viscosity, there will be friction between the
layers as they slide over each other. In other words, viscous shear stresses are
produced, with a magnitude given by the viscosity times the velocity gradient.
85
The thickness of the boundary layer was defined by Prandtl as : The distance from
the plate (boundary) to where 99% of the free stream velocity, U, is achieved again.
{at y = (thickness of B.L.) u = 0.99 U
The fluid particles next to the plate are affected by shear as they pass close to the
leading edge of the plate which slows them. These particles continue to be subject to shear
stress from the plate as they progress downstream continue to decelerate.
In addition, these particles because of their lower velocity retard other particles
adjacent to them farther from the plate. It is noticed downstream that:
The boundary layer becomes thicker.
The velocity gradient at the wall becomes smaller and the local shear stress is
reduced as a result.
Figure 4.4 Development of boundary layer and shear stress along thin flat plate
86
It is clear from the figure that the thickness

of the B.L. is increasing while the value of
at the boundary is decreasing
downstream.
Figure 4.5 Velocity profile along the plate
4.2.1 Laminar, transition, and turbulent boundary layer:

Laminar boundary layer:
The initial section of the boundary layer.
The flow is smooth and steady
Near the leading edge up to a certain length, the flow in the B.L. exhibits all the
characteristics of the laminar flow irrespective of whether the original stream
flow is laminar or turbulent.
Any disturbance created in the laminar flow in B.L. is ultimately dampened.
Thickening of the B.L. continues smoothly downstream direction until a point
is reached where the B.L. becomes unstable beyond this point (the critical
point); small disturbances grow and spread leading to turbulence.
Transition region:
The region after the critical point where the flow becomes unstable showing
characteristics between laminar and turbulent and the B.L. is unstable is
known as transition region. It is usually small region.
Figure 4.6 Laminar, transition, and turbulent boundary layers over thin flat plate
Downstream. If the flow does not separate from the boundary, the boundary
layer continues to increase to form what is known as:
87
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
If the plate is smooth, then even though the boundary layer is turbulent, there
is a very thin layer near the boundary in which the flow is still laminar.
This layer is known as Laminar Sub-Layer.
Laminar Sub-Layer:
The flow is smooth and steady
The presence of the wall dampens the cross-stream mixing and turbulent
fluctuations.

o: wall shear stress is constant. = o

Experiments by Prandtl Karman have provided that the thickness of laminarsub
layer is :
11.6 11.6
= = (4.1)
o
Where,
= o (4.2)
is the shear velocity, and o is the average shear stress at the boundary.
Figure 4.7 Laminar-Sublayer region for the flow over a thin flat plate
4.3 Hydrodynamically Smooth and Rough Boundaries:

Any surface of flow when examined will be found to consist of innumerable
irregularities of various sizes.
Assume the average size of these irregularities or their average height
(roughness) to be k, or e [different from one reference to another].
Boundary with a large value of roughness k will be called a rough boundary.
While, the boundary with smaller values of k is called a smooth boundary.
((Still need to consider the flow & fluid characteristics))
4.3.1 Hydrodynamically Smooth Boundary:
Consider a boundary with a roughness height k.
Let the thickness of the laminar sub-layer to be much greater than k.
The flow outside the laminar sub-layer is turbulent.
88
Because of the thickness of the laminar sub-layer , the eddies can not reach the
roughness elements of the surface irregularities :
These elements are not exposed to the turbulent flow
The boundary acts as a smooth boundary and is known as
hydrodynamically smooth boundary.
Figure 4.8 Hydrodynamically smooth boundary

As the Reynolds number increases:
The thickness of the laminar sub-layer decreses and might be much smaller
than k
The l.S.L can completely destroyed (the roughness element protrude through
the L.S.L).
Considerable energy loss.
Once the L.S.L is destroyed:
The energy loss is no longer depends on Re but on the relative roughness (k/d)
Figure 4.9 Hydrodynamically rough boundary

Conclusion:
Experiments showed:
When (k/) is less than 0.25, then the boundary acts as hydrodynamically
smooth boundary.
If (k/) is greater than 6.0 boundary acts as hydrodynamically rough
boundary.
For 0.25 < / < 6.0, boundary is in transition.
Resistance depends on Reynolds number and relative roughness
89
4.4 Resistance of Smooth and Artificially Roughened Pipes
Recall:
(1+1)(2+2)
= = (4.3)
4 4
or
(12)
4 = = ,

2 1 (12) 1
) 4
1
Divide by ( 2
== 2
= 2
2 4
2 2 2
f is a dimensionless coefficient {Weisbach resistance coefficient}

2
(1 2 ) = (4.4)
2
2
(1 2 ) = = (4.5)
2
The famous Darcy Weisbach equation.
4.4.1 Blassius Formula:

For:
smooth pipes
Turbulent flow , 4000 Re 105
Blassius experimentally developed the following formula:
0.316
= (4.6)
0.25
4.4.2 Commercial Pipes:

To obtain f for commercial pipes, Colebrook and white developed an empirical
equation for a conduit flowing completely full of fluid at Reynolds numbers greater than
4000, it is expressed as:
1 2.51
= 2 ( + ) (4.7)
3.7
or
1 2.51
= 2 ( + ) (4.8)
14.8
where:
- ,is the Hydraulic diameter, (m, ft) For fluid-filled, circular conduits, Dh = D =
inside diameter.
- = /4 is the Hydraulic radius, (m, ft) For fluid-filled, circular conduits.
90
Additional, mathematically equivalent forms of the Colebrook equation are:
1
2 = 1.74 2(1 + 18.57 ) (4.9)

Where, R: radius of pipe, k: average size of pipe roughness, Re; Reynolds number, f:
friction factor.
This equation was later plotted by Moody.
Moody diagram is frequently used for finding the value of f for commercial pipes.
4.4.3 Haaland equation (direct solution of f):

The Haaland equation was proposed in 1983 by Professor S.E. Haaland of
the Norwegian Institute of Technology. It is used to solve directly for the Darcy
Weisbach friction factor f for a full-flowing circular pipe. It is an approximation of the
implicit ColebrookWhite equation:
1 / 5.74
= 2 ( + ) (4.10)
3.7 0.9
or
0.25
= / 5.74
2 (4.11)
[( + 0.9 )]
3.7
91
Tutorial. 5
Q1. Below are tabulated the actual velocity measurements at various points in the
vertical at a particular station in the wind tunnel:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s 4.93 6.30 6.90 8.01 9.36 10.05 10.35 10.48 10.48 10.48
Plot the velocity profile with exaggerated Y scale and determine the thickness of
(Y/) in the relation:
u/U=(Y/)m
Q2.In the following cases determine whether the pipe surface will act as smooth, rough
or in transition.
(I) o=12 N/m2, = 1020 kg/m3, = 9.310-3 cm2/s and k = 0.1mm.

(II) U* =3.0 cm/s, =1.5710-5 m2/s, and k = 0.3mm.
Q3.Find the value of the friction factor f for the following cases:
(I) By calculation, using laminar flow formula/ Blassius formula/ Colebrook-

White formula
Type of pipe K (mm) D (cm) k/D Re

Smooth - - - 1700, 4800
Rough - - 0.002 1200
- 0.3 50 - (a) 106
(b) using Colebrook formula
(II) By Moody diagram:
Type of pipe K (mm) D (cm) k/D Re

- 0.26 10 - 7000 and f ultimate
(a) 2.5104
- - - 0.006
(b) 108
92
Solution of tutorial 5:
Q1. Below are tabulated the actual velocity measurements at various points in the
vertical at a particular station in the wind tunnel:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s 4.93 6.30 6.90 8.01 9.36 10.05 10.35 10.48 10.48 10.48
Plot the velocity profile with exaggerated Y scale and determine the thickness of
(Y/) in the relation:
u/U=(Y/)m
Modified Table:
Y cm 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.90 1.35 1.58 1.75 2.25 2.50 3.00
u m/s

= []

( ) = []

=

()
=
()
93
Q2. In the following cases determine whether the pipe surface will act as smooth,
rough or in transition.
(I) o=12 N/m2, = 1020 kg/m3, = 9.310-3 cm2/s and k = 0.1mm.

cm2 1 m2
11.6 11.69.3103 ( 4 2)
= = s 10 cm
= 9.94 105 m = 9.94 103 cm
o/ 12/1020
k 0.1 103 m
= = 1.005
9.94 105 m
Boundary is Transition
(II) U* =3.0 cm/s, =1.5710-5 m2/s, and k = 0.3mm.

. . . /
= = = .
/
.
= = .
.
Boundary is Smooth
94
Q3. Find the value of the friction factor f for the following cases:
(I) By calculation, using laminar flow formula/ Blassius formula/ Colebrook-
White formula
K D
Type of k/D Re f
(mm) (cm)
pipe
Case (1): 1700
Smooth - - -
Case (2): 4800
Rough - - 0.002 Case (3): 1200
Case (4): 106
- 0.3 50 -
Using Colebrook formula
Case (1): Re 2000, Laminar flow formula, f=64/Re = 64/1700 = 0.0376

. .
Case (2): Turbulent, smooth, Re 105 , = = = .
( ). ().
Case (3): Re 2000, Laminar flow formula, f=64/Re = 64/1200 =0.053

.
Case(4): Re = 106 , = = .

.
= . ( + . )
.

= . ( + . )

Complete by assuming values for f until equalizing both sides of the equation
(II) By Moody diagram:

Type
K D
of k/D Re f (Moody diagram)
(mm) (cm)
pipe
(a) 7000 0.037
- 0.26 10 0.0026
(b) f ultimate 0.0251
(a) 2.5 104 0.035
- - - 0.006
(b) 108 0.032
95
Chapter 5: Pipe flow problems
96
5.1 Pipes in series

Pipes in series: When two pipes of different diameters or roughness are connected in
series such that the total volume of a flowing fluid passes through all the pipes and fittings
having all the same circumstances of flow. Such problems in which the difference in head
causing a known value of flow discharge is required, or the discharge is required for a given
known value of energy or head loss.
Such problems can be solved by applying the energy equation for the hydraulic
system between two points considering the difference in head and the energy loss within
all the pipes and fittings between these two points.
Figure 5.1 Pipes in series connecting two tanks
The energy loss within the system will be due to the friction within the pipes which
2
can be summed cumulatively ( ); the minor loss due to the pipe exit, entrance,
2
valves, contraction and expansion. The energy equation can be applied between A and B at
the up and down streams tanks as:
12 1 12 2 22 (1 2 )2 22
+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + + 1 + 2 + + (5.1)
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
12 1 12 2 22 (1 2 )2 22
= 0.5 + 1 + 2 + +1 (5.2)
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
Given:
1 1 = 2 2 (continuity equation) (5.3)

2
2 = ( 1 ) 1 (5.4)
2

used to eliminate 2
Given the values of pipe lengths and diameters known, the previous equation can be
reduced to:
97
12
= (1 + 2 1 + 2 2 ) (5.5)
2
Where C1, C2, and C3 are known constants.
5.1.1 Flow problems scenarios:

Case 1: (Discsharge Q is given, H is required):
Since the discharge is given, it is possible to compute the Reynolds number in
each pipe, which can be used to find the firiction factor values fs using the
Moody diagrm. Then the value of H can be found directly from the energy
equation.
Case 2: (H is given, Discsharge Q is required)
Values of f1 and f2 can not be found sice there is no way to find the Reynolds
number. A solution approach can be made by assuming reasonable values for f1
and f2, using them in the energy equation to find V1 directly from the energy
equation. Then, V1 can be used to find V2, Re1, and Re2. The Reynolds number
values can be used to find f1 and f2 from Moody diagram, which can be
substituted in the energy equation to find V1. The processes can be repeated
until no change in the friction factors are noticed.
Example 5.1: For the system of pipes in series shown, given that: The flow of water in
the system is 1000 L/s, kexit =1, Kentrance =0.5, the Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g, the
kinematic viscosity is =310-6 m2/s.
The velocities in pipes 1 and 2 are: V1 =..............m/s, and V2 =............. m/s

The Reynolds no. values in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
The friction factors in pipes 1 and 2 are.............and.............
The difference in head between the two tanks is H =.............m
Solution:
3 3
1 1
1 = = 7.958 2 = = 2.6
0.4 2 0.72
4 4

= 1 = 1061066.7, 2 = 606304.5

98
1/D1=1.8mm/400mm
2/D2=0.26mm/700mm
Using Moody Diagram: f1=0.029, f2=0.0167
12 1 12 2 22 (1 2 )2 22
+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + 2 + +1
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
7.958 350 7.958 200 2.6 (7.958 2.6) 2.62
= 0.5 + 0.029 + 0.0167 + +1
2 0.4 2 0.7 2 2 2
= 86.97
Example 5.2: Three pipes, as shown, are fitted between two reservoirs. Determine
the discharge if the difference in the water surface elevations is 8 m. Plot the energy
and hydraulic grade lines.
Solution:
Energy equation can be taken between (1) and (2):
12 1 12 2 22 3 32 (1 2 )2 32
8 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + +1
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2
To simplify the energy equation, The velocities can be introduced related to the discharge:

1 = 3 = (0.5)2 = 5.093 , 2 = (0.6)2 = 3.537
4 4
12 1 12 2 22 3 32 (1 2 )2 12 32
8 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + + 0.5 +
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
99
(5.093)2 1000 (5.093)2 1200 (3.537)2 1300 (5.093)2
8 = 0.5 + 0.019 + 0.02 + 0.02
2 0.5 2 0.6 2 0.5 2
(5.093 3.537)2 2 (5.093) 2
(5.093) 2
+ + 0.5 +
2 2 2
8 = 2 (50.238 + 25.505 + 68.747 + 0.661 + 0.123 + 0.661 + 1.322)
8 3
= = 0.233
147.206
Notes:
It cab seen how easy it is to solve such problem when the friction factor values are
considered to be fully turbulent.
The final numbers between brackets for the particular losses shows how significan
is the major losses with respect to the minor losses.
The plot of the EGL and HGL is shown in the following figure. It is important to
remember that both lines are parallel since no gradual change in diameter is there.
Also , remember that the difference between these two lines is given by the velocity
head: V2/2g
100
Example 5.3: Given the following data for the pipes in series (see the table), find the
discharge through the system for H= 6m.
Given:
= 310-6 m2/s
minor losses should be

considered
start the iterations with ultimate

values of f.
figure
1 = 2 mm, 2 = 0.3 mm
D L V
Pipe /D fultimate Re f V f
(m) (m) (m/s)
1 0.6 300 0.00333 0.026 2.848 5.70105 0.0265 2.819 0.0265
2 1 240 0.0003 0.015 1.025 3.42105 0.0168 1.01484 0.0168
Solution: (The previous table will be used to show the results)
V2 can be given relative to V1 using the continuity equation: V2 = (0.6/1)2 V1 =0.36 V1 .
The first assumption for the friction factor values for both pipes are the ultimate values.
The energy equation between A and B:
12 1 12 2 22 (1 2 )2 22
+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + + 1 + 2 + +
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
12 300 12 240 (0.361 )2 (0.641 )2 (0.361 )2

6 = 0.5 + 0.026 + 0.015 + +
2 0.6 2 1 2 2 2
V1=2.848 m/s, V2=1.025 m/s , Re1=0.62.848/(310-6)=5.70105 , Re2=3.42105

from Moody diagram: f1=0.0265 , f2=0.0168
substituting the new friction factor values again in the energy equation:
V1=2.819 m/s, V2=1.01484 m/s.
An additional iteration was made using the last values of velocity, the results showed no
significant change in the values of velocity.

= = (0.6)2 2.819 = 0.797 3 /
4
101
Tutorial 6.
Q1. For the system of pipes in series shown, given that:
The coefficient of sudden expansion from pipe to reservoir is k = 1.

The coefficient of pipe entrance is Ke = 0.5
The Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g.
The kinematic viscosity is =310-6 m2/s.
Calculate the value of H for 1250 L/s water flow. Include minor losses in your
calculation.
Solution:
12 1 12 (1 2 )2 2 22 22
1 + 0 + 0 = 2 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + +2 +
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
12 350 12 (1 2 )2 200 22 22
1 2 = = 0.5 + 1 + +2 +
2 0.4 2 2 0.7 2 2
1.25
1 = = 9.947/
0.42
4
1.25
2 = = 3.248 /
0.72
4
9.947 0.4 1 1.8

1 = = 132627, with, = = 0.0045 , from Moody Chart 1 = 0.03
3106 1 400
3.248 0.7 2 0.26

2 = = 757880 , with, = = 0.00037, from Moody Chart 2 = 0.0164
3106 2 700
(9.947)2 350 (9.947)2 (9.9473.248)2 200 (3.248)2 (3.248)2

= 0.5 + 0.03 + + .0164 + = 140.24
2 0.4 2 2 0.7 2 2
102
Q2. For the system of pipes in series shown, given that:
The coefficient of sudden expansion from pipe to reservoir is k=1.

The coefficient of pipe entrance is Ke=0.5
The Losses due expansion is (V1-V2)2/2g.
The kinematic viscosity is =310-6 m2/s.
a) Compute the flow discharge through the system given that the difference
between the levels of the two reservoirs is H= 6 m.
b) Draw the energy grade line between the two reservoirs.
Solution:
Solving this question requires applying the energy equation EE between the surfaces of
the two tanks (points A and B) as shown in the following figure:
EE between A and B:
12 1 12 (1 2 )2 2 22 22
1 + 0 + 0 = 2 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + +2 +
2 1 2 2 2 2 2
12 300 12 (1 2 )2 240 22 22
1 2 = 6 = 0.5 + 1 + +2 +
2 0.6 2 2 1 2 2
(1 2 )2
6 = 25.4841 12 + 12.2322 22 + 25.484 103 12 + 0.05122 +
2
103
Considering the continuity equation:

1 (0.6)2 = 2 (1)2 1 (0.36) = 2 .(1)
4 4
Using the equation of motion, V2 can be eliminated from the energy equation.
6 = 25.4841 12 + 12.232 (0.36)2 2 12 + 25.484 103 12 + 0.051(0.36)2 12 +
(0.64)2
12
2
6 = 12 (1 (25.484) + 2 (1.5852) + 25.484 103 + 6.61 103 + 0.0288)
6 = 12 (1 (25.484) + 2 (1.5852) + 0.053) .. (2)
Let 1 = 0.02 and 2 = 0.02

Substitute 1 and 2 in equation (2)
6
Then, 1 = = 3.177 / , 2 = 1.144 / (equation (1))
0.5944

3.177 0.6 1.8
1 = = 635400, with, 1 = = 0.003 , from Moody Chart 1 = 0.0262
3106 600
1.144 1 0.26
2 = = 381333 , with, 2 = = 0.00026, from Moody Chart 2 = 0.0167
3106 1000
Then, 1 = 2.833 / , 2 = 1.02 / (equation (1))

2.833 0.6
1 = 6
= 566600 , from Moody Chart 1 = 0.0264
310
1.02 1
2 = = 340000 , from Moody Chart 2 = 0.0166
3106
Which can accepted and the value of the discharge can be found as:

= . (. ) = . /.

104
Q3. Determine the flow rate in the horizontal pipeline shown which discharges water
into the air. Draw the EGL and HGL, given that: The coefficient of pipe entrance is
Ke=0.5, the kinematic viscosity is = 110-6 m2/s.
Solution:
The flow system includes two horizontal pipes connected in series with the same
diameter and different types.
Pipes are conveying water into open area.
Tank (1) is feeding the system from an elevation of 25 m above the existing point
It is required to find the discharge and to draw the EGL and HGL.
The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1.
Kinematic viscosity is =110-6 m2/s.
Values of relative roughness for the pipes can be found as:

1 0.26 2 1.8
= = 0.00173 , = = 0.012
150 150
This case represent type (2) problem.

Energy equation can be applied between points (A) and (B):
2
30 + 0 + 0 = 5 + 0 + +
2
2 2 1 2
30 + 0 + 0 = 5 + 0 + + (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0)
2 2
2 1 2
25 = (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0 + 1.0)
2
2 200 180
25 = (2.5 + 1 + 2 )
2 0.15 0.15

= (. + . + )

105
Iteration 1: Assume f1 = 0.02, f2 = 0.02
2.326 (0.15)
Then, V = 2.326 m/s = = 348900 f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04
106
Iteration 2: f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04
2.455 (0.15)
Then, V = 2.456 m/s = = 368439 f1 = 0.0231, f2 = 0.04 (OK)
106

= . (. ) = . /

Q4. For the flow system shown:

Tank (1) is feeding tank (2) from a constant level (H=10m). Plot the relation
between the discharge and the level difference between the two tanks (H-Z).
(The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1, the kinematic
viscosity is =110-6 m2/s).
Solution:
The flow system represents two horizontal pipes connected in series with the same
diameter and different types.
Pipes are connecting two tanks.
Tank (1) is feeding tank (2) from a constant level (H=10m).
It is required to plot the relation between the system discharge and the level
difference between the two tanks (H-Z).
The data of the pipe is given in the figure.
The coefficients of pipe entrance and exit are Ke=0.5 and Kexit=1.
Kinematic viscosity is =110-6 m2/s).
106
Values of relative roughness for the pipes can be found as:

1 0.26 1.8
= = 0.0013 , 2 = = 0.009
200 200
Case (1): Z 0.00
This case represent type (2) problem.

The flow discharge is maximum as the difference between tanks levels (energy
difference) is maximum.
Energy equation can be applied between points (A) and (B):
2
+0+0=0+0+ +
2
2 2 1 2
+0+0=0+0+ + (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0)
2 2
2 1 2
= 10 = (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0 + 1.0)
2
2
200 180
10 = (2.5 + 1 + 2 )
2 0.2 0.2
2
10 = (2.5 + 1000 1 + 900 2 )
2
Iteration 1: Assume f1 = 0.0167, f2 = 0.029

2.08 (0.2)
Then, V = 2.08 m/s = = 416227 f1 = 0.0215, f2 = 0.0367
106
Iteration 2: f1 = 0.0215, f2 = 0.0367
1.85 (0.2)
Then, V = 1.85 m/s = 6
= 370960 f1 = 0.0216, f2 = 0.0368 (OK)
10

Then, V = 1.85 m/s , = (0.2)2 (1.85) = 0.0582 3 /. (Maximum discharge)
4
Case (2): Z =10.00 m, (tank reached the maximum possible capacity).
Q = 0.000 3 /
107
Case (3): Z =? m, Q = 0.75Qmax= 0.750.0582 =0.044 m3/s.
Applying E.E between (A) and (B):
2 1 2
+0+0=0+0+0+ (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0)
2
2
1 2
= 10 = (1.5 + 1 + 2 )
2
2

10 = (1.5 + 1000 1 + 900 2 )
2
0.044 1.4 (0.20)

= = = 1.4 / = = 280000
(0.20)2 106
4
f1 = 0.0218, f2 = 0.0368.
Then, Z = 4.364 m
Case (4): Z =? m, Q = 0.30Qmax= 0.300.0582 =0.0175 m3/s.
Applying E.E between (A) and (B):
2 1 2
+0+0=0+0+0+ (0.5 + 1 + 2 + 1.0)
2
2
1 2
= 10 = (1.5 + 1 + 2 )
2
2

10 = (1.5 + 1000 1 + 900 2 )
2
0.0175 0.557 (0.20)

= = = 0.557 / = = 111400
(0.20)2 106
4
f1 =0.0229,
f2 =0.0372.
Then, Z = 9.08 m
108
Q (m3/s) Z (m) H-Z (m)

0.0582 0 10
0.044 4.364 5.564
0.0175 9.08 0.92
0 10 0
Q m3/s
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(H-Z) (m)
Q5. Three pipes, as shown, are fitted between two reservoirs. Determine the
discharge in the system if the difference in the water surface elevations is 9 m.
Plot the energy grade lines
Solution:
12 1 12 2 22 3 32 (1 2 )2 32 32
9 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + + 0.5 +
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
109
To simplify the energy equation, the velocities can be introduced related to the
discharge:

1 = 3 = (0.45)2 = 6.287 , 2 = (0.55)2 = 4.209
4 4
12 1 12
2 22 3 32 (1 2 )2 12 32
9 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.5 + 1 + 2 + 3 + + 0.5 +
2 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2
(5.093)2 1100 (6.287)2 1150 (4.209)2 1100 (6.287)2

9 = 0.5 + 0.0185 + 0.02 + 0.02 +
2 0.45 2 0.55 2 0.45 2
(6.2874.209)2 2 (6.287)2 (6.287)2
+ 0.5 +
2 2 2
9 = Q2 (91.104+35.871+111.922+2.767) = 241.15 Q2

= = .
.
110
5.2 Branching pipes:

Branching Pipes: Pipes connecting three energy levels (reservoirs, tanks) and meet
at one junction.
At least one of the tanks levels is different than the others otherwise there will
be no flow.
Type of the problems will be to decide the magnitude and direction of flow in
each pipe.
It can be concluded from the beginning that one of the reservoirs at least is
feeding the other (others), and at least one of the tanks at least is fed.
The flow in the pipe from the highest tank to the junction will be in, which
means from the tank toward the junction.
The flow between the lowest tank and the junction is out, from the junction
toward the tank.
The intermediate tank direction (Feeding or fed) needs analysis and solution of
the flow problem.
Figure 5.2 Energy losses between branching pipes connecting three tanks through one junction

A very important issue here is the value of the energy at the junction, = + .

This junction and its energy elevation head is common between the three tanks!! This
means that the flow in the three pipes is taking place between two different values of
energy; one of these values is common for the three pipes, which is the head at the
junction, ". The value of " in the problem will be the same for the three pipes. So, the
Darcy-Weisbach-equation is applied for three pipes, such that the head loss in the equation
is the difference between each tank level ( 1 or 2 or 3 ) and the junction head ", with
a direction of flow in the pipe in for the highest energy tank, out for the lowest tank
and in or out for the intermediate tank as shown in figure 5.3.
111
Figure 5.3 Branching pipes with two different possibilities for system feeding scenario.
The conservation of mass principle will have an important role in this problem. Since
we have flow toward and out of the junction, then it should be easily concluded that the
total flow into the junction should equal to the total flow out of the junction.
Problem definition: the flow through each pipe is required when the reservoir (tank)
elevations are given. The sizes and types of the pipes; and the fluid properties are
known.
Problem solving approach:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be satisfied for each pipe.
The continuity equation must be satisfied also at the junction.
- The flow into the junction J must be equal to the flow out of the junction.
- Flow will be out of the reservoir (reservoirs) with peizometric head () more
than " toward the junction in; on the other hand the flow will be out of
the junction ,out, toward the reservoir (reservoirs) with () lower than "
= (5.6)
Finding the discharge distribution:
- A value of elevation head at the junction " is assumed. It should be more

than the minimum tank elevation and less that the maximum tank elevation.
- The values of {1 , 2 , and 3 } are calculated by applying the Darcy-Weisbach
equation between the tank levels {1 , 2 , and 3 } and the junction energy
head ":
1 12
1 = 1 (5.7)
1 2
2 22
2 2 = 2 (5.8)
2 2
3 32
3 = 3 (5.9)
3 2
112
- Then is found from the following equation:
= (5.10)
If the flow into the junction is greater than the flow out of the junction( > 0),
a higher water elevation head HJ is assumed which will reduce the inflow and
increase the outflow.
Example 5.4: Find the discharges for water at 60 oF given the following pipe data and
reservoir elevations:
L1=10,000 ft, D1=3ft, 1/D1=0.0002 , Z1=100ft
L2=2000 ft, D2=1.5 ft, 2/D2=0.002 , Z2=60ft
L3=4000 ft, D2=2ft, 3/D3= 0.001 , Z3=30ft
Assume [ = + / = 65 ], Then,
10,000 12
100 65 = 35 = 1 , 1 = 0.014 1 = 6.95 / sec 1 = 49.1 in
3 2
2,000 22
65 60 = 5 = 2 , 2 = 0.024 2 = 3.17 / sec 2 = 5.6 out
1.5 2
4,000 32
65 30 = 35 = 3 , 3 = 0.020 3 = 7.51 / sec 3 = 23.6 out
2 2
So the inflow is greater than the outflow by: = 49.1 5.60 23.6 = 19.9
It is required to increase the out flow and decrease the inflow, this can be done by increasing
the value of Hj which will decrease the headloss between the feeding reservoirs and the
junction (Hj). This will decrease the inflow, and will increase the headloss between HJ and the
feeded reservoir which will increase the outflow.
So, lets assume [ = + / = 80 ], Then,
10,000 12
100 80 = 20 = 1 , 1 = 0.015 1 = 5.07 / sec 1 = 35.8 in
3 2
2,000 22
80 60 = 20 = 2 , 2 = 0.024 2 = 6.35 / sec 2 = 11.33 out
1.5 2
4,000 32
80 30 = 50 = 3 , 3 = 0.020 3 = 8.98 / sec 3 = 28.2 out
2 2
So the inflow is greater than the outflow by: 3.73 cfs. ( = 35.8 11.33 28.2 = 3.73)
113
Taking a stright line interpolation :
Then HJ= 77.6 ft. This value can be used to find the flows in the pipes:
10,000 12
100 77.6 = 22.4 = 1 , 1 = 0.015 1 = 5.36 / sec 1 = 37.83 in
3 2
2,000 22
77.6 60 = 17.6 = 2 , 2 = 0.024 2 = 5.96 / sec 2 = 10.65 out
1.5 2
4,000 32
80 77.6 = 47.6 = 3 , 3 = 0.020 3 = 8.75 / sec 3 = 27.50 out
2 2
The out flow is 0.32 cfs greater. By extrapolating from the last two HJ values, HJ=77.4ft and
Q1=38.05 cfs, Q2=10.60 cfs, and Q3=27.45 cfs.
114
Example 5.5: the three reservoirs shown are connected by pipe to a common junction,
Lengths and diameters of the pipes are as shown on the figure. All pipes are made of
concrete with e=0.6 mm. Determine the discharge in each pipe if the water temperature
is 20 oC, (assume minor losses are negligible).
Solution:
Assuming HJ =110 m, and applying Darcy-Weisbach equation between each reservoir and
the junction:
Pipe 1:
1000 12 0.6
120 110 = 1 , = 300 = 0.002, 1 = 0.024() 1 = 1.57 / s =
0.3 2
4.71 105 1 = 0.024 = 0.1113 / IN
Pipe 2 :
4000 22 0.6
110 100 = 2 , = 500 = 0.0012, 2 = 0.0205() 1 = 1.09 / s =
0.5 2
5.45 105 1 = 0.021 = 0.2123 /
OUT
Pipe 3:
2000 12 0.6
110 80 = 3 , = 400 = 0.0015, 3 = 0.022() 1 = 2.31 / s =
0.4 2
9.24 105 1 = 0.022 = 0.29 3 /
OUT
= 0.111 (0.212 + 0.29 ) = 0.391
Hj (m) Q1 (m/s) Q2(m/s) Q3(m/s) Qin - Qout

110 0.111 0.212 0.29 -0.391 Decreae HJ
100 0.157 0.0 0.237 -0.08 Decreae HJ
90 0.193 0.212 0.167 0.238 Increase HJ
115
A graph may be constructed of HJ plotted against the corresponding values of Q. The
curve intersects the vertical axes HJ (Q=0) at HJ = 97.3 m, which is used to compute the
discharges in pipes as: Q1 = 0.161 m3/s, Q2 = 0.065 m3/s, Q3 = 0.231 m3/s.
Example 5.6: The three tanks

shown contains water with the
elevations shown. Given the
data below, find the flow at
each pipe and the total energy
at the junction.
(use ultimate friction factor).
pipe Diam. (m) L (m) f Final Q (m3/s) Total head

1 0.15 130 0.02 ? at the
Junction =
2 0.10 65 0.02 ?
......?...... m
3 0.20 200 0.02 ?
Given ultimate friction factor values (constant f for each pipe), a relation can be simply
found between the discharge and the head at the junction HJ for each pipe using Darcy-
116
Weisbach equation. These relations can be used easily to find the discharge in each pipe
without the need for Moody diagram.
130 12
Pipe (1): 26 = 0.02 = 2829.034 12
0.15 2(0.152 )2
4
65 22
Pipe (2): (20 ) ( 20) = 0.02 2 = 10741.491 22
0.1 2( 0.12 )
4
200 32
Pipe (3): 0 = 0.02 = 1032.836 32
0.2 2(0.22 )2
4
Let HJ = 20 m Q1 = 0.046 m3/s INFLOW, Q2 = 0.00 , Q3 = 0.139 m3/s OUTFLOW

Q = 0.046 0.139= - 0.093 m3/s. Need to decrease HJ.
Hj (m) Q1 Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) Qin - Qout %ERROR

20 (m3/s)
0.0460529 0 0.1391552 -0.093102307 Decrease HJ
10 0.075204 0.0305118 0.0983976 0.007318229 Decrease HJ 23.98492
11 0.072816 0.028946 0.1032002 -0.001438247 Decrease HJ -4.96872
10.5 0.0740196 0.0297392 0.1008275 0.002931329 Decrease HJ 9.856781
10.6 0.0737804 0.0295823 0.1013065 0.002056241 Decrease HJ 6.95092
10.7 0.0735405 0.0294245 0.1017832 0.001181791 Accepted 4.01635
10.8 0.0732998 0.0292659 0.1022577 0.000307928 Accepted 1.052176
10.9 0.0730583 0.0291064 0.1027301 -0.0005654 Accepted -1.94253
10.85 0.0731791 0.0291862 0.1024942 -0.000128799 Accepted -0.4413
10.84 0.0732033 0.0292022 0.1024469 -4.14641E-05 Accepted -0.14199
10.83 0.0732274 0.0292181 0.1023997 4.58762E-05 Accepted 0.157013
10.835 0.0732153 0.0292102 0.1024233 2.20542E-06 Accepted 0.00755
10.8354 0.0732144 0.0292095 0.1024252 -1.28819E-06 Accepted -0.00441
10.8353 0.0732146 0.0292097 0.1024247 -4.14784E-07 Accepted -0.00142
10.8353 0.0732147 0.0292098 0.1024245 2.19169E-08 Accepted 7.5E-05
Q1 = 0.0732147 m3/s , Q2= 0.0292098 m3/s , Q3=0.1024245m3/s

HJ = 10.8353 m
Note: % Error was calculated as: % Error = Q/ minimum(Q)
117
Example5.7: The three tanks

shown contains water with a
kinematic viscosity of =
1.1310-6 m2/s. Given the data
below, find: (1) the flow at each
pipe and (2) the energy head at
the junction. (3) how much
pressures (P2 and P3) are required
to be added into tanks 2 and 3 to
stop the flow in the system?
(use ultimate friction factor).
pipe Z(m) Diam. L /Diam. f Q (m3/s) Pressure head at the Junction is

1 (m) 200
775 0.30 (m) 0.0002 0.0137 2.013124 Hj = 397.04 m
2 420 0.35 300 0.00015 0.013 P2=. kPasal
0.611425
P3=. kPascal
3 130 0.40 400 0.0001 0.012 2.624462
200 12
Pipe (1): 775 = 0.0137 2 = [ 93.26] 12
0.3 2 ((0.3)2 )
4
300 12
Pipe (2): (420 )( 420) = 0.013 2 = [ 61.42] 22
0.35 2 ((0.35)2 )
4
400 12
Pipe (1): 130 = 0.012 2 = [ 38.77] 32
0.4 2 ((0.4)2 )
4
Start by assuming Hj = 420 m:
From the following table and figure, it can be seen that the values of discharges and Hj are :
HJ (m) Q1 (m3/s) Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) [Qin-Qout ](m3/s)

397.04 2.013124 0.611425 2.624462 8.71 10-05
The values of P1 and P2 are the values that will raise the total energy in the tanks (2 and 3) into the
same energy as tank (1) such that there will be no difference in energy between the two sides of
each pipe:
2 9.81
Tank (2) : 420 + = 775 2 = (775 420) = 3482.55
3
3 9.81
Tank (3) : 130 + = 775 3 = (775 130) = 6327.45
3
118
119
Tutorial 7
Q1. Determine the flow rates in the three RIVETED STEEL pipes in the figure shown.
(Assume complete turbulence, rough pipes).
pipe Diam. L (m) /Diam. f Q (m3/s)

1 (m) Pressure head at the
Junction = ................ m
2
3
Hj Q1 (m3/s) Q2(m3/s) Q3(m3/s) Qin - Qout

(m)
120
Q2. Find the flow rate distribution in the CAST IRON pipes in the figure shown. Given the
following data:
Pipe AJ:
1850 m long, 1.25 m diameter.
Pipe BJ:
Pipe CJ:
Hj (m) Q1 (m/s) Q2(m/s) Q3(m/s) Qin - Qout
Q3. Water is pumped from a river to two reservoirs A and B. The water surface in
reservoir A is at the same height as the river whilst that in reservoir B is 20 ft. higher.
Pumping from the river takes place by means of a centrifugal pump, the equation
relating flow Q (in cubic ft./sec.) and H ft. at a constant speed being given by:
{ = 75 10 2 } From the river to a junction J is a common pipe is used of 8 in.
diameter and 500 ft. long. The branch J to the reservoir A is 5 in. in diameter and 200 ft.
long. The branch from J to reservoir B is 6 in. in diameter and 200 ft. long.
Neglecting all losses other than pipe friction, calculate the discharge to A and B.
Take f as 0.028 throughout. (Solution QA=0.545 cfs, QB=0.540 cfs)
121
5.3 Siphons
Siphon: A fluid flow device commonly used to cause the fluid to flow from one
container in an upward direction over on obstacle (without the aid of a pump) and then
flow into a second lower container.
A siphon consists of a U-tube with one end submerged below the free surface of the
liquid in the container.
The center portion of the U-tube rises above the level of the liquid surface.
The free end of the U-tube lies outside the container at an elevation below the liquid
surface in the container.
Three important points within the
siphon system to perform the analysis
(figure 5.4):
Point 1:
Free liquid surface in the container.
Point 2:
lies in the U-tube at its highest
elevation
Point 3:
In the U-tube at its lowest elevation.
The output jet at point (3) is a free jet

exposed to the atmosphere. Or it could be Figure 5.4 Siphon diagram
submerged within another tank.
5.3.1 Required conditions for operation of a siphon:

For the fluid to rise up the left leg of the U-tube against gravity and flow out of the
free end, three conditions must be met:
1. The free end elevation must be lower than the free surface liquid elevation inside
the container [ ].
2. The fluid need to be initially forced to flow up from the container into the center
portion of the U-tube (temporarily provide suction pressure at the free end of
the siphon).
3. The pressure at point 2 (upper most point in the U-tube must not be reduced to
the vapor pressure of the liquid (the pressure at which water starts to boil)

( 2) does not fall 8 m below the atmospheric pressure ( 2 > 8 ).
122
5.3.2 Analysis to determine the siphon flow rate output and the
maximum allowable head above the liquid:
To determine the volume flow rate, apply Bernoullis equation between points (1)
and (3):
1 12 3 32 32 32
1 + + = 3 + + + 13 + 0.5 +1 (5.11)
2 2 2 2
(V1 and V3 are velocities at points (1) and (3); V=V3 =velocity in the pipe).
2 13 2 2 2
1 + 0 + 0 = 3 + 0 + + + 0.5 +1 (5.12)
2 2 2 2
2 13
= (2.5 + ) (5.13)
2
13
Let = 2.5 +

1
= 2 (5.14)

= (5.15)
To find the maximum allowable pipe elevation above the liquid free surface:
Apply Bernoullis equation between points (1) and (2).
1 12 2 22 22
1 + + = 2 + + + 12 + 0.5 (5.16)
2 2 2
2 2 12 2 22
0+0+0=+ + + + 0.5 (5.17)
2 2 2
2 2 12
0=+ + (1.5 + ) (5.18)
2
2
Let ( = 8)

2 12
=8 (1.5 + ) , considering the losses. (5.19)
2
2
=8 , neglecting the losses. (5.20)
2
123
Example 5.8: a pipe 30 cm in diameter and

1200 m long connects two reservoirs, one
being 80 m below the other. The pipe has to
cross a ridge, either fully or partially, whose
summit is 10 m above the upper reservoir,
as shown. How high can the pipe go above
the top of the upper reservoir in order that
the pressure at the apex of the siphon does
not fall below 8 m below the atmosphere?
The length of the pipe from the upper
reservoir to the summit of the pipe is 40 m.
Take f=0.018 and consider the minor losses.
Find the flow rate to the lower reservoir. Figure of example 5.8
2 13 2 2 2
1 + 0 + 0 = 3 + 0 + + + 0.5 +1
2 2 2 2
2 1200 1200
1 3 = 80 = (2.5 + 0.018 ) , (2.5 + 0.018 = 74.5)
2 0.3 0.3
1 1
= 2 = 2 9.81 80 = 4.59 /
74.5
= 4.59 (/4)(0.32 ) = 0.324 2 /
Applying Energy Equation between (A) and (B):
2 4.592 40 4.592 4.592

0 + 0 + 0 = + + + 0.018 + 0.5
2 0.3 2 2
2
Let ( = 8)

= 8 4.188 = 3.812
124
Example 5.8: A siphon consisting of a 3 cm diameter tube is used to drain water from a
tank. The outlet end of the tube is 2 m below the water surface in the tank. Neglecting
friction, calculate the discharge. If the peak point of the siphon is 1.4 m above the water
surface in the tank, estimate the pressure of fluid at the point of siphon.
Data:
Diameter of tube = 3 cm = 0.03 m
Formula needed to solve the question:
Bernoulli's equation for frictionless flow:
1 12 2 22
+ + 1 = + + 2
2 2
= 1.4
=2
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli's equation for the points 1 and 3:
P1 = 0 N/m2(g) , P3 = 0 N/m2(g) , Z1 = 0 m , Z3 = -2 m
Since the rate of fall of liquid level in the tank is almost negligible, V1 = 0 m/sec.
Therefore,
0 + 0 + 0 = 0 + (32 / 2) 2
3 = (2 2) = 6.265 /
= (/4)2 = (/4) 0.032 6.265 = 0.00443 3 / = 15.94 3 /

Applying Bernoulli's equation for the points 1 and 2, ( i.e. comparing the energy levels for
the fluid at the tank surface to the peak point of siphon)
P1 = 0 N/m2 , Z2 = 1.4 m , V2 = V3 = 6.265 m/sec
0 + 0 + 0 = 2 / + 6.2652 / (2) + 1.4
2 / = 3.4 m
2 = 3.4 x 1000 x 9.812 /2 = 33360.8 /2
2 = 101325 33360.8 = 67964.2 /2

125
5.4 Pipes in parallel

Pipes in parallel: This problem represent a combination of pipes connected such that
water is distributed or divided into them at one point from one source (pipe or tank) and
then is joind again into a pipe or tank. This combination is called a parallel-pipe system.
Figure 5.5 Two examples of Parallel pipe system
Let the energies of the water at points A and B in figure 5.5 be hA and hB .
Water will be divided after A into the three differenet pipes in the parallel system.
All the water will meet again at B.
For any part of the water flowing through any of the pipes in the parallel system, the
energy equation can be given between A and B in its path (pipe 1, 2, or 3) as :
2 2
+ + = + + + (5.21)
2 2
Note that the value of hL is the loss of energy in one the parallel pipes between A and
B .This means that water regardless which pipe it will flow in will have the same
amount of headloss: ( 1 = 2 = 3 = )
126
For pipes in series, the same fluid flows through all the pipes, and the headlosses are
comulative, while in parallel pipes water will have different routes with equal
headlosses , the discharges will be comulative.
From the previous discussion, the following conditions can be concluded for the flow
in parallel pipes:
Energy losses in all the pipes will be equal. Since the flow through all the pipes start
from the same point or tank and end at the same point or tank which means they
start from the same equal value of energy and end at another equal value of energy,
then the headlosses in all pipes are equal.
For the case where the pipes at the beginning or at the end are connected into a
tank, note that the energy at all the points and elevations within the tank is the
same. which means that all these pipes connected to the tank have the same head at
the points of contact.
Energy @ 1 = Z1
Energy @ 2 = Z2 + (P2/)=Z2+ (Z1-Z2)/ = Z1
Energy @ 3 = Z3 +(P3/)=Z3+(Z1-Z3)/ = Z1
Energy is the same at every point within

the tank.
Pipes taken from the tank at different
elevations are taking from equal energies,
and those flowing into a tank at different
elevations are delivering water with the
same energy. Figure 5.6 Water at different point within a
static fluid have the same head.
5.4.1 Problem solving approach:

Consider a network of parallel pipes of different sizes, lengths, and diameters are
connected togother as shown:
Assuming the pipes
are connected to the same
upstream and downstream
points, the principle of
continuity applies:
Qin =Qout = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Figure 5.7 Parallel pipes system
127
Also, the energy equation can be applied between points A and B. This equation can
take three different scenarios:
2 2
+ + = + + + 1 (5.22)
2
2 2
+ + = + + + 2 (5.23)
2
2 2
+ + = + + + 3 (5.24)
2
Recall that the pipes might have different diameters, lengths, and types (roughness).
these parameters are forming the losses terms in equations 5.22, 5,23 and 5.24
2
(1 = 2) . But for equations 5.22, 5,23 and 5.24 to be valid, the losses within
the pipes must be equal. So, the flow in the three pipes will adjust it self ( distribute it self
in ratios) so that the values of Q1, Q2, and Q3 will achieve:
1 = 2 = 3
All the fluid elements will pass at A and B, and will have the same heads at these points (A
and B). This can be real only if hL is the same in all flow routes.
5.4.2 Problems related to the flow in parallel pipes:

Assume we know:
- The upstream discharge Q.
- The lengths, diameters, and roughness of all the pipes.
Required: To find the flow distribution (Q1, Q2,..) and the headloss within the pipes.
Solution approach:
- Assume the flow in pipe1 to be 1 .

- Find 1 in pipe1 using 1 (1 1 1

1 1

).
2

- Let 2 = 1 = 2 2 2 2 .
2 2(2)
- Find 2 from the previous step.
- Repeat the last two steps for each pipe in the parallel pipes network.
- Find = 1 + 2 + 3 +. . . ..
- A correction is to be done for the values of using the following:
2 2
1 2 2 2
Since, 1 = 2 = 3 = , then 1 = 2 =
1 2(1) 2 2 2(2) 2
Which means that the relative relation between 1 , 2 , 3 ..... is the same
as the real values.
Based on that, the follwing correction can be made:
1 2
1 = , 2 = , and so on.

At the end, find the values 1 = 2 = 3 = , based on the corrected
values of discharge. These values need to be the same.
128
Example 5.9: Find the magnitude of flow for each pipe in the two parallel pipes shown given that
the total flow is 4.2 m3/s.
Pipe L (m) D (m) f Q (m3/s)
1 115 0.45 0.029 1.125 m3/s
2 105 0.60 0.018 3.07 m3/s
Solution:
For the system of parallel pipes, we have: 1 = 2
115 12 105 22
0.029 2 = 0.018 2
0.45 0.6
2 [4 0. 452 ] 2 [4 0. 62 ]
So, 1 = 0.36672
0.36672 + 2 = 0.42 3 / ,
which leads to: 1 = 1.125 3 /, and 2 = 3.07 3 /
Example 5.10: The vertical, commercial

steel pipe system shown in the following
figure (D = 300 mm throughout) carries
0.82 m3/s of water. Find the discharge in
each pipe and the pressure drop between
A and B if B is 100 m higher than A.
Neglect minor losses.
Kin. viscosity is 1.5210-6 m2/s.
Assume fully turbulent flow (use
ultimate f).
Diameter
Pipe Length(m) fultimate Q' (m3/s) h'f (m) Q (m3/s) hf (m)
(m)
Pipe1 250+550+250=1050 0.3 0.013
Pipe2 550 0.3 0.013
Pipe3 350+550+350=1250 0.3 0.013
The pressure drop between A and B =
Solution:
The relative roughness for all the pipes given that their type is commercial steel and their
diameter is 0.3 m will be:
/ = 0.046/300 = 0.00015 = 0.013 (Moody)
= /4 (0.3)2 = 0.0707 2 .
129
It is required first to assume value of discharge in pipe 1
Assume 1 = 0.25 3 /s
Then
2

1
2 1050 0.252
1 = 1 = 0.013 = 29
1 2(1) 2 0.3 2(0.0707)2
Let
2 2
2 2 550 2

2
= 1 = 29 = 2 = 0.013 2 = 0.345 3 /
2 2(2) 2 0.3 2(0.07072)
Also,
2 2
1250 3

3 =
1 = 29 = 3 3 3 2 = 0.013 3 = 0.229 3 /
3 2(3) 0.3 2(0.07072 )
Then,
= 1 + 2 + 3 = 0.25 + 0.345 + 0.229 = 0.824 3 /s
(very close to the real number)
Correction can be made now to find the discharge in each pipe:
1 0.25 1050 0.2492

1 = = 0.82 = 0.249 3 / 1 = 0.013 = 28.765
0.824 0.3 2(0.0707)2
2 0.345 550 0.3432

2 = = 0.82 = 0.343 3 / 2 = 0.013 = 28.591
0.824 0.3 2(0.0707)2
3 0.229 1250 0.2282

3 = = 0.82 = 0.228 3 / 3 = 0.013 = 28.712
0.824 0.3 2(0.0707)2
130
Example 5.11:
For a total flow of 12 cfs, determine
the flow through each pipe and the
pressure head at B. Given: =2.0
slug/ft3, = 0.00003 ft2/s, PA=80 psi,
ZA = 100 ft, ZB = 80 ft.
Pipe Length(ft) Diameter (ft) Q' (m3/s) h'f (ft) Q (ft3/s) hf (ft)
Pipe1 3000 1 ft 0.001
Pipe2 2000 8 in 0.0001
Pipe3 4000 16 in 0.0008
The pressure head at B =
Solution:
Pipe 1: Assume: 1 = 3 ;
3.821
then 1 = 3.82 , 1 = = 127,000 , 1 = 0.001, 1 = 0.022 (Moody), and
0.00003 1

3000 3.822
1 = 0.022 = 14.97
1 2 32.2
2000 22
Pipe 2: 2 = 1 = 14.97 = 2
8/12 232.2
2 4.118/12
= 0.00015, assume 2 = 0.020; then 2 = 4.11 / , 2 = = 89,000
2 0.00003
, 2 = 0.019 (Moody), 2 = 4.11 /, 2 = 1.44 .
4000 32
Pipe 3: 3 = 1 = 14.97 = 3
16/12 232.2
2 4.0116/12
= 0.0006, assume 2 = 0.020; then 3 = 4.01 / , 3 = = 178,000
2 0.00003
, 3 = 0.020 (Moody) , 3 = 5.60 .
The total discharge for the assumed conditions is: = 3.00 + 1.44 + 5.60 = 10.04
Correction can be made now to find the discharge in each pipe:
3.00
1 = 1 = 10.04 12 = 3.58 1 = 4.56 ,1 = 152,000, 1 = 0.021, 1 = 20.4

2 1.44
2 = = 10.04 12 = 3.58 2 = 4.93, 2 = 109,200, 2 = 0.019, 2 = 21.6

3 5.60
3 = = 10.04 12 = 6.70 3 = 4.80,3 = 213,000, 3 = 0.019, 2 = 20.4

80144
To find : + = + + = + 100 80 20.8 = 183.5 .
62.4
131
Example 12: (different solution approach)

given three pipes connected in parallel as shown. The total flow in the system is 7 L/s. All the
pipes are made of galvanized iron. Find the flow rates and the haedlosses in the pipes.
Given:
L1=90m, D1=20mm, (A1=0.000314m2)
L2=150m, D2=40mm,(A2=0.001256m2)
L3=80m, D3=60mm, (A3=0.00282m2)
Crude oil (Sp.Gr.= 0.855)
= 3.810-6 m2/s
e = 0.00015 m
Solution:
1 12 2 22 3 32
1st trial: 1 = 2 = 3
1 2 2 2 3 2
assume the friction factor fs values are the same (cancel each other).
Substituting for vales of L and D: 450012 = 375022 = 133332
So, 2 = 1.0951 , 3 = 1.8371
Using the continuity equatiuon: = 1 + 2 + 3

= 0.0073 / = [0.022 1 + 0.042 (1.0951 ) + 0.062 (1.8371 )] = 0.006891
4
1 1
1 = 1.017 / ; 1 = = 5351 , 2 = 11723 , 3 = 29491 (Turbulent flow).

2nd trial: using Moody diagram 1 = 0.044, 2 = 0.035, 3 = 0.029
1 12 2 22 3 32
Using the equation: 1 = 2 = 3
1 2 2 2 3 2
(0.044)450012 = (0.035)375022 = (0.029)133332 2 = 1.2361 , 3 = 2.281

Using the continuity equatiuon:

= 0.0073 / = [0.022 1 + 0.042 (1.2361 ) + 0.062 (2.281.8371 )] = 0.008311
4

1 = 0.842 (21% ) ; 1 = 4432 , 2 = 10955 , 3 = 30310

3 trial: Moody diagram 1 = 0.046, 2 = 0.0353, 3 = 0.0288
rd
1 12 2 22 3 32
Using the equation: 1 = 2 = 3
1 2 2 2 3 2
(0.046)450012 = (0.0353)375022 = (0.0288)133332 2 = 1.2521 , 3 = 2.331

Using the continuity equatiuon:

= 0.0073 / = [0.022 1 + 0.042 (1.5251 ) + 0.062 (2.331 )] = 0.008461
4

1 = 0.827 (1.8% , ) ;

The final results:
Q1=(/4)(0.02)2 (0.827)= 0.26 L/s, Q2=(/4)(0.04)2 (1.2520.827)=1.3 L/s
Q3=(/4)(0.06)2 (2.330.827)=5.44L/s, and, hL=7.32m.
132
Tutorial 8
Q1. For the given flow piping system, where the total flow is 1.4 m3/s, find:
I- The Gauge Pressure of the water in tank (1), and
II- The flow discharge distribution in each pipe.
III-What should be the diameter of a single pipe from B to C that can replace the 3-
parallel pipes keeping the values of the total system capacity and the
pressure at tank (1) the same?
All the pipes are made of GALVANIZED IRON.
Assume complete turbulence, rough pipes and neglect all the minor losses.
Length Diameter Area /D

Pipe (m) (m) Q' Q
(m2) 3
(m /s) h'f (m) (m3/s) hf (m)
AB 280 0.4 XXXXX XXXXXX

CD 170 0.5 XXXXX XXXXXX
Pipe1 145 0.35
Pipe2 135 0.25
Pipe3 140 0.2
The pressure of water in Tank (1) = ................... Pascal
Diameter of the replacement pipe = ....................m
Q2. The total discharge of water in the following parallel pipe system is 0.8 m3/s.
Determine the flow rate in each pipe given that the diameter of each pipe is 0.5 m
and the length of pipes 1 and 3 is 15 m while the length of pipe 2 is 10 m. The pipes
are made of commercial steel and the kinematic viscosity is = 310-6 m2/s.
133
Solution of Q1.
Length Diameter Area /D
Pipe (m) (m)
(m2) Q' (m3/s) h'f (m) Q (m3/s) hf (m)
AB 280 0.4 0.126 0.00038 0.0157 35.507444 XXXXX XXXXXX 1.4 69.5945902
CD 170 0.5 0.196 0.0003 0.0149 6.7041983 XXXXX XXXXXX 1.4 13.1402287
Pipe11 145 0.35 0.096 0.00043 0.0161 36.7633721 0.25 2.29771076 0.840594328 25.9769555
Pipe2 135 0.25 0.049 0.0006 0.0174 198.950327 0.10746706 2.29771076 0.36134479 25.9769555
Pipe3 140 0.2 0.031 0.00075 0.0183 662.202522 0.05890501 2.29771076 0.198060883 25.9769555
The pressure of water in Tank (1) = ................... Pascal
Diameter of the replacement pipe = ....................m
Pipe (1):
Assume Q'1 =0.25 m3/s
So, 1 = 212 12 = 2.297710 (table)
Pipe (2):
2 = 1 = 2.297710 = 198.9503222 2 = 0.1074670 3 /
Pipe (3):
3 = 1 = 2.297710 = 662.232 3 = 0.0589 3 /
Correction:
1 0.25 3
1 = = 1.4 = 0.84059 1 = 25.976
(0.25+0.10746+0.0589)
Q2 and Q3 are found the same way (See the table)
To find the pressure in Tank (1):

Take energy equation between Tank (1) and (2)
1
+ 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + + +
9810

1 = 9810 3 (69.59 + 25.97 + 13.14)

To find the replacement Pipe:

This pipe will replace the parallel system and will keep the same losses and discharge.
Its length = avg (145,135,140)=140m
Q=1.4 m3/s
140 1.42
= 25.97 =
2 ( 2 )2
4
Assume f=0.02, Find D, find V, find Re, find k/D, find f again and compare it with
previous. Keep until f is not changing and consider D to be correct.
134
Q3. Three pipes A, B, and C are interconnected as shown in the figure. The pipes
characteristics are as follows:
Find:
(1) The rate at which water will flow in each pipe.
(2) The pressure at point P.
Solution:
Applying energy equation between (1) and (2):
1 12 2 22
+ + 1 = + + 2 + (12) (1)
2 2
The losses from the tank to the exit at (2) can be given as the losses through pipe (A)
or (B) plus the losses in pipe (C)
(12) = () + ()
2 2
(12) = +
2 2
2000 2
4000 2
(12) = 0.02 + 0.024
6/12 2(32.2) 8/12 2(32.2)
(12) = 1.242 + 2.2362
2
the energy equation between (1) and (2) can be given as:
2
0 + 0 + 200 = 0 + + 50 + (12)
2(32.2)
2
150 = + 1.2422 + 2.2362
2(32.2)
150 = 1.2422 + 2.2522 (2)
135
The continuity equation in the parallel pipes system can be given as:
+ =
(6/12)2 (4/12)2 (8/12)2

+ =
4 4 4
0.1963 + 0.08727 = 0.3491 (3)
The losses in the parallel pipes (A) and (B) are equal:
() = ()
2000 2 1600 2
0.02 + 0.032
6/12 2(32.2) 4/12 2(32.2)
= 0.7217 (4)
Substituting (4) into (3):
0.1963 + 0.08727(0.7217 ) = 0.3491
= 1.346 (5)
Substituting (5) into (2):
150 = (1.242)(1.346 )2 + 2.2522
= 5.772 /
8 2
( )
= = (5.772) = 2.01 3 /
12
4
= 1.346 = = 1.346(5.772) = 7.769 /
6 2
( )
= = 12
(7.769) = 1.53 3 /
4
136
Substituting into equation (3):
0.1963(7.769) + 0.08727 = 0.3491(1.53) =

= 5.614 /
4 2
( )
= = 12
(5.614) = 0.490 3 /
4
To find the pressure at point P, Apply the energy equation between P and (2):
2 22 4000 5.7722
+ + 120 = 0 + + 50 + (0.024) ( )
62.4 2 2 8/12 2 32.2
= 0.0135 / 2
137
Chapter 6: Pipe networks
Pipe network: Interconnected pipes, could be of large numbers, through which the
water to a given outlets may come from several circuits.
Examples:
Water supply distribution systems in municipal districts.

Irrigation systems
Fire network.
Network analysis: it is the analysis of the fluid flow through a hydraulics network,
containing several or many interconnected branches. The aim is to determine the flow
rates and pressure drops in the individual sections of the network.
Figure 6.1. Examples of pipe networks
138
Considering the laws of conservation of mass and energy, the following conditions
can be made for any network of pipes:
1. The algebric sum of the pressure drops around each circuit must be zero. This means
that between any two junctions in the network, the total headloss is independent of
the path taken. For example if we find the losses between the junctions a and g ,in
figure 6.1, as:
= + + + (6.1)
it should be the same as:
= + + (6.2)
This can be given in another approach, if we consider each loop and find the losses in
each pipe , then the sum of the losses in the clockwise direction is the same as that
in the counter-clockwise direction (conservation of energy).
2. The flow into each junction must equal that out of the junction (conservation of
mass or continuity equation).
= (6.3)
3. The Darcy-Weisbach equation must be satisfied for each pipe (proper relation
between headloss and discharge for each pipe).
Figure 6.2 Layout of a water network
139
The previuos coinditions can be summerized as:
The pressure drop between any two points is the same and does not depend on
the path taken.
For example: loop b, c, d, and e.

The sum of losses in the counterclock wise drection along pipes bc,
and cd must be equal the sum of losses in the clockwise direction
along pipes be, and ed.
+ = +

For each junction a,c,..,f; the total inflow must equal the total outflow.
For example:
For junction a,
= + ,
also for junction b,
= + ,
and the same can be said for all the junctions.
The previous conditions should be satisfied for each loop and junction.
Based on the previous two basic principles, the pipe networks are generally solved by
the methods of successive approximation. The widely used method of pipe network
analysis is the Hardy-Cross method.
6.1 Hardy-Cross Method

Pipe Network Analysis determines the flow rates Qs and pressure drops hfs in
the individual sections of a hydraulic network.
This method consists of assuming a distribution of flow in the network in such a
way that the principle of continuity is satisfied at each junction.
A correction to these assumed flows is then computed successively for each pipe
loop in the network, until the correction is reduced to an acceptable magnitude.
140
6.1.1 Finding analysis solution method:
Start by assuming a distribution of flows in each pipe such that the total inflow
equals the total outflow at each junction throughout the whole pipe network
(condition 1 is achieved).
The pipe diameters, lengths, friction cofficients, junction elevations are given.
Based on the assumed values of discharges it is expected that the loss of heads
resulting in all the pipes will not achieve the second condition (conservation of
energy).
Values of headlosses in each pipe in a starting loop are computed.
The assumed pipe flows need to be adjusted until headlosses in the clock wise
diection equal headlosses in the counter clock wise direction in the loop.
The headloss in each pipe is:
2 1
= = [ ] 2 = 2 ; (6.4)
22 22
So, we can use a constant for the losses in each pipe given as:
1
= (6.5)
22
In any loop: the total headloss in the clockwise direction (C) is the sum of the
headlosses in all the pipes that carry flow in the clockwise direction, on the
other hand, total headloss in the counter clockwise direction (CC) is the sum of
the headlosses in all the pipes that carry flow in the counter clockwise
direction (CC):
= 2 (6.6)
2
= (6.7)
Using the assumed flowrates, Qs , it is not expected that these two values will
be equal during the first trial.
The difference { 2
2 }
is the closure error in the first trial.
We are looking for a flow correction that when subtracted from and
added to the values { 2 = 2 }
will be equalized (second
condition for network of pipes).
Thus Q (the correction) must satisfy:
141
( )2 = ( + )2 (6.8)
(2 2 + 2 ) = (
2
+ 2 + 2 ) (6.9)
Since Q QC & QCC
(2 2 ) = (
2
+ 2 ) (6.10)

Given that: = 2 =

= (6.11)

2( + )

A second iteration uses this correction to determine a new flow distribution.

For the pipes common to two loops, correction should be performed befor
starting the second loop.
Successive computational procedure continue to be repeated until each loop in
the entire network is balanced (mass and energy).
Example 6.1:
Find the missing flow values in pipes 2, 7, 8; and the input and output values to the
network shown.
142
Example 6.2:
A water-supply distribution system for a park is schematically shown. The demands
on different joints of the system are shown on figure 6.4 with flow rates given in litres per
second. Water enters the system at junction A from a water storage tank. All pipes are
aged ductile iron (e=0.26mm) .The water surface elevation in the tank is 50 m above the
elevation of point A. The elevations of the junctions and the lengths of the pipes are
provided in the tables below. Calculate the flow rate in each pipe, the pressure at each
junction and the power required in each pipe. Check if the pressure values will be high
enough to satisfy the customer requirement at each junction (185 kPa). If any of the
junctions did not satisfy the required pressure, suggest modifications to the system to
accommodate the customer.
Figure 6.4 Layout of the network of example 6.2

Joint A B C D E F G H
Elevation(m) 0 0.8 1 0.9 0.8 1 1.1 1.6
Solution:
The following table is used to organize the data of the pipes and to present the
suggested values of discharges in each pipe and the final results of Q, hL, and Power. The
values of f were found as ultimate values (assuming complete turbulence). It is very
difficult not to assume that sa the values of velocity in each pipe will be changing along the
solution and the need to find the friction factor each time as a function of roughness and
Reynolds number will be very difficult.
Q (m3/s) Q (m3/s) hL (m) Power
Pipe L (m) D (m) e/D f K
(assumed) (final) (final) (Kw)
AB 300 0.30 0.00087 0.019 194 0.20
AD 250 0.25
mm 0.00104 0.020 423 0.10
BC 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.08
BG 125 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 678 0.12
GH 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.02
CH 125 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 678 0.03
DE 300 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,630 0.10
GE 125 0.15 m 0.00173 0.022 2,990 0.00
EF 350 0.20 m 0.0013 0.021 1,900 0.10
HF 125 0.15 m 0.00173 0.022 2,990 0.05
143
1
The values of K were found from the relation: = .
22
A suggested distribution of flow was made as following.
This distribution achieves the continuity for each junction as shown:
The direction of flow in the pipes is indicated in the table as the sequence of the letters.
For example the direction of flow in pipe AB is from junction A to B. This direction may
change within the solution ( be reversed), the letters will be reversed then.
The clockwise specifier (C) means only the flows that are moving clockwise in our loop,
while the counter-clockwise specifier (CC) is only the flows that are moving counter-
clockwise. It can be indicated in the table by putting the values for the counterclockwise
flow between brackets. [...].
144
Using Hardy-Cross method to solve the question requires:

Taking the loops one at a time.
1
The losses withen each pipe is found using the Darcy-Weisbach equation = .
22
The correction to the flow Q is calculated then.
This value (Q) is subtracted from the flow discharges in the clockwise direction and
added to the flows in the counter clockwise direction. This will not change the first
condition (continuity equation) and will make the distribution closer to the correct
distribution that achieve the second condition (energy equation balance) .
Before starting the 2nd loop, the flow in the common pipes should be updated from the
previous corrections.
1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(1) K QNew (m3/s) hf/Q hf
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
AB 0.200 194 38.8 7.76 0.2-(-0.005)=0.205
BG 0.120 678 81.3 9.76 0.12-(-0.005)=0.125
GE 0.000 2,990 0.0 0.0 0-(-0.005)=0.005
AD [0.100] 423 [42.3] [4.23] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095
DE [0.100] 1,630 [163.0] [16.3] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095
(7.76+9.76)(4.23+16.3)
First cycle: = = = 0.005 3 /
2[(38.8+81.3)+(42.3+163.0)]
2( + )

st nd
1 cycle cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
BC 0.080 1,900 152.5 12.2 0.08-(0.002)=0.078
CH 0.030 678 20.3 0.61 0.03-(0.002)=0.028
BG [0.125] 678 [84.8] [10.6] 0.125+(0.002)=[0.127]
GH [0.020] 1,900 [38.0] [0.76] 0.02+(0.002)=[0.022]
(12.2+0.61)(10.6+0.76)
First cycle: = = = +0.002 3 /
2[(152.5+20.3)+(84.8+38.0)]
2( + )

st
1 cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
GH 0.022 1,900 41.8 0.92 0.022-(-0.13)=0.035
HF 0.050 2,900 194.6 7.48 0.063
GE [0.005] 2,900 [14.0] [0.07] 0.005+(-0.013)= -0.008
EF [0.100] 1,900 [190.0] [19.0] 0.1+(0.013)=0.087
145
(0.92+7.48)(0.07+19.0)
First cycle: = = = 0.013 3 /
2[(41.8+149.6)+(14.0+190.0)]
2( + )

Note that the sign of New Q for pipe GE was negative after the correction in the first
cycle, which requires reversing the direction of flow in the pipe.
1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
AB 0.200 194 38.8 7.76 0.2-(-0.005)=0.205 0.205 39.8 8.15 0.205
BG 0.120 678 81.3 9.76 0.12-(-0.005)=0.125 0.127 85.8 10.9 0.127
GE 0.000 2,990 0.0 0.0 0-(-0.005)=0.005 [0.008] [23.8] [0.19] [0.008]
AD [0.100] 423 [42.3] [4.23] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095 [0.095] [40.2] [3.82] [0.095]
DE [0.100] 1,630 [163.0] [16.3] 0.1+(-0.005)=0.0095 [0.095] [154.7] [14.7] [0.095]
(8.15+10.9)(3.82+14.7+0.19)
Second cycle: = = = +0.000 3 /
2[(39.8+85.8)+(40.2+154.7+23.8)]
2( + )

This correction is very small ( 0.00053 / ).

1st cycle nd
cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
BC 0.080 1,900 152.5 12.2 0.08-(0.002)=0.078 0.078 148.7 11.6 0.080
CH 0.030 678 20.3 0.61 0.03-(0.002)=0.028 0.028 18.9 0.53 0.030
BG [0.125] 678 [84.8] [10.6] 0.125+(0.002)=[0.127] [0.127] [85.8] [10.9] [0.125]
GH [0.020] 1,900 [38.0] [0.76] 0.02+(0.002)=[0.022] [0.035] [66.6] [2.33] [0.033]
(11.6+0.53)(10.9+2.33)
Second cycle: = = = 0.002 3 /
2[(148.7+18.9)+(85.8+66.6)]
2( + )

This correction is very small.

1st cycle 2nd cycle
Loop
Q hf/Q hf Q QNew
(m3/s) (KQ) (KQ2) (m3/s) (m3/s)
Pipe
GH 0.022 1,900 41.8 0.92 0.022-(-0.13)=0.035 0.033 62.7 2.07 0.033
HF 0.050 2,900 194.6 7.48 0.063 0.063 188.9 11.9 0.063
GE [0.005] 2,900 [14.0] [0.07] 0.005+(-0.013)= -0.008 0.008 23.8 0.19 0.008
EF [0.100] 1,900 [190.0] [19.0] 0.1+(0.013)=0.087 [0.087] [165.5] [14.4] [0.087]
(2.07+11.9+0.19)(14.4)
Second cycle: = = = 0.000 3 /
2[(62.7+188.9+23.8)+(165.5)]
2( + )

Because the corrections are very small on all three loops, the flow rates can be accepted
and the process can be ended.
146
Finding the final pressure at each junction:
Q (L/s) hf (m) P (kPa) Power(Kw)
Pipe
(final) (kQ2) ( h f) ( Q h f)
AB 205 8.2 80.3 16.4615
AD 95 3.8 37.2 3.534
BC 80 12.2 119.4 9.552
BG 125 10.6 103.8 12.975
GH 33 2.1 20.6 0.6798
CH 30 0.6 5.9 0.177
DE 95 14.7 143.9 13.6705
GE 8 0.2 2.0 0.016
EF 87 14.4 141.0 12.267
HF 63 11.9 116.5 7.3395
Finding the final pressure at each junction:

PA can be found from the water elevation at the tank: PA=50m9790N/m3=489.5 kPa.
PB can be found by considering the energy equation between A and B:
= + ( ) = 489.5 80.3 + 9.79(0 0.8) = 401.368
Energy equation can be used to find the pressure at each junction be considering two
successive junction:
= + ( ) = 401.368 119.4 + 9.79(0.8 1.0) = 280.1
= + ( ) = 498.5 37.2 + 9.79(0 0.9) = 452. .489
= + ( ) = 452.489 143.9 + 9.79(0.9 0.8) = 309.568
= + ( ) = 309.568 141 + 9.79(0.8 1.0) = 166.61
= + ( ) = 401.368 103.8 + 9.79(0.8 1.1) = 294.631
= + ( ) = 294.631 20.6 + 9.79(1.1 1.6) = 269.136
Joint A B C D E F G H
Elevation(m) 0 0.8 1 0.9 0.8 1 1.1 1.6
Pressure (kPa) 489.5 401.4 280.1 452.5 309.57 166.61 294.6 269.1
The pressure at F is less than 185 kPa. Modifications should be made to the pipe diameters
to solve this issue.
147
Example 6.3:
Determine the distribution of flow in the pipe network shown using Hardy cross
method.
Figure 6.5 Layout of the network of example 6.3

Loop
(1) QNew QNew QNew
Pipe Q K hf/Q hf (m3/s) Q hf/Q hf (m3/s) Q hf/Q hf m3/s
AB 30 2 60 1800 81.96 81.96 163.92 13434.88 79.786 79.786 159.572 12731.6 77.577
BE 10 3 30 300 61.96 53.074 159.222 8450.548 50.9 56.4676 169.403 9565.77 53.797
DE ]150[ 2 300 45000 98.04 ]98.04[ 196.08 19223.68 100.214 100.214 200.428 20085.7 102.42
AD ]70[ 1 70 4900 18.04 ]18.04[ 18.04 325.44 20.214 20.214 20.214 408.606 22.42
(1800 + 300) (45000 + 4900)

= = 51.96
2(60 + 30 + 300 + 70)
= 2.174
= 2.67
Loop
(2) QNew QNew QNew
Pipe Q K hf/Q hf m3/s Q hf/Q hf (m3/s) Q hf/Q hf m3/s
BC 50 1 50 2500 57.88 57.88 57.88 3350.09 57.746 57.746 57.746 3334.6 58.078
CF 60 2 120 7200 67.88 67.88 135.76 9215.39 67.7462 67.7462 135.492 9179.1 68.0782
EF ]70[ 1 70 4900 62.11 62.11 62.11 3857.65 62.2538 62.2538 62.2538 3875.54 61.9318
BE ]61.96[ 3 185.88 11517.125 53.074 50.9 152.7 7772.43 56.4676 53.797 161.391 8682.35 53.475
(2500 + 7200) (4900 + 11517.125)

= = 7.885
2(50 + 120 + 70 + 185.88)
= 2.7838
= 0.332
148
Tutorial 9
Q1. Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches.
Q2. Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches. Hazen Williams
coefficient for each pipe is provided in table below.
149
Extra Reading:
Pipe Network Analysis using Epp and Fowler Approach

Hardy Cross Method is the oldest and probably best known solution method for pipe
networks. In this method, each loop correction is determined independently of other loops.
Epp and Fowler (1970) have developed a more efficient approach by simultaneously
computing corrections for all loops. This section illustrates the use of Simultaneous Loop
Flow Adjustment Algorithm in modelling pipe network analysis in excel spreadsheet by
solving an example.
Example
A water supply distribution system is shown in the figure below. All pipes are cast iron with
lengths and diameters as provided in the table below. Perform pipe network analysis and
calculate water flow in all branches.
An initial flow estimate is made across all pipe branches that satisfies continuity at all
nodes.
Head loss across each pipe is determined using Darcy Weisbach equation:
hf = K Q
1 8
K = 2 = 2 5
2( 2 )
4
The equation for head loss across each loop is made by summing the loss in each
pipe of the loop assuming the sum of the losses to be zero:
F(I) : K1.Q1 + K3.Q3 - K8.Q8 - K4.Q4 - K2.Q2 = 0
F(II) : K5.Q5 + K7.Q7 - K6.Q6 - K3.Q3 = 0
F(III): K6.Q6 + K10.Q10 - K9.Q9 + K8.Q8 = 0
Newton Raphson method is used to solve above equations for flow correction factor
Q (QI, QII, QIII) across each loop.
In vector form all loops can be written as :
150
JL.Q = -F(Qm-1)
Where,
- Q is a vector of loop flow corrections
- JL is the first derivatives of the loop equations evaluated at Qm-1
Coefficient Matrix, JL
Derivative for a single pipe is obtained as:
(112 )
= 21. 1
( 1 )
Diagonal terms are obtained by adding the derivatives of all the pipes in the loop and
always have a positive sign:
( )
= 2(|11 | + |33 | + |88 | + 44 + |22 |) = 979.03
( )
(2 )
= 2(|55 | + |77 | + |66 | + 33 ) = 794.35
( 2 )
(3 )
= 2(|66 | + |1010 | + |99 | + 88 ) = 1408.23
( 3 )
Off-diagonal terms are gradients for pipes that appear in different loops (common
pipes between two loops) and always have a negative sign.
( ) ( )
= (|33 |) = ( ) = 165.6 (common pipe between loop 1 and 2 (pipe 3))
( )
( ) ( )
= (|88 |) = ( )
= 314.81 (common pipe between loop 1 and 3 (pipe 8))
( )
( ) ( )
= (|66 |) = ( ) = 273.72 (common pipe between loop 2 and 3 (pipe 6))
( )
In the above derivative change in Loop I due to flow change in Loop II will be due to
common pipe 3. Above gradient is also for FII/(QI).
The JL matrix is obtained as the following:

151
J12=J21= - K3Q3 =-165.60 (pipe 3 is common between loops 1 and 2) ,

J13=J31= - K8Q8 =-314.81 (pipe 8 is common between loops 1 and 3) ,
J23=J32= - K6Q6 =-273.72 (pipe 6 is common between loops 2 and 3) .
- F(Qm-1) is the vector of the sum of energy losses with negative sign given for the
flow counter clockwise
[. + . . . . . + . . . . + . . + . ]
1. 21 + 3. 23 8. 28 4. 24 2. 22 = 10.94
5. 25 + 7. 27 6. 26 3. 23 = 6.4
6. 26 + 10. 210 9. 29 + 8. 28 = 43.62
F matrix is obtained as:
F(Qm-1)T = [-10.94 -6.40 43.62 ]
Below, the matrix is solved in excel to obtain Q.
JL.Q = - F
-1
JL is determined using Minverse function. Select 33 cells in excel and type
MINVERSE(Input Array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate inverse of matrix.
Do multiplication of JL-1 and -F vector using MMULT function. Select 31 cells in excel
and type MMULT(Inverse Array, F array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate
multiplication. Q array is obtained as following: Q = [ 0.00066 -0.00261 -0.03133]
As flow changes are larg, another iteration is done, with flows adjusted based on Q
values. For example flow rate in Pipe 3 will become.
Q3 = Q30 + QI - QII
= 0.12 + (0.00066) - (-0.00261)
= 0.123
New flowrates are calculated and above steps are repeated.
152
To do more iterations copy entire rows and paste them below the above cells to carry
out further calculation till change in flowrates become negligible. For this example Q
becomes negligible in 5 iterations. Final flows in m/s are as following.
If a pipes flow direction changes from the assumed value, the signs for that pipe head loss
terms are switched for all loops containing the pipe during the next iteration in loop
equations. JL matrix signs will remain same as above.
Below matrix is solved in excel to obtain Q.
JL.Q = - F
JL-1 is determined using Minverse function. Select 33 cells in excel and type
MINVERSE(Input Array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate inverse of matrix.
Do multiplication of JL-1 and -F vector using MMULT function. Select 31 cells in excel
and type MMULT(Inverse Array, F array) and press CTRL+SHIFT+ENTER to evaluate
multiplication. Q array is obtained as following.
Q = [ 0.00066 -0.00261 -0.03133]
153
As flow changes are larger another iteration is done, with flows adjusted based on Q
values. For example flow rate in Pipe 3 will become.
Q3 = Q30 + QI - QII
= 0.12 + (0.00066) - (-0.00261)
= 0.123
New flowrates are calculated and above steps are repeated. To do more iterations copy
entire rows and paste them below the above cells to carry out further calculation till
change in flowrates become negligible. For this example Q becomes negligible in 5
iterations. Final flows in m/s are as following.
If a pipes flow direction changes from the assumed value, the signs for that pipe head loss
terms are switched for all loops containing the pipe during the next iteration in loop
equations. JL matrix signs will remain same as above.
154
Example
Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches.
Iteration 1
Head
Pipe Flow Length Diameter e/D Velocity Reynold's Friction Loss
Factor,
m3/s m m m/s Number f K hL nHL/Q
1 0.100 1000 0.40 0.00087 0.80 318310 0.020 162 1.62 32.49
2 0.200 2000 0.45 0.00104 1.26 565884 0.020 183 7.33 73.28
3 0.030 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.42 127324 0.023 779 0.70 46.74
4 0.030 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.42 127324 0.023 1558 1.40 93.48
5 0.070 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.56 222817 0.022 179 0.88 25.06
6 0.080 750 0.30 0.00130 1.13 339531 0.022 556 3.56 89.01
7 0.020 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.28 84883 0.024 1770 0.71 70.80
8 0.170 2000 0.30 0.00173 2.41 721502 0.023 1559 45.05 529.98
9 0.020 500 0.25 0.00130 0.41 101859 0.023 986 0.39 39.42
10 0.020 2200 0.25 0.00173 0.41 101859 0.025 4574 1.83 182.95
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
245.99 -46.74 -93.48 4.72E-03 2.76E-04 1.59E-03 -5.00 -0.04182
-46.74 799.10 0.00 2.76E-04 1.27E-03 9.27E-05 -46.57 -0.06073
-93.48 0.00 278.36 1.59E-03 9.27E-05 4.12E-03 -3.38 -0.02618
155
Iteration2
Head
Factor,
1 0.142 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.13 451438 0.020 160 3.22 45.40
2 0.158 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.99 447548 0.021 184 4.62 58.35
3 0.049 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.69 207547 0.022 757 1.81 74.03
4 0.046 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.65 193718 0.022 1519 3.16 138.68
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.77 306150 0.022 177 1.63 33.98
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 228420 0.022 565 1.64 60.83
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195993 0.022 1670 3.56 154.24
8 0.109 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.55 463775 0.023 1571 18.76 343.33
9 -0.041 500 0.25 0.00130 0.83 207414 0.022 942 -1.56 76.71
10 -0.041 2200 0.25 0.00173 0.83 207414 0.024 4404 -7.30 358.74
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
316.47 -74.03 -138.68 3.84E-03 3.33E-04 1.37E-03 -0.04 -0.00231
-74.03 852.81 0.00 3.33E-04 1.20E-03 1.19E-04 -8.08 -0.00968
-138.68 0.00 387.73 1.37E-03 1.19E-04 3.07E-03 0.39 0.00019
Iteration3
Head
Factor,
1 0.144 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.15 458788 0.020 160 3.32 46.12
2 0.156 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.98 441015 0.021 185 4.48 57.53
3 0.056 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.80 238817 0.022 752 2.38 84.63
4 0.048 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.68 204325 0.022 1515 3.51 145.87
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.76 305545 0.022 177 1.63 33.92
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 229227 0.022 565 1.65 61.03
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195187 0.022 1670 3.53 153.64
8 0.100 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.41 422705 0.023 1574 15.62 313.57
9 -0.050 500 0.25 0.00130 1.03 256698 0.022 933 -2.37 94.02
10 -0.050 2200 0.25 0.00173 1.03 256698 0.023 4370 -11.10 440.48
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
334.15 -84.63 -145.87 3.67E-03 3.33E-04 1.36E-03 -0.03 -0.00003
-84.63 932.69 0.00 3.33E-04 1.10E-03 1.23E-04 0.24 0.00025
-145.87 0.00 394.47 1.36E-03 1.23E-04 3.04E-03 0.00 -0.00001
156
Iteration4
Head
Factor,
1 0.144 1000 0.40 0.00087 1.15 458879 0.020 160 3.32 46.13
2 0.156 2000 0.45 0.00104 0.98 440934 0.021 185 4.48 57.52
3 0.056 1000 0.30 0.00130 0.79 237634 0.022 752 2.36 84.23
4 0.048 2000 0.30 0.00130 0.68 204414 0.022 1515 3.51 145.93
5 0.096 1000 0.40 0.00130 0.76 305569 0.022 177 1.63 33.92
6 0.054 750 0.30 0.00130 0.76 229195 0.022 565 1.65 61.03
7 0.046 2200 0.30 0.00130 0.65 195218 0.022 1670 3.53 153.66
8 0.100 2000 0.30 0.00173 1.41 423766 0.023 1574 15.69 314.34
9 -0.050 500 0.25 0.00130 1.02 255424 0.022 933 -2.35 93.57
10 -0.050 2200 0.25 0.00173 1.02 255424 0.023 4370 -10.99 438.37
Coefficient
Matrix Inverse F DQ
333.81 -84.23 -145.93 3.67E-03 3.33E-04 1.36E-03 0.00 0.00000
-84.23 930.50 0.00 3.33E-04 1.10E-03 1.23E-04 0.00 0.00000
-145.93 0.00 394.55 1.36E-03 1.23E-04 3.04E-03 0.00 0.00000
157
Example
Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow in all branches. Hazen Williams
coefficient for each pipe is provided in table below.
Head loss is calculated using Hazen-Williams equation.
HL = 10.67LQ1.85 / C1.85 D4.87
158
Iteration 1
Head
Pipe Flow Diameter Length C Loss
m3/s mm m HL, m nHL/Q
1 1.000 1000 1000 100 2.13 3.94
2 6.000 750 925 100 219.96 67.82
3 3.000 750 1000 100 65.96 40.68
4 1.000 750 925 100 7.99 14.79
5 3.000 500 350 100 166.31 102.56
6 2.000 500 671 100 150.59 139.30
7 1.000 500 400 100 24.90 46.07
8 1.000 500 650 100 40.47 74.86
9 1.000 750 1000 120 6.17 11.41
10 6.000 1000 1000 120 41.81 12.89
11 6.000 1000 925 120 38.67 11.92
12 6.000 1000 800 120 33.45 10.31
13 1.000 750 763 120 4.71 8.71
14 4.000 1000 650 120 12.84 5.94
15 0.500 750 400 120 0.68 2.53
16 0.500 750 125 120 0.21 0.79
17 0.500 750 400 120 0.68 2.53
18 0.500 500 125 120 1.54 5.70
19 1.000 500 800 120 35.55 65.76
20 2.000 500 125 120 20.02 18.52
21 2.000 500 800 120 128.14 118.53
22 1.000 500 1000 120 44.43 82.20
Coefficient Matrix F
127.22 -67.8 -40.7 0 0 0 0 -280.05
-67.8 104.05 0 -11.41 0 0 0 229.26
-40.7 0 403.47 -74.9 0 0 0 367.30
0 -11.41 -74.86 303.25 -5.94 -118.5 0 -95.69
0 0 0 -5.94 17.17 0 -2.53 8.81
0 0 0 -118.5 0 208.51 -5.70 182.17
0 0 0 0 -2.53 -5.70 11.56 1.33
Inverted Matrix
1.3E-02 8.5E-03 1.5E-03 8.9E-04 3.6E-04 5.1E-04 3.3E-04 Q1 -1.10677
8.5E-03 1.5E-02 1.1E-03 1.1E-03 4.4E-04 6.3E-04 4.1E-04 Q2 1.52773
1.5E-03 1.1E-03 2.8E-03 9.6E-04 3.8E-04 5.5E-04 3.6E-04 Q3 0.87608
8.9E-04 1.1E-03 9.6E-04 4.7E-03 1.9E-03 2.7E-03 1.7E-03 Q4 0.41659
3.6E-04 4.4E-04 3.8E-04 1.9E-03 6.1E-02 1.4E-03 1.4E-02 Q5 0.78179
5.1E-04 6.3E-04 5.5E-04 2.7E-03 1.4E-03 6.4E-03 3.5E-03 Q6 1.13359
3.3E-04 4.1E-04 3.6E-04 1.7E-03 1.4E-02 3.5E-03 9.1E-02 Q7 0.84530
159
Iteration2
Head
1 -0.107 1000 1000 100 -0.03 0.59
2 3.366 750 925 100 75.47 41.49
3 1.017 750 1000 100 8.92 16.22
4 2.107 750 925 100 31.73 27.86
5 2.124 500 350 100 87.79 76.47
6 1.124 500 671 100 51.85 85.35
7 0.124 500 400 100 0.52 7.81
8 1.459 500 650 100 81.45 103.24
9 -0.111 750 1000 120 -0.11 1.76
10 4.472 1000 1000 120 24.27 10.04
11 7.528 1000 925 120 58.84 14.46
12 6.417 1000 800 120 37.87 10.92
13 1.782 750 763 120 13.70 14.23
14 3.635 1000 650 120 10.75 5.47
15 0.564 750 400 120 0.85 2.80
16 1.345 750 125 120 1.33 1.84
17 -0.345 750 400 120 -0.35 1.85
18 0.788 500 125 120 3.58 8.39
19 -0.134 500 800 120 -0.86 11.88
20 0.866 500 125 120 4.26 9.10
21 1.283 500 800 120 56.36 81.27
22 0.583 500 1000 120 16.40 51.99
86.16 -41.5 -16.2 0 0 0 0 -52.63
-41.5 67.75 0 -1.76 0 0 0 40.81
-16.2 0 289.08 -103.2 0 0 0 67.64
0 -1.76 -103.24 254.66 -5.47 -81.3 0 -7.04
0 0 0 -5.47 22.50 0 -2.80 -2.10
0 0 0 -81.3 0 110.64 -8.39 56.19
0 0 0 0 -2.80 -8.39 14.88 1.04
Inverted Matrix
1.7E-02 1.0E-02 1.2E-03 7.5E-04 2.3E-04 5.8E-04 3.7E-04 Q1 -0.35431
1.0E-02 2.1E-02 8.0E-04 6.3E-04 1.9E-04 4.9E-04 3.1E-04 Q2 0.39534
1.2E-03 8.0E-04 4.4E-03 2.4E-03 7.3E-04 1.8E-03 1.2E-03 Q3 0.35149
7.5E-04 6.3E-04 2.4E-03 6.6E-03 2.0E-03 5.1E-03 3.2E-03 Q4 0.38474
2.3E-04 1.9E-04 7.3E-04 2.0E-03 4.6E-02 2.2E-03 9.9E-03 Q5 0.06931
5.8E-04 4.9E-04 1.8E-03 5.1E-03 2.2E-03 1.3E-02 8.0E-03 Q6 0.83237
3.7E-04 3.1E-04 1.2E-03 3.2E-03 9.9E-03 8.0E-03 7.4E-02 Q7 0.55268
160
Iteration3
Head
1 -0.461 1000 1000 100 -0.51 2.04
2 2.616 750 925 100 47.35 33.49
3 0.311 750 1000 100 1.00 5.93
4 2.461 750 925 100 42.30 31.80
5 1.772 500 350 100 62.82 65.57
6 0.772 500 671 100 25.91 62.05
7 -0.228 500 400 100 -1.61 13.09
8 1.426 500 650 100 78.05 101.24
9 -0.122 750 1000 120 -0.13 1.91
10 4.077 1000 1000 120 20.45 9.28
11 7.923 1000 925 120 64.68 15.10
12 6.801 1000 800 120 42.18 11.47
13 1.851 750 763 120 14.70 14.69
14 3.950 1000 650 120 12.54 5.87
15 1.047 750 400 120 2.69 4.75
16 1.898 750 125 120 2.52 2.46
17 -0.898 750 400 120 -2.02 4.17
18 1.068 500 125 120 6.27 10.87
19 -0.966 500 800 120 -33.34 63.85
20 0.034 500 125 120 0.01 0.58
21 0.835 500 800 120 25.48 56.44
22 0.199 500 1000 120 2.23 20.81
73.26 -33.5 -5.9 0 0 0 0 -5.54
-33.5 59.78 0 -1.91 0 0 0 3.00
-5.9 0 247.88 -101.2 0 0 0 10.07
0 -1.91 -101.24 197.73 -5.87 -56.4 0 0.21
0 0 0 -5.87 25.31 0 -4.75 0.52
0 0 0 -56.4 0 131.73 -10.87 -14.12
0 0 0 0 -4.75 -10.87 22.24 -0.96
Inverted Matrix
1.8E-02 1.0E-02 6.4E-04 5.0E-04 1.4E-04 2.2E-04 1.4E-04 Q1 -0.06775
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.6E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.4E-04 1.5E-04 Q2 0.01168
6.4E-04 4.6E-04 5.3E-03 3.2E-03 9.1E-04 1.4E-03 8.9E-04 Q3 0.03167
5.0E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.8E-03 2.2E-03 3.5E-03 2.2E-03 Q4 -0.01795
1.4E-04 1.5E-04 9.1E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 Q5 -0.00297
2.2E-04 2.4E-04 1.4E-03 3.5E-03 1.8E-03 9.5E-03 5.0E-03 Q6 -0.12344
1.4E-04 1.5E-04 8.9E-04 2.2E-03 9.8E-03 5.0E-03 5.0E-02 Q7 -0.10401
161
Iteration4
Head
1 -0.529 1000 1000 100 -0.66 2.29
2 2.536 750 925 100 44.73 32.62
3 0.212 750 1000 100 0.49 4.28
4 2.529 750 925 100 44.48 32.54
5 1.741 500 350 100 60.76 64.57
6 0.741 500 671 100 23.98 59.88
7 -0.259 500 400 100 -2.05 14.62
8 1.476 500 650 100 83.14 104.22
9 -0.151 750 1000 120 -0.19 2.29
10 4.065 1000 1000 120 20.35 9.26
11 7.935 1000 925 120 64.86 15.12
12 6.783 1000 800 120 41.97 11.45
13 1.848 750 763 120 14.66 14.67
14 3.935 1000 650 120 12.45 5.85
15 0.946 750 400 120 2.23 4.35
16 1.794 750 125 120 2.27 2.34
17 -0.794 750 400 120 -1.61 3.75
18 1.049 500 125 120 6.06 10.70
19 -0.843 500 800 120 -25.89 56.85
20 0.157 500 125 120 0.18 2.14
21 0.941 500 800 120 31.75 62.44
22 0.217 500 1000 120 2.62 22.40
71.73 -32.6 -4.3 0 0 0 0 -0.08
-32.6 59.30 0 -2.29 0 0 0 0.03
-4.3 0 247.58 -104.2 0 0 0 0.03
0 -2.29 -104.22 208.65 -5.85 -62.4 0 -0.22
0 0 0 -5.85 24.88 0 -4.35 0.02
0 0 0 -62.4 0 132.12 -10.70 -0.02
0 0 0 0 -4.35 -10.70 21.15 -0.05
Inverted Matrix
1.9E-02 1.0E-02 5.0E-04 4.3E-04 1.3E-04 2.2E-04 1.3E-04 Q1 -0.00132
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.0E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.6E-04 1.7E-04 Q2 -0.00031
5.0E-04 4.0E-04 5.4E-03 3.2E-03 9.3E-04 1.6E-03 1.0E-03 Q3 -0.00062
4.3E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.6E-03 2.2E-03 3.8E-03 2.4E-03 Q4 -0.00174
1.3E-04 1.5E-04 9.3E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.6E-03 Q5 -0.00009
2.2E-04 2.6E-04 1.6E-03 3.8E-03 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 5.3E-03 Q6 -0.00116
1.3E-04 1.7E-04 1.0E-03 2.4E-03 9.6E-03 5.3E-03 5.2E-02 Q7 -0.00276
162
Iteration5
Head
1 -0.530 1000 1000 100 -0.66 2.30
2 2.535 750 925 100 44.69 32.61
3 0.211 750 1000 100 0.49 4.26
4 2.530 750 925 100 44.52 32.55
5 1.741 500 350 100 60.80 64.59
6 0.741 500 671 100 24.01 59.92
7 -0.259 500 400 100 -2.04 14.59
8 1.477 500 650 100 83.26 104.29
9 -0.153 750 1000 120 -0.19 2.31
10 4.066 1000 1000 120 20.35 9.26
11 7.934 1000 925 120 64.85 15.12
12 6.782 1000 800 120 41.95 11.44
13 1.848 750 763 120 14.66 14.67
14 3.934 1000 650 120 12.44 5.85
15 0.943 750 400 120 2.21 4.34
16 1.791 750 125 120 2.27 2.34
17 -0.791 750 400 120 -1.60 3.74
18 1.050 500 125 120 6.08 10.71
19 -0.841 500 800 120 -25.82 56.78
20 0.159 500 125 120 0.18 2.15
21 0.940 500 800 120 31.72 62.41
22 0.218 500 1000 120 2.66 22.55
71.73 -32.6 -4.3 0 0 0 0 0.00
-32.6 59.30 0 -2.31 0 0 0 0.00
-4.3 0 247.66 -104.3 0 0 0 0.00
0 -2.31 -104.29 208.85 -5.85 -62.4 0 0.00
0 0 0 -5.85 24.87 0 -4.34 0.00
0 0 0 -62.4 0 132.05 -10.71 0.00
0 0 0 0 -4.34 -10.71 21.14 0.00
Inverted Matrix
1.9E-02 1.0E-02 5.0E-04 4.3E-04 1.3E-04 2.2E-04 1.3E-04 Q1 0.00000
1.0E-02 2.3E-02 4.0E-04 5.3E-04 1.5E-04 2.7E-04 1.7E-04 Q2 0.00000
5.0E-04 4.0E-04 5.4E-03 3.2E-03 9.3E-04 1.6E-03 1.0E-03 Q3 0.00000
4.3E-04 5.3E-04 3.2E-03 7.6E-03 2.2E-03 3.8E-03 2.4E-03 Q4 0.00000
1.3E-04 1.5E-04 9.3E-04 2.2E-03 4.2E-02 1.8E-03 9.6E-03 Q5 0.00000
2.2E-04 2.7E-04 1.6E-03 3.8E-03 1.8E-03 9.8E-03 5.3E-03 Q6 0.00000
1.3E-04 1.7E-04 1.0E-03 2.4E-03 9.6E-03 5.3E-03 5.2E-02 Q7 0.00000
163
Project
Perform pipe network analysis and calculate water flow and head losses in all branches.
Roughness of the pipes can be taken to be e = 0.29 mm. pipes are all at the same level.
164
Chapter 7: Open channel flow

7.1 Introduction
Open channel flow , A branch of hydraulics, can be defined as fluid flow with a free
surface open to the atmosphere. Examples include streams, rivers and culverts not flowing
full.
Open channel flow assumes that the pressure at the surface is constant
(atmospheric) and the hydraulic grade line matches the surface of the fluid.
The other type of flow within a conduit is a pipe pressurized flow. These two types of
flow are similar in many ways, but differ in one important aspect: open-channel flow has a
free surface, whereas pipe pressurized flow does not.
Figure 7.1 Examples of open channels
An open channel is a physical system in which water flows with a free surface. A
channel can be classified as either natural or artificial channel according to its origin:
Natural channels include all watercourses of varying sizes:

Small and large rivers.
Stream: a body of running water (such as a river or brook) flowing on the earth.
Tiny hillside rivulets: a small stream between hills.
Brook: a small, natural stream of fresh water.
Tidal estuaries that exist naturally on the earth.
1. The part of the wide lower course of a river where its current is met by the tides.
2. An arm of the sea that extends inland to meet the mouth of a river.
Subsurface streams carrying water with a free surface are also treated as natural
open channels.
165
Artificial channels are those constructed or developed by human effort such as:
Gutters
1. A channel at the edge of a street or road for carrying off surface water.
2. A trough fixed under or along the eaves for draining rainwater from a roof. Also
called regionally eaves trough, rainspout, spouting.
3. A furrow or groove formed by running water.
4. A trough or channel for carrying something off, such as that on either side of a
bowlin galley or that almost level with the water in some swimming pools.
Drainage channel: A channel for conveying storm-water runoff; usually lined with
concrete, grass, riprap, or the like, to reduce erosion of the channel.
Ditches: a long, narrow excavation made in the ground by digging, as for draining or
irrigating land.
Trench.
Floodways.
Tunnels.
log chutes:(chute: an inclined channel, as a trough, tube, or shaft,for conveying water
to a lowerlevel, or a waterfall or steep descent, as in a river)
Navigation channels: A deeper channel cut into the sea or river bed, to enable
larger ships to pass through to a port.
Power canals: a canal used for hydraulic power generation, rather than for transport
of watercraft.
Trough:a channel or conduit for conveying water, as agutter under the eaves of a buil
ding for carryingaway rain water.
spillways
Model channels that are built in the laboratory for experimental investigation
studies.
Long distance canals: constructed to achieve the interbasin transfer of water at
National and International levels.
The artificial channel is known by different names, such as " canal "," chute",
"culvert", "drop", "flumes" and "open - flow tunnel", Aqueduct.
The canal is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground, which may be
lined or unlined with stone masonry, concrete, cement, wood or bituminous materials etc.
166
Figure 7.2 Examples of natural channels
7.2 Difference between pressurized flow and non-pressurized flow:
The main differences bewteen open channel flow and pipe pressurized flow are:
- Pipe pressurized flow fills the entire conduit completely, so that the flow boundaries
are fixed by the conduit geometry: Aflow = Aboundary . While the area of the flow in non-
pressurized open channel flow is related to the flow parameters.
- Pressurized pipe flow posseses a hydraulic pressure that varies from one section to
another along the pipe line. While, open channel flow has a free surface under
atmospheric pressure where the depth adjust itself depending on the flow conditions
(Q, bed slope So, boundary friction, geometry). We need to emphasize that the free
surface is subject to atmospheric pressure which remains constant throughout the
entire length of the channel.
- Open channel non-pressurized flow is driven by the component of the gravitational

force along the channel slope while the driving force in pressurized flow is mainly the
pressure within the flow.
167
Figure 7.3 Examples of artificial channels
168
- Water level in each peizometer represent the

pressure head (P/) in the pipe at the section
itself (Positive gage pressure).
- HGL: (hyd. Grade line), a line connecting the

water levels in the two peizometers tubes.
- EGL: (the total energy grade line) at any

section which is the sum of the elevation
potential head (Z), the pressure head (P/),
2
and the velocity head ( 2).
- The amount of energy lost when water flows

from section (1) into section (2) is indicated
as hL.
Figure 7.4 Comparison between the flow in

- The free water surface in figure (b) is
pressurized pipe and the non-pressurized flow in
subjected to atmospheric pressure only (zero open channel.
pressure reference).
- The pressure distribution at any section is

directly proportional to the depth from free
water surface.
- In the case of open channel flows. The water

surface line corresponds to the hydraulic
grade line in pipe flow.
169
The following table summerizes the differences between pressurized pipe flow and the free
surface (open channel) flow:
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PIPE FLOW
The upper surface of the fluid is exposed to A pipe is a closed conduit and the fluid is
atmosphere. under pressure.
The driving force of flow is the gravity The flow in a pipe is termed as pipe flow
component at the direction of flow. only when the fluid completely fills the
Flow conditions are greatly influenced by cross section with no free surface of fluid.
the channel slope. Hydraulic grade line does not coincide with
Hydraulic grade line coincides with the the water surface.
water surface. The maximum velocity occurs at the pipe
The maximum velocity occurs at a little centre.
distance below the water surface. Velocity Distribution is symmetrical about
The shape of the velocity profile is the pipe axis
dependent on the channel roughness.
7.2 Important definitions:
Open channel flow: the flow of water in any conduit with the fluid surface exposed
to the atmosphere (free surface).
Open channel hydraulics: the study of the mechanics of water flowing in open
conduits, which generally include channels, streams, and pipes (not flowing under
pressure).
Non presmatic channel: if the channel changes shape, slope, or alignment.
Uniform presmatic channel: the channel maintains a constant shape and slope.
Discharge: volume flow of the fluid passing through a flow section per unit time.
The slope of the channel bottom (So): the vertical fall of the channel bottom divided
by the horizontal run of the bottom.
170
Example 7.1
a channel bottom that drops 1 m in a
length of 20 m has a slope of:
1
= = = 0.05 = 5%.
20
Figure 7.5 The slope of the channel bottom
Water surface slope (sw): drop of water surface divided by the horizontal run of the
bottom.
Slope of energy grade line (s): drop of energy grade line divided by the horizontal run
of the bottom.
The depth of flow (D)or (y): the vertical distance from the bottom of the channel to
the water surface.
Lining of the channel: the material used to form a channel. Channels are constructed
of many different materials, ranging from grass, lined soil to stone or concrete.
- The type of material forming the channel affects the flow because it increases or
decreases velocity at the interface between the water and the channel lining.
- The effect of lining on the velocity of the channel will affect the cross-section
area and the depth of flow.
- The maximum velocity within the section of flow occurs just below the free
surface in the center of the channel and can reach a magnitude of 2 to 2.5 times
the average velocity.
- The lowest velocity is located along the channel lining.
Figure 7.6: Velocity Distribution - open channel, the number indicates percentage of maximum velocity.
171
+
The cross sectional area: the area of a cross section of the flowing fluid: = ( )

Top width (T): width of the channel section at the free surface.
Figure 7.7 Different channel-cross sections
Wetted perimeter (P): the distance along the channel cross section that is in contact
with flowing water.
P= sum of the distance ab, bc, and cd.
Hydraulic radius (Rh): the cross sectional area divided by the wetted perimeter

[ = ] .

Average velocity (V): the discharge divided by the flow rate: [ = ].

Hydraulic depth (Dh): flow area divided by the top width [ = ].

Side slope (m, or z): slope of the channel sides defined as vertical over horizontal.
Bottom width (B): width of the channel section at the bottom.
Figure 7.8 Trapezoidal channel section parameters
172
7.3 Analysis of open channel flow problems:
Open channel hydraulics is the study of the mechanics of water flowing in open
conduits, which generally include channels, streams, and pipes not flowing under pressure.
This study requires to introduce interdependent relationships between the factors

affecting the flow: bed slope of the channel bottom So, discharge Q, water depth y, the
resistance of the boundary, and channel intersection geometry.
It should be indicated that the area of the intersection in open channel flow is a
function of depth y which is a function of flow discharge Q, unlike the pressurized flow
where the area of the flow is the same as the area of the pipe. This means that it is required
to relate the area to the flow.
Many ideas can be made about the previous factors to give better understanding of
the relation required to relate them togother.
Case 1: Assume a channel that has constant flow discharge Q

If the slope of the channel was increased given constant discharge. Then the
driving force will increase. It is expected that the velocity will increase and
the depth of flow and intersection area will deacrease.
Case 2: Assume that the channel resistance was increase

It is expected that the flow depth and intersection area will increase and the
velocity will decrease.
Case 3: Other factors can be considered also

If the area of the channel was increased by increasing the width or side
slopes, it is expected that the depth of flow will decrease. can not know the
effect on area of flow.
In 1769, the French engineer Antoine Chezy developed the first uniform-flow
formula. This formula was derived based on two assumptions. The first assumption, Chezy
assumed that the force resisting the flow per unit area of the stream bed is proportional to
the square of the velocity (KV2), with K being a proportionality constant. The second
assumption was that the channel was undergoing uniform flow which requires that the
depth of flow is constant.
The Manning formula was introduced later. It is an empirical formula estimating the
average velocity of a liquid flowing in a conduit that does not completely enclose the liquid,
It was first presented by the French engineer Philippe Gauckler in 1867, and later re-
173
developed by the Irish engineer Robert Manning in 1890. more details will be shown in
section 7.
Figure 7.9: Channels with different lining materials
174
Table 7.1 Characteristics of different cross sections Area Wetted Hydraulic Radius Top Width Hydraulic depth
Section (A) Perimeter (P) (Rh) (T) (Dh)

+ 2
+ 2
( + )
1 ( + ) ( + )
[ + () + 21 + 2 + 2
2 + 21 + 2 + 2
2]

2 21 + 2 2 /2
21 + 2
1
(2 2)2
8
If the level of water y is
less than the center of the
pipe: 1 sin 2 (sin )0 or 1 2 sin 2
( /2) (1 ) ( )
= cos 1
4 2 2( ) 8 sin
/2
If the leve yl is higher than
the center of the pipe:
/2
= 90 + sin1
/2
175
7.4 Open channel flow classification:

Open channel flow may be classified by space and time creteria.
Based on the space criterion:

Uniform flow: if the water depth (D) remains the same throughout a length of
channel at a given time.
Note that the depth D at all the

different reaches may change with
time keeping the case uniform flow.
Uniform flow is more likely to occur

in prismatic channels where the
cross sectional area and bottom
slope do not change.
Varied flow: if the water depth or discharge change along the length of the
channel can be: gradually varied flow or rapidly varied flow.
Gradually varied flow GVF: occurs when the change of flow depth is small;
and rapidly varied flow: is the case when the change of flow depth is large
in small distance, for example a wave, waterfall, or the rapid transition from
a stream channel into the inlet of a culvert.
Figure 7.10: Different types of flow based on space criterion
176
Based on the time criterion, open channel flow may be classified into two
categories:
Steady flow: the velocity and water depth at any section do not change with time.
They might be different from one point to another but the whole picture is fixed
with time.
Unsteady flow: the velocity and water depth at any section change with time.
(unsteady uniform flows are very rare in nature).
Figure 7.11: Different types of varied flows
7.4.1 Uniform flow in open channels:

In uniform prismatic channels, when water flows with a constant rate Q and
depth D or y along the channel, the resulting water surface profile will be parallel to the
channel bottom.
Uniform flow in an open channel must satisfy the following conditions:

1. The water depth D or y, flow area A, discharge Q, and velocity distribution
must remain unchanged in all sections of the entire channel reach.
2. The EGL, the water surface D or y, and the channel bottom must be parallel to
each other (se=sw.s=so).
3. Water in an open channel can reach the state of uniform only if no
acceleration or deceleration takes place between sections ( = 0). This is
possible only when the gravity force component and the resistance to the flow
are equal and opposite in direction.
7.4.2 Chezys Formula

A free body diagram can be taken beween two sections (control volume) of an
open channel flow to show the balance of the forces components of gravity and
resistance .
177
Figure 7.12: Free body diagram of uniform flow in open channel
The forces acting on the FBD in the direction of flow include:

i. The hydrostatic pressure forces, F1 and F2, acting on the control volume.
ii. The weight of the water body in the reach, W, which has a component
Wsin , in the direction of flow.
iii. The resistance force, Ff, exerted by the channel (bottom and sides) on the
flow.
Summing all the components of these forces in the direction of flow,

given that the case is uniform flow
( = 0) no acceleration:
= 0;
1 + () 2 = 0
1 = 2 (Uniform Flow), no change in water depth.
The total weight of the water body is:
= , (A: cross sectional area, L: length of reach),
Small slope = = () = .
The resistance force (Ff ) exerted by the channel boundaries may be
expressed in terms of resistance force per unit area (shear stress)
multiplied by the total channel bed area that is in contact with the
flowing water.
Channel contact area is the product of the wetted perimeter (P) and the
length of the channel reach (L).
In 1769, a french engineer , Antonie Chezy assumed that the shear stress
is proportional to the square of mean velocity
0 V2 the total resistance force Ff = 0 PL = k v2 PL, (P:wetted
perimeter, 0 resistance force of channel bed per unit area)
178
1 + 2 = 0 ,
cancelling F1 and F2 and substituting Ff = k v2 PL and Wsin()= A L S0 ,

and having So = Se for uniform flow

= (( ) 0 ( )) = = (7.1)

Which is known as Chezys formula for open channel flow with C =Chezys
resistance factor.
7.4.2 Manning equation:

Many attempts have been made to determine the value of Chezys C. The
simplest relationship and the most widely applied is derived from the work of an Irish
engineer, Robert Manning (1891-1895). Manning derived the following empirical
relations:
1/6
= 1/
In which n is known as Manning cofficient of channel roughness. Manning equation is
written as:
2 1
1 3 2
= (S.I units) (7.2)

2 1
1 3 2
= (7.3)

Where,[ ( ) , (), (3 /), ()(2 )]
2 1
1.49 3 2
= ,(English units) (7.4)

2 1
1.49 3 2
= , (English units) (7.5)

Where, [ ( ) , (), ( 3 /), ()( 2 )].
179
Table 7.2 Manning's n Coefficients
Lined Channels Manning's n
Concrete, with surfaces as indicated Formed, no finish 0.013 0.017
Trowel finish 0.012 0.014
Float finish 0.013 0.015
Float finish, gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017
Gunite, good section 0.016 0.019
Gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022
Concrete, bottom float-finished, sides as Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017

indicated
Random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020
Cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025
Cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020
Dry rubble (riprap) 0.020 0.030
Gravel bottom, sides as indicated Formed concrete 0.017 0.020
Random stone in mortar 0.020 0.023
Dry rubble (riprap) 0.023 0.033
Brick 0.014 0.017
Asphalt Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.016
Wood, planed, clean 0.011 0.013
Concrete-lined excavated rock Good section 0.017 0.020
Irregular section 0.022 0.027
Unlined Channels Manning's n
Earth, uniform section Clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018
Clean, after weathering 0.018 0.020
With short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027
In gravely soil, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025
Earth, fairly uniform section No vegetation 0.022 0.025
Grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030
Dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep 0.030 0.035

channels
180
Sides clean, gravel bottom 0.025 0.030
Sides clean, cobble bottom 0.030 0.040
Dragline excavated or dredged No vegetation 0.028 0.033
Light brush on banks 0.035 0.050
Rock: Based on design section 0.035
Based on actual mean section Smooth and uniform 0.035 0.040
Jagged and irregular 0.040 0.045
Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut Dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.08 0.12
Clean bottom, brush on sides 0.05 0.08
Clean bottom, brush on sides, highest stage of 0.07 0.11

flow
Dense brush, high stage 0.10 0.14
Highway Channels and Swales with Maintained Vegetation Manning's n
(Values shown are for velocities of 2 and 5 fps)
Depth of flow up to 0.7 ft.
Bermuda grass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalo grass Mowed to 2 in. 0.07 0.045
Length 4 to 6 in. 0.09 0.05
Good Stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.18 0.09
Length about 24 in. 0.30 0.15
Fair stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.14 0.08
Depth flow 0.7 ft. to 1.5 ft.
Bermuda grass, Kentucky bluegrass, buffalo grass Mowed to 2 in. 0.05 0.035
Length 4 to 6 in. 0.06 0.04
Good Stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.12 0.07
Fair stand, any grass Length about 12 in. 0.10 0.06
Gutters Manning's n
Concrete gutter Troweled finish 0.012
Asphalt pavement Smooth texture 0.013
181
Rough texture 0.016
Concrete gutter with asphalt pavement Smooth 0.013
Rough 0.015
Concrete pavement Float finish 0.014
Broom finish 0.016
For gutters with small slope, where sediment may accumulate, increase all above values of n by 0.002
(Source: U.S. Soil Conservation Service 1986.)
Example 7.2:
a 3-m-wide rectangular channel carries a discharge of 25.3 m3/s at a uniform depth of
1.2 m. Determine the slope of the channel if Mannings n cofficient is n=0.022.
Solution:
For a rectangular channel, the wetted perimeter and the hydraulic radius are:
= = (3)(1.2) = 3.6 2
= + 2 = 5.4
3.6 2
= = = = 0.667
5.4 3
2 1 1
1 1 2/3
Given: = 25.3 =
3 2
0.022
0.667 (3.6) = = 0.041
2

Example 7.3:
If the discharge of the channel in the previous example is increased to 40 m3/s, what is
the normal depth of flow?
Solution:
The slope, the channel width b, and Mannings n value are the same. Changing the flow
will change only the depth of flow.
The geometric parameters are:
= = (3)
= + 2 = 3 + 2
3
= =
3 + 2
Substituting these values into the Mannings equation with n = 0.022 and So = 0.041:
2 1
1 1 3
= 40 =
3 2
(3)( )2/3 (0.041)1/2
0.022 3+2
2
3 3 (0.022)(40)
(3) ( ) = = 4.346
3+2 (0.041)1/2
To solve this problem, it is needed to assume successive values for Y and substitute into
182
the last equation until the left side is significantly close to the value (4.346) :
2
Y (3)(3/(3 + 2))3 %error
1.3 3.064189784 29.49402

1.4 3.386856699 22.06957
1.5 3.714668155 14.52673
1.6 4.047072048 6.878232
1.65 4.21484523 3.017827
1.69 4.349768525 -0.08671
The solution can be made by Excell to get more accurate value. It can be shown that
2
Y=1.68889 m will give (3)(3/(3 + 2))3 = 4.346 with a percentage error 0.00022%.
Another approach can be used to solve this question by ploting Q versus Y and use the
plot to find the values of Y that corresponds to Q=40 m3/s.
183
Example 7.4:
Find the flow in the following figure if the slope of the channel is 0.0004 and n=0.024.
Side slopes are all 1:1.
Figure 7.13: cross section of the channel

Solution:
A=(3)(3)/2+(3)(20)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(8)(3+5)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(3)(25)+(3)(3)/2=263.0 m2
= 32 + 32 + 20 + 52 + 52 + 8 + 52 + 52 + 25 + 32 + 32 = 75.63
R=A/P = 263 / 75.63 = 3.477 m
2
1 1/2 1
= 2/3 = 263.0 (3.477)3 (0.0004)0.5 = 503 3 /
0.024
184
Figure 7.14: Normal depth solution procedure; (a) Trapezoidal channels (m=side slops) and (b)
circular channels (do=diameter)
185
Tutorial 9
Q1. Calculate P, A, and R for the following channel section.
Sol:
P = the length of the red line =13 + 1 + 8 + 0.8 + 1 + 2 + 1.25
Area(1)= (32/2)= 3m2

A(2)=21 = 2 m2
A(3)=22 =2 m2
A(4)=11/2= m
2
A(5)= 7.8 1 = 7.8 m ((7.8=1+2+1+3+0.8))

2
A (6) = 10.5 /2= 0.5 m

2
A= A(1 to 6)
186
7.5 Pipe (non-pressurized) flow:
Flow of water in pipe not under pressure (partially full) takes the following conditions.
It conforms the laws of of open channel flow.
Normal depth is computed using Mannings equation.
The only difference between pipe flow and rectangular channel flow is the
geometry of the cross section.
Velocity distribution in a pipe is similar to that of any open channel flow.
The principal applications of pipe flow are storm sewers, sanitary sewers, and
culverts.
Figure 7.15: velocity distribution in a circular pipe flowing part flow. Values are multiple of the
average velocity
Example7.5:
a 6-ft-diameter, concrete pipe is flowing
with a free surface (not under pressure).
If the pipe is laid on a slope of 0.001 and
carries a uniform flow at a depth of 4
feet, what is the discharge?
Solution:
/2
= 90 + sin1
/2
1
43
109.5
= 90 + sin = 109.5 = (2) = 0.608
3 360
The area of the circular section is:
1 1
= (2 sin 2)2 = [2(0.608) sin 2(0.608)](6)2 = 20.0 2
8 8
= = (0.608)(6) = 11.5
Then the hydraulic radius is
20 2
= = = 1.74
11.5
2 1 2
1.49 1.49
using n=0.013 = 3 2
= (20)(1.74)3 (0.001)0.5 = 105 3 /
0.013
187
Example 7.6:
Find the quantity and velocity of flow in an 18-inch-diameter concrete pipe flowing one
quarter full. The slope of the pipe is 1.00 percent and the Mannings n is 0.015.
Solution:
( /2)
= cos 1
/2
1 (
cos 18/2) 4.5
= = 60 = /3
18/2
2
1 1 18
= (2 sin 2) = [2(/3) sin 2(/3)] ( ) = 0.345 2
2
8 8 12
18
= = (/3) ( ) = 1.57
12
0.345 2
= = = 0.220
1.57
1.49 23 12 1.49 2
= = (0.345)(0.220)3 (0.01)0.5 = 1.25 3 /
0.015
1.25
= = = 3.62 /
0.345
/2
( /2) = 90 + sin1
= cos 1 /2
/2
/2
= + sin1
2 /2
188
7.6 Finding the best (most economical) channel cross-section [rectangular
or trapezoidal]:
The best section will be the one in which for a given Area A (constant), the
discharge will be maximum. The question can be , what is the least area for a given
constant discharge?
The discharge Q is given by:

2 1
1 3 2
= (7.6)

Given A is constant , what is the maximum Q?

It can be easily concluded that ( ) is maximum, or P is minimum (since A is constant).

For P to be minimum, [ = ].

Case 1, for rectangular channel:

= + 2

= =

= + 2

= +2=0 =2 2=2 =2
2 2
= 2
for this condition:
2 2 2
= = = = =
+ 2 2 + 2 4 2
For most economical rectangular channel:

= (7.7)
2
= 2 (7.8)
189
Case 2, for trapezoidal channel:
= ( + )

= +

=

Figure 7.16 Cross-section in a trapezoidal channel
= + 21 + 2

= ( ) + 21 + 2

For minimum P:

= 0 = ( 2 ) + 21 + 2

( + ) = 21 + 2 ,
2
(+)
substituting { = ( + )} in the last equation: ( + ) = 21 + 2
2
+ 2 = 21 + 2
[top width = length of the side slopes ]
= 2[1 + 2 ] (7.9)
To find the hydraulic radius:

( + )
= =
+ 21 + 2
Substituting with = 2[1 + 2 ]
(2[1+2 ]+) [21+2 ]

= = = (7.10)
2[1+2 ]+21+2 2[21+2 ] 2
190
for most economical trapezoidal channel:

=
2
= 2 [1 + 2 ]
Among all open-channel shapes, the semicircle has the least perimeter for a given area, so
it is the most hydraulically efficient of all sections. A channel with a semi-circular cross
section, however, has sides that are curved and almost vertical at the water surface
level, which makes the channel expensive to construct (excavation and forming) and
difficult to maintain (bank stability). In practice, semi-circular sections are only used
when pipes are appropriate or in smaller flumes of prefabricated materials.
191
7.7 Critical depth:
Specific energy, E, is defind as the total energy head above the channel bed:

=+ (7.11)

Figure 7.17 Energy components within open channel flow
For a constant Q, and for a specific channel:

Plotting the values of E versus the corresponding values of y resulting from
variations in depth (can change slope So or n to get different values of y for the
constant Q value and for the same channel) we will obtain the following curve:
Figure 7.18 Specific energy curves for a given channel section and specific discharge
192
It can be noted from the plot of the flow depth versus the specific energy (Fig. 7.18)
that:
For a very low velocity with very high depth y, the specific energy E approaches
the value of the depth y (most of the energy is composed of flow depth).
For high velocities , the values of the depths y approach zero (most of the specific
energy is composed of velocity head).
Each value of the specific energy E is corresponding into two values of y,except
the minimum value of specific energy which correponds into one value of depth.
The value of depth y at the minimum specific energy is called critical depth yc. It is
a theoretical concept that depends on the channel shape and the flow quantity
only. Yc does not depend on the channel slope So or roughness.
When the flow depth in the channel is greater than the critical depth yc then the
case represents more tranquil flow called subcritical flow. While when the depth
in the channel is below the critical depth yc then the case is supercritical flow,
which is representing a more rapid case of flow. The case when the depth of flow
concide with the critical depth is critical flow. The velocity of the water at critical
depth is called critical velocity and the slope is critical slope.
The critical depth can be computed using the following relationship which occurs
only at minimum specific energy (valid for gradually varied flow):

= (7.12)

Where, A is the cross-sectional arae of the chnnel (m2), T is the top width
of the channel (m), and Q is the flow rate (m3/s).
Using the previous equation for trapezoidal channel requires the

substitution of Q, g, and b. Then, trials should be made to get the value of
depth that achieves the equation.
193
For rectangular section:
3 3 3 2
= =

3 2
= (7.13)
2
Only one particular slope result in a normal depth equal to critical depth.
S= Sc yn = yc
S Sc supercritical flow.
S Sc subcritical flow.
The most common occurrence of critical depth is gradually varied flow, in which
the flow depth varies over a certain distance due to a change in one or more of
the channel attributes. The change could be the channel slope or cross sectional
shape. As the depth varies, yc can be attained within the transition region.
194
Figure 7.19: Critical depth solution procedure: (a) trapezoidal channels and (b) circular channels
(Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering Systems Ned Hwang)
Example 7.7:
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 5 m and side slopes m=2. If the flow rate is
20 m3/s, what is the critical depth?
Solution:
2 3 [(+)]3
By using the equation = =
+2
195
202 [(5 + 2)]3
= 4.8 =
9.81 5 + 2(2)
By successive substitution, it is found that yc=1.02 m.
Alternative solution using the figure for critical depth of trapezoidal channels:
3/2 20(2)3/2
= = 0.323
1/2 5/2 (9.81)1/2 (5)5/2
(0.41)(5)
From Fig. 7.19, we obtain = 0.41. Therefore, = = 1.03.
2
Figure 7.20: Some natural applications of critical depth
The previous figure shows a profile of channel transition from subcritical flow to
supercritical flow. Depth of flow is at a critical depth near the transition point.
Theoretical critical depth does not change when the channel slope change.
7.7.1 Froude number:

A parameter used to distinguish between subcritical flow and supercritical flow.
For rectangular channel, the Froude number (F) is defined as:

= (7.14)

196
Where, F is the Froude number, V is the average velocity (m/s), and y is the flow
depth.
When Fr = 1, flow is critical
Fr 1, flow is subcritical
Fr 1, flow is supercritical.
For non-rectangular channels:
The Froude number is defined as:

= (7.15)

Where yh is the hydraulic depth [ = ], A is the cross sectional area and T is the top

width.
Example 7.8:
Determine the critical depth and flow velocity in a 10 m wide rectangular channel
carrying 50 m3/s.
Solution:
3 2 3 502
= = = 1.37
2 9.81(10)2
= = 9.81 1.37 = 3.67
7.7.2 Hydraulic Jumps:

Hydraulic jumps can occur naturally in open channels, but are more common in
constructed structures such as energy dissipation basins. They are the results of an
abrupt reduction in flow velocity by means of sudden increase in water depth in the
downstream direction. Hydraulic jumps convert a high-velocity supercritical flow
upstream into a low-velocity subcritical flow downstream. In other words, in hydraulic
jumps, low stage supercritical depth y1 is changed into a high-stage subcritical depth y2.
These depths (y1 and y2) are known as the initial depth and the sequent depth of the
hydraulic jump.
The violent motions seen in the hydraulic jump are accompanied by a significant loss of
energy head through the jump.
197
Figure 7.21: Hydraulic jump
Given the discharge Q in a particular channel, the amount of energy head loss
through a jump (E) can be determined by measuring the initial and sequent depths and
using the specific energy curves.
Predicting the sequent depth by estimating the energy loss is impractical because
it is difficult to determine the energy loss through the jump.
The relationship between the initial depth and the sequent depth in a hydraulic
jump may be determined by considering the balance of forces and momentum before
and after the jump.
Consider a control volume in the vicinity of a jump as shown:
The balance between the hydro static
forces and the momentum flux through
sections 1 and section 2 per unit width of
the channel is:
1 2 = (1 2 )
2 (1 +2 )
1 = 12 , 2 = 22 , 1 = , 2 = = 1 2
2 2 1 2 2
2 1
= (1 + 821 1) (7.16)
1 2
1
where, 1 = , is the Froude number of the flow.
1
Example 7.9:
A 10 ft-wide rectangular channel carries 500 cfs of water at a 2-ft depth before entering
a jump. Compute the downstream water depth and the critical depth.
198
Solution:
3 2 3 5002
= 2 = = 4.27
9.81(10)2
500
1 = = = 25
10 2
1 25
1 = = = 3.12
1 32.2 2
2 1
= (1 + 821 1)
1 2
2 1
= (1 + 8(3.12)2 1)
2.0 2
2 = 7.88
The equation {1 2 = (1 2 )} can also be arranged as:
1 + 1 = 2 + 2 (7.17)
{ = + } is known as specific force per unit width of the channel.

For a given discharge, the specific force is a function of the water depth at a given
section.
Plotting Fs vesus water depth will give us a curve similar to the specific energy
curve with a vertex that appears at the critical depth.
A hydraulic jump takes place in a short reach therefore it is reasonable to assume
that through a hydraulic jump, the specific forces immediately before and after the
jump are the same.
199
The energy head loss through the hydraulic jump E may be estimated by:
V12 V22 1 2 2
q2 1 1
E = ( + y1 ) ( + y2 ) = (V1 V2 ) + (y1 + y2 ) = ( 2 2 ) + (y1 y2 )
2g 2g 2 2g y1 y2
2 1 +2
Given that

= 1 2 (
2
)
(y2 y1 )3
E = (7.20)
4y1 y2
200
Summary of the hydraulic jump concept:
In general, any abrupt transition from a lower

stage super critical slow to a higher stage
subcritical flow.
Can happen whenever the flow in a channel is

very rapid such as a steep channel transition to a
flat channel, or a flow discharging water under a
sluice gate into a channel.
The value of the Froude number Fr of the incoming flow must be greater than 1.0 for a
hydraulic jump to form (from supercritical flow into a subcritical flow). The greater the
value of Fr , the stronger is the hydraulic jump.
From the figure:
Flow depth before the jump = y1 : initial depth.
Flow depth after the jump = y2 : initial depth.
L : length of the jump.
A hydraulic jump will form in a rectangular channel when the following equation
2 1
is satisfied: = (1 + 821 1)
1 2
201
Example 7.10:
A rectangular channel has a width of b = 3 m, a discharge of 4 m3/s, a bed slope
So=0.001. The channel is lined with Concrete; bottom float-finished, sides are made of
Random stone in mortar. Find the following:
a) The Normal depth yn = 1.068 m....
b) The critical depth yc =..0.566 m.
c) The state of flow is: (a) sub-critical, (b) critical, (c) super-critical flow.
d) The minimum specific energy is0.849 m.
e) Given that the initial depth in a hydraulic jump is y = 0.1 m, then the sequent
depth is 1.854 m.
Solution:
Manning n = 0.018 (Table).
5
1 (3) 3
(a) =4= 0.0010.5 y = 1.068 m
0.0185 (3+2)2/3
3 42
(b) = = 0.566
9.81 (3)2
(c) Sub-critical (yn ycr)

2 42
(d) = + = 0.566 + = 0.849m
2(3 )2 2(30.566)2
4 13.33
(e) = = 13.33 /, = = 13.46,
30.1 (0.1)
1
2 = (0.1) [1 + 8(13.46)2 1] = 1.854
2
Example 7.11:
Design a trapezoidal channel having sides slopes with z =1.5, a discharge of 7 m3/s, with a
velocity of 1.8 m/s, and a smooth asphalt lining:
y = .............1.36m......, b =..............0.822m............, S o.......9.1610-4 (0.000916).
Solution:
Unknowns: y, b, S0
Equations:
V=1.8 m/s = (1/0.013) R2/3 S01/2 ........ (1)
A=7/1.8 = ( b + 1.5 y) y ........(2)
Three Unknowns & 2 equations Use most efficient section
= 2 [1 + 1.52 1.5 ] = 0.606
R = y /2
Substitute = 0.606 in (2) y =1.359 m
R = 1.359 / 2 = 0.6795 substitute in (1) S0 = 0.000916
202
Example 7.12:
In a rectangular channel 4 m wide with a flow of 7.53 m3/s the depth is 0.3 m. If a
hydraulic jump occurs, find the depth downstream of it. Calculate the loss of specific
energy through the jump.
Solution:
7.53 2
1 8 2 0.3 8( )
2 = ( ) (1 + 3 1) = ( ) (1 + 4
1) = 1.410
2 21 9.81(0.3)3
Example 7.13:
A hydraulic jump occurs in a 4-m-wide rrectangular channel carrying 5 m3/s on a slope
of 0.004. The depth after the jump is 1.2 m. Find (a) the depth before the jump, (b) the
losses of energy and power in the jump.
5 2
2 8 2 1.2 8( )
1 = ( ) (1 + 3 1) = ( ) (1 + 4
1) = 0.191
2 22 9.81(1.2)3
(2 1 )3 (1.20.191)3
= = [40.1911.2] = 1.120
41 2
= = 5 9.79 1.120 = 54.8
203
Example 7.14:
A hydraulic transition is designed to connect two rectangular channels of the same

width by a sloped floor. Assume the channel is 3 m wide and is carrying a discharge of
15 m3/s at 3.6 m depth. Also assume a 0.1 m energy loss uniformly distributed through
the transition. Determine the water surface profile in the transition.
Solution:
The specific energy curve can be constructed using the following relationship:
2 (15)2 1.27
=+ 2
= + 2
=+ 2
2(6) 2(9.81)(3)
3 52
= = 1.37 , = 2.05

At the inlet to the transition, the velocity is Vi:

Vi=Q/Ai=15/(3.6)(3)=1.39 m/s
Where Ai is the water area at the inlet, and the velocity head is
2 (1.39)2
= = 0.1
2 2(9.81)
204
The total energy head at the inlet as measured with respect to the datum line is:
2
= + + = 0.1 + 3.6 + 0.4 = 4.1
2
The energy level is shown on the figure by the top horizontal line.
At the exit of the transition, the total energy available is reduced by 0.1 m as given
and as indicated by the EGL in the figure.
2
= + + = 0.1 = 4.0
2
Ee is the specific energy measured with respect to the channel bottom:
Ee=He=4.00m
The value is applied to the specific energy curve to obtain the water depth at the
exit section.
Water surface elevations for four other sections are computed by using the same
method (4, 8, 12, and 16 m from the entrance section). The results for the six
sections are shown:
Section Inlet 4.00m 8.00m 12.00m 16.00m Exit
Specific Energy, E(m) 3.70 3.76 3.82 3.88 3.94 4.00
Water Depth, y(m) 3.60 3.67 3.73 3.79 3.86 3.92
Example 7.15:
A long, rectangular open channel 3m wide carries a discharge of 15m3/sec. The channel
slope is 0.004, and the Manning's coefficient is 0.01. At a certain point in the channel,
flow reaches normal depth.
(a) Determine the flow classification. Is it supercritical or subcritical?
(b) If a hydraulic jump takes place at this depth, what is the sequent depth?
(c) Estimate the energy head loss through the jump.
Solution
3 2 3 2 3 (15)2
(a) The critical depth is calculated using the equation = = = 2=
2 (3)
1.37. The normal depth of this channel can be determined by the Manning equation:
1 23 12
=

205
1 1
Where = 1 , = = , = 3
1 21 +
1 31 2/3
15 = ( ) , (31 ) (0.004)1/2
0.01 21 + 3
15 4.63
Solving the equation for y1, we obtain y1 = 1.08 m, 1 = = , and
31
1
1 = = 1.42
1
As F 1 > 1, the flow is supercritical.
(b) Applying the equation of hydraulic jump:

8 2
2 = ( 1) (1 + 3 1) = ( 1) (1 + 812 1) = 1.70.
2 1 2
(c) The head loss can be estimated by using the following equation:
(2 1 )3 (0.62)3
= = = 0.032
41 2 4(1.70)(1.08)
206
Tutorial. 10
Q1.A sewer line is circular in section has a diameter of 50 cm and is running 0.75
full. It is laid at a slope of 1:900. If n = 0.02, find the discharge and the mean
velocity of flow.
Q2. Calculate the size of a circular sewer, which is to run 0.8 full, at a gradient of 1
in 250 maintaining a velocity of 1.5 m/s, has n = 0.018. Find also the discharge.
Q3. Prepare a monograph showing Geometric Elements of a circular section giving
relationship between Y/do and {A/Ao, P/Po and AR2/3/AoR02/3}.
Q4.An earthen channel having base width of 5 m and side slopes 1 vertical and 1.5
horizontal carries water with a depth of 1.6 m. The bed slope is 1 in 500. Calculate
the discharge if n = 0.018, what would be the Chezy's C to get the same discharge?
Q5. Calculate the normal depths for the following channels if Q = 6 m3/s, s =
0.0015, and n = 0.021:
(i) Rectangular channel, b = 8 m
(ii) Trapezoidal channel, b = 7 m, and z = 1 m.
Q6. Design a trapezoidal channel having side slopes with z=1, Q =12 m3/s, s = 1 :
800 and n = 0.02.
Q7. Design a trapezoidal channel carrying water having a velocity of 1.2 m/s and a
discharge of 10 m3/s. n = 0.019 and z = 1.5.
Q8. Determine the most efficient section of a trapezoidal canal to carry discharge
of 10 m3/s at a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The canal side slopes are 1V : 0.5H. find the
necessary bed slope also n = 0.02.
Q9. Design a trapezoidal channel , z=1, n=0.019, carrying a discharge of 6 m3/s at a

velocity of 1.3 m/s, bed slope, s, is 0.002.
Q10. A rectangular channel has b = 6 m, Q = 8 m3/s, s = 0.002, and n = 0.02.
(i) Find the normal depth Yn.

(ii) Find the critical depth Ycr.
(iii) Find the state of flow (sub-critical, critical, or supercritical).
(iv) Find the minimum specific energy (it occurs at Y=Ycr).
(v) If the depth of flow Y (either Y1 or Y2) is 0.3m, find the alternative
depth (Y2 or Y1).
(vi) For the same channel, assume the depth was 0.1 m before entering a
jump, compute the downstream depth
207
Solution of tutorial 10
Q1. A sewer line is circular in section has a diameter of 50 cm and is running 0.75 full. It is
laid at a slope of 1:900. If n = 0.02, find the discharge and the mean velocity of flow.
So= 1/900
n = 0.02
Q=?
V=?
Y=0.7550=37.5 cm
37.550/2 2 37.550/2
= /2 + sin1 = , = 90o + sin1 = 120
50/2 3 50/2
1
() = 8(223sin(2120 )(0.5)2 = 0.157 2
2
= = 3 0.5=1.0472

1 2 0.5 1 0.157 2 3 1 0.5
= 3 = (0.157) ( ) ( )
0.02 1.0472 900
Q2. Calculate the size of a circular sewer, which is to run 0.8 full, at a gradient of 1 in 250
maintaining a velocity of 1.5 m/s, has n = 0.018. Find also the discharge.
0.3 0.3
= /2 + sin1 = 0.704 , = 90o + sin1 = 126.87
0.5 0.5
1
() = 8(20.704sin(2126.87 )()2 = 0.673( )2
= = 0.704
23
1 0.67302 1
= 1.5 / = 1 230.5 = ( ) ( )0.5
0.018 0.7040 250
208
Q4.
1 23 12 1 5/3 12 1 [(5 + 1.5 1.6) 1.6]5/3

= = = (1/500)0.5
2/3 0.018 [5 + 2 1.61 + 1.52 ]2/3
Q5. By trial
3
1 5/3 12 1 5/3
= 6 / = = (0.0015)0.5
2/3 0.021 2/3
(i) Rectangular channel, b = 8 m
A =8 Y ,P=8+2Y
(ii)
Q6. Q = 12 m3/s , So=1/800 , n = 0.02
1 23 12
=

2
3 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( ) (1)
0.02 800
Two unknowns Y & b
One equation (Mannings eq.)
Need another equation

Use the most efficient section. { = } , { = [ + ]}

209
= 2[1 + 12 1] = 0.828 , substitute in (1), given that A=(b+zY)Y
3 2 1
12 = ( )3 ( )0.5
0.02 800
2
3 [( + 1 ) ] 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( )
0.02 2 800
2
3 [(0.828 + ) ] 3 1 0.5
12 = ( ) ( )
0.02 2 800
Q7. Z=1.5 , {V=1.2 m/s , Q=10 m3/s }
We have two equations:

10
= = = ( + ) = ( + 1.5) (1)
1.2
1 1/2
= 1.2 = 2/3 (2)
0.019
We have three unknowns { So , b, Y } and two equations.
need another equation

use the most economical section { = } , { = [ + ]}

= 2[1 + 1.52 1.5] = 0.605 , which can be substituted in (1) to give:

10
= (0.605 + 1.5) Y=3.96 m , b=2.39 m
1.2
The value of Y is substituted in (2) to find So:

1 1/2
1.2 = ( )2/3 So =0.00033
0.019 2
Q8. Z=0.5 , {V=1.5 m/s , Q=10 m3/s } , n=0.02
Must use efficient section as required by the question
We have two equations:

10
= = = ( + ) = ( + 0.5) (1)
1.5
1 2/3 1/2
= 1.5 = (2)
0.02

use the most economical section { = } , { = [ + ]}

210
= 2[1 + 0.52 0.5] = 1.236 , which can be substituted in (1) to give:
10
= (1.236 + 0.5) Y=3.84 m , b=4.75 m
1.5
The value of Y is substituted in (2) to find So:

1 3.84 2/3 1/2
1.5 = ( ) So =0.00038
0.02 2
Q9. Q=6 m3/s, V=1.3 m/s, n=0.019, So=0.002, z=1.
Two unknowns Y, and b
Two equations
We dont go to the most economical section
6 6 1
= = = ( + ) = (1)
1.3 1.3
1
= 1.3 = 2/3 (0.002)1/2 (2)
0.019
Equation (1) is substituted in (2)
Q10.
5
1 (6) 3 (6)5/3
I. =8= 0.0020.5 = 3.578 By trial {y = 0.806 m}
0.02 (6+2) (6+2)2/3
3 82
II. = = 0.566
9.81 (6)2
III. Sub-critical (yn ycr)

2 82
IV. = + )2
= 0.566 + = 0.849m
2(6 2(60.566)2
V. y = 0.3 m is y1 as 0.3 yc =0.566 m, so we have to find y2.

2 2
= 1 + = 2 +
212 222
82 82
0.3 + = 2 +
2 62 (0.3)2 2 62 22
By trials y2 = 1.242 m
8 13.33
VI. = = 13.33 /, = = 13.46,
60.1 (0.1)
1
2 = (0.1) [1 + 8(13.46)2 1] = 1.854
2
211
Steady, gradually varied open channel flow:

Gradually varied flow in open channels differs from uniform flow and rapidly varied flow
(hydraulic jumps, flow through a streamlined transition, etc.) in that the change in water
depth in the channel takes place very gradually with distance. So the depth of flow is
varying gradually along the length of the channel as the driving (motivating) forces are
not balanced with the drag forces.
Figure-
In uniform flow, the water depth remains a constant value known as the normal. The
energy grade line is parallel to the water surface and the channel bottom. The velocity
distribution also remains unchanged throughout the reach. The computation of one
water depth is sufficient for the entire channel reach. In rapidly varied flow such as a
hydraulic jump, rapid changes in water take place in a short distance. A significant
change in water velocities is associated with the rapid variation of water cross-sectional
area. At this high rate of flow deceleration, the energy loss is very high. The
computation of water depths using the energy principles is not reliable. In this case,
computations can only be carried out applying the momentum principles (1 2 =
(2 1 ). In gradually varied flow, velocity changes take place very gradually with
distance so that the effects of acceleration on the flow between two adjacent sections
are negligible. Thus, computation of the water surface profile defined as depth changes
along the channel length can be carried out on energy considerations.
The total energy head at any section in an open channel can be given as:
2 2
= ++ = ++
2 22
To compute the water surface profile, we must first obtain the variation of the total
energy head along the channel. Differentiating H with respect to the channel distance x,
we obtain the energy gradient in the direction of the flow:
212
2 2
= 3 + + = 3 + +

Where = (). Rearranging the equation gives:

=
2
1
3
The term dH/dx is the slope of the energy grade line. It is always a negative quantity
because the total energy head reduces in the direction of the flow, or S e = -dH/dx.
Similarly, the term dz/dx is the slope of the channel bed. It is negative when the
elevation of the channel bed reduces in the direction of the flow; it is positive when the
elevation of the channel bed increases in the direction of the flow. In general, we may
write S0 = -dz/dx. The energy slope in gradually varied flow between two adjacent
sections may also be approximated by using a uniform flow formula. For simplicity, the
derivation will be demonstrated with a wide rectangular channel section where A = by,
Q = bq, and Rh = A/P = by/(b + 2y) == y (for wide rectangular channels because b >> y).
Using the Manning formula we get:
2 2 2 2
= = 4 = 2 10/3

3 2
The slope of the channel bed may also be expressed in similar terms if uniform flow
were assumed to take place in the channel. Because the slope of the channel bed is
equal to the energy slope in uniform flow, the hypothetical uniform flow conditions are
designated with the subscript n. We have
2 2
= = ( 2 10/3 )

3 2 3 2
For rectangular channels, we have = =
2
Or
2
3
= 3 2 =

Rearranging the equations, we get:
10/3
[1 ( )

=
3
[1 ( ) ]

The general equation for nonrectangular channels:
213

[1 ( ]
)
=

[1 ( ) ]

where the exponents M and N depend on the cross-sectional shape and the flow
conditions as given by V. T. Chow.
This form of the gradually varied flow equation is very useful for a qualitative analysis,
which helps to understand the gradually varied flow classifications covered in the next
sections. Other forms are often used to compute water surface profiles. Physically, the
term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface with respect to the bottom of the
channel. For dy/dx = 0, the water depth remains constant throughout the reach or the
special case of uniform flow. For dy/dx < 0, the water depth decreases in the direction of
the flow. For dy/dx > 0, the water depth increases in the direction of the flow. Solutions
of this equation under different conditions will yield the various water surface profiles
that occur in open channels.
Another Approach:
The dynamic equation of GVF can be
obtained by differentiating the energy
equation with respect to the channel
bed (x-direction):H= z + y cos + V2/2g
2
( 2)
= + cos +

= ; = sin =

= 2
( 2)
cos +

2

22
2
( 2) 2 2
( )
= = 23

= , width of the liquid surface.

2
( 2) 2
= 3

For small channel slope, cos = 1.0 = 12 /( 3 ) , which gives the slope of the water

surface relative to the bed.
Various types of gradually varied flow surface profile can occur. A very important factor is the type
of bed slope, mild, steep, critical, horizontal, or adverse. And the depth of flow relative to the
critical flow and depending on the type of bed slope (mild, steep, ..).
214
Classifications of gradually varied flow:
In analyzing gradually varied flow, the role of critical depth, Yc is very important. When
open channel flow approaches critical depth (y = yc), the denominator of the equation

[1( )10/3

= 3
approaches zero and the value of dy/dx approaches infinity. The
[1( ) ]

water surface becomes very steep. This is seen at hydraulic jumps or at a water surface
entering a steep channel from a mild channel or a lake. The latter case provides a
unique one-to-one relationship between the discharge and the water depth in a channel
and is known as a control section in open-channel flow.
Depending on the channel slope, geometry, roughness, and discharge, open channels
may be classified into five categories:
1. steep channels,
2. critical channels,
3. mild channels,
4. horizontal channels, and
5. adverse channels.
The classification depends on the flow conditions in the channel as indicated by the
relative positions of normal depth (yn) and critical depth (yc) calculated for each
particular channel.
The criteria are as follows:
Steep channels: Yn/Yc < 1.0 or Yn < Yc
Critical channels: Yn/Yc = l.0 or Yn = Yc
Mild channels: Yn/Yc > 1.0 or Yn > Yc
Horizontal channels: S0 = 0
Adverse channels: S0 < 0
A further classification of water surface profile curves depends on the actual water and
its relationship to the critical and normal depths. The ratios of y/yc and y/yn may be
used in the analysis, where y is the actual water depth at any section of interest in the
channel.
1. If both y/yc and y/yn are greater than 1.0, then the water surface profile curve is
above both the critical depth line and the normal depth line in the channel, as
depicted in following figure. The curve is designated as a type l curve. There are
S-1, C-1, and M-1 curves for steep, critical, and mild channels, respectively.
2. If the water depth is between the normal depth yn and the critical depth yc, the
curves are designated as type 2 curves. There are S-2, M-2, H-2, and A-2 curves.
The type 2 curve does not exist in critical channels. In critical channels, normal
215
depth is equal to critical depth. Thus, no depth of flow can come between the
two.
3. If the water depth is less than both Yc and Yn' then the water surface profile
curves are type 3. There are S-3, C-3, M-3, H-3, and A-3 curves. Each of these
water surface profile curves is listed and shown schematically in the following
figure.
216
Examples of physical occurrences in open channels are also given. Certain important
characteristics of water surface profile curves can be demonstrated from direct analysis

[1( )10/3

of the gradually varied flow equation ( = 3
). By making substitutions into
[1( ) ]

this equation, we note the following:
1. For type 1 curves, y/yc > 1 and y/yn > l. Thus, the value of dy/dx is positive,
indicating that water depth increases in the direction of the flow.
2. For type 2 curves, the value of dy/dx is negative. The water depth decreases in
the direction of the flow.
3. For type 3 curves, the value of dy/dx is again positive. The water depth increases
in the direction of the flow.
Characteristics of water surface profile curves
4. When the actual water depth approaches critical depth, y = yc , the gradually

[1( )10/3

varied flow equation ( = 3
) yields = , indicating that the slope
[1( ) ]

of the water surface profile curve is theoretically vertical. Likewise, as y
approaches yn , dy/dx approaches zero, indicating that the water surface profile
approaches the normal depth line asymptotically.
5. A few types of water surface profile curves never approach a horizontal line (S-2,
S-3, M-2, M-3, C-3, H-3, and A-3). Others approach a horizontal line
asymptotically, except for the C-1 curve, which is horizontal throughout the
channel reach. Because Yn = Yc in a critical channel, the gradually varied flow
equation yields dy/dx = SO, indicating the water depth increases at the same rate
as the channel bed elevation decreases, which theoretically, results in a
horizontal water surface profile.
In channels where y < yc, the velocity of water flow is greater than that of the
disturbance wave. For this reason, flow conditions in the downstream channel will not
affect those upstream. The change of water depth resulting from any channel
disturbance propagates in the downstream direction. Thus, computation of the water
217
surface profile should be carried out in the downstream direction S-2, S-3, C-3, H-3, and
A-3).
In channels where y > yn the speed of wave propagation is greater than the velocity of
water flow. Any disturbance in the downstream channel can travel upstream and affect
the flow conditions upstream as well as downstream. Any change of water depth in the
downstream channel propagates upstream and may also change the water depth in the
upstream channel. Thus, computation of the water surface profile should be carried out
in the upstream direction (M-1, M-2, S-1, C-1, H-2, and A-2). At the break of a channel
from mild to steep slope or a significant drop of the channel bottom, critical depth is
assumed to take place in the immediate vicinity of the brink. At this point, a definite
depth-discharge relationship can be obtained (i.e., control section) and is frequently
used as a starting point for water surface profile computations.
Computation of gradually varied flow:

Water surface profiles for gradually varied flow may be computed by using the gradually

[1( )10/3

varied flow equation ( = 3
). The computation normally begins at a section
[1( ) ]

where the relationship between the water surface elevation (or flow depth) and the
discharge is known. These sections are commonly known as
Control sections in open channels

control sections (or mathematically, boundary conditions). A few examples of common
control sections in open channels are depicted in the figure. Locations where uniform
flow occurs can also be viewed as a control section because the Manning equation
describes a flow depth discharge relationship. Uniform flow (i.e., flow at normal depth)
tends to occur in the absence of or far away from other control sections and where the
218
stream slope and cross section are relatively constant. A successive computational
procedure based on an energy balance is used to obtain the water surface elevation at
the next section, either upstream or downstream from the control section. The distance
between sections is critical because the water surface will be represented by a straight
line. Thus, if the depth of flow is changing quickly over short distances, adjacent sections
should be closely spaced to represent accurately the water surface profile. The step-by
step procedure is carried out in the downstream direction for rapid (supercritical) flows
and in the upstream direction for tranquil (subcritical) flows.
Standard Step Method
The standard step method is presented to calculate gradually varied flow water surface
profiles. The method employs a finite difference solution scheme to solve the

[1( )10/3

differential, gradually varied flow equation ( = 3
). It is the most common
[1( ) ]

algorithm used in computer software packages that solve gradually varied flow profiles.
For example, it is the primary algorithm in the widely used HEC-RAS program developed
by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Energy relationships in a water surface profile
The standard step method is derived directly from an energy balance between two
adjacent cross sections (Figure) that are separated by a sufficiently short distance so
that the water surface can be approximated a straight line. The energy relation between
the two sections may be written as:
22 12
+ 2 + = + 1 +
2 2
where is the elevation difference in the channel bottom and is the energy head loss
between the two sections, as shown in the figure. or the equation may be rewritten as:
22 12
+ 2 + 2 = + 1 + 1 +
2 2
2 = 1 +
219
Where z is the position head (channel bottom elevation with respect to some datum)
and E' is the total energy head (position + depth + velocity). It is important to note that,
in previous energy equations, the sections 1 and 2 represent downstream and upstream
sections, respectively. If the sections are numbered differently, the losses should always
be added to the downstream side. The computation procedure yields the correct depth
at a cross section that is a distance away from a section with a known depth.
Computations begin at a control section and progress upstream (subcritical flow) or
downstream (supercritical flow). For subcritical flow, the water surface profile is
occasionally called a backwater curve because the process moves from downstream to
upstream. Likewise, the profile for supercritical flow is occasionally called a front-water
22 12
curve. Equation ( + 2 + 2 = + 1 + 1 + ) cannot be solved directly for
2 2
the unknown depth (e.g., y2) because v2 and Se depend on y2. Therefore, an iterative
procedure is required using successive approximations of y2 until the downstream and
upstream energies balance (or come within an acceptable range). The energy slope (Se)
can be computed by applying the Manning equation, in either SI units:
2 2
= 4/3

Or BG:
2 2
= 4/3
2.22
Where, Se is the average of the energy (EGL) slopes at the upstream and downstream
sections. A tabulated computation procedure is recommended as illustrated in the
example problems to follow.
The astute reader may ask why is not solved for in the energy equation. By assigning
a depth to the next section instead of the depth, the equation could be used to
determine the distance between sections and avoid the iterative process altogether.
This is a legitimate solution procedure called the direct step but it only works for
prismatic channels (channels of uniform slope and cross section). When water surface
profiles are sought in natural stream channels that are non prismatic, cross sections on
these streams are field surveyed or obtained from geographic information system maps
at predetermined locations, which establishes the distance between sections. Then the
standard step method is used to assess depth of flow at these sections. Fortunately,
water surface profiles are generally solved with the aid of computer software, which
takes the drudgery out of the iterative process
Direct Step Method
In the direct step method, the gradually varied flow equations are rearranged to
determine the distance ( ) explicitly between two selected flow depths. This method
220
is applicable to prismatic channels only because the same cross-sectional geometric
relationships are used for an the sections along the channel.
Replacing sections 1 and 2 with U and D, respectively, and noting that =
22 12
( )/ = ), energy equation ( + 2 + 2 = + 1 + 1 + )is
2 2
rearranged as
2 2
( + 2 ) ( + 2
= =

2
Where = + is specific energy. In this equation, U and D represent upstream and
2
downstream sections, respectively. For subcritical flow, the computations begin at the
downstream end and progress upstream. In this case yD and ED would be known. An
appropriate value for yu is selected and the associated Eu is calculated. Then is
determined by using Equation last equation.
For supercritical flow, the computations begin at the upstream end and progress
downstream. In this case, yu and Eu would be known. An appropriate value for yD is
selected, and the associated ED is calculated. Then is determined by using the last
equation.
Example
A grouted-riprap, trapezoidal channel (n = 0.025) with a bottom width of 4 meters and
side slopes of m = 1 carries a discharge 12.5 m3/sec on a 0.001 slope. Compute the
backwater curve (upstream water surface profile) created a low dam that backs water
up to a depth of 2m immediately behind the dam. Specifically, water depths are
required at critical diversion points that are located at distances of 18 8 m, 423 m, 748
m, and 1,675 m upstream of the dam.
Solution:
Normal depth for this channel can be calculated by using Manning equation (iterative
solution), or the figure for normal depth solution.
(0.025)(12.5)
1/2
= 1/2 8/3
= 0.245
8/3 (1.00)(0.001) (4)

From the following figure with m=1,
we obtain yn/b=0.415 therefore, yn=(4m)(0.415)=1.66m.
2 3
Critical depth for this channel can be calculated by using the equation = (iterative

3/2
(12.5)(1)3/2
solution) or by the figure. Using the figure: = 1 = 0.125, from the
1/2 5/2 (9.81)2 (4)5/2
(4)(0.23)
figure, we obtain = 0.23; therefore, = = 0.92.
1.0
221
Figure:Critical depth solution procedure: (a) trapezoidal channels, and (b) circular channels.
We will first use the standard step method. Water surface profile computations require
the use of the Manning equation, which contains the variables Rh, and v. Recall from
earlier discussions that Rh = A/P, where A is the flow area and P is the wetted perimeter,
and v = Q/A. The computation procedure displayed in the following table is used to
determine the water surface profile. The depth just upstream from the dam is the
control section, designated as section 1. Energy balance computations begin here and
progress upstream (backwater) because the flow is subcritical (Yc < Yn) The finite
difference process is iterative; the depth of flow is assumed at section 2 until the energy
22 12
at the first two sections match using the equation ( + 2 + 2 = + 1 + 1 +
2 2
). Once the water depth at section 2 is determined, the depth of flow at section 3 is
assumed until the energies at sections 2 and 3 balance. This stepwise procedure
continues upstream until the entire water surface profile is developed. Because the
starting depth of 2.00 m is greater than the normal depth and normal depth exceeds
222
critical depth, the profile has an M-1 classification (Figure). The flow depth will approach
normal depth asymptotically as the computations progress upstream, as depicted in the
figure.
Once the depth becomes normal, or relatively close, the computation procedure is
ended. The first few standard step computations are displayed in the following table
(a); completion of the problem is left to the student.
Because the channel considered in this example is prismatic, we can also use the direct
step method to calculate the water surface profile. Table (b) is used to determine the
2 2

( + )( +
2 2
profile by setting up and solving Equation = = . The

calculations in the table are self-explanatory. Like the standard step method, the
computations begin at the downstream end and progress upstream. For the first
channel reach considered, y0 = 2. 00 m is known, and Yu = 1. 91 m is a depth we select
based on the water surface profile (M-1; depths go down) and to compare with the
standard step method solution. Then we calculate the distance between the sections
with these two depths. For the next reach, 1. 91 m becomes the downstream depth,
and we select Yu = 1. 82 m. The results are slightly different from those of the standard
step method. The discrepancies result from the iterative nature of the standard step
method in which the results depend on the tolerance limit selected.
223
(a) Water surface profile (Backwater) computations using the standard step method
224
(b) Water surface profile (backwater) computations using the direct step method.
225
Example
A rough-concrete trapezoidal channel (n = 0.022) with a 3.5-ft bottom width, side slope
m = 2, and bed slope of 0.012 discharges 185 cfs of fresh water from a reservoir.
Determine the water surface profile in the discharge channel to within 2 percent of
normal depth.
Solution:
Normal depth and critical depth are calculated before solving water surface profiles in
order to determine the gradually varied flow classification.
Normal depth may be determined using the Manning equation in conjunction with the
figure:
(0.022)(18.5)
1/2
= 1/2 8/3
= 0.883
8/3 (1.49)(0.012) (3.5)

From the figure , we obtain yn/b=0.685 therefore, yn=(3.5ft)(0.685)=2.40 ft.
Alternatively, normal depth can be obtained with the Manning equation (using
successive substitution) or by using appropriate computer software.
Critical depth can be computed using the equation and the table:
2 2 ( + 2 ) (185)2 [3.5 + 2(2) ]
= = =1
3 [( + ) ]3 32.2[(3.5 + 2 ) ]3
By successive substitution, we obtain yc=2.76 ft.
Because critical depth exceeds normal depth, the channel is steep with an S-2
classification. Water from the reservoir will enter the channel and pass through critical
depth as depicted in the figure.
Because the control section is at the entrance to the channel and flow is supercritical (Yn
< Yc), computations will proceed in the downstream direction (front-water) starting from
critical depth at the entrance section and approaching normal depth asymptotically. In
an S-2 profile, the water surface elevation changes quickly at first and then approaches
normal depth more gradually. Therefore, use five cross sections, including the control
section, with separation distances ( ) of 2, 5, 10, and 40 feet, respectively, moving
downstream. The first few standard step computations are displayed in the following
table (a); completion of the problem is left to the student in Problem 6.8.7.
226
We can also use the direct step method to calculate the water surface profile in this
problem because the channel is prismatic. The calculations are summarized in table (b).
Again, the calculations begin from the upstream end and progress downstream. For the
first channel reach considered, Yu = 2.76 ft is known, and YD = 2.66 ft is a depth we select
based on the type of the water surface profile (S-2; depths go down) and to compare
with the standard step method solution. We then calculate the distance between the
sections with these two depths. For the next reach, 2.66 ft is the upstream depth, and
we select YD = 2.58 ft The discrepancies between the standard step and the direct step
method result from the iterative nature of the standard step method in which the
results depend on the tolerance limit selected.
227
228
(a) Water surface profile (front-water) computations using the standard step method
229
(b) Water surface profile (front-water) computations using direct step method.
230
Another Approach: The gradually varied flow profile can be calculated using numerical
solution of its equation. Computation of the gradually varied flow surface profiles
should proceed upstream from the control section in subcritical flow and downstream
from the control section in supercritical flow.
1. The direct step method:
2. This method is applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow are specified and the
distances between successive depths are calculated.
Consider the elements of flow in the figure.
Equating the total heads at (1) and (2),

12 22
+ 1 + = 2 + +
2 2
2 1
. . =

Where E is the specific energy.
In the computations Sf is calculated for depths y1 and y2 and the average taken
denoted by .
Example: a trapezoidal concrete-lined channel has a constant slope of 0.0015, a
bed width of 3 m and side slopes 1:1. A control gate increases the depth
immediately upstream to 4.0 m when the discharge is 19.0 m3/s. Compute the water
surface profile to a depth 5 % greater than the uniform flow depth using the direct
step method. Take n=0.017.
Solution:
231
The depth at the control section is 4.0 m.
A=by+my2 = 3.0 (4.0)+ 1 (4.0)2= 28.0 m2.
= / = 28.0 /(3.0 + 24.02 + (1)2 4.02 = 1.956
2 192
Specific energy ( + ) = 4.0 + 19.62282 = 4.024
22
2 2 2 1
= = 5.44 105 , =
2 4/3
y(m) A (m2) R (m) E E sf sf avg X X (m)

4 28 1.956167 4.023469 ***** 5.43937E-05 0 0 0
3.9 26.91 1.917914 3.925409 0.09806 6.04607E-05 5.74272E-05 67.97595 67.97595
3.8 25.84 1.879543 3.827556 0.097852 6.73625E-05 6.39116E-05 68.13798 136.1139
3.7 24.79 1.841045 3.72994 0.097616 7.52374E-05 7.12999E-05 68.3252 204.4391
3.6 23.76 1.802412 3.632592 0.097348 8.42509E-05 7.97441E-05 68.54251 272.9816
3.5 22.75 1.763635 3.53555 0.097042 9.46015E-05 8.94262E-05 68.79601 341.7777
3.4 21.76 1.724705 3.438859 0.096692 0.000106529 0.000100565 69.09332 410.871
3.3 20.79 1.685611 3.34257 0.096289 0.000120324 0.000113427 69.4441 480.3151
3.2 19.84 1.646341 3.246744 0.095826 0.000136342 0.000128333 69.86075 550.1758
3.1 18.91 1.606883 3.151455 0.095289 0.000155016 0.000145679 70.35938 620.5352
3 18 1.567223 3.056789 0.094666 0.000176883 0.00016595 70.96122 691.4964
2.9 17.11 1.527346 2.96285 0.093938 0.000202608 0.000189745 71.6948 763.1912
2.8 16.24 1.487235 2.869765 0.093086 0.000233021 0.000217814 72.59919 835.7904
2.7 15.39 1.44687 2.777684 0.092081 0.000269167 0.000251094 73.72923 909.5196
2.6 14.56 1.406232 2.686793 0.090891 0.000312373 0.00029077 75.16415 984.6838
2.5 13.75 1.365297 2.59732 0.089473 0.000364332 0.000338352 77.02249 1061.706
2.4 12.96 1.32404 2.509546 0.087774 0.000427229 0.00039578 79.48939 1141.196
2.3 12.19 1.282431 2.423823 0.085724 0.000503909 0.000465569 82.87029 1224.066
2.2 11.44 1.240439 2.340591 0.083232 0.000598117 0.000551013 87.70647 1311.772
2.1 10.71 1.198027 2.260409 0.080181 0.000714832 0.000656475 95.05506 1406.827
2 10 1.155154 2.183996 0.076413 0.000860767 0.000787799 107.2918 1514.119
1.9 9.31 1.111773 2.11228 0.071716 0.001045084 0.000952925 131.09 1645.209
1.8 8.64 1.067831 2.046479 0.0658 0.001280485 0.001162784 195.1285 1840.338
232
4.5
3.5
2.5
Y (m)
1.5
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
X (m)
3. The standard step method:

This method is Applicable to non-prismatic and natural channels. The station
positions should be determined before. It is required then to calculate the surface
elevations, and hence the depths at the stations.
233
234
Extra Examples on open channel flow:

Example 1: Find the flow in the following figure if the slope of the channel is 0.0004 and
n=0.024. side slopes are all 1:1.
Solution:

A=(3)(3)/2+(3)(20)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(8)(3+5)+(5)(3+3+5)/2+(3)(25)+(3)(3)/2=263.0 m2

= 32 + 32 + 20 + 52 + 52 + 8 + 52 + 52 + 25 + 32 + 32 = 75.63
R=A/P = 263 / 75.63 = 3.477 m
2
1 1/2 1
= 2/3 = 263.0 (3.477)3 (0.0004)0.5 = 503 3 /
0.024
Example 2: A hydraulic transition id designed to connect two rectangular channels of

the same width by a sloped floor. Assume the channel is 3 m wide and is carrying a
discharge of 15 m3/s at 3.6 m depth. Also assume a 0.1 m energy loss uniformly
distributed through the transition. Determine the water surface profile in the transition.
Solution:
The specific energy curve can be constructed using the following relationship:
2 (15)2 1.27
=+ = + = +
2(6)2 2(9.81)(3)2 2
235
3 52
= = 1.37 , = 2.05

At the inlet to the transition, the velocity is Vi:

Vi=Q/Ai=15/(3.6)(3)=1.39 m/s
Where Ai is the water area at the inlet, and the velocity head is
2 (1.39)2
= = 0.1
2 2(9.81)
The total energy head at the inlet as measured with respect to the datum line is:
2
= + + = 0.1 + 3.6 + 0.4 = 4.1
2
The energy level is shown on the figure by the top horizontal line.
At the exit of the transition, the total energy available is reduced by 0.1 m as given
and as indicated by the EGL in the figure.
2
= + + = 0.1 = 4.0
2
Ee is the specific energy measured with respect to the channel bottom:
Ee=He=4.00m
The value is applied to the specific energy curve to obtain the water depth at the
exit section.
Water surface elevations for four other sections are computed by using the same
method (4, 8, 12, and 16 m from the entrance section). The results for the six
sections are shown:
Section Inlet 4.00m 8.00m 12.00m 16.00m Exit
Specific Energy, E(m) 3.70 3.76 3.82 3.88 3.94 4.00
Water Depth, y(m) 3.60 3.67 3.73 3.79 3.86 3.92
236

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Examples: (@4 oC, 1 atm):

Water water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 Ton/m3 = 1kg/Lit =1 g/cm3.

Temperature (oC) Density (water , kg/m3) Specific Weight (, N/m3)

1.2 Water Pressure and Pressure Forces

1.2.1 The variation of hydrostatic pressure between any two points in a

The left term of the previous equation is called piezometric head.

Example1.2: The diameters of

Example1.3: The closed tank shown is at 20 oC. If

PA + air hAC - water hDC - air hDB = PB

The negative pressure at B can be referred to as vacuum (less than atmospheric

Example1.4: a gage pressure is measured to be vacuum of 23 kPa at a location where

1.2.2 Surfaces of equal pressure:

1. The points should be at the same elevation (located on a horizontal surface).

(A) 422 mm (B) 375 mm (C) 231 mm (D) 147 mm

Example1.5: Find the location of

PA+ 10 cm water - h Liquid = 0

0+10 cmwater - h (3 water )= 0

PA 1.3m(0.9w)+1.5m w -1.0m (13.6w)=0

PA= 13.27w = 13.279.81 kN/m3 =130.18 kPa

Mathematically: shear stress in the fluid is directly proportional to velocity

is called dynamic (absolute) viscosity of the fluid (N.S/m2).

Many calculations in fluid mechanics involves the ratio of dynamic viscosity to

Q1. Define the following terms:

Q3. What is the water pressure at a depth of 35 m in the tank shown?

Q11.A closed cylindrical tank

b) The pressure at pint C.

Q12. Consider the steady flow in a water

Q13. A 0.3-m-diameter, 0.6-m-long cylinder floats in an open tank containing a liquid

Chapter 2: Dynamics of Fluid Flow

A fluid in motion experiences, in addition to gravity force, pressure forces, viscous

+ = Eulers Equation (2.4)

+ + = Navier-stokes Equation (2.5)

+ + + = Reynolds Equation. (2.6)

2.1 Eulers Equation:

s = Length of the fluid element.

= Weight of the fluid element.

P = Pressure on the element at A.

+ = Pressure on the element

v = velocity of the fluid element.

- The mass of the fluid element is : =

- From the previous

(Differential equation for acceleration in S direction).

The acceleration is related to the change in peizometric pressure with distance.

2.2 Bernoullis Equation:

Bernoullis equation is based on the conservation of energy. It represent the total

The total energy carried by a given mass of incompressible fluid as it flows

Pressure head + Elevation head +Velocity head = constant

Figure 2.4 Quiz

Also, continuity equation can be used

Figure 2.5 Figure for example 2.1

The value of ( ) can be measured by the manometer and can be determined by

2.2 The Energy Equation:

Figure 2.6 Components of energy equation of motion

2.2.1 Minor and major losses:

Reynolds Number is the well-known fundamental dimensionless number

= 64/ (circular pipes) (2.28)

From Q and piping determine Reynolds Number, relative roughness and

Calculating Flow for a Known Head:

Figure 2.7 Components of minor losses within a hydraulic system

Q2.Water flows from a garden hose nozzle

Q3. For the siphon shown,